Wolmers Trust High School for Girls

CAPE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Upper !" #o$er Si% Techer& Mrs' McCllum(
Ro"!e)
Operating Systems Function MEMORY MANAGEMENT
Introduction
We *!o$ tht the CPU c! +e shre" +) set of processes' As result of the CPU
sche"uli!g, $e c! impro-e +oth the utili.tio! of the CPU !" the spee" of the computers
respo!se to its users' To relise this i!crese i! perform!ce, ho$e-er, $e must *eep se-erl
processes i! memor)/ $e must shre memor)'
Memor) is ce!trl to the opertio! of mo"er! computer s)stem' Memor) is lrge rr) of
$or"s or +)tes, ech $ith its o$! ""ress' The CPU fetches i!structio!s from memor)
ccor"i!g to the -lue of the progrm cou!ter' These i!structio!s m) cuse ""itio!l lo"i!g
from !" stori!g to specific memor) ""resses' Mi! memor) is ge!erll) the o!l) storge
"e-ice tht the CPU is +le to ""ress "irectl)' 0or e%mple, for the CPU to process "t from
"is*, those "t must first +e tr!sferre" to mi! memor) +) the CPU(ge!erte" I1O clls'
E2ui-le!tl), i!structio!s must +e i! memor) for the CPU to e%ecute them'
0or progrm to +e e%ecute", it must +e mppe" to +solute ""resses !" lo"e" i!to
memor)' As the progrm e%ecutes, it ccesses progrm i!structio!s !" "t from memor) +)
ge!erti!g these +solute ""resses' E-e!tull), the progrm termi!tes, its memor) spce is
"eclre" -il+le, !" the !e%t progrm c! +e lo"e" !" e%ecute"'
Operating Systems responsibiity to Memory Management
3eep trc* of $hich prts of memor) re curre!tl) +ei!g use" !" +) $hom'
4eci"e $hich processes re to +e lo"e" i!to memor) $he! memor) spce +ecomes
-il+le'
Allocte !" "e(llocte memor) spce s !ee"e"'
!irtua Memory
5irtul memor) is tech!i2ue tht llo$s the e%ecutio! of processes tht m) !ot +e
completel) i! memor)' The mi! -isi+le "-!tge of this scheme is tht progrms c! +e
lrger th! ph)sicl memor)' This tech!i2ue frees progrmmers from co!cer! o-er memor)
storge limittio!s' 5irtul memor) is !ot es) to impleme!t, ho$e-er, !" m) su+st!till)
"ecrese perform!ce if it is use" crelessl)'
6
Most computers to") h-e somethi!g li*e 78 or 9: meg+)te of RAM -il+le for the CPU to
use' U!fortu!tel), tht mou!t of RAM is !ot e!ough to ru! ll of the progrms tht most
users e%pect to ru! t o!ce' 0or e%mple, if )ou lo" the operti!g s)stem, ! e(mil progrm,
We+ +ro$ser !" $or" processor i!to RAM simult!eousl), 78 meg+)tes is !ot e!ough to
hol" it ll' If there $ere !o such thi!g s -irtul memor), the! o!ce )ou fille" up the -il+le
RAM )our computer $oul" h-e to s), ;Sorr), )ou c!!ot lo" !) more pplictio!s' Plese
close !other pplictio! to lo" !e$ o!e'; With -irtul memor), $ht the computer c! "o is
loo* t RAM for res tht h-e !ot +ee! use" rece!tl) !" cop) them o!to the hr" "is*' This
frees up spce i! RAM to lo" the !e$ pplictio!'
<ecuse this cop)i!g hppe!s utomticll), )ou "o!=t e-e! *!o$ it is hppe!i!g, !" it m*es
)our computer feel li*e is hs u!limite" RAM spce e-e! though it o!l) hs 78 meg+)tes
i!stlle"' <ecuse hr" "is* spce is so much cheper th! RAM chips, it lso hs !ice
eco!omic +e!efit'
The re"1$rite spee" of hr" "ri-e is much slo$er th! RAM, !" the tech!olog) of hr"
"ri-e is !ot gere" to$r" ccessi!g smll pieces of "t t time' If )our s)stem hs to rel)
too he-il) o! -irtul memor), )ou $ill !otice sig!ific!t perform!ce "rop' The *e) is to h-e
e!ough RAM to h!"le e-er)thi!g )ou te!" to $or* o! simult!eousl) (( the!, the o!l) time )ou
;feel; the slo$!ess of -irtul memor) is $he! there=s slight puse $he! )ou=re ch!gi!g
ts*s' Whe! tht=s the cse, -irtul memor) is perfect'
Whe! it is !ot the cse, the operti!g s)stem hs to co!st!tl) s$p i!formtio! +c* !" forth
+et$ee! RAM !" the hr" "is*' This is clle" t"ras"ing, !" it c! m*e )our computer feel
i!cre"i+l) slo$'
#aging
The re of the hr" "is* use" for -irtul memor) is clle" swap file +ecuse it s$ps
>e%ch!ges? "t, i!formtio!, !" i!structio!s +et$ee! memor) !" storge' A page is the
mou!t of "t !" progrm i!structio!s tht c! +e s$p t gi-e! time' The tech!i2ue of
s$ppi!g items +et$ee! memor) !" storge, clle" paging, is time(co!sumi!g process for
the computer'
8
$asic Met"od%
Ph)sicl memor) is +ro*e! i!to fi%e"(si.e" +loc*s clle" 0RAMES'
#ogicl memor) is lso +ro*e! "o$! i!to +loc*s of the sme si.e clle" PAGES'
Whe! process is +ei!g e%ecute", its pges re lo"e" i!to !) -il+le memor)
frmes from the hr" "is* >or the +c*i!g store?'
