CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO OIL FIELD AND

RELATED INDUSTRIES
1.1 General
Oil field engineering and quality control is a course of
study offered in design, planning, procurement, construction, quality control and other
such activities to construct the infra structure required for oil production and distribution.
The involvement of mechanical/instrumentation engineers in such activity is explained
here. Hydrocarbon is the techno chemical name for the petroleum products. Investigation
of oil storage in earth, exploration, processing (separation and purification and
distribution of hydrocarbon products requires a lot of technical support and s!ill. Oil field
and related industries need trained mechanical/ instrumentation engineers to suit the
technical support for the above activities.
".# Nature Of Oil Storage In Earth
There are plenty of oil reservoirs underneath the earth and
different part of the earth. $merica, $frican countries, %ussia, $rabian countries and
almost all countries in the &orld have oil storage. In India &e have oil storages in many
places. The state of 'aharashtra, (u)arat, $ssam li!e that &e have oil storages in many
places, &e have oil production facilities. In 'aharashtra ('umbai and (u)arat oil
storages are located at off shore &here as in $ssam it is onshore. O*(+ (Oil and natural
gas commission and IO+ (Indian oil corporation are the ma)or companies in the public
sector involved in the oil production. %eliance petroleum is the ma)or oil company in the
private sector. $lmost ,-. of our needs for petroleum products are produced in India.
The balance amount &e purchase from different countries in the form of crude oil and
various refineries in India do further process.
Origin of oil is the natural reservoirs. It is believed that
millions of year/s bac!, huge quantities of biological matters trap underneath the earth,
decayed and formed as hydrocarbon. Ho&ever &e discussed about the technologies used
to construct the infrastructure to produce oil from natural reservoir. The oil industry in
total can be classified into four ma)or areas and they are as follo&ed.
". Oil 0ells
#. Oil 1roduction 1latforms (1rimary 1rocess
2. %efineries (3econdary 1rocess
4. %elated Industries (3upporting Industry
1..1 THE OIL !ELLS
The activity of ta!ing the oil out from the natural reservoir,
the process of separation and purification to final product involves a large amount of
technical s!ill. The oil reservoir exists naturally belo& the ground level is under
tremendous pressure. The geological survey gives information about the si5e, quantity,
pressure and location of the oil reservoirs. $ lot of engineering calculation is necessary to
ensure that the operation is successful and economical.
"
Tubing and casing are inserted through the drilled hole to the reservoir and
the &ell stream fluid comes out through the tubing due to natural pressure. The flo& of
&ell stream fluid &ith high pressure is arrested using a set of valves installed at the &ell
head, the assembly of high pressure valves at the &eld head loo!s li!e a 6/mas tree.
*aturally it is !no&n as 6/mas tree as indicated in the s!etch.
Once the &ell stream fluid &ith high natural pressure is
arrested by 6/mas tree valve, the drilling operation is completed.
1.. OIL PRODUCTION PLATFOR"S
The &ell stream fluid from the &ellhead is to be connected to a production
platform. The amount of &ell stream fluid from a single &ell is not sufficient for
functioning a production platform. $ number of &ells are connected to common header
using pipes and from &hich parallel connections are made to different separators.
The process platforms are primary processing units of
petroleum products. The &ell stream fluid is the ra& material and crude oil is the final
product. 3ome of the &ells partially produce natural gas also. 3ome of the process
platforms ma!e facilities for the further processing of crude oil.
3eparator is the static equipment intended for the first
process. The &ell stream fluid is sub)ected to the separation process and hydrocarbon gas,
crude oil, &ater and &astages are the product from the separator. The output from the
separator is sub)ected to further processing to get final products of purified crude, 7*(,
etc.
1..# REFINERIES
%efineries are the secondary processing plants for hydrocarbon. Input of
the refinery is crude oil and outputs are petrol, naphtha, !erosene, diesels, 71(, 7*(,
furnace oil, bitumen etc. In India &e have a number of refineries. The refineries are
distributed in the country based on the availabity of the crude. 8%7 (8ochin %efineries
7imited, '%7 ('angalore %efineries 7imited, +1+7 (+hennai 1etroleum +orporation
7imited are some of them. The varieties of process performed in the refinery are much
larger than the primary process platforms. 9ue to the same the si5e of a refinery is much
larger than the primary process platforms.
1..$ RELATED INDUSTRIES
Other than the three stages of industries explained above, many other
industries are functioning as supporting industries to the oil field. :or example static
equipments such as pressure vessels, heat exchangers, columns, separators, reaction
vessels etc required for a refinery is manufactured in various heavy steel fabrication
industries. The rotary equipments such as pump; motor, agitator, generators, cooling fans
etc are manufactured in some other industries. 3ome factories manufacture pipe, plates,
pipefittings, flanges, valves etc required for the oil industry.
#
$ll such factories are supporting industries or related
industries to the oil field. 9esign, planning, procurement, fabrications, testing, <+ and
such other activities for the industry are also performed by mechanical engineers.
CHAPTER
ENGINEERING DRA!INGS
#." (=*=%$7
9ra&ing is the language of engineers. There are certain basic ideas in
engineering dra&ing. 0hich are used in the internal level. 1lan, =levation, =nd vie&, +ross>
section etc. are the different imaginary vie&s used by the engineers to dra& any ob)ect.
In some situation it is not possible to dra& all specified vie&s of an ob)ect in a
single image due to the bul!y si5e. $ccordingly the drafting method is slightly modified by
the International =ngineering community.
$s far as oilfield and related industries are concern engineering are prepared in
different system. The follo&ing are some of the ma)or systems of dra&ing used in the oilfield
and related industries.
". 1iping and Instrument diagram (1?I9
#. =quipment dra&ing
2. Isometric dra&ing
4. 3tructural dra&ing
,. (eneral arrangement dra&ing
In this chapter detailed discussion is made about all the above systems of
dra&ings. $ mechanical, Instrumentation engineer shall be familiar &ith all such dra&ings.
Pi%ing an& In'tru(ent &iagra( )P*ID+
#.# LINE NU",ERING
A. General.
It is schematic representation of the complete process in sequence, &hich
includes the information regarding the main process, the ma)or equipment, the control details
and the ma)or instrument (almost all of the total construction. It is to be noted that no
dimensions (length, &idth, thic!ness or direction (north, east etc. is specified in it. The
elevation (height, up and do&n, length of pipeline etc. are also not specified. 1?I9 is not
dra&n in proportion to any scale.
38=T+H 2. 3ample of 1?I9
The 1?I9 is the process diagram, a set of dra&ing starting from the point of
input (ra& material and continued in many sheets of dra&ing indicating the sequence of
operation, till the total process is over. 3ingle sheeted 1?I9 are also made if the pro)ect is
small. The complete idea of the process is specified in 1?I9, so it is useful for chemical/
2
process engineers also. The common identification systems used in 1?I9 are explained
belo&.
38=T+H 1ipeline connecting 0ellhead to Header
,. Line Nu(-ering.
=ach piping system indicated in 1?I9 is identified &ith a line number. $n
experienced engineer can read out the complete information about the purpose of the system
from the line number. The basic information regarding the line numbering is given belo&.
One eg@ for a line number listed belo& &ill clarify the same.
66>66>66>6666
(4 3erial number
(2 'aterial class
(# 1rocess (details fluid content
(" 7ine si5e
=xplanation for each parts of line numbering is made as "AB>17>C#>24-4
C.1 LINE SI.E
In the above e.g. the first t&o digits ("AB indicate the diameter of the pipe. It
can be a single digit also if the line si5e is small. (=.g. #B, 2B, ,B etc..
,. Pro/e''
The second t&o digits are normally letters sho&s the process of the line or fluid
content of the line. In the above e.g. it is D17/ &hich is the abbreviation forB 1rocess
Hydrocarbon 7iquidB. 'ore e.g. for such process normally used in 1?I9 are listed belo&.
9+> closed drain
$I>Instrument air
$E> Etility air
0O> Oily &ater
09>9rin!ing &ater
0I>In)ection &ater
+I>+orrosion inhibitor
O:>fuel oil
FT> 1ressure vent
F$> $tmospheric vent
03>3ea &ater
0$>3ervice &ater
0+>+ooling &ater
4
0H> Hot &ater
++>+hemicals
:3> :ire fighting chemicals (:oam
:(>:urnace or fuel gas
C.2 "ATERIAL CLASS.
The third t&o digits indicate the material classification, there are different types
of material used for construction and the engineer shall be able to understand the same. In the
t&o digits the first digit is letter and the second digit is a number. 3ome of the lettering and
numbering system is listed belo&. The letter indicates the pressure holding capacity of a line.
$ ",-G
C 2--G
+ A--G
9 H--G
=",--G
The letter D0/,/I/ etc is &ith ",-G capacity only, &hich indicates the surface
coated pipes. =.g.@ (alvani5ed pipe. The number follo&ed the letter indicate manufacturing
detail of the pipe such as seamless pipes, &elded pipes, chemical properties, heat treatment,
*9T etc. This classification is the general information only. The company tender documents
gives the exact classification regarding the pressure rating, chemical analysis, mechanical
properties, radiographic quality, manufacturing method etc.
C. $ LINE SE0UENCE.
The forth group of digits indicates the serial number of the pipeline, generally a
four>digit number starting from J"---/ is continuously given for each line.

C. S1",OLS USED IN P*ID
In order to ma!e communication easy a lot of symbols are used in 1?I9. The
engineer deals &ith 1?I9 familiar &ith these symbols. 3ome of the most commonly used
symbols are indicated belo&.
,
D. INFOR"ATION IN THE TITLE COLU"N
There is a title column in each sheet of 1?I9. This title column provides
information about the name of the pro)ect, name of the client, name of the engineering
company made the diagram, sheet no@ s, revision number etc.
E. OTHER INFOR"ATION IN P*ID
$s explained earlier the 1?I9 is the basic dra&ing for a total plant construction.
1lant means a production platform, refinery, part of refinery chemical processing plant or
anything. 3o the detailed dra&ing is required for construction purpose is developed from
1?I9. The total number of equipment, the basic piping connections and all design details are
available in 1?I9. The engineer responsible for construction goes through the 1?I9 and
studied some details before starting any construction activities. $fter completing the
fabrication, erecting and testing, the 1?I9 is required for chec!ing the completion of the
plant. The instrumentation people also required 1?I9 to chec! their completion. In short
1?I9 is the complete dra&ing to chec! all sequence of operation.
E0UIPE"ENT DRA!ING
A GENERAL
=quipment is basic process item in an oilfield, refineries or chemical plant. $ll
piping connections are attached to equipment to the other or one no55le to another no55le of
the same equipment. There are t&o classifications for equipment using in the oilfield and
related industries. One is the static equipment and other is rotary equipment. %otary
equipment means the equipment has a rotating part some of the e.g. are
". 1ump
#. 'otor
2. :an coolers
4. (enerators
,. +ompressors
A. $gitator
In this chapter explanation is made about static equipment only. 3tatic
equipment does not have any rotating part. The follo&ing are some of the e.g. for static
equipment used in the industry.
". Coilers
#. 3eparators
2. 8noc!out drums
4. 9e hydrator
,. Heat exchanger
A. 3pherical tan!s
K. +rude storage tan!s
L. +olumns etc.
A
=quipments either a pressure vessel or a non>pressure vessel. 1ressure vessels
means any static equipment contain fluid above atmospheric pressure. In fact separator,
!noc!out drums, spherical tan!s etc. is considered as pressure vessels. +oo!ing gas cylinder,
71( road tan!er etc. are also pressure vessels.
C. PRESSURE 2ESSEL DRA!ING
The s!etch belo& indicates a pressure vessel, installed vertically and used to
store any chemical. It is very easy to read the dra&ing because the elevation is clearly dra&n
as per scale.
$ccording to the s!etch of the pressure vessel the main parts are named there
such as shell, dished end no55le etc. the fabrication fit up &eld detail etc. could not mar! in
the main s!etch. To indicate the detail at some location of pressure vessel dra&ing are
mar!ed &ith Jsee detail $B and Jsee detail CB li!e that. The above such indication is further
s!etched &ith enlarged so that it is easy to read and understand.
The enlarged s!etch indicates detail $ some more details are given belo& &ith
enlarged scale as detail C.
,.1 NO..LE ORIENTATION OF PRESSURE 2ESSELS
0e !no& that the fabrication &elding and testing of equipment is not generally
done at site. The contractor does the same at their o&n fabrication shop or sub contracted to
some other company &ho got the fabrication facility. It is not possible for the engineer &ho
does the fabrication in a factory to chec! the north direction of the site &ithout !no&ing the
site condition. The fabrication engineer in a factory can ma!e static equipment to suite the
pipe connections at site, if the no55le orientation technique is follo&ed properly. The plan
vie& of each equipment dra&ing clearly indicate all no55le orientation &ith respect to the
north direction as indicated in the plan vie& of s!etch above according to the s!etch no55le
J*AB is A- degree to the direction. *o55le *4 is at H- degree. *o55le *"- at "#->degree
no55le *, at "2K., deg to north. The other no55les are oriented at different angle to the north
direction as indicated in s!etch. The front vie& of the equipment is also indicated &ith the
no55les. =levation shall not indicate the orientation but sho&s the elevation (Height of each
no55le &ith respect to any reference line. $ fabrication engineer read and understands the
no55le locations by comparing the elevation and top vie&s.
,..OTHER INFOR"ATIONS
The equipment dra&ing completes in one or t&o sheets that give all
necessary indications regarding and are self>explanatory. The equipment dra&ing dra&n in
scale and all dimensions are indicated in it. The material of construction, material
specification, &elding detail, *9T detail, heat treatment detail, design pressure, design
temperature, no55le detail etc. are clearly specified in it. The title column sho&s the name of
K
client, name of equipment, scale of dra&ing , sheet number , revision number , angle of vie&
etc.
The engineer responsible for the fabrication and quality control shall spend
sufficient time to understand the dra&ing and ensure that all doubt about the same is clarified
before starting the actual &or!.
C.HEAT E3CHANGER
Heat exchanger is one of the commonly used pressure vessel in oil field and
refineries. It is comparatively complicated equipment than a normal pressure vessel. The
main intention is that the excess temperature of any chemical can be made use of heating
another chemical of lo&er temperature. +hemical $ passing through the heat exchanger tube
and chemical C is flo&ing through a external surface of the tube.
The ma)or components of heat exchanger are listed belo&
".3hell
#. 9ished end
2. Tube sheet
4. *o55les
A. Caffle plate etc.
$ brief note about the components is explained belo&
C.1.The Shell
$s per the s!etch the length of the shell is L mts and dia is " mts. There is
nothing special in the construction of shell part &ith respect to an ordinary pressure vessel.
+.# Di'he& En&
The dished end as per the s!etch is " mtr dia 4-- mm in pro)ection. The dished
end is &elded &ith a flange having thic!ness ,->mm. This flange is provided &ith bolt holes
suitable for "B in dia. There is #4 bolts at a 1+9 of ".#m. The attachment detail of the flange
to the dished end is sho&n belo&.
+.2 The Tu-e Sheet'
The sheet is one of the special components in heat exchanger &hen comparing
to other pressure vessel. $ good machine shop facility is required to ma!e a tube sheet. $
number of holes equally spaced in any specified pattern drilled on the tube sheet. The dia of
each hole shall be suitable for the outside dia of tubes. 1roper mar!ing and punching is
required prior to start the drilling. =ach tube hole is drilled on the tube sheet shall be
provided &ith a collar for tube expansion. The tube is expanded using the tube expansion
tool, continuously rotated inside the tube at the collar so that the tube &ill become a lea!
proof )oint at the collar after expansion.
L
+.4 Tu-e'
The heat exchanger function &ith the arrangement of tubes &ith &hich carries a
fluid inside at one direction and other fluid flo&s through the outside surface of the tubes
ma!e the heat exchange is possible. Coth end of the tube is hold by tube sheet. It is necessary
to provide supports b/& t&o tube sheet to hold the tube straight. =ither seamless tubes are
used for heat exchanger. The tube dia is varies from quarter inch si5e to higher si5es.
+., ,affle Plate'
Caffle plates are thin plates (#mm>,mm drilled &ith tube holes at the same
pattern of the tube sheet drilling. Caffle plates are either full round or half round as indicated
in the s!etch. The tubes are inserted through the baffle plate and tightened &ith a Dtie rods/
prior to attach &ith the tube sheet. This arrangement is called tube bundle assembly. The tube
bundle assembly slides through the shell and setup &ith the tube sheet.
+.A Other Detail'
The ma)or no55le connections on a heat exchanger are, one inlet connection and
one>outlet connection no55les are &elded on shell. Other than the above there shall be
no55les for pressure gauges, thermometer gauges etc. 'ore detail about heat exchanger
construction and role of engineers in each discipline, the details of material used and their
quality etc. are explained in the coming chapters.
There are many other pressure vessels and non pressure vessels involved in the
oilfield and refineries such as separators, 9e>hydrators, de gassing vessel, !noc!out drum etc.
large storage tan!s, reaction vessels silos etc. non pressure vessels, but the method used in
drafting is almost same for all equipment.
.$ ISO"ETRIC DRA!ING
$ (eneral
Isometric dra&ing is a three dimensional dra&ing generally used for piping
construction. It is also !no&n as fabricators dra&ing for piping. =ach sheet of isometric is
self>explanatory. It contains all information &ithout referring to any other sheets. 1erfect
!no&ledge is required &or! &ith isometric dra&ing the pro)ections are imaginary.
, Casic Of Isometric 9ra&ing
There is no separate plan and elevation or end vie& for isometric dra&ing. $ll
the above information are available from a single s!etch is dra&n in three dimensions.
Three lines at "#- deg apart are the base lines for isometric dra&ing. One arm
indicates the north direction and other dimensions are referred from north in cloc!&ise.
The lines for east, &est, south, etc. are further developed as indicated belo&.
The vertical lines al&ays represent up ? do&n direction.
H
Isometric is also !no&n as fabricators piping dra&ing and used mainly
representing the piping, &hich pass throughout the plant at different direction to connect the
equipment to another.
,.1 Offset 7ines
It is to be noted that all turnings are at H- deg, any piping turned (rolled other
than the H- deg is permitted only in the exceptional case. $ny rolling other than H- deg to
any direction shall be indicated &ith hatch lines.
,. 3cale
$ll dimensions are specified in isometric clearly but it is not dra&n in scale. 0e
can see shorter lines &ith larger dimensions and long lines &ith shorter dimensions.
C 3heet *umber $nd 9ra&ing *umber.
0hen go through the title column isometric dra&ing number is &ritten there.
=ach dra&ing is indicates the sheet number also. =.g. 0+%>#-L>"#-">-"
The above dra&ing number sho& the system is cooling &ater re>circulation
(0+%. It is clear that this dra&ing related to the equipment number (area number D#-L/.
The actual sheet number is D"#-"/. The last digit D-"/ indicates the sheet number. $ccording
to the above dra&ing number the sheet is D-"/ and that means the first sheet. If the dra&ing
number "#-" is dra&n in more than one sheet the last digit may be -#,-2 etc. it &ill be
difficult for engineer or a fabricator to under stand ho& many sheet in, there for one dra&ing
numbering system ma!e it easy.
0+%>#-L>"#-">2/"#
$ccording to the above numbering system it is clear that the dra&ing number
"#-" is having total "# sheets and above indicated in the 2
rd
sheet.
9.7I*= *E'C=%I*(
=ach line in the isometric having a line number .one isometric may have
different line numbers at the same line. $ single line number may continue in t&o or three
isometric. the follo&ing line explained as
=.g.AB>0+%>#-L>"#-">a2a>-"
The dra&ing number specified earlier (0+%>#-L>"#-">-" is containing the
above line number. Here ABis the diameter of the pipe (ma)or si5e in inches, 0+% is the
system number (cooling recirculation or cooling &ater refining, #-L is the area number,
"#-" is the line sequence, $2$ is the material specification,-" is the sheet number. This line
is not completed but continued in other dra&ing sheet &ith some other number.
"-
=. =7=F$TIO* I*9I+$TI*( I3O'=T%I+
In each isometric the height of the line &ith respect to the ground floor is
indicated at different locations. Here the height of the line at bottom point is K"---mm.
=levation at top point D$/ can be calculated from bottom point. +alculation of elevation each
spot is a time consuming for the fabricator. The drafting personnel mar! elevation at critical
points. 3uch indication ma!es the fabricator possible to cross chec! the dimensions &ritten in
the isometric.
The reference elevation is either from the sea level in a convenient height at the
bottom point of the pro)ect area. The basic height of the plan !no&n the height of equipment
or the height at any point of the piping can be calculated. The under ground piping or the
under ground equipment height is specified in minus readings and above ground piping or
equipment height is specified in plus reading.
:. +OO%9I*$T=3 (*O%TH ? 0=3T
$s discussed about the elevation there are some other coordinates such as north
and &est indicated in the isometric dra&ing. 0hen the fabrication &or! is completed the
spool is to be erected at the pre>determined location. The north ? &est indication in the
isometric help the construction engineer to ta!e the spot to the required location to be more
clear about the north and &est indications.
The s!etch above the indicates a ne& plant area under construction there are
three equipment D$/ is !ept at 4,---mm &est and #A---mm north from the reference bloc!
of the site. +enterline of the equipment DC/ is H---mm &est and "L---mm north. +enterline
of the equipment D+/is 2A---mm &est and ""---mm north. Cut the north and above reading
of the equipment are not the reading as indicated in the s!etch. That means they have ta!en
the initial reading from the same other point a&ay from the reference bloc! 3>" and 3># are
the t&o spools installed to connect these equipments.
(. The 9esign 1ressure, Test temperature etc,
3ome of the information regarding design pressure, test pressure, design
temperature &or!ing temperature etc. are indicated in the bottom part of the isometric.
9esign pressure means the designer evaluates all aspect of the piping, &hich is sub)ected to
internal pressure. In almost case considering the safety factor a higher value is considered or
testing the system than the operating pressure. $s thumb rule the test pressure is "., times the
operating pressure. Cut in all case it may not be same design temperature is , factor of design
calculation &ith respect to the temperature point of vie&. The &or!ing temperature is
normally lo&er value than the design temperature.
H. 1art *umber
$n isometric is the dra&ing of fabricated spool. It contains a lot of individual
parts. 1ipe is the main part, elbo&, tee, reducer; flange, gas!ets, stud bolt etc. are the other
components. The isometric give indication for all parts is part number as indicated inside a
squire.
""
$s per the s!etch part number one is pipe &ith AB dia and part no@ # is the pipe
of 4B dia; part no@ 2 is the pipe of D2/4B/ dia; part no@ 4 is AB elbo&. 7i!e that the part number
indicated in the box :A ("" C"L is a group of parts. :A means : is short form of flange A is
the part number. 7i!e that ( is the short name for gas!et and part number is "" C means bolt
and "L is the part number indication of the part number may slightly vary in isometric of
deferent designers. Cut it &ill be easy for of a fabrication engineer to understand the same.
I. +ut 1iece length
It &ill be difficult and time consuming for a fabricator to calculate the exact
length of each piece in an isometric. The reason is that all dimensions are mar!ed from the
center point of each rolling. To ma!e it easy in most of the isometric the exact cut length is
indicated &ith a number. If the cut length of the pipe is available from the dra&ing the
fabricator can cut the pipe piece &ithout any calculation.
M. Moint *umber
$s &e !no& the different components are )oined together using various means
such as &elding, threading, bolting etc. the isometric dra&ing clearly indicates the )oint
numbers in sequence as ",#,2N. as indicated inside a circle in s!etch #."A. The engineer shall
identify the method used to )oin the components.
$ continuous number starting from one is given for all )oints in isometric it is
!no&n as )oint number. Moints can be butt>&elded, soc!et &elded, threaded connections. $t
the time of )oining t&o components the edge preparation, gap bet&een t&o pipes, alignment
etc. is to be inspected. $fter &elding the completed &eld is visually inspected.
In case of radiographic chec!, that is also inspected )oint &ise. To !eep a record
for all it is necessary to give a number of each )oint, reference to another dra&ings.
In order to find the corresponding part of general arrangement dra&ing (($9,
1?I9 and the same is mentioned in isometric )oint at the bottom side.
8. Indications for *9T
If non>destructive test is to be carried out for &eld )oints the same is also
mentioned at the bottom of the isometric &ith the type of *9T recommended.
=.g. "-. %adiography means "-. of the total &eld are to be radio graphed.
"--. '1T means all )oints are sub)ected to 'agnetic particle test.
7. 1ost 0eld Heat Treatment (10HT
3ome of the isometric indicates post &eld heat treatment. 10HT is the heat
treatment carried out to the &eld )oint to remove the stress developed on it. 10HT is also
8no&n $3 J 3tress %elievingB.
'. Hydro test or 1neumatic test
"#
If the test medium is &ater for the pressure test is called the hydro test. It is
carried out to ensure the integrity of the pipe spool. If the medium for pressure test is air it is
!no&n as pneumatic test.
*. 'aterial 3pecifications.
3pecification for material used for construction of piping is indicated in material
specifications part of isometric dra&ing. The representation for the part number for a pipe is
given in example belo&.
#B heavy 0T pipe, continuous &elded, C=, +3, I3 "#2H 1art>"
$n engineer &ho deals &ith isometric dra&ing is clear &ith the above
specification for the pipe. The explanation is as belo&.
#B> *ominal pipe diameter
Heavy 0T, (0all thic!ness> 'eans the pipe thic!ness is as per the table in inches or
mm continuous &elded. The pipe is not manufactured using extrusion process. It is
manufactured by plate rolling and continuously &elded in the factory.
C=> Ceveled end, the pipe end is beveled to suit butt &elding (1=> 1lain end
I3 "#2H>part>". This is the specification for carbon steel pipe as per Indian material standard.
The specification gives the chemical composition, physical properties, manufacturing
methods, heat treatment and other details about the materials in this regard is explained in
chapter III (construction materials
.4 STRUCTURAL DRA!ING
A. General
There are civil structures and mechanical structures in the oilfield. The concrete
structures are (Ceams, columns, 3labs etc !no&n as civil structures. 'echanical
structures constructed &ith metal construction activities such as gas cutting, &elding,
bolting; non>destructive testing, destructive testing etc are involved in it.
$ll equipments and piping is supported by either a civil structure or mechanical structure.
+ivil structures and foundations support some mechanical structures. (ood !no&ledge is
required for a mechanical engineer in the structural dra&ing to construct any mechanical
structures. The off shore platforms are mechanical structures on &hich the equipment,
piping etc are installed. Technological structuresO, pipe rac!s, conveyors, ladders, to&ers
etc. are also mechanical structures. The prominent members of mechanical structures are
listed belo&.
I>Ceams, +> channels, 7> angles, :lats, round bar, tubular structures (heavy pipes
,. Stru/tural Co(%onent
,.1 I5 ,ea(
"2
I>Ceams are one of the most load bearing components among the structural
items. The cross section loo!s li!e the letter I. 3o the component is named as I> Ceam.
The I> Ceams are available in various si5es according to the requirement. The &eb si5e is
larger than flange si5e. I standard beam there is a fixed relation bet&een &eb and flange.
In normal case the I Ceam is specified as &eb si5e 6 flange, si5e 6 thic!ness.
:or example 2--x",-x"-
",-xK,xA li!e that.
Table is available for metric beams and non>standard beams separately. 'etric
beams are specified in India as Indian standard metric beam (I3'C.
,. Channel'
+hannels are in the shape of square letter +. some times it is simply referred as
channels. 7i!e I>Ceams channels also got a specific shape and si5e. +hannels are
available in various si5es. The &eb si5e to flange si5e portion is also varied. Indian
3tandard 'etric +hannel (I3'+ table generally indicate all dimension of various si5es.
=xample@ ",-xK,xA
",-x "--xL
,.# Angle an& Flat
This is also one of the common components used in structural steel.
+omparatively angles are available in small si5e than channel and beam.
=xample@ ,-x,-x2
"--x "--x2
$ngles are available in un equal si5e also
=xample@ "--x,-x"-
K,x ,-x"- etc.
$s the name indicates flat is a metallic structure flat in shape, :lat are specified
in &idth and thic!ness.
=xample@ K,x"-
"--x",
,-x2 li!e that.
"4
,.$ Tu-ular Stru/ture'
Tubular structure means tubular components are used for structural fabrication
in place of beams, channels etc. These tubes are nothing but pipes for higher &all
thic!ness.
1ipes are intended for tubular structural constructions are &ith higher &all
thic!ness. These pipes are not indented for pipe flo&, but vertical load.
.6 GENERAL ARRANGE"ENT DRA!INGS
($9 is the plan vie& of the site. It loo!s li!e plan of a complete site. It is #9
dra&ing of the plant. The ($9 is dra&n in scale and all dimensions are scalable.
*ormally the proportions are "@"--, "@,--, and "@"--- etc. for the !ey plan. If a plant is
constructed in different level (ground floor, "
st
floor there are separate ($9 at different
elevations.
,. A%%li/ation' of GAD
$s the name indicates, it sho&s the general arrangement vie& of the plant. The
details are sho&n as it loo! li!e a photograph from top. The isometric indicates the
individual details of piping spool, the equipment dra&ing gives individual details of the
equipment and structural dra&ing provides fabrication and installation details of
structural items. The ($9 provides the assembled vie& of equipment, piping and
structures. There is no much symbols used in ($9. =ach items is dra&n in ($9 as the
original shape in plan vie&. 3ince the area of the plant is very large, it is difficult to
indicate all details of top vie& in a single sheet. 9ue to this reason, a !ey plan is made
&ith large>scale ratio and it is divided in to a number of segments. =ach segments is
separately dra& &ith more clarity as it is #9 s!etch, the up and do&n path of piping is not
appeared in ($9, but it continued as a single line. 0hen the piping emerges out from
one level (floor it disappears from that ($9 and continued in the ($9 of upper
elevation. To get the complete details from ($9, it is to be compared &ith the related
isometric, equipment and structural dra&ings.
Isometric sho&s the bottom elevation and top elevation along &ith the north and
&est readings. This information in the isometric helps the engineer to find out the exact
location of the pipe spool in ($9.
.7 Con/lu'ion of Engineering Dra8ing'
$ll types of dra&ing in connection &ith the oil field and related industries are
explained here. The engineer may have to deal &ith isometrics, equipment and structural
dra&ings during construction. In bet&een the 1?I9 and ($9 is to be referred for
continuity. The basic concept of each dra&ing is explained belo& as a conclusion for the
sub)ect learned so far.
",
$. P*ID
It is a line diagram, &hich sho&s all equipment and connecting piping for the
total plant. The length, &idth etc are not specified. The direction li!e north, east, up and
do&n etc are also not specified. Ho&ever the total idea about the pro)ect is available from
1?I9. $ll instruments &ith tag *o. are mentioned in 1?I9. $fter construction the 1?I9
is handed over to the commissioning people and the process engineer for the necessary
information for this &or!.
C. E9ui%(ent Dra8ing
The complete information regarding material fabrication details, *9T, Hydro
testing etc are specified in the equipment dra&ing. The dimensions are measurable
because it is dra&n as per scale.
C. I'o(etri/'
It is fabricators piping dra&ing read on the shop or &or! site. 9imensions are
clearly indicated but not dra&n in scale. $ll information for construction is available in
isometric.
9. Stru/tural Dra8ing
1lan, elevation, end vie& and cross section including the fabrication details of
mechanical structures are indicated in the structural dra&ing. 3tructural dra&ing is dra&n
as per scale.
=. GAD
The (ad is all dimensions and directions about the plant as a top vie&. It is
difficult to trace out the piping continuously &ith ($9 because the elevation details are
not continuous.
"A
CHAPTER III
CONSTRUCTION "ATERIALS
)A+ INTRODUCTION
There are large varieties of materials used for the
construction of the oil production facilities. These materials include ferrous metals, non>
ferrous metal as &ell as non>metallic materials. 3ome of the prominent materials used in
construction, the applicable material standard etc are explained.
(C STANDARD AND SPECIFICATION
In India &e have our o&n material standard (Indian
3tandard> I3 for there manufacturing methods, quality requirements and inspection
systems. C3 is the Critish standard and 9I* is the (erman standard. $3T' is the
$merican 3tandard for Testing materials
=ven though each country have there o&n standards, the
$merican 3tandard is considered as internationally accepted standard in the oil field.
3pecification means the method of describing an item in a common standard.
To purchase any item a clear specification is required so that supplier can issue the same
&ith clarity. the engineer &ho deals &ith the oil field engineering industry should have a
sound !no&ledge about the material standard and specification.
(+ OIL FIELD AND CONSTRUCTION STANDARDS
These are various material standards used in oil field by
different countries. India uses Indian 3tandards (I3. :or each industrial material, &e
have concerned Indian material standard
=g@ I3 ##A> material standard for carbon steel
I3 #-# is the material standard for boiler <uality plates
I3 #L#, is the material standard for pressure vessel design, construction and
inspection
I3 L"4> is the standard for &elding electrodes
3ince &e have to purchase good amount of construction
materials from other countries and &e use material standards of the other countries also.
$merican standard is &idely accepted for oil field. $n attempt is made here to have a
basic idea about these standards.
". $3'=> $merican 3ociety for 'echanical =ngineers
#. $3T'> $merican society for testing materials
2. $I3I> $merican Iron 3teel Institution
4. $*3I> $merican *ational 3tandardi5ation Institution
,. $03> $merican 0elding 3ociety
A. $1I> $merican 1etroleum Institute
"K
$3'= (Coiler and 1ressure vessel code
This standard includes design, fabrication &elding and
testing of boilers, pressure vessel and nuclear po&er equipments. The follo&ing sections
are use full for design, construction and testing of pressure vessel and piping
1. AS"E Se/tion II
These standard specify the requirements of construction
materials &ith four subdivisions.