The +c*i!g store is "i-i"e" i!to fi%e"(si.e" +loc*s tht re of the sme si.e s the
memor) frmes'
Co!si"er the follo$i!g "igrm&
Every address generated by the CPU is divided into two parts: a page number (p) and
a page offset (d). The page number is used as an index into a page table. The page
table contains the base address of each page in physical memory. This base address is
combined with the page offset to define the physical address that is sent to the memory
unit.
FORMAT OF A &OGI'A& A((RESS
The pge si.e >li*e the frme si.e? is "efi!e" +) the hr"$re'
7
The si.e of pge is t)picll) po$er of 8 -r)i!g +et$ee! @68 +)tes !" A6B8 +)tes per
pge, "epe!"i!g o! the computer rchitecture'
The selectio! of po$er of 8 s pge si.e m*es the tr!sltio! of logicl ""ress i!to
pge !um+er !" pge offset prticulrl) es)'
If the si.e of logicl ""ress i!to spce is 8
m
, !" pge si.e is 8
!
""ressi!g u!its >+)tes
or $or"s?, the! the higher(or"er m-n +its of logicl ""ress "esig!te the pge offset'
Thus, the logicl ""ress is s follo$s&
m-n n
A MORE 'ON'RETE E)AM#&E #aging Mode
:
pge !um+er pge offset
p "
A #AGING E)AM#&E FOR A *+,$YTE MEMORY -IT. / $YTES #ER #AGE
Usi!g pge si.e of : +)tes !" ph)sicl memor) of 78 +)tes >A pges?, it is sho$! ho$
users -ie$ c! +e mppe" i!to ph)sicl memor)'
&ogica Address 0 is pge C, offset C' I!"e%i!g i!to the pge t+le, $e fi!" tht pge C is
i! frme @' Thus logicl ""ress C mps to ph)sicl ""ress 8C >D>@E:?FC?'
-"ere does ogica address * maps to1
@
C
6
8
7
T"ras"ing
This is the stte of ! operti!g s)stem tht spe!"s much of its time pgi!g, i!ste" of
e%ecuti!g pplictio! soft$re'
If prticulrl) pplictio! soft$re stoppe" respo!"i!g !" the hr" "is* +li!*s repete"l),
the operti!g s)stem pro++l) is thrshi!g'
Thrshi!g is computer cti-it) tht m*es little or !o progress, usull) +ecuse memor) or
other resources h-e +ecome e%huste" or too limite" to perform !ee"e" opertio!s' Whe!
this hppe!s, ptter! t)picll) "e-elops i! $hich re2uest is m"e of the operti!g
s)stem +) process or progrm, the operti!g s)stem tries to fi!" resources +) t*i!g them
from some other process, $hich i! tur! m*es !e$ re2uests tht c!=t +e stisfie"' I!
-irtul storge s)stem >! operti!g s)stem tht m!ges its logicl storge or memor) i!
u!its clle" pges?, thrshi!g is co!"itio! i! $hich e%cessi-e pgi!g opertio!s re t*i!g
plce'
A s)stem tht is thrshi!g c! +e percei-e" s either -er) slo$ s)stem or o!e tht hs
come to hlt'
Usull) thrshi!g refers to t$o or more processes ccessi!g shre" resource repete"l)
such tht serious s)stem perform!ce "egr"tio! occurs +ecuse the s)stem is spe!"i!g
"isproportio!te mou!t of time Gust accessing the shre" resource' Resource ccess
time m) ge!erll) +e co!si"ere" s $ste", si!ce it "oes !ot co!tri+ute to the
"-!ceme!t of !) process' This is ofte! the cse $he! CPU c! process more
i!formtio! th! c! +e hel" i! -il+le RAM/ co!se2ue!tl) the s)stem spe!"s more time
prepri!g to e%ecute i!structio!s, th! ctull) e%ecuti!g them'
$asic concept
9
If the !um+er of pges llocte" to lo$(priorit) process flls +elo$ the mi!imum !um+er
re2uire" +) the computer rchitecture, $e must suspe!" the process e%ecutio!'