$3'= 3ection II part $> :errous 'etals
$3'= 3ection II 1art C> *on :errous metals
$3'= 3ection II 1art +> 0elding electrodes and +onsumables
$3'= 3ection II 1art 9> 1roperties
'ore details about the $3'= section II is explained in this chapter

. AS"E Se/tion 2
This is the standard for *on 9estructive Testing (*9T
such as %adiographic test, Eltrasonic test, 'agnetic 1article Test, 9ry 1enetration Test
etc.. more details about this section is explained in the coming chapters of *9T.
#. AS"E Se/tion 2III
It is the standard for design construction and inspection of
pressure vessels. $3'= 3ection FIII is !no&n as the master section for pressure vessel
in this series. In other &ords &e can say that $3'= 3ection II, 3ection F and 3ection 6
are referred from $3'= 3ection FIII

$. AS"E Se/tion I3
It is the standard for &elding and bra5ing of pressure
vessels and structural. $ctually $03 9"." is the standard for structural &elding
separately but section I6 also refers some requirements of structural &elding other than
pressure vessel (more information is in next chapter, 0elding engineering

AST"
This is the standard for all construction materials &ith
respect to the chemical properties; manufacturing methods, &eld ability heat treatment
&eld ability heat treatment, testing and identification mar!ing system. In this standard the
materials are classified according to the properties usage and quality. It is similar to
$3'= 3tandards 3ection II &ith respect to material classification, but more information
regarding the sampling and testing of each requirement

ANSI
It is the standard for dimension and construction for
example $*3I>C> "2.2 is the standard for construction and testing of refinery piping



"L
A!S
It is purely a 0elding standard, &hich explains about the
&eld )oint configurations, &elding method, &elding process, &elding electrodes, &elder
qualification etc. It got a lot of sub divisions (more information in next chapter, &elding
engineering
API
It is a special standard for the petroleum construction field.
$ series of standards are coming under $1I. =ach standard is individually complete.
3ome of the standards coming under $1I are listed belo&
". $1I A,-> standard for construction and testing of huge storage tan!
#. $1I ""-4> standard for &elding of pipe line and related standards ( also !no&n as
cross country pipe line standard
2. $1I , 7> specification for manufacturing of line pipe and testing
4. $1I , +T> specification for manufacturing and testing of casing and tubing
2.4 '$T=%I$73
2.4.1 GENERAL
$s explained each category of materials used in the oilfield
is manufactured and tested based on specific standards. $s far as oilfield and related
industries are concerned the ma)or construction materials are listed belo&.
". 1lates
#. 1ipes
2. =lbo&
4. Tees
,. :langes
A. (as!ets
K. Cranches
L. Falves
H. :asteners
=ach item is explained as per the specifications and
standards of $3T'/$3'=
2.$. PLATES
1lates means large metallic sheets &ith 2/"AB(4.KAmm and
over in thic!ness and more than "-B (#,4mm in &idth.
38=T+H #4 17$T=3
1lates are manufactured either hot rolled or cold rolled
methods. The main use of plates in the oilfield is the construction of storage tan!s,
pressure vessel and other static equipment.
"H
The quality of plate depends on the specification of the
purchaser. $s per chemistry plates are available as carbon steel, lo& alloy steel, stainless
steel, nic!el steel li!e that. 'any other qualities are also to be considered such as
strength, hardness, and ductility, &eld ability, impact resistance, corrosion resistance,
heat resistance etc.
In order to ensure the quality of plate, inspection is to be
carried out according to the specifications and applicable standards. The specifications
and standards shall be thoroughly under stood before starting the inspection. The ma)or
inspection stages are listed belo&.
". Fisual inspection (surface finish, pits, dents, crac!s, edge penetration,
straightness etc..
#. 9imensional chec!@ > The plate dimensions such as length, &idth, thic!ness,
diagonals etc.
2. Identification mar!s (heat number, cast number, manufacturers emblem etc
4. 3ampling
,. +hemical analysis
A. 1hysical properties (tensile strength, impact test, bend test, hardness etc
K. 'ar!ing and punching.
In this chapter explanation is made about t&o types of
carbon steel plate ($3T'>$>,", and $ ,"A and one type of stainless steel plate
($3T'>$>#4-. These plates are prominent plates used in the oilfield and related
industries.
#.$..1 AST"5A5414 PLATES
(1ressure vessel plates, carbon steel for medium and higher temperature services
2.4.#.".1 General
The specification of ,", materials is carbon steel plates,
also called as Dcarbon>silicon/ steel plates. The complete specification is carbon steel
plates for pressure vessel at medium and higher temperature services. $ll the details of
D,",/ materials is specified either in $3'= 3ection II 1art $>3$> ,", or in $3T'>$>
,",.
$3T'>$>,", plates are available in all thic!ness above
4.Lmm.
$ccording to the physical properties $3T'>$>,", material
is classified in three categories.
". $3T'>$>,", grade A-
#. $3T'>$>,", grade A,
2. $3T'>$>,", grade K-
The physical properties vary according to the chemical
composition and heat treatment. The above grades are explained as per the tensile
strength and chemical composition.
#-
$3T'>$>,", grade A- means the minimum tensile
strength of the plate is A-.--- 13I (pound per square inch, $ccordingly grade A, is
A,,---13I tensiHle strength, and grade K- is K-,--- 13I, tensile strength.
#.$..1. 0UALIT1
To ensure the quality of plates, inspection shall be carried
out for the minimum requirements as specified belo&.
1. Surfa/e in'%e/tion
0hen the plate cut in to si5e at milli. The quality control
engineer chec!s each plate to ensure that there is no damage such as dent, pit, scale,
lamination etc, and the surface finish is also inspected.
. Di(en'ional Che/:
The length, thic!ness, parallelism etc are also to be
inspected and ensure that all dimensions are &ith in tolerance.
#. Lot 'i;e an& Sa(%ling
The standard clearly specifies the lot si5e of the plates for
sampling. :or example if test samples are to be collected from every "--
th
plate, lot
si5e is "--. The engineer select any one of the plate from the production lot of "--
and on corner of that plate is mar!ed for collection of test samples of chemical
analysis and physical test.
These samples are discarded from the mother plate by gas
cutting or other means and machined to suit the test requirements.
$. Che(i/al Anal<'i'
The chemical analysis is to be carried out to ensure that the
percentage of each element in the test specimen are meeting the requirements are as
follo&s.
(rade A- (rade A, (rade K-
+arbon maximum -.#4 -.#L -.2"
'anganese
maximum
-.HL -.HL ".2-
3ilicon -."2>-.4, -."2>-.4, -."2>-.4,
3ulfur 'aximum -.-2 -.-2 -.-2
1hosphorus
'aximum
-.-2 -.-2 -.-2
4. Ph<'i/al te't
1hysical test includes tensile test, bend test, hardness test,
impact test etc. $s per $3T'>$>,", specification only tensile test is to be carried out
and the test values shall be as specified belo&.

#"
(rade A- (rade A, (rade K-
Tensile (83I A->L- A,>L, K->H-
Pield 2# 2, 2L
. of elongation #" "H "K
Once the above all inspection point found in the acceptable
limit the material is considered as meeting the requirements of $3T'>$>,",.
Ten'ile Te't "etho&
Tensile test is carried out to find out the tensile strength of
the material yield strength, percentage of elongation etc can also be measured using
tensile test. The tensile test specimen from a plate is prepared as per the s!etch.
:ig. #, Tensile 3pecimen
$ reduced section tensile test specimen is sho& in the
s!etch. $ specimen &ithout reduced section can be also used. The main intension of the
reduced section is to ensure the brea! point at the center
Eniversal testing machine is employed to carry out the
tensile test. Coth ends of specimen are gripped properly at the test )a&s. (radual load is
applied to the specimen and the upper )a& starts pulling the specimen up&ards. 0hen it
reaches to the yield point the needle stops for &hile and continued to move. This load is
considered as yield load. The needle further goes up &hen the load increases and reaches
to a certain point, stop a &hile and return bac!. The load at this point is considered as
ultimate load. The needle moves to anti cloc!&ise direction and stop at one point &hen
the specimen brea!s. This load is considered as brea! load (brea! load is comparatively
lo&er than the ultimate load
The area of the specimen at the brea!ing point is already
calculated as the area of the reduced section. The length of the specimen before brea!ing
and after brea!ing is also measured. *o& the calculations are as follo&s
". Pield strengthQ (Pield load/ area, load is ta!en in 8gf and area is ta!en in mm
#
for the strength in 8gf/mm
#
#. Eltimate strength Q Eltimate load in 8gf/ area in mm
#
2. 1ercentage of elongation Q (final length>initial length x "--/ Initial length

The observed values are compared &ith the actual
requirements in the standards. The yield strength, the ultimate length and percentage of
elongation are specified in the standard of the material as minimum values. If the test
values are above the specified values the test is considered as accepted.
#.$..1.# S%e/ifi/ation of A5414 (aterial'
". It is commonly used for pressure vessels &ith medium and higher temperature
services and for boilers.
##
#. It is simply carbon steel plates. 1roper manufacturing methods, controlled
chemical composition and proper heat treatment ma!e this plate suitable for
pressure vessel and boilers.
2. $vailable in different grades &ith different tensile strength bet&een A-,--- 13I ?
K-,--- 13I.
4. This material has a course grain &hen comparing to ,"A materials.
,. It got good ductility, possible to bend at "L-= &ith out any crac!. (E Cend.
A. It got an average resistance to corrosion at bad &eather.
K. (ood &eld ability suitable for 6>ray quality &elds.
L. Internal stress during hot &or! and cold &or! can be eliminated &ith that heat
treatment (*ormali5ing/ 3tress reliving.
#.$.. AST"5A5416 R3pecification for carbon steel plate for pressure vessel for
moderate and lo&er temperature servicesS
2.4.#.#." (eneral
These types of plates are available in four grades as belo&
". $3T'>$>,"A (rade ,,
#. $3T'>$>,"A (rade A-
2. $3T'>$>,"A (rade A,
4. $3T'>$>,"A (rade K-
It is almost similar to $3T'>$>,", material but fine grain
structure and suitable for lo&er temperature requirements. %efer the chemical
requirements in the D Tips Of 3tandard/.
$3T'>$>,"A 'aterial is also !no&n as carbon manganese
steel plate. The heat treatment follo&ed after manufacturing &ill give good physical
properties, especially higher impact resistance at lo&er temperature services. The ,"A
materials can be used for the lo&er temperature requirements. (To carry the fluids &ith
lo&er temperature up to minus "HA = + or even belo&. The specification for $3T'>$>
,"A carbon steel not generally called for impact test, but if the service is in minus degree
temperature as per supplementary requirements the impact test is a must. $3T'>$>,"A
grade A- and $3T'>$>,"A grade K- are the most commonly used grades. 7i!e that $
,"A is the most commonly used carbon steel plate in oilfield and refineries. 0hole test
requirements, chemical and physical properties, manufacturing methods, standard
thic!ness and measurements etc are clearly specified in the $3T' standard.
2.4.#.#.# I(%a/t Te't )Refer SA #7>+
Impact test is carried out to measure the resistance to
sudden load especially notched effect at lo&er temperature. It is proved that the impact
resistance of a material decreases tremendously at lo&er temperature. If t&o specimens of
the same material are tested at same impact load but different temperatures there is a
great difference bet&een the t&o values. The pressure vessels, piping etc bearing fluids of
#2
lo&er temperature the material used for the same shall be impact tested at specified
temperature.
F> notch +harpy impact testing machines etc are generally
used for impact testing. The test specimen for impact is comparatively smaller in si5e
&hen compared &ith tensile testing and bend testing. Individual test pieces are not
preferable because there shall be variation in impact value for the same material at same
temperature &hen tested &ith the same machine. $ group of three specimens tested one
after other and the average value is considered. Moules, *e&ton/s etc are the common
units for impact test.
0hen testing at lo&er temperature such as minus #2- deg
+, minus 4A- deg + etc the specimens are !ept in the lo&er temperature solution for
sufficient time. Once the temperature of the specimen reaches to the specified range from
the solution, the specimen i.e., suddenly ta!en out and !ept on the testing machine and
the load is dropped.
9ry ice &ith suitable chemical liquid is mixed for preparing
the lo&er temperature solution.
2.4.#.#.2 Har&ne'' Te't )Refer SA #7>+
Hardness test follo&ed &hen $3T' $ ,"A materials are
sub)ected to stress relieving. Hardness is resistance to indentation or the resistance to
&ear and tear. The material used in the construction shall be inspected for the hardness
also. There is much equipment available in the mar!et to carryout hardness test. It is not
al&ays possible to chec! the hardness of the &elded )oint from the laboratory. 1ortable
hardness testers are also available. $ hard surface &ith a small area such as hard balls,
hard sharp points etc are pressed on the specimen is less, the compression &ill be large.
Hard specimen &ill have comparatively smaller compressions.
There are different units for hardness measurements.
Crinell hardness number (CH*, %oc!&ell hardness test (H%+ etc are the common units
increased hardness for material reduces the &eld ability and also cause hydrogen induced
crac! (HI+. 3o most of the materials are limited for hardness. The recommended codes
and standards refer the hardness limitation of the material.
2.4.#.#.$ ,en& Te't )Refer SA #7>+
$3T' $ ,"A materials are not sub)ected to bend test.
Ho&ever since it is a mechanical test recommended as supplementary requirements, bend
test is briefed here. Cend test is one of the important tests to ensure the quality of the
material. Cend test sho&s the ability of material &ith bending property such as ductility.
7i!e tensile test specimen bend test also carried out &ith a specimen approximately "-
inch in length and T inch &idth. The thic!ness is either same thic!ness of the material or
a thic!ness, maximum #- mm (exact dimensions are specified in the recommended
standard. The figure #A indicates bend test specimen and test method.
$fter the bending operation the specimen is ta!en out from
the die and sub)ected to inspection. There shall not be any crac!s at expanded or
#4
compressed area. 'inor crac!s of a particular dimension can be accepted as per the
standard. :or more details refer the applicable standard of testing.
2.4.#.2 AST" A $> (3pecification for chromium, chromium nic!el stainless steel plate,
sheet, strip for pressure vessels
2.4.#.2." (eneral
This category stainless steel is generally used for
manufacturing pressure vessels and pressure bearing plates. 3tainless steel means one
!ind of high alloy steel generally manufactured &ith chromium and nic!el as ma)or
alloying elements. 9ifferent !ind of stainless steel is included in this group. $ccording to
the percentage of alloying elements and the proportion $3T' $ #4- have the follo&ing
types. Types #-", #-#, 2-#, 2-4H, 2-47, 2-4* etc. $3T' $ #4- materials are &hite in
colour and high resistance to corrosion. 3ome types are totally non corrosive and non
magnetic. 3ome other types are partially corrosive and partially magnetic. +ompared to
carbon steel, stainless steel got a lot of special properties such as resistance to corrosion,
chemically non reactive etc, but more costlier. The chemical and physical properties for
some of the prominent type are given belo&.
#.$..#. T<%e of AST" A $>.
The material falling under stainless steel category is
available in different types. This classification is similar to any other $3T'
specifications for stainless steel. The different types are listed in the table above are not
only applicable for $3T' $ #4-. :or example $3T' $ 2"# is the specification for the
stainless steel pipe, &hich is explained later. =ach type of stainless steel is different from
other types by chemical, physical properties, manufacturing methods and applications.
3ome of the prominent types are explained belo&.
a. T<%e #>$
This is the most commonly used stainless steel material for
general requirements. It is cheaper in cost &hen compared &ith some other types (type
2"A. $3T' $ #4- type 2-4 is the complete specification. Type 2-4 materials are also
!no&n as "L@L stainless steel. :rom the table it is clear that the chromium percentage is
"L and nic!el percentage is L. +ompared to carbon steel, stainless steel contains less
amount of carbon. Type 2-4 plates are manufactured by Jhot rolled, annealed, pic!edB
(means the surface cleans &ith acid solution.
-. T<%e #>$ L
It is a special material on 2-4 categories but the percentage
of carbon limited to max -.-2.. The reduction in carbon . gives special property such
as less hardness, less brittleness and also the strength. 2-47 material is slightly costlier
than ordinary type 2-4. 3ome of the special applications type 2-47 is used.
c. T<%e #>$ H
7etter H in the specification indicate higher . of carbon. It
is not necessary to specify the carbon . is al&ays high because there is a range of + .,
#,
&hich may vary according to the requirement. :rom the table it is clear that the
percentage of carbon in this category varies bet&een -.-4>-.".
d. T<%e #>$ N
0hen the nitrogen . exceeds -." to max -."A in type 2-4 it
is classified under type 2-4 *. Other than nitrogen . all chemical elements are same li!e
type 2-4.
e. T<%e #16
This material is completely non>magnetic it got a total
resistance to corrosion under all atmospheres. The +r. is reduced to "- &hen comparing
type 2-4. $ small . of molybdenum (#>2. is included in this. Type 2"A materials are
having higher strength and higher pressure holding capacity. It is also suitable for lo&er
temperature services. Type 2"A materials are having superior quality level in resisting the
corrosion, hydrogen induced crac!s etc &hen comparing 2-4. It is comparatively costlier
and better surface finish.
$s explained earlier in the case of type 2-4, $3T' #4-
type 2"A is also available &ith chemical variation and physical properties such as type
2"A7, 2"AH, 2"A* li!e that. The stainless steel plate used for pressure vessel application
in the oilfield and related industries is mostly Type 2"A.
f. T<%e #>?
In this category the . of chromium is increased to a high .
(##>#4 and accordingly *i . also high ("#>",. This material is suitable for &elding
directly &ith carbon steel. Type 2-H is !no&n as cladding steel. The process of cladding
is providing a stainless steel coating over the surface of carbon steel material.
g. 1hysical properties of $3T' #4- material.
The mechanical properties of some of the types of stainless
steel are tabulated in tips of standard.
2.4.#.4 Su((ar< )PLATES+
$s per $3T' standard there are many specifications for plates used in
industry. In this chapter explanation is made about only t&o types of carbon steel and one
type of stainless steel type plates. These are most commonly used types of plates in the
industry. It does not mean that the other specifications are not important. 0hen a ne&
material specification is sho&n in any dra&ing or client requirements &e can get any
necessary information from the corresponding $3T' specification. $s a summary to
plates the follo&ing information/s are important.
". The complete specification of the material, for example $3T' $ ,"A grade A-.
This specification is for +>'n steel plates for pressure vessel at medium and
lo&er temperature services.
#. The service and general quality of the plate required.
2. The quality chec!s required.
#A
4. Identification of the material.
The inspection method, physical and chemical properties,
identification and certification system etc specified in the $3T' $ ,", in the earlier
notes are similar to all plate material.
#.$.# PIPES
2.4.2." General
1ipes are the most commonly used items for the
construction of the oilfield, refineries and chemical plants. 1ipe is used to connect one
equipment to another one or to another one or to transport any fluid from one location to
another. There are different types of pipes based on the material of construction. 1ipes are
$vailable in different si5es i.e., different diameter and thic!ness. :or the oilfield
purposes, pipes &ith half inch in diameter to A4 inches diameter are generally employed.
$ccording to the pressure bearing capacity, corrosion rates, erosion rates etc different
thic!nesses are available in the same diameter.
$ mechanical engineer &ho deals &ith the purchases,
fabrication, &elding, <+, radiography and other *9T etc shall be familiar &ith the types
and measurements of piping materials. 0hen specifying a pipe dimension, the diameter
and thic!ness is specified.
:or example L>inch schedule, 4 inch L-, A mm etc are the specifications in &hich the first
number is the diameter in inches and the second number is the thic!ness specified as
schedule or in mm.
2.4.2.# Pi%e Di(en'ion
$s per the international system the diameter is specified in
inches. The thic!ness is either specified in inches or in mm. 1ipe diameter is al&ays
specified as nominal bore (*C, nominal si5e (*3 or nominal pipe diameter (*19.
=xample "
#>inch *3 pipe means #>inch nominal si5e. *either O9 nor I9 is
measured exactly # inches. $ pipe &ith # inch *3 &ill have the outer dia slightly higher
than # inch (,-.L. The exact outer diameter &ill be A-.2 mm instead of ,-.Lmm.
=xample #
One L inch pipe is not having the L inch diameter measurable either from
the outside or from inside. The outer diameter can be measured as L.A#, inch (#"H."
mm. 9ue to this difficulty a piping table &ith dimension is available ($*3I C 2A."- in
$*3I standard. $ccording to this table the normal bore (*3 / *C and the actual dia are
available.
3ee $ttached Table Of 1ipe 3tandard
". 1ipe is specified &ith *C/*3 as diameter in inches, &hich is not exactly
measurable.
#. The exact outer diameter is available from $*3I Table.
2. Outside diameter and *ominal si5e is same for pipe from "4 inch and above.
4. Thic!ness of pipe is also mentioned in the $*3I table. Thic!ness is specified as
pipe schedule. 3ch"-, 3ch#-, 3ch2-, 3T9, 3ch"-- etc are the thic!ness group
#K
&hen go through the table &e can see some of the pipe schedule columns are
empty, that means the pipe in that particular thic!ness is not manufactured by any
mill. R%ef. 7atest table of $*3I C 2A."-S
3ome standards specify pipe thic!ness as standard
thic!ness (3T9 heavy, extra strong (63 etc. $s per $1I standard the pipe thic!ness
is specified in mm and a &ide range of thic!ness is available in this standard. 0hen
going through the $*3I standard thic!ness (3T9 and 3ch4- thic!ness are the same
and 63 and 3chL- are same but differ &hen pipe diameter increases.
2.4.2.2 AST"5A51>6 (specification for seamless carbon steel pipe for high temperature
services
These pipes are most commonly used pipes in the oilfield
and refineries. $lmost H-. of the total pipe requirements in the oil field and refinery is
coming under this specification. The chemical composition can be refer from the DTips Of
3tandard/
1ipes under this specification are available from half>inch
nominal bore up to A4>inch nominal bore. It is manufactured as seam less pipes.
2.4.2.2.Ten'ile Re9uire(ent'
$3T'>$>"-A pipes are tested for chemical analysis, tensile
properties, yield strength, hardness, elongation, bend and the flattering test. If it is
sub)ected to lo&er temperature services the notch toughness t,est is to be carried out as
supplementary requirement. The $3T'>$>"-A pipe is available in 2 grades. $ccording
to the strength these are grade $ (4L--- 13I, grade C (A---- 13I and grade + (K----
13I tensile strength.
2.4.2.2.# Pi%e length
In general the length of the pipe manufactured from the
mill is classed in to t&o categories.
$. 3ingle %andom 7ength@ This category length varies bet&een 4.L to A.K
meters.
C. 9ouble %andom 7ength; This length is minimum "-.Km. The maximum
length of pipe manufactured by the mill is "#.,m.
#.$.#.#.# H<&ro Te't )"ill+
Hydro test is carried for each pipe at the mill to ensure the pressure
holding capacity and free from lea!age. Coth ends of the pipe are bloc!ed &ith
arrangement sho&n in the s!etch. The pipe is then filled up &ith &ater and then
pressuri5ed to the test pressure. The pressure &ill hold for fe& seconds. $ny lea!age in
the pipe during test is indicated by drop in pressure in pressure gauge and if the pipe
cannot hold the pressure it &ill blast. The <+= ensure that each pipe is hydro tested and
passed the test.
$3T'>$>2"# ($uthentic 3tainless 3teel 1ipes 3eamless or 0elded for Higher
Temperature and non *on>+orrosive services
#L
This is a specification as per the $3T' standard for stainless pipe as
specified above. Coth seamless pipe and &elded pipes are included in this category. It is
mainly used for resisting the corrosion &hen sub)ected to corrosive services. The
specification has a lot of grades on types, &hich is similar to $3T' $ #4-. 1ipes are
available from half>inch diameter to 2- inches diameter.
3tainless steel pipes are generally available &ith lo&er schedule because
of the follo&ing reasons.
". 3ince there is no corrosion, corrosion allo&ance is not included in the design
calculation.
#. +ost of stainless is too high not economical &hen purchasing higher thic!ness
items.
The chemical properties, physical properties etc for the $3T' $ 2"#
types are the same for the equivalent materials type of $3T' $ #4-.
=.g. $3T' $ 2"# type 2-4 is having the chemical values and mechanical properties of
$3T' $ #4- type 2-4.
The general types available in $3T' $ 2"# pipes are listed in the DTips of
3tandard/.
2.4.2.4.1 Te't Re9uire(ent'
The chemical and physical test requirements for $3T' $ 2"# is similar to
the test requirements for $3T' $ #4- except flattering test, flare test &hen specifically
needed.
2.4.2., Su((ar<
There is lot of material specifications in $3T' standards for pipe also.
0hat &e have learned so far is that t&o main specification of pipes, one +3 specification,
and other 33 specification. If you have to be a <+= of a pipe manufacturing company or
on inspection engineer from any client or contractor you may have to carry out the stage
&ise and final inspection for pipes. It includes the surface inspection, dimensional chec!,
&itnessing physical and chemical test, &itnessing the *9T, hydro test etc. =ach stage
such inspection is explained to you at different angles. If you &or! as a site D<+=/ you
may have to inspect all incoming materials for the identification mar!, surface defect
during transportation co> relating the test certificate values &ith the actual standard etc. In
case of doubt a random inspection and sampling can be carried out. The chemical and
physical test for the sample is to be &itnessed at the near by laboratory. Ho&ever
!no&ledge in material inspection li!e pipes and plates help the fabrication side, &elding
side, *9T etc as a responsible engineer.
U *ote@ > any clarifications regarding the material (plate and pipe refer the boo! of DTips
of 3tandard/ available &ith you.
#H
2.4.$ PIPNG CO"PONENTS
There a lot of separate components used to complete a piping system.
These components should have a specification for material, specification for dimension
and also a specification for manufacturing methods. $n engineer deal &ith purchase,
construction, quality control, design manufacturing etc. shall be familiar &ith all such
specifications. 3ome of the ma)or components used in the construction of static
equipments and piping of the oilfield and related industries are listed belo&.
". :langes
#. (as!ets
2. :asteners
4. =lbo&
,. Tee
A. %educer
K. +ouplings
L. 0eld>o>lets
H. 3oc!>o>lets
"-. 3pectacle blind
"". Falve etc.
The components are explained in detail belo&.
2.4.4." Flange'
:langes are used to connect equipments to a piping system
or t&o piping spools in such a &ay that these connections can be dismantled as and &hen
required. $ccording to the type of construction, pressure>bearing capacity etc, the flanges
are classified in to different categories. The follo&ing are some of the most commonly
used flanges in the industry.
a. 3lip on flanges
b. 3oc!et flanges
c. Threaded flanges
d. 0eld nec! flanges
e. 3tub end and 7ap )oint.
2.4.4."." Sli% on Flange.
The s!etch of a slip on flanges is indicated in the figure #L.
The inside diameter (C is slightly more than the outer diameter of pipe so that the flange
can be easily slipped over the pipe. This is the reason the flange is named as 3lip on
flanges.
The pipe is then &elded to the flanges as sho&n in figure
#L $. The &eld at the hub of the flange to the pipe is the actual Jstrength &eldB. $ seal
&elding is provided to prevent the fluid passed bet&een the pipe and flange through the
narro& gap. $ccording to the pressure the flange dimensions varied. 3lip on flanges is
available in different pressure rating such as ",-G, 2--G, 4,-G, A--G, H--G, "#--G, and
",--G up to #,--G. In the oilfield application slip on flanges are generally used for lo&er
pressure ratings (",-G and 2--G. The table C. "A., indicates all dimensions of a slip on
2-
flange. The difference in dimension based on the pressure ratings can be crosschec!ed
from the tables of $*3I C "A.,.
:rom $*3I C "A., it is clear that almost all the dimensions
are different for ",-G and 2--G flanges except the dimension C. The number of bolt holes
the 1+9 etc is different, that means 2--G flanges of #B nominal si5e cannot be connected
to a #B *C ",-G flange.
The main advantages of slip on flanges are that it can be
inserted to the pipe easily and available in large varieties.
2.4.4.".# So/:et Flange'
3oc!et flanges are similar to slip on flanges except that a
step (soc!et is provided at the I9. There are t&o diameters C and 9, The diameter C" is
slightly larger than the outer diameter of the pipe. 9iameter C is lesser than the outer
diameter of the pipe and almost equal to the inner diameter of the pipe and almost equal
to the inner diameter of the pipe. 0hen the pipe is inserted through the flange at the rear
portion (Hub area it touches to the collar (diameter C. There is no seal &elding required
for soc!et flanges (not possible.
3oc!et flanges are generally used for soc!et>&elded piping.
$s it is difficult to get good quality butt &eld for small bore pipe, normally for pipe
diameter equal or less than "T inch, soc!et &eld is preferable. 3o soc!et flanges are to be
used for such piping. 7i!e slip on flanges soc!et type flanges are also available at
different pressure ratings (up to #,--G. 3oc!et flanges are available from T inch si5e to
any other si5e li!e slip on flanges.
2.4.4.".# Threa&e& Flange'
These are similar to soc!et flanges but the inside portion is
threaded instead of soc!et. The mating pipe &ill have suitable male threads. *o &elding
is to be carried for threaded flanges. These types of flanges are generally used in piping
for utility air, instrument air and such services.
Threaded flanges are generally employed for lo&er
diameters pipes ("/# inch belo&. $s no &elding is permitted for galvani5ed pipe,
threaded flanges are preferred for such systems irrespective of diameter. These flanges
are available from ",-G &ith any higher>pressure rating. $ll dimension sho&n in the
s!etch are almost equal to soc!et flanges.

2.4.4.".4 !el& Ne/: Flange'
These flanges are butt &elded to the pipes since the butt
&eld gives good strength and quality; &eld nec! flanges are commonly used for good
quality piping. The pitch circle diameter, number of bolts, raised to face pro)ection, raised
face dia, &elding nec! dia is different from the other type of flanges. These flanges are
comparitatively heavier ("- inch A--G &eld nec! flange &eigh approximately H-8gs.
0eld nec! flanges are used for higher>pressure ratings such as A--G, H--G, ",--G,
2---G, ,---G and so on to any higher>pressure rating. $lignment and fit up of &eld nec!
2"
flange to pipe is comparitatively time consuming because the outer diameter of pipe and
flanges shall be matched properly &ith correct gap around.
#.$.$.1.4 La% @oint an& Stu- En&
It is a special type of flange; it has a loose flange li!e slip
on flange and a stub end as indicated in the s!etch. 'ost of the case the flanging material
is different than the stub end material. It is seen in case of &eld nec! flange that a "->inch
class 2--G flange &eighs approximately ,- 8gm. If the flange material is copper, nic!el,
stainless steel etc the cost is high to ma!e a &eld nec! of the same material.
In case of stub end and lap )oint &e can use carbon steel
material for the flange &here the stub end can be +u or any other costly materials of the
original piping. One mare advantage of this type of flange is the flexibility in alignment
to the bolt &ith the mating flange. The flanged portion can be rotated over the stub end to
align the bolting. This type of flange is generally used for costly material piping such as
(+u>*i cupro nic!el.
2.4.4.".A ,lin& Flange'
Clind flanges are used to blind (close the pipes spool. The
dummy no55les of the static equipment can be bloc!ed &ith blind flange. It is also used
for hydro testing the piping spool. Clind flanges are available &ith different pressure
rating of ",-G and above.
#.$.$.1.7 "aterial' for Flange'
Farious materials are used for manufacturing flanges. $ lot
of manufacturing methods are also employed to produce flanges. +asting, machining and
forging are the three generally used and out of &hich hot forging is most commonly used.
Hot forging means heat the material at forged temperature (bet&een H--deg + to ""--
deg + and hammer the same to required shape. 3ome of the commonly used materials
for the flange manufacturing are $3T' $ "-, for carbon steel and $3T' $"L# for lo&
alloy and alloy steels.
$. AST" A 1>4 Car-on 'teel
These materials are coming under carbon steel categories.
+arbon, silicon, 'n is the prominent chemical elements. The chemistry is almost similar
to $3T' $,", material. $3T' $ "-, carbon steel material is specified for medium and
higher temperature services. $fter forging the items are sub)ected to drilling and
machined to required dimensions. These materials are available in different grades such
as grade $, grade C, grade + and also sub divisions li!e class" class#, class2 etc. These
material grades are depends upon strength of maximum K---- 13I. The identification
mar!s, &hich include the si5e, pressure capacity material specification etc, are indicated
on flange as hard punching.
C AST" A 1A)Allo< Steel+
This category of material is the specification for forging
different types of flanges. $ccording to the chemistry and physical properties
$3T' $ "L#is sub divided into different classes
2#
$3T' $ "L# is having almost all types of lo& alloy steel,
stainless steel, +r steel etc. It is clear that $3T' $ "L# material containing different
grades. 3ome of them are &ith minimum alloying elements li!e 'o -.,., &here as some
other grades are &ith higher percentage of +r, *i li!e that (,. +r, -.,. 'o etc. 0e can
also see different types of stainless steel coming under this category such as : 2-4, :
2"-and :2"A etc.
'aterial other than stainless steel &ith high . of +r
$3T' $"L# is also having *ic!el steel (: "-
2.4.4.".L. DI"ENSIONAL STANDARD FOR FLANGES
To inspect the dimensions of a flange a dimensional
standard is required. $*3I C "A., is the dimensional standard for all !ind of flanges. It is
a table made as per si5e and pressure rating for each category flanges
2.4.4.# GASBETS
(as!ets are unavoidable items inserted bet&een t&o
flanges to prevent lea!age. The gas!et is placed on the raised face of the flange and
tightened &ith stud bolts. 9ifferent types of gas!ets are used in the oil field industry
based on the service, pressure rating and the material of construction.
The common types of gas!ets used in the oil field industry
are as follo&s
". *on metallic flat ring gas!et
#. 3piral &ound gas!et
2. %ing type )oint (metallic gas!et
2.4.4.#." FLAT RING GASBET
It is a soft non>metallic material having resistance to
chemical reaction, temperature and &et conditions and having good pressure holding
capacity. The non>metallic compound specially manufactured for gas!et is compressed in
the form of thic! paper sheets. The s!etch above indicates such gas!et is !ept bet&een
t&o flanges. The shape required using ordinary scissors. These gas!ets are available from
-., mm> 2mmfor normal applications; it is cheaper than all other types of gas!ets. It is
commonly used for pressure up to 2--G.
2.4.4.#.# SPIRAL !OUND GASBET )ANSI , 16.>+
These types of gas!ets are suitable for holding higher
pressure and temperature. It can be used for pressure rating from ",-G to ",--G. Cut in
general use it is preferred for pressure rating from 2--G to H--G. The inner ring and outer
rings are not having any affect in preventing the lea!age but used for holding the special
&inding properly. In some flanges the inner ring may obstruct the flo& up to certain limit
because it is extended inside to reduce the diameter li!e that the outer ring in some
22
flanges obstruct the bolt fasteners. 9ue to the same spiral &ound gas!ets are
manufactured &ith outer ring or &ith out inner ring to suit the applications.
2.4.4.#.2 RING T1PE COINT )"etalli/+ GASBET )ANSI , 16.>+
'etallic ring gas!ets are used in flanges &hen high>
pressure types are constructed. %ing type gas!ets can hold any higher pressure. %TM
gas!ets are either solid or hollo& in cross section and made out of soft iron or any other
suitable materials &ith higher tensile properties.
The raised face of the flange is modified by providing a
groove in F shape. Other shaped grooves are also used according to the design point of
vie&. The cross section of ring type gas!et is round, oval, hexagonal or octagonal. The
ring type gas!et is positioned in the groove and the bolts are tightened on the flange so
that the mating flanges are not directly in touch &ith each other.
%ing type gas!et is generally used on &eld nec! flanges.
The &eld nec! flanges has suitable groove for the ring type gas!et is !no&n as %TM
flange (%ing Type Moint :lange. The metallic ring gas!ets are identified &ith the number
generally for &ith the prefix letter %. =xample %##, %2H, %4, etc.
If the % number is !no&n the dimension and suitability of
the flange class etc can be found out from the $*3I tables. There are other types such as
%6, C6, etc. 3uch details are available in $*3I C "A.#- standards.
*ote@ 'ost of the flanges are specified &ith the type of flanges as &ell as type of )oints.
The follo&ing are the examples for that.
". 3O%: V 3lip On %aised :ace
#. 3O:: V 3lip On :lat :ace
2. 0*%: V 0eld *ec! %aised :ace
4. 0*%TM V 0eld *ec! %ing type Moint
2.4.4.2 Fa'tener'
To connect t&o flanges, no55le to flange and valve to
flange stud bolts are required. 3tud bolts are available in almost all si5e &ith respect to
diameter and length. The material specification for alloy steel stud bolt (+3, 7o& alloy
3teel is $3T' "H2. $ccording to the material specification for nuts it is $3T' $ "H4.
There are different grades available in specification according to the chemical and
physical properties. =.g. $3T' $ "H2> "2K, $3T' $ "H4>#"K.
2.4.4.4 EL,O!
=lbo& is one of the common piping components in the oil
field and refineries. It is used for changing the direction flo& of piping system. $ccording
to the angle of elbo& it classified in to three categories
". H- degree elbo&
#. 4, degree elbo&
2. "L- degree elbo&
0hen the classification is based on the bend radius, it is
classified in to follo&ing categories
". 7ong radius elbo&
#. 3hort radius elbo&
24
2. 29 radius bend
4. ,9 radius bend
Table A> dimensions for short radius elbo&
7ong radius elbo& means the distance from one face to the other center
(distance $ sho&n in the s!etch is "., times the nominal si5e of elbo&s. 3hort radius
elbo& means the distanceJ$Bequal to the nominal si5e of elbo&
29 bend means the radius of bend is equal to 2 times the
diameter of the elbo& and ,9 bend means the radius of bend is equal to , times the
radius of elbo&
T$C7= K
7ong radius elbo&s are commonly used in refinery piping and short radius
elbo&s are used in special case only. ,9 radius bends are commonly used in riser pipe
manufacturing. 3oc!et types elbo&s are available and generally used for pipe diameter
".,B an belo&.
2.4.4.4.1 DI"ENSIONAL STANDARDSAND "ATERIAL STANDARDS
$3T' $ #24 is the material standard for carbon steel as &ell as alloy steel
elbo& generally used in the oil field and refineries. It got a lot of classifications according
to the manufacturing methods and heat treatment.
$3T' $ #24 01C, 01+ etc are some of the classifications of carbon steel elbo&
material.
$3T' $ 2," is the general standard used for stainless steel
and lo& alloy steel materials. This standard also got subdivisions li!e 01, 0%.
$*3I C "A.H (butt and $*3I C "A.#L(soc!et are the
dimensional standard for elbo&s. :rom this table &e can find the elbo& of suitable &all
thic!ness for the connecting pipe. To carry out the material inspection, the dimension is
to be chec!ed for each material &ith respect to the $*3I standard. The identification
mar! iHncludes the si5e, heat number, company emblem is stenciled on the body for
stainless steel material.
2.4.4.4 TEE
Tees are used for providing branch connections from the
run pipe. =qual tees and reducer tees are the t&o categories generally used. =quality
means run si5e and branch si5e are same &here as reducer tee ma!es the branch
connection smaller than run si5e.
Tees are available from small si5e to any higher si5e. In
common practice soc!et tees are used up to ".,B *3. 3i5e above ".,B butt &eld tees are
used. +utting the main line and &elding a smaller branch use fabricated tees but for
higher>pressure services this system is not follo&ed.
0hen considering the reducer tee there is some limitations
for the availability. :or example reducer tee is available in the follo&ing si5es.
2,
". "-B x LB
#. "-B x AB
2. LB x AB
4. LB x 4B
,. 2B x #B
A. 4B x #B
Cut there is no ready>made tees available such as "-B x 2B,
LB x #B etc. because it is not economical. $*3I C "A.H is the standard for dimensions
(equal tee as &ell as reducer tee, $3T' $ #24 is the material standard for +3 tee and
$3T' $ 2," is the standard for 33 and lo& alloy steel.
2.4.4.A !ELD5O5LET
0eld>O>let is the one of the piping components used to
ma!e a branch connection from run pipe. 0hen there is a large difference bet&een run
pipe and branch pipe in diameter. =xample, branch connection of #B si5e is to be made on
"-B run pipe.
1urchasing a reducer tee is quite difficult because
a. It is costly
b. 3i5e reducer tee is not commonly available.
0eld>O>let is indicated in the s!etch, the ma)or diameter
suit the curvature of the run pipe and minor diameter suit branch pipe diameter. The hole
suitable to the 0eld>O>let is either drilled or gas cut on the run pipe to ma!e the 0eld>O>
let fit up for a full penetration &elding.
2.4.4.7. SOCB O LET
It is similar to 0eld>O>let but only difference is the &eld
details at flange connection (small dia pipe are &elded by inserting the soc!et area as in
figure 2L. $nd provided &ith fillet &elding.
2.4.4.A THREAD5O5LET
It is similar to soc!>o>let but no fillet &eld is required
because the branch is connected as thread connections.
2.4.4.? COUPLINGS
+ouplings are almost similar to a &eld>o>let to provide
branch connections from a large dia pipe or from static equipment. +ouplings are used
for t&o pipes or a pipe to an equipment>using soc!et &elding. There are t&o types of
couplings used in the industries.
". Half coupling
#. :ull coupling
Half coupling means a single soc!et at one end and the
other end is plane, &here as full coupling means soc!ets at both ends.
Instead of fillet &eld provided to the branch pipe, threaded
couplings are used &ith the branch pipe threaded at the end.
2A
#.$.6.1> REDUCER
%educers are used to change the pipe diameter in a system.
There are different types of reducer used in industries. The picture indicates one
concentric reducer and one eccentric reducer; both of them are butt>&elded type. The
designer shall ta!e in to account, the difference in the level of pipe reaching to a reducer
and passing out from a reducer. 0hen t&o pipes are connected to one concentric reducer,
the central lines of both the types are same, but there is a difference at bottom level of
each pipe. at the same time if an eccentric reducer is used bottom level of both the types
are same, but there is an offset at the central line. The applications of eccentric and
concentric reducers are classified in the isometric dra&ings.
2.4.4.11 2AL2ES
+onsidering the material part it is difficult to specify &ith a
single specification for valves because different parts are constructed &ith different
materials.
=xample@ The body is constructed &ith carbon steel, the bonnet &ith 0rought iron, disc
&ith 33, seating surface &ith soft material (non metallic such as teflon, rubber mixture
etc. 9ue to the above reason a valve is specified &ith a material of construction of each
part separately.
2.4.4."#." GATE 2AL2E
(ate valve is the simplest valve, cheaper in cost and also
suitable for general requirements. It is suitable for pressure rating up to 4--G, but not
generally used for a pressure rating above 2--G. (ate valves are not recommended for
regulating the flo& during services. It is used in either full open or full closed condition.
#.$.$.1. GLO,E 2AL2E
(lobe valve is similar in appearance li!e a gate valve but
an experienced engineer can distinguish it easily. It is suitable for regulating the flo&
during services. (lobe valves are recommended for services up to H--G and smaller dia
valves (belo& "., inch up to 2--G.
2.4.4.1.# CHECB 2AL2E
+hec! valves are used to stop any flo& from reverse side
&hen one fluid is passing to the desired direction. It &ill become useful &hen a particular
fluid passing out from one equipment to another equipment and the fluid of first
equipment is completed. If no chec! valve is provided bet&een the fluids from the second
equipment may pass bac! to the first equipment.
There are different types of chec! valves used in the
industry. The most common types are indicated in the s!etch, &hich is self>explanatory.
The pressure relief valve, non>return valve, foot valve etc are also used such form of
chec! valve, but not used in a continuous line.
2K
#.$.$.1.$ ,ALL 2AL2E
This is the most commonly used valve in the industry. The
valve si5e varies from half inch to any higher si5e. Call valve is having a high range of
pressure holding capacity. The advantage of this valve is the accuracy in the flo& of
control and quic! ability to open and close. In most of the case small ball valves are
provided &ith a simple hand to operate &ith a H- deg turn. The ball valve can be fully
opened or fully closed, &hen the other types of valves require a number of rotations to do
so.
2.4.4.1.4 ,UTTERFL1 2AL2E
This !ind of valves are generally used for lo&er pressure
services such as fire&ater line, &aste &ater line etc. $ thin disc attached &ith a handle
can be rotated either partially or fully using a half gear hand bra!e system. It is
comparitatively cheaper and light in &eight, &hen comparing to other type of valves of
same si5e.
#.$.$.1.6 OTHER T1PE OF 2AL2ES
There are many other type of valves used in the industry for
different applications. 3ome of them are needle valves ('odified globe valve for smaller
dia such as W inch, T inch etc, angle valves ('odified globe valve at H- deg angle of
operation, 2 &ay valve ('odified small diameter ball valve, diaphragm valve etc.

2L

2H
CHAPTER $
WELDING ENGINEERING
($ (=*=%$7
0elding machine is simple electrical equipment used for
&elding .It is a simple transformer to reduce the voltage and provides increase in ampere
suitable for &elding .The ranges of voltage of different types of &elding machine passes
through a cable and returned bac! to the &elding machine on the other terminals. 0hen
there is a small discontinuity in the circuit, the high ampere current try to )ump to the
other end to complete the circuit, by producing an electric arc. This is capable of
producing high amount of heat energy. It can melt any material if it is properly utili5ed.
This schematic diagram of an $+ 0elding Transformer is sho&n in figure 42.
The &elding machine is connected &ith t&o cables, one on the phase
terminal and the other on the earth terminal. The phase terminal cable is connected &ith
one electrode holder and the earth cable is connected to the &elding pipe to be &elded.
The &elding electrode tip come closer to the &or! piece provides a small gap (T mm so
that arc produced &hen the electricity )ump from the electrode tip to the &or! piece. The
arc produced is hot enough to melt the &elding electrode tip as &ell as the &or! piece
spot. Instantly melting ta!es place both on the electrode tips and the &elding )oint, the
molten metal drop from the electrode provides a filter metal and solidifies along &ith the
base metal.
(C +7$33I:I+$TIO* O: 0=79I*( '$+HI*=3 CP 1%I*+I17=3
0elding machines are classified in many categories according to
the &or!ing principles. The commonly used types of &elding machines are,
(" 0elding Transformer ($+
(# 0elding %ectifier (9+
(2 0elding (enerator (9+
(4 $lternator ($+
(, Inverter Technology (9+
". !ELDING TRANSFOR"ER
It is the simplest type of machine basically a step do&n
transformer. 0elding transformer are available &ith the single phase input (#2-F,t&o
phase input (2,-F and three phase inputs(44-F .this types of machine is the cheapest
&elding machine used for general purpose &elding. The mechanical arrangements to
control the ampere output is a hand &heel rotated or tapped type
There are many other types of current ad)usting system available
in &elding transformers. Cut the movable coil system and taped system as indicated
above are most commonly used.
Cecause of the simplicity in construction of &elding transformers
these are considered as maintenance free machines.
4-
0elding transformers are generally used for quality &elding
such as pipe )oint, butt )oint, pressure vessel &elding etc.
#. !ELDING RECTIFIERS
$s discussed about the unsuitability of &elding transformers for
quality &eld due to $+ input. 0elding transformers are modified as rectifiers. %ectifiers
are also one !ind of transformer provided &ith facilities to obtain D9+/ output. The
schematic diagram to indicate D9+/ rectifier is sho&n belo&.
The dc &elding rectifier &ill give a smooth arc. %ectifiers are
generally available &ith 2>phase connection. It is suitable for &elding ferrous and non>
ferrous metals. +omparing to a 2 phase &elding transformer, rectifier cost/s 2 to , times
higher.
2.!ELDING GENERATORS AND ALTERNATORS
$s discussed, these are rotary type, either &ith $+ input or diesel
generators. In ordinary case generators produce 9+ output. The voltage setup is not
possible on 9+ output. 9ue to this reason alternators are provided &ith 9+ generators.
=lectrically operated generators are suitable for fixed current
&elding such as submerge arc, semi>automatic and automatic &elding.
$. IN2ERTER TECHNOLOG1 "ACHINE
This type of machines is recently developed to suit &elding.
Fery small in si5e, light in &eight is the attractive feature of this &elding machine. There
is no transformer or any other types of &inding inside. It is almost electronic electronic
equipment available either in single phase or in three phases.
These !ind of portable machines are very constitent in use and
smooth in operation. $ll type of &elding process is possible &ith this type of machine.
)C+ !ELD COINT CONFIGURATIONS
0elding is the process of )oining t&o metals. The metals can be
either similar or non similar. 9uring &elding heat is applied. 1ressure can be also applied
at some situations.
To )oin t&o metals, the edges to be )oined can be properly
designed to get the required result. 3ome of the edge preparation and the type of )oint
configuration is indicated above. There are hundreds of types of configuration, &hich &ill
be explained &hen the &elding process is specified. $ccording to the strength
requirements, usage and quality,(internal pressure the &eld methods are classified into
the follo&ing.
(a Cutt 0elding
(b :illet &elding
(c 3pot &elding
4"
There is some more type of &elding used in the industry, but the
most commonly used types are butt>&elding and fillet &elding.
1. ,UTT !ELDING
It is the most commonly used &elding for piping, pressure
vessel, storage tan!s and also for good quality structural &elding.
Cutt>&elding means the t&o members to be )oined shall be
aligned properly, beveled or unbeveled, full penetration at the root as indicated in the
s!etch.
The edge preparation or the type )oint shall be square butt, single
DF/ bevel, double DF/ bevel, single DE/ or any other type. The first pass of &eld melts the
root face and penetrates through the root gap as indicated in the s!etch. The first pass is
!no&n as Droot pass/. It is the most difficult )ob for a &elder to complete a successful root
pass. The penetration shall be slightly belo& the bottom level of the base metal. The
penetration shall be continuous and uniform.
$fter the successful completion of the root pass &elding the
&elding slag over the &eld bead is removed properly by chipping, grinding and &ire
brushing, a next pass is immediately made is called Dhot pass/. It is clear from the name
itself that the hot pass is made before the base metal is totally cooled. In order to fill the
bevel portion further passes are made, !no&n as Dfill up pass/. 0hen the bevel is filled
properly further passes are made as reinforcement pass also !no&n as Dcapping/.
#. FILLET !ELDING
7i!e butt &elding fillet &elding is also &idely used. the
applications of fillet &elding is mostly in structural steel &elding .in most of the case one
member is perpendicular to the other member it may also be at an angle to the other
member. In short &e can say the butt>&elding is carried out &hen both the members are
at the same plane and the second member is perpendicular to other !eeping a groove for
full penetration &eld. Cut the t&o members of a filet &eld &ill never be in the same
plane. In fillet &elding the edges are not beveled in &eld in most of the cases. There are a
lot of quality chec!s for fillet &eld also other than the structural steel &elding, a &elding
similar to fillet &eld is carried out for pipe &hich is !no&n as soc!et &eld. 3ome of the
commonly used fillet &eld is indicated in the s!etch.
+ompared to butt &elding the ris! factor is less in fillet &eld. It
requires a good s!ill to carry out the fillet &eld also but a semis!illed &elder can perform
the fillet &eld. The radiographic test is not successfully used in fillet &eld but other *9T
such as ultrasonic test, penetrant test, magnetic particle test etc can be applied on the
quality level. 0e can obtain more information about the butt>&elding and fillet &elding
during the further discussion in the chapter.
(= !ELDING POSITIONS
=ven though the engineering technologies developed day by day, some of
the construction activities are still to be performed manually. 0elding is one of such
4#
activities. $ lot of experiments and developments are in progress to perform the &elding
activities automatically and up to certain instant the construction community could
achieve good results. H,. of &elding activities at petroleum construction field is
performed as manual &elding
0elding is one of the s!illed mechanical construction activities.
Cefore starting any type of &elding activities a proper procedure shall be established to
ensure the quality such as base material, &elding process, &elding machine, electrodes
and consumable, &elding position, s!ill of &elder etc are to be considered
The s!ill required for each position is different for a &elder.
Cased on the studies made by the $03 ? $3'= scientists, the position of &elding is
classified as listed belo&
" :lat position
# Hori5ontal position
2 Fertical position
4 Overhead position
0elding on a pipe or any other complicated sections, a combination
position is listed belo&
" 1ipe fixed at hori5ontal position
# 1ipe fixed at 4,> inclination position
2 1ipe fixed at 4,,&elding at restricted position
(" Flat Po'ition
In the flat position &elding the &eld )oint is !ept as flat and the
&elding is performed from the top .The &eld bead is symmetrical to the center line and
the &eaving done at equal distance to the left and right from the root gap
It is the simplest and easiest position for a &elder. $ccording to
$3'= section I6, this &elding position is !no&n as "( position in the case of butt &eld
and ": position for fillet &eld.
(# Hori;ontal Po'ition
3ome of the s!etches for the hori5ontal position &elding are indicated
above. The hori5ontal position &elding (full penetration butt &elding in a groove either
on a plate or on pipe is !no&n as #( position &elding. The fillet &eld at hori5ontal
position is !no&n as #: position &elding.
+ompare to the flat position &elding more s!ill is required
for hori5ontal position &elding. The reason is that the molten metal tries to fall do&n
from the &eld )oint because the base metal is !ept at vertical position. 9ue to this reason
the molten metal from the top bevel flo&s over the bottom bevel. That means the bottom
bevel is filled up &ith molten metal &ithout fusing the bevel. The s!etch indicates the
situation.
$ s!illed &elder can control the flo& of molten by manipulating
the electrode movement and speed. In most of the hori5ontal &elding if the &or! piece is
fixed, &elder can move around the )oint. If the &or! piece is rotatable, &elding can be
carried out as &elder stationary.
42
(#+ 2erti/al Po'ition
The vertical for both butt &eld and fillet &eld is sho&n in the
s!etch. The ris! on the vertical position &elding is that the molten metal flo&s over the
&eld deposit at the bottom area.
Fertical position &elding can be carried out either up hill or
do&n hill. 0hen a semi s!illed &elder tries to carry out the do&nhill &elding, the most
molten metal flo&s over the beveled area. 0elder &ith ability to carry out the do&nhill
&elding is called do&n hill &elder. They control the &eld flux &ithout the disturbance to
the beveled area. In this case of vertical plates for a large storage tan! vertical uphill
&elding is preferable.
:illet &elding is carried out at vertical position.
)$+ ODer5Hea& Po'ition
It is the most difficult position in butt &eld on plate or the fillet
&eld on plate. The ris! factors are that the entire molten metal tends to flo& do&n
&ithout stic!ing on the base metal. 9ue to this reason the &elding is not successful for a
semi s!illed &elder. Other than that the ris! factor of burning the &elder body &ith the
molten metal flo&. $ s!illed &elder can manipulate the electrode by depositing the
molten metal successfully on the base metal.
)4+ Co(-ine& Po'ition !el&ing Or Pi%e !el&ing
0hen t&o pipes are to be butt &elded at fixed positions, flat, hori5ontal,
vertical and over>head positions are combined. =ach movement of &elding change from
one position to another position. 1ipe &elding is quite difficult due to the above reasons.
It is also difficult for a &elder to measure the amount of penetration inside the pipe. It is
to be noted that D $3'= 3=+TIO* I6/ and $03 classification has not included the
combined position &elding for fillet &eld. $ccording the standard the pipe position is
explained belo&. 0e have seen that pipe &elding included in hori5ontal position &elding
(#( the belo& explanation is for pipe at fixed position (not rotatable.
)4.1+ 4GE Po'ition !el&ing
The pipe is fixed at hori5ontal position and &elder start &elding from the
bottom position>overhead position. The &eld progression is uphill. 0hen he continues
&elding in the overhead position and reaches to vertical position and on further progress
the &elder reaches flat position &elding and stop the &elding at top most point. The
&elder again restart the &elding from bottom at the opposite direction passing through
overhead and vertical position and reaches to the flat position. 0hen he stopped the
&elding at top most point as earlier.
In short &e can say D,(/ position &elding is a combination of J"(, 2(
and 4(B. $ccordingly a &elder is capable of doing ,( position &elding is automatically
qualified for "(, 2( and 4( &elding.
(4.+ 6GE All Po'ition !el&ing
A( position &elding is almost similar to D,(/ position &elding
except that the pipe is !ept at an inclination of 4,X. 9ue to the same there is a tendency
for the molten metal to flo& over the bottom bevel )ust li!e D#(/. 0e can consider that
44
&hen the pipe is !ept at DA(/ position &elder should have the s!ill of D#(/ position
&elding other than D"(, 2( and 4(/. in other &ords DA(/ &elder is capable of doing a
successful &eld at all position. He is considered as &elder &ith s!ill to do D"(, #(, 2(
and 4(/.That is the reason the DA(/ position &elding is also !no&n as all position
&elding (pipe.
(,.2 Re'tri/te& Po'ition !el&ing
DA(%/ position is similar to DA(/ position but the basic concept is
different. The bevel is single sided and a restriction plate is attached to the pipe near to
the bevel area. The plate obstructs (restricts the access for the &elder to do a comfortable
&elding. The straight side of the )oint may not be clearly visible to the &elder.
1ositioning the electrode at the root gap is difficult. 0eaving of the electrode is not
possible
A(% list is given for a &elder to chec! ability to &eld at all
positions &ith limited access A(% test is a structural steel &elding test, not generally used
for pipe &elding position. 'ore detail about the &elding position and &elder test is
explained in the further portion of this chapter
(= 0elding 1rocess
There are various types of process used in &elding. The &elding
engineer selects the most suitable &elding process for a particular application, based on
the &or! piece, material, )oint configuration of the material specified quality
requirements and the &eld ability of the material. 3ome of the commonly used &elding
processes are listed belo&
". 3hielded 'etal $rc 0elding (3'$0
#. (as 'etal $rc 0elding (('$0
2. (as Tungsten $rc 0elding ((T$0
4. 3ubmerged $rc 0elding (3$0
,. :lux +ored $rc 0elding (:+$0
A. 1lasma $rc 0elding (1$0
Other than the above there are quite a lot of &elding process used. It is
difficult to explain all !ind of &elding process in this chapter. The most commonly used
&elding process in the oilfield and related industries are explained in detail.
(" Shiel&e& (etal ar/ 8el&ing
3'$0 is the simplest &elding process used in almost all !inds
of industries. The equipment required for this !ind of &elding process is an ordinary
&elding machine. $n insulated cable connected to the &elding machine at one end and
the other end is connected to the electrode holder. To complete the circuit of the &elding
machine a cable is connected to the &or! piece (earth cable. The &elding machine shall
be any of the follo&ing.
". 0elding Transformer ($+
#. 0elding %ectifier (9+
2. 0elding (enerator (9+ or $+

)1.1+ !el&ing Ele/tro&e' For S"A!
The &elding electrodes are classified into t&o categories.
". +onsumable =lectrodes
4,
#. *on>+onsumable =lectrodes
The &elding electrodes used for 3'$0 process is mostly
consumable electrodes. +onsumable electrode means the electrode is melted during
&elding and become a part of the deposited &eld metal. *on>consumable electrode
means the electrode used only to produce arc but not melted to become a part of the &eld
material.
$s &e explained earlier the machine required for 3'$0 plays
the ma)or role in 3'$0. The s!etch indicates the details of an electrode used in 3'$0.
These electrodes are called coated electrode.
The coated electrode sho&n in the s!etch is having a core &ire
inside and normally coated &ith a non>metallic po&der, sometimes contains iron po&der
also. This coating is !no&n as D:lux/, &hich &ill become a blan!et around the molten
metal after &elding.
The si5e of coated electrodes is specified &ith the core &ire
diameter and the core &ire length. $s per $03 classification the electrode diameter is
specified in inches and converted in Dmm/. The most commonly used si5es are given
belo&.
". "., mm.
#. # mm.
2. #.4 mm.
4. 2.", mm.
,. 4 mm.
A. 4.L mm.
K. A.2, mm.
The length is also !no&n in inches or in mm.#,-mm, 2--mm,
2,-mm and 4--mm are the common lengths available.
)1.+ U'e Of FluF In Coate& In Coate& Ele/tro&e
The main classification of coated electrode is based on the type of flux
coating. There are a lot of intentions for the flux coating of electrodes. The important
uses are listed belo&.
". The flux protects the molten metal from direct contact &ith air and
subsequent oxidation.
#. 9uring &elding the flux produces specific fumes, &hich !eep a&ay the
moisture around the &eld location.
2. The flux become a blan!et to the molten pool and allo&s slo& cooling.
4. :lux gives a stable arc during &elding by providing additional heat.
,. =xtra elements to improve the &eld material quality can be included in
flux coating.
)F+ Car-on Steel Ele/tro&e For S"A! )A!S A 4.1+ )AS"E SFA 4.1+
+arbon steel materials are successfully &elded &ith 3'$0
process. $s per $03 classification all carbon steel electrodes are classified under J$03
a ,.", $3'= 3:$ ,."B. 0e can refer $3'= 3ection II part + for more details of this
4A
electrode classification ($3'= 3ection II 1art + 3:$ ,." is the equivalent classification.
The electrodes are identified &ith a D4/ digital number &ith prefix D=/ as indicated belo&.
The electrodes used for carbon steel &elding &ith 3'$0
process can classified into t&o series A-,---psi, and K-,---psi. The basic difference
bet&een these t&o series is the tensile strength, &hich obtained &hen using the core &ire.
Cut all other properties such as penetrating po&er, &elding positions style of metal
deposit, electrical characteristics etc are fully depend upon the flux quality. The
electrodes are classified under A- series and K- series are explained here under.
". E5 6>1> ELECTRODES
This electrode is also !no&n a deep penetration electrode. A-"-
are pin! in colour. The flux material is containing high amount of cellulose. 9ue to this
reason it is !no&n as Dcelluloid electrode/. The core &ire is mild steel &ith tensile value
A-,---. 9uring &elding this electrode produce high amount of fumes &ith spray
character, &hich help the molten metal, penetrate through the narro& cavities.
The commonly used electrode for butt>&elded pipe of carbon
steel is =>A-"- electrode. The flux coating is thin and the general polarity is electrode
positive. =lectrode is suitable for all position &elding and recommended for root pass
&elding.
#. E56>11 ELECTRODES
These electrodes are also cellulose electrodes (high cellulose
potassium and almost similar to A-"- electrodes but the basic difference is that these
electrodes are suitable for $+ machines also.
2. E56>1 ELECTRODES )High Titaniu( So&iu(+
These electrodes are also suitable for $+ applications. The penetrating
po&er is very less and the flux is high dense. A-"- electrodes are not commonly used for
butt>&elding.
4. E56>1# ELECTRODES )High Titaniu( Pota''iu(+
These electrodes are the cheapest electrodes but mostly used for structural
applications. It is not suitable for butt &eld and maximum application is for structural
fillets. These electrodes are suitable for alternating current, 9+ electrode positive and
also for 9+ electrode negative. Fery easy melting fluid slag is the plus point of this
electrode and semis!illed &elder can perform good appearance for the &eld bead.
,. OTHER ELECTRODES IN 6> SERIES
There are some more electrodes available in A- series. These
electrodes are not commonly used in the oil field and related industries. The belo&
mentioned electrodes are in A- series.
=>A-"H
=>A-#-
=>A-##
=>A-#K
=>A-"H electrode is similar to =>A-"2 and suitable for $+,
9+ negative. It is not a common electrode used in the oil field and related industries. =>
A-#- electrodes are similar to =>A-"- in all qualities except that it is not suitable for all
position &elding. =>A-## is different from =>A-"# regarding the &elding position. =>
A-#K is having high percentage of iron po&der and the &eld deposit is too high. :or more
information refer 3:$ ,." or $3'= 3ection II part + ($03 $ ,.".
4K
A. LO! H1DROGEN ELECTRODE
There are some !inds of electrodes used for 3'$0, !no&n as
Dlo& hydrogen electrodes/. $s &e understand the entrapment of hydrogen ion in the base
material or in the &eld material cause hydrogen induced crac!. In normal electrode the
flux is made out of organic chemicals, &hich contain high amount of hydrogen.
7o& hydrogen electrodes are special electrodes to minimi5e the
hydrogen content. The electrode flux contains inorganic materials &ith minimum content
of moisture and hydrogen.
The lo& hydrogen electrodes are al&ays !ept at high temperature
because it has the tendency of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. The lo&
hydrogen electrode is ta!en from the pac!ets and !ept in the oven for preheating. It
should be ba!ed at approximately 2--Y+ for one hour and maintained a temperature
bet&een ",-Y+>#,-Y+. electrodes ta!en out from the oven shall be used immediately or
!ept in the portable oven to avoid moisture captured. The follo&ing are the most
commonly used lo& hydrogen electrodes for carbon steel &elding.
=>K-",
=>K-"A
=>K-"L
=>K-#L
=>K-4L
$mong the above lo& hydrogen electrode proper selection shall
be made for the suitable application. => K-", is an all position>&elding electrode, K---->
psi tensile strength and the coating is lo& hydrogen material. It is commonly used &ith
9+ electrode positive polarity. It is suitable for medium and heavy plates, pressure
vessel, storage tan! etc.. The tendency of crac! is comparatively less (manufacturer>
$dvani Oerlicon, 9?H, %a)aratna and 1hilips.
= K-"A electrodes are also lo& hydrogen electrode. It is a
medium penetrating electrode. These electrodes are suitable for good quality tubular
structure, shipbuilding etc.
=>K-"L is the most commonly used electrode in the oil field and
related industries as carbon steel lo& hydrogen electrode. It is suitable for all position
&elding specifically used for pipe &elding, pressure vessels and storage tan!s. In the case
of full penetration pipe &elding =>A-"- electrode is used for root pass &elding &ith a
combination of =>K-"L electrode for fill up and capping. 9+ electrode positive is the
suitable polarity.
=>K-"L>", =>K-",>" etc are lo& hydrogen electrode suitable for
impact resistance at lo&er temperature. =>K-"L is a modified electrode of =>K-"L that has
a good percentage of iron po&der content.
K. OTHER ELECTRODES IN 7> SERIES
The electrodes classified under K- series other than lo& hydrogen
electrodes are listed belo&. The electrodes are generally used for structural &elding and
also suitable for butt>&elding.
=>K-"4
=>K-#4
=>K-#K
L. CONCLUSION )Car-on Steel Ele/tro&e' For S"A!+
4L
1. +3 electrode for 3'$0 is specified &ith letter = follo&ed &ith a four digital
number. The $3'= 3ection II 1art +, 3:$ ,." or $03 $ ,." is the
specification. The first t&o digits indicate the tensile strength in !si. The 2
rd
digit indicates the &elding position. :or example D"/ indicates that the electrode
is suitable for all position &eld, D#/ indicates that the electrode is suitable only
for flat and hori5ontal. The last t&o digits together specify the flux, quality,
current and &eldability.
. Casically these electrodes are available either &ith A-,---psi (A-" series or
&ith K-,---psi (K-series tensile strength.
#. $ccording to the flux category, deep penetration electrode, lo& hydrogen
electrode, structural steel electrodes etc are the classification.
(( LO! ALLO1 STEEL ELECTRODE FOR S"A!
0e have learned from construction materials that lo& alloy steel is one
!ind of steel, in &hich a single alloying element such as 'olybdenum, +r, *i etc are
included from -.,. to "-.,.. It is a good experience for a &elding engineer to select
suitable &elding electrode for the base material according to the chemical mechanical
&eldable properties. In 3'$0 large varieties of electrodes are available for the lo&
alloy steel. These electrodes are classified and identified in such a &ay that all people
&ho deal &ith the &elding can easily identified.
The identification system used for lo& alloy steel electrode for
3'$0 is almost similar to the carbon steel electrode identification.
The classification of lo& alloy steel electrode is based on t&o
categories. The first classification is based on the type of covering &hich is similar to the
carbon steel electrode.
=g"@ =>K-"->6 is a lo& alloy steel electrode and it is clear that tensile strength is
K-,---psi, " means all position &elding. High cellulose sodium is the type of covering
&hich is exactly same as =>A-"- electrode.
=g#@ =>L-"L>6 electrode is having a tensile strength of L-,---psi &ith all position
&elding and lo& hydrogen coating. In this eg, the last t&o digits ("L is exactly same
classification of =>K-"L.
The next category of classification of lo& alloy steel electrode is
based on the type of alloying elements in the core &ire, &hich &ill give the required
physical properties. The follo&ing eg clarify the same.
=g"@ =>K-"->$" (the alloying element is molybdenum and the electrode is classified
under +arbon>'olybdenum steel electrode.
=g#@ =>L-"->C" (in this category letter C indicates that the alloying element is +r and
'o
The classification of lo& alloy steel electrode based on the
chemical properties as per $3'= 3ection II part + is listed belo&.
". +arbon 'olybdenum 3teel electrode ($
#. +hromium 'olybdenum 3teel =lectrode (C
2. *ic!el 3teel =lectrode (+
4. 'anganese 'olybdenum 3teel =lectrode (9
4H
,. (enerally 7o& $lloy 3teel =lectrode ((
:or more details ref 3:$ ,.,
Other than the above category fe& electrodes are classified under
is rarely used type of &elding electrodes.
=g@ =>L-"L *' R*i>'o steel electrodeS, =>K-"->1" Rpipe line electrodeS, = K-"L>
0" R&eathering steel electrodeS.
". CONCLUSION
1. The lo& alloy steel electrode for 3'$0 is classified under $3'= 3ection II part
+ division 3:$,., or $03 standard; $03 $ ,.,.
. The classification system for the coating material &elding position, current
polarity etc is exactly same li!e carbon steel. The chemical and physical
properties of the core &ire are different from carbon steel core &ire.
#. $ccording to the alloying element in the core &ire it is classified into A or K
categories and each category is identified &ith a suffix letter after the four digital
numbers. 3uffix letter $ means +>'o steel; C means +r>'o and ( means general
steel electrodes. Other than that suffix letter *' means *i, 'o steel, 1 means
pipeline electrode, 0 means &eathering electrode.
$. In each classification &ith the suffix letters according to the percentage of
alloying element it is subdivided such as C", C#, and C2. The variation of
alloying element is bet&een -.,.>"-.,..
=g@ C" is having -.,. +r, C2 is having up to #., CA is having maximum
A., CK is having maximum L. and CL ? CH &ith a maximum of "-.,..
3:$ ,., clearly indicates the type of coating (flux is on table and percentage of alloying
element in another table for all materials specified under lo& alloy steel electrodes for
3'$0.
)H+ STAINLESS STEEL ELECTRODES FOR S"A! )SFA 4.$+
$3'= section II 1art + 3:$ ,.4 is the specification for stainless
steel, coated electrodes (3'$0. These electrode loo! li!e the carbon steel or lo& alloy
steel electrode except the core &ire. The core &ire is made out of stainless steel. 9ifferent
!inds of stainless steel electrodes are available to suit the various types stainless steel
such type 2-4, 2"A li!e that. 3'$0 is successfully used for stainless steel &elding.
3pecial s!ill is required for &elder to &eld stainless steel &ith 3'$0 due to these
special characteristics during melting and solidification. The system of classification of
electrode is almost similar to +3 electrodes, but instead of a four>digit number +3, 33
electrodes are classified &ith a three>digit number after letter D=/. The system is clearly
indicated belo&.
$ccording to the above classification system letter D:/ indicate
electrode after that a three digit number appear to indicate the chemistry of the core &ire
such as 2-L, 2-H etc. $fter the three digital number sometimes a single digit D6/
indicated if there is any special elements for eg, letter D7/ indicate lo& carbon, DH/
indicate high carbon, D*/ indicate nitrogen, D+b/ indicate columbium etc. This digit &ill
not be indicated in the system if the special element is not there as sho&n above. The last
t&o digits indicate the flux details, &hich are also !no&n as Jusability designationB.
,-
%egarding the usability there are only five categories that is indicated belo& and
explained later.
=>666>6>",
=>666>6>"A
=>666>6>"K
=>666>6>#,
=>666>6>#A
3ome of the commonly used stainless steel electrodes are
detailed belo&. These electrodes are coming under 2-- series, &hich means D$ustenite
3tainless 3teelB (2-->series Rpipe, plate, valve, flange etcS.
". N,515E5#>A53533@ These electrodes are generally used for &elding D2-4/
materials. The normal chemical composition is "H. +r and "-. nic!el. 1lain
electrodes of =>2-L is generally used but modified items li!e 2-L7, 2-LHmo,
2-L'o7 etc are also available. :or more details refer 3:$ ,.4.
#. E5#>?G3533@ $s explained earlier type 2-Helectrodes are suitable for &elding
stainless steel plates or pipes directly &ith carbon steel ('aterials of type 2-4
generally used for &elding &ith +3 using 2-H electrode. =>2-H7, =>2-H+b, =>
2-H'o etc are also suitable for &elding +3 plates directly to type 2"A stainless
steel. The nominal composition of =>2-H electrode is #2.,. +r and "2. *i.
2. E5#1>53533@ These electrodes are &ith nominal composition of #A.,. +r and
#". *i, suitable for &elding the base material of same composition. =>2"-H, =>
2"-+b, =>2"-'o are also coming under this category electrode.
4. E5#1533@ It is another !ind of stainless steel electrode &ith a nominal
composition of 2-. +r and H. *i. These electrodes are suitable for &elding
stainless steel component directly &ith dissimilar metal especially &ith nic!el
content.
,. E5#1653533@ These are the electrodes for &elding 2"A stainless steel. =>2"A7
and =>2"AH are also coming under this family.
Other than the above electrode =>2"K, =>2"K7, =>2"L, =>2#-, =>
22-, =>2#-, =>24K, =>2L2 and =>2L, are also coming under austenitic stainless
steel electrode
(" CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRODE AS PER USA,ILIT1 )FluF+
The last t&o digits of the electrode classification of 33 is
!no&n as usability classification &hich include the &elding position flux chemistry,
electrical characteristics (polarity etc. $s explained earlier only , categories of usability
is specified on stainless steel electrode.
". E533353514@ This category electrode are available at a maximum si5e of 4mm,
9+ electrode positive &elding can be used.
#. E533353516@ These electrodes are more stable because of the percentage of
potassium to produce the ioni5ing elements and can be used for $+ &elding also.
2. E533353517H These electrodes are provided &ith silica po&der in the flux. These
electrodes are suitable for 9+ electrodes positive or $+ &elding.
The usability code #, and #A are similar to code ", and "A but not similar for
all position &elding. The reason is that it requires high amperage for &elding than
the same diameter of electrodes of flux ", and "A.
,"
(# CONCLUSION
". 3tainless 3teel &elding electrodes are classified &ith a 2>digital number to
indicate the chemistry of the core &ire. The flux indication also made &ith a #>
digit number after that.
#. $ll details of the specified stainless steel electrode for 3'$0 are available from
3:$ ,.4.
)I+ OTHER COATED ELECTRODE FOR S"A!
'aterials li!e *i>steel, $l alloys, +u and +u alloys, +ast iron etc can be &elded &ith
coated electrodes using 3'$0 process. It is better to have a general idea about such
electrodes.
". *i> steel electrodes
*i>steel electrodes are available &ith core &ire suitable for the base
material in chemistry as &ell as physical properties on such electrodes the flux is
made suitable material, to protect the molten pool and arc stability. The identification
systems for *i>3teel electrodes are simply &ritten &ith the short form of core &ire.
=.g.@ > =>*i or :e>".
There is no information regarding the flux in the above indication. 'ore
information regarding *i>3teel electrodes is available from $3'= section II 1art
+.,."" (or $03 ,.""
#. $l and $l $lloy electrodes
$l and $l alloy is a nonferrous material and have no question of the
oxidation of the molten pool. Case electrodes as &ell as coated electrodes are
available. The identification system is simply &ith the percentage of $l or the alloy
material &ritten &ith the letter =.
=.g.@ > =>$l #-22R#-#2 is the alloys or $l grade nameS more information regarding $l
electrode in specified in J$3'= 3ection II part + 3:$ ,.2B
2. +opper and +opper alloy electrode.
It is also used item &ith 3'$0. The electrodes are classified &ith simple
letters of the alloys (=>+u$l>2. 'ore information is available in $3'= 3ection II
1art +. 3:$ ,.A ? ,.K ($03 $ ,.A ? ,.K
)C+ GENERAL TER"S USED IN !ELDING )No(en/lature+
".,a/: /hi% an& Re !el&
0hen &elding a longitudinal )oint or a circular )oint for a
pressure vessel, the &elding is completed from one side (Ceveled 3ide. The root area of
the )oint &ill have irregularities such as incomplete fusion, incomplete penetration,
undercut, excess penetration and such other defects. To ma!e the &eld )oint strong and
sound the root portion is gauged &ith gas gauging torch or ground &ith a hand>grinding
&heel. 0hen it is ensured that all irregularities are removed from the root re>&elding
,#
&ith one or t&o pass is carried out as indicated in the s!etch above. This activity is
!no&n bac! chipping and re>&elding (%ef :ig ,2
In the case of pipe )oint bac! chipping and re>&elding is
not possible. That is the reason special electrodes &ith deep penetrating ability (=>A-"-,
=>K-"- is used to root pass &elding of pipe )oints.
#. ,a/:ing Stri%
Cac!ing strip is a rectangular metallic piece !ept belo& the
root opening of a butt &eld )oint. This is generally made to avoid the ris! of root &elding.
3ome other )oints are provided &ith bac!ing strip because the base metal thic!ness is
comparatively less. Cac!ing strip can be provided for the )oints. 0hen the )oint has extra
root gap. :igure ,4 sho&s the bac!ing strip details.
In most of the case bac!ing strip material is the same
material or similar to the base metal and the bac!ing strip &ill become a permanent part
of the ob)ect or item. In piping bac!ing strip is not used due to the follo&ing reasons.
". It may obstruct the internal flo&.
#. It is difficult to insert bac!ing strip in piping.
#.Effe/t Of A(%erage In !el&ing
a &elding engineer shall be able to select the correct
amperage for the &elding electrode as &ell as the base material. $ccording to the
electrode si5e (diameter the amperage varied. The approximate amperage recommended
for carbon steel electrodes &ith 9+ machines is given belo&
=7=+T%O9= 3II= (mm %=+O''=*9=9 $'1=%$(=
#., K->"--
2.", "-->"4-
4 "2->"L-
4.L "A->#,-
This ampere variation depends on the follo&ing points.
". The manufacturer of the electrode.
#. Type of &elding machine ($+, 9+
2. 1olarity Esed
4. 0elding position
,. 0elders s!ill
$ &elding engineer can analy5e the amperage used for
&elding. If the amperage is too lo& or too high, it can be identified from the &eld bead.
If the &elder uses lesser amperage than recommended, the
metal deposit is in globular form &ith out proper melting at the edges. It may cause
incomplete fusion, incomplete penetration and interruption in &eld bead.
0hen the amperage is too high than recommended the
&eld deposit is too shallo& it may cause burn through at the root or under cut at the
capping. Over melting and sudden shrin!age due to high amperage cause &eld crac!. 7ot
of spatters appears at both side of &eld bead.
,2
4. Effe/t Of TraDel S%ee&
It is necessary for a &elding engineer to chec! the travel
speed of &elding to control the heat input per area. Travel speed means the movement of
electrode in inch per minute or mm per minute. If the travel speed is too lo& the input is
too high &hich may change the grain formation and cause crac!.
,. Polarit<
1olarity is one of the terms used &hen &elding &ith 9+
&elding machine. In 9+ &ielding machine one terminal is positive and the other is
negative. It is understood that electrons passes to the positive pole from negative pole and
the equal amount of ions passing in the reverse direction. 0hen the positive pole
connected to the electrode holder (torch and negative pole connected to the &or! piece
to be &elded, AA. of the total heat is developed at the electrode tip and 22. of the heat
is generated at the &or! piece. This situation is !no&n as straight polarity in Indian
standard and reverse polarity in $merican standard. 0hen the terminals are reversed,
heat generation is also reversed. In order to avoid confusion in specifying the terms
straight and reverse polarities is better to use electrode positive or electrode negative.
'ost of the electrodes are designed for electrode positive, some of the electrodes are only
suitable for electrode negative polarity. The preferable polarity of electrode is specified in
the related 3:$ specifications.
(B+ !ELD DEFECTS
The &eld defects and its measurement is one of the chief
responsibilities of the &elding engineer. There are many reasons for &eld defects. 3ome
of the most common type indicated in the s!etch.
1.In/o(%lete Penetration
This &eld defect is root defect. The root face is not melted and &eld metal
is not penetrated through the root gap. Incomplete penetration tremendously reduces the
&eld strength. There are many reasons for incomplete penetration but the improper
manipulation of electrode (in efficiency of &elder is the ma)or one. Insufficient root gap,
use of large diameter electrode lesser &elding current etc are other reasons.
. EF/e'' Penetration
It is the opposite situation of incomplete penetration. =xcess amount of
molten metal penetrated through the root gap and pro)ected inside the pipe. =xcess
1enetration may obstruct the internal flo& of the fluid inside the pipe.
2. Internal Con/aDit<
The penetrated molten metal through the root gap is suc!ed bac! due to
shrin!age. This is not a serious defect li!e incomplete penetration. There are many
reasons for a single defect.
4.In/o(%lete Fu'ion
,4
0hen &elding through narro& gap, molten metal from one side &all fills
the gre& &ith out fusing the other side of the &all. 3ome other situation molten metal of
the second bead fills over the initial bead &ith out fusing the initial bead. In most of the
situation the poor s!ill of the &elder is the cause of incomplete fusion.
4.Slag In/lu'ion
=ntrapment of molten flux for any non>metallic materials bet&een the
&eld beads cause slag inclusion. Improper interpass cleaning, poor manipulation of
ele/tro&e'E 8el&ing 8ith lo8 a(%ere et/ i' rea'on' for 'lag in/lu'ion.
6. Poro'it<
=ntrapment of gas poc!ets in &eld bead is !no&n as porosity. 'oisture
content in electrode, &elding at moist &eather, improper manipulation of electrode etc
are reasons for porosity. 1orosity may occur in various forms such as single porosity,
cluster porosity, &orm hole (piping etc.
K. ,urn Through
The molten puddle of root &eld drops through the root gap leaving a hole
at root is !no&n as burn through. 0elding &ith high current, poor s!ill of the &elder, thin
root faces etc. are the reasons for burn through.
A.Un&er Cut
Ender cut is a &eld defect normally appears at capping. The molten parent
metal ad)acent to the capping is not filled during the during, leaving a sharp groove as
indicated in the s!etch. $t some situations under cut appears at root also, !no&n as root
under cut. 0elding &ith high current and poor s!ill of the &elder are the reasons for
undercut.
3ome of the defects are visible &ith na!ed eyes (=g. under cut on
capping. The other defects are inspected &ith *9T. %adiographic test is the most
commonly used *9T for &eld )oint inspection.
$ good &elding engineer is able to find out the nature of defects, cause of
the defect and the remedy for that &ith his practical and theoretical !no&ledge.
(7 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC !ELDING )GTA!+
(T$0 is one !ind of &elding process &ith more accuracy in &eld metal
deposit. $s the name indicates tungsten and gas is employed for this !ind &elding. The
s!etch indicates the (T$0 process. The expanded form of TI( is Tungsten Inert (as
&elding. =arlier cases only inert gas &as used for this !ind of &elding.
=xperience proves that non inert gas can be also used for this !ind of
&elding. That is the reason $03 named a general name as (T$0
(" Prin/i%le' of GTA!
$ non>consumable electrode produce arc, separate filler &ire fed to the arc
and a shielding gas, normally inert gas is supplied around the molten pool to prevent the
oxidation. The fig sho&n is a (T$0 torch, &hich also indicates the principle of (T$0.
The non>consumable electrode is a metal rod &ith high melting point. (enerally tungsten,
,,
that &ill not be melted in the heat produced bye the arc. There are a lot of advantages as
&ell as disadvantages &hen comparing to 3'$0, &hich &ill be explained later, but the
basic advantage of (T$0 &ith 3'$0 is that separate control (individual control is
possible in the case of heat input and the filler metal feeding.
(# ,a'i/ Set U% Of GTA! E9ui%(ent
In (T$0, a &elding machine is required as normal. Only dc output high
frequency machines are suitable for a successful &elding &ith (T$0 because in most of
situations electrode negative is the preferable polarity ($+ machines are also
theoretically useful, but in practical case only 9+ machines are used. Other than the
&elding machine a gas cylinder is necessary for the supply of shielding gas.
In some of the machines, especially Heavy machines &ith continuous
operations a cooling &ater circulation is necessary around the &elding torch. In such
situations a cooling &ater supply pump and circulating tubing is also a part of (T$0 set
0hen the &elder starts &elding &ith (T$0 process, the arrangements
are to be chec!ed properly. 1roper diameter of tungsten electrode shall be selected,
ad)ustment of amperage, polarity etc. shall be chec!ed, the flo& rate of the shielding gas
is to be chec!ed and proper filler &ire is to be !ept at a near axis. The flo& of gas can be
controlled &ith the gas regulator on the cylinder. 'inor ad)ustments in flo& rates are
possible &ith the !nob on the &elding torch. +are shall be ta!en to avoid touching the
tungsten tip in the molten pool &hich may cause tungsten inclusion in the &eld deposit.
$lmost all materials can be &elded &ith (T$0 process. $s far as the
economy is concerned most of the &elding engineers prefer root pass &ith (T$0 and
further passes &ith 3'$0 for pipe butt )oints especially carbon steel and lo& alloy steel.
(2 +omparison Of 3'$0 0ith (T$0
(T$0 3'$0
".+ontrol the heat input and control of
filler material is individually possible
". Heat input and metal deposit is
performed together, no individual control is
possible
#.filler material can be added only &hen
required. The melting of &eld metal can be
ensured before adding the filler metal, due
to the same &eld defects such as
incomplete groove penetration, excess
penetration, incomplete fusion etc can be
minimi5ed
#.'etal deposit from electrode ta!es place
automatically &hen the arc is produced.
0elder cannot ensure the melting of base
metal at the root because of heavy smo!e
and the flux covering. 9ue to the same
incomplete penetration may occur at the
root.
2. *o question of slag inclusion in the &eld
)oint.
2. 3lag inclusion is one of the common
defect
4. +leaning of each pass is very easy
because no flux coverage on &eld bead
4 . cleaning bet&een pass ta!e more effort,
cost and time.
,. 3hielding gas is an additional
requirement so &elding cost is high
,. &elding consumable cost less &hen
compared to (T$0 process
A. =quipment causes more A. =quipment causes cheaper
K. 0elding speed is lo& and metal deposit K. 0elding is faster and metal deposit is
,A
is lo& high.
L. %equire more s!ill because arc
stabili5ing filler metal feeding and gas
control shall be done at a time
L. %equire s!ill but comparatively less
&hen compared to (T$0
H.1ortability is less &hen field &elding is
to be carried out
H. $ccess requires only for &elding holder
to carry out field &eld
(4 3hield (as
$rgon, Helium etc are the inert gases normally used for (T$0 as shield
gas
". To protect the molten pool from oxidation. The gas around the arc !eeps a&ay the
moisture and the air.
#. It gives arc stability.
2. It allo&s the molten pool to cool slo&ly.
4. 1roper shape of the &eld bead is given by the shielding gas flo&.
,. :or deep penetration the shielding gas can be supplied &ith more quantity and
higher pressure.
*ote@ > additional elements can be included in flux of 3'$0 electrode for better quality
of &eld deposit. In (T$0 the shielding gas does not provide any additional element to
the &eld deposit.
".$%(O*
$rgon is the most commonly used inert gas for (T$0. $rgon is
monatomic inert gas &ith a molecular &eight of 4-.It al&ays gives a smooth &elding arc
and proper shape for the &eld bead. :or normal &elding the flo& rate is K to "# lt/min.
the flo& rate depends on the type of penetration of the root pass, &elding position and the
&eld deposit (fill up pass, final pass etc. the argon is produced by the separation of
liquefied air. :or commercial purpose the purity shall be maintained at a minimum of
HH.H,..
#.H=7IE'
Helium is another inert gas used in (T$0. It is comparatively light in
&eight than argon. The flo& rate of helium is "4>#4 7t/min. Helium is cheaper than argon
in cost, but consumption is much more. The purity of helium is also at a minimum of
HH.H.. Helium is also a monatomic gas and is produced from natural gas.
2. ($3 'I6TE%=
Instead of pure argon or pure helium, a gas mixture &ith +O
#,
*
#
etc are
used for (T$0 by considering the economy factor. The ratio of gas mixture ($rZ +O
#,
HeZ H etc depends on the quality of &eld.


(, 1urging Or Cac!ing (as 3upply
,K
The importance of protecting the molten pool during
&elding is clearly discussed. In (T$0 molten pool of the root pass &elding is protected
&ith shielding gas only from the &elder side. The other side (bac! side of the &eld )oint
is not protected from oxidation during (T$0. In the case of 3'$0 the slag &ill
automatically cover both the sides as indicated in the s!etch.
It is necessary to protect both the side of root pass &elding
&ith shielding gas in (T$0 to get the correct quality. 0elding of special metals such as
*i steel, duplex, 33 and other !ind of high alloys a shielding gas is supplied through the
inside part of the piece during &elding. 3hielding from bac!side of &eld )oint to protect
from oxidation can be carried out any of the follo&ing methods.
a. Cac! up purging
b. Trailing method
(A :iller 0ire $nd Tungsten =lectrode :or (T$0
The arc>producing electrode in (T$0 process is the
tungsten rod, &hich is a non>consumable electrode. The material used as filler is a
separate &ire, &ithout flux. The filler &ire stic!s are available approximately one meter
in length. 'ore detail required for the classification system separately for the electrode
(tungsten and filler &ire.
". Tungsten =lectrode (3:$ ,."#
3:$ ,."# is the specification for tungsten electrodes. =lectrodes are
available in different diameter and length.
=>0> (6>6, tungsten electrodes are identified &ith the system sho&n
above. 7etter = represents the electrode. 7etter 0 is the identification for tungsten; 6 in
the brac!et sho&s the type of alloying elements added to the tungsten if any.
In normal case a small percentage of radioactive materials such as +erium,
thorium etc added to the tungsten to increase the heat resistance and other characters. The
follo&ing are the most commonly available tungsten electrodes. To identify each type
separately a colour>coding system is follo&ed, &hich is clear from the table.
$03 *umber +olour $lloying =lement . Of $lloy
=01 (reen > >
=0ce># Orange +erium (+eO# #
=0la>" Clac! 7anthanum (7a#O2 "
=0th>" Pello& Thorium (ThO# "
=0th># %ed Thorium (ThO# #
=05r>" Cro&n Iirconium (IrO# "
=0( (ray *ot 3pecified >
Tungsten electrodes are available from -.#,mm to A.4mm
in diameter as per the above standard. Ho& ever in the oilfield and refineries &e use the
range bet&een J".Amm V 2.#mmB. 7ength is normally #--mm for stic! electrodes.
*ote@ The $03 has recently banned the use of all !ind of radio active materials alloyed
in tungsten. 9ue to this reason no electrodes other than =01 is to be used (=01 means
,L
plane tungsten electrode. %eason for the ban is that the &elder may have the effect of
radiations &hen the radiated electrodes are continuously used.
#. :iller 0ire +lassification
The classification of the filler &ire for (T$0 is almost same manner of
the 3'$0 classification. (T$0 is suitable for &elding almost all type of metals such
as carbon steel, lo& alloy stainless steel, stainless steel, nic!el steel ? alloy and non
ferrous materials such as +u, $l, In etc. $ccordingly the filler &ires are also classified
based on the base material chemistry.
a. +3 :iller 0ire :or (T$0 (3:$ ,."L
The filler &ire used for (T$0 shall be basically +arbon
3teel and most of the available filler &ire is the K- 3eries item. =% is the prefix given for
filler &ire in general.
=% indicates either electrode or filler &ire. In the case of
(T$0 =% indicates :iller &ire only because it is not producing any arc. In case of
('$0 =% means electrode basically the same filler &ire in (T$0 but produce arc.
=%>K-3># R=%>663> (6S@ it is the representation for +3 filler &ire for (T$0
=%> filler &ire
K-> Tensile 3trength (K-,--- psi
3> solid &ire
#> (eneral specification for usability
In fact there is no other <uality filler &ire in +3 material
&ith (T$0 (Oil :ield 3ervices. 3:$ ,."L is the specification for filler &ire, for +3
material &ith (T$0.
b. 7o& $lloy 0ire :or (T$0 (3:$ ,.#L
:iller &ire used for &elding lo& alloy steel is classified
according to the chemical composition and physical properties of the base material. The
classifications are exactly same per 3'$0 electrodes.
". +arbon>'o 3teel :iller 0ire (=%>K-3>$"
#. +r>'o 3teel :iller 0ire (=% L-3>C", C#, C2,N
2. *i> 3teel filler &ire (=% L-3>+", +#, etc
4. 'n>'o 3teel :iller 0ire
,. (eneral 3teel :iller 0ire (=% L-3 >(
D3:$ ,.#L/ is the specification for filler &ire for lo& alloy steel metal.
c. 3tainless 3teel :iller 0ire :or (T$0 (3:$ ,.H
The stainless steel filler &ire for (T$0 is exactly same as
stainless steel electrodes for 3'$0.
=g@ =% 2-L 7, =% 2"A, =% 2-H +b.
d. :iller 0ire :or Other 'etals
'etals li!e *i steel, +ast iron, +u, $l etc also can be
successfully &elded &ith (T$0. :iller &ires are available in the same manner and
,H
specified in the use of 3'$0. In other &ords the *i steel, $l, +u, etc can &eld &ith
better quality then 3'$0.
(' ($3 '=T$7 $%+ 0=79I*( (('$0
The ('$0 is one of !ind of &elding process that has mixed advantage
of 3'$0 as &ell as (T$0. The general set up is sho&n in the s!etch. $ gas supply,
normally inert gas or +O
#
is fed to the &elding gun. The electric po&er supply from a
suitable &elding machine is also connected to the gun. $ separate &ire feeding system
for a continuous arc production is also connected to the gun.
The fed &ire of the filler metal passed through the gun and positioned at
the mouth, &hich is capable of producing the arc. The gas supply protects the molten
pool from the atmosphere and also stabili5es the smooth etc.
The &elding gun is comparatively heavier &hich is having a start and stop
&hich to control the &ire feed. 3ome of the guns have control !nob for the gas supply. In
this case a semi s!illed &elder can produce comparatively good quality &eld &ith higher
production rate
The gas and arc equilibrium conditions are to be maintained properly
because the &eld stability depends on speed and gas supply. $s per figure ,L, the
electrode is continuous and there is no need of changing the electrode. Casically the filler
&ire for (T$0 and the electrodes for ('$0 are same. Cut the earlier one is in the
form of a stic! ("m length and the later one is on the form of a coil (roll, feed &ith the
help of &ire feeding mechanism.
('$0 process is very fast &hen comparing to (T$0 and 3'$0
because no need of changing the filler &ire or electrode frequently. The quality of
('$0 is comparatively lesser than (T$0. ('$0 not successfully used for but
&elding application, especially for root &elding. It is most &idely used for structural steel
&elding.
('$0 can be applied as either semiautomatic &elding or manual
&elding (both 3'$0 and (T$0 are purely manual &elding. It is cheaper &hen
comparing 3'$0 and (T$0 and less s!ill is required for performance.
*ote@ > The $03 and some of the private organi5ation continue research in ('$0 to
obtain good quality butt &eld )oints li!e the (T$0 and faster ? cheaper li!e 3'$0.
(* 3EC'=%(= $%+ 0=79I*( (3$0
3$0 is one of the common methods used for quality
&elding at high speed. The &elding machine and &elding arrangements are designed to
suit the si5e and shape the material to be &elded. The main difference &hen comparing
the other common process is that a separate flux (granular loose flux is surrounded the
arc !eeping the arc production at submerged position. :igure A- indicates the details.
3$0 can be carried out &ithout eye protection for the &elding operator because the arc
is submerged in the loose flux and visible outside. 3$0 is generally considered as a semi
automatic &elding because both the &ire feeding and &or! piece movement is motori5ed.
In normal case the electrode and the flux arrangement are
bounded on a structure, &hich can be moved left, right, for&ard, bac!&ard, up and do&n.
A-
It is economical for large quantity &or! at proper areas such as longitudinal seams and
circular seams of a pressure vessel or )oining of t&o plates etc. $ schematic arrangement
of &elding circular seam of a pressure is sho&n belo&. 3$0 is generally carried out for
identical )obs. 'ost of the pressure vessel manufacturing companies is &ell equipped
&ith 3$0 arrangements. The advantages and disadvantages of 3$0 are listed belo&.
". $dvantages@
If all point is completed large diameter shells or long distance &elding can
be completed &ith a small amount of time at a high speed of &elding and high deposit
rate. =g@ 1ressure vessel seam &elding, long structural steel &elding.
#. 9isadvantages@
a. The &elding can be carried out only if the si5e and shape of the ob)ect is
suitable for 3$0.
b. It ta!es considerable time for the )ob setup at the initial time.
c. =quipment cost is too high and consumes large area.
d. =quipment is not portable so site &elding is not possible.
e. %oot &elding is not successfully carried for butt>&elding. =ither the root
pass is to be completed &ith some other process or a bac!ing strip shall be
provided (in spiral &elded pipes 3$0 is successfully used for root
&elding &ith out bac!ing strip.
f. 0elding can be performed only at flat positions.
g. $ny misalignment in setting cause &elding through &rong location.
h. $ny discontinuity started at any point may be continued on the entire &eld
area.
(O :7E6 +O%=9 $%+ 0=79I*( (:+$0
The :+$0 is a similar process of &elding of 3'$0, but there is a basic
difference in electrode design. The flux is filled inside the electrode as indicated above.
This process is capable of ma!ing high amount of metal deposit &ith proper melting of
electrode. In oil field and refineries the :+$0 is very rarely used. :+$0 electrodes are
available as thic! electrodes or coiled (rolls. The stic! type electrodes are suitable for
&elding )oints li!e 3'$0 process. 0hereas coiled type electrodes are suitable for
('$0 type &elding. =ither &ith an external shielding gas supply or &ithout shielding
gas supply :+$0 can be performed &hen &elding &ith coiled electrodes.
<uality of :+$0 cannot be compared &ith 3'$0 or (T$0. 3ufficient
exhaust fans are to be provided at &or! spot because heavy smo!e is produced during
&elding. This process is not suitable for pipe &elding and pressure vessel &elding at site.
(1 1O3T 0=79 H=$T T%=$T'=*T (10HT
9ue to the cold &or! and hot &or! at the &eld )oint a big amount of
internal stress are developed there. 0elding is such an activity that the material is melted
instantly &ith high amount of heat input at a local area. 9ue to this sudden heating and
cooling at a particular area of a metal component the molten metal solidifies &ith high
amount of stress. 0hen )oining t&o metals at a small area there is a tendency of pulling
the metal to&ards the )oint during solidification.
0hen a high amount of stress developed in the &eld )oint, it may cause
crac! or inter granular corrosion, delayed stress problems etc or &ea!ening the )oint
A"
&hen sub)ected to external load or internal pressure. It is necessary to eliminate such
local stresses from the &eld )oint. 3tress relieving is one !ind of heat treatment applied on
&eld )oint to eliminate the local stress. 3tress relieving is also !no&n as 10HT.
$ccording to the si5e, shape, chemistry and mechanical properties of the item stress
relieving can be carried out of the follo&ing methods.
". 7ocal stress relieving.
#. :urnace stress relieving.
2. 3tress relieving in site.
The figure indicates the local stress relieving for the &eld )oint on a pipe.
The process of 10HT is that the &eld )oint and the heat>affected 5one (H$I are heated
at A#,
-
+ gradually from the room temperature at a rate of #--
-
+ per hr approximately. $s
per this rate of heating it ta!es approximately three hours of time to reach the maximum
heat (A#,
-
+. The &eld )oint is then !ept under heat for an hour time at A#,-+ after that
the )oint is to be gradually cooled to the room temperature at the same rate of heating that
means complete stress relieving operations ta!es Khrs of time.
To achieve the slo& heating, soa!ing and slo& cooling on &eld )oint
special arrangements are made as indicated in the s!etch. $ heating coil is spread over
the )oint and H$I. The coil is covered &ith glass &ool. The heating of the coil is done by
using a heating unit &ith electric po&er supply as indicated. The coil reaches to the red>
hot condition and it transfers the heat to the &eld )oint as &ell as H$I.
In order to ensure that necessary heat is transferred from the coil to the
&eld )oint, a thermocouple attached to the &eld )oint. $nother thermocouple is attached
to the H$I. These thermocouple leads is connected to a recorder &ith graph. The
recorder