We shoul" the! pge out its remi!i!g pges, freei!g ll its llocte" frmes' This pro-isio!
i!tro"uces s$p(i! s$p(out le-el of i!terme"ite CPU sche"uli!g'
There m) +e processes tht "oes !ot h-e He!ough frmes' Although it is tech!icll)
possi+le re"uce the !um+er of llocte" frmes to the mi!imum, there is still some >lrger?
!um+er of pges tht re i! cti-e use'
If the process "oes !ot h-e this !um+er of frmes, it $ill 2uic*l) pge fult'
page fault is an interrupt to the software raised by the hardware, when a program
accesses a page that is mapped in address space, but not loaded in physical memory.
The hardware that detects this situation is the memory management unit in a
processor. The exception handling software that handles the page fault is generally
part of an operating system. The operating system tries to handle the page fault by
making the required page accessible at a location in physical memory or kills the
program in case it is an illegal access.
At this poi!t, some pges $ill !ee" to +e replce"'
Ho$e-er, si!ce ll the pges re i! cti-e use, it must replce pge tht $ill +e !ee"e"
gi! right $)'
Co!se2ue!tl), it -er) 2uic*l) fults gi!, !" gi!, !" gi!' The process co!ti!ues to
fult, replci!g pges for $hich it $ill the! fult !" +ri!g +c* right $)'
'auses o2 T"ras"ing
The operti!g s)stem mo!itors the CPU utili.tio!'
If CPU utili.tio! is too lo$, $e i!crese the "egree of multiprogrmmi!g +) i!tro"uci!g
!e$ process i!to the s)stem'
A glo+l pge(replceme!t lgorithm is use", replci!g pges $ith !o regr" to the process
to $hich the) +elo!g'
page repacement agorit"ms decide 3"ic" memory pages to page out 4s3ap out5
3rite to dis67 3"en a page o2 memory needs to be aocated8
No$ suppose process e!ters !e$ phse i! its e%ecutio! !" !ee"s more frmes' It
strts fulti!g !" t*i!g pges $) from other processes'
I
These fulti!g processes must use the pgi!g "e-ice to s$p pges i! !" out'
As the) 2ueue up for the pgi!g "e-ice, the re") 2ueue empties'
As processes $it for the pgi!g "e-ice, CPU utili.tio! "ecreses'
The CPU sche"uler sees the "ecresi!g CPU utili.tio!, !" i!creses the "egree of
multiprogrmmi!g s result'
The !e$ process tries to get strte" +) t*i!g pges from ru!!i!g processes, cusi!g more
pge fults, !" lo!ger 2ueue for the pgi!g "e-ice'
As result, CPU utili.tio! "rops e-e! further, !" the CPU sche"uler tries to i!crese the
"egree of multiprogrmmi!g e-e! more'
Thrshi!g hs occurre"J The pge fult rte i!creses treme!"ousl)' As result the
effecti-e memor) ccess time i!creses' No $or* is getti!g "o!e, +ecuse the processes
re spe!"i!g ll their time pgi!g'
&imiting T"ras"ing
Use local or priority! replacement algorithm. With locl replceme!t, if o!e process strts
thrshi!g, it c!!ot stel frmes from !other process !" cuse the ltter to thrsh lso'
#re9enting T"ras"ing
Pro-i"e process s m!) frmes s it !ee"s'
A
Additionay%
Whe! referri!g to computer, t"ras"ing or dis6 t"ras"ing is term use" to "escri+e $he! the
hr" "is* "ri-e is +ei!g o-er$or*e" +) mo-i!g i!formtio! +et$ee! the s)stem memor) !"
-irtul memor) e%cessi-el)' Thrshi!g is ofte! cuse" $he! the s)stem "oes !ot h-e e!ough
memor), the s)stem s$p file is !ot properl) co!figure", !"1or too much is ru!!i!g o! the
computer !" it hs lo$ s)stem resources'
Whe! thrshi!g occurs, user $ill !otice the computer hr" "is* "ri-e l$)s $or*i!g !"
"ecrese i! s)stem perform!ce' Thrshi!g is +" o! hr" "is* "ri-e +ecuse of the mou!t
of $or* the hr" "is* "ri-e hs to "o !" if is left u!fi%e" $ill li*el) cuse ! erl) filure of the
hr" "is* "ri-e'
To resol-e hr" "is* "ri-e thrshi!g, user c! "o !) of the +elo$'
6' I!crese the mou!t of RAM i! the computer'
8' 4ecrese the mou!t of progrms +ei!g ru! o! the computer'
7' A"Gust the si.e of the s$p file'
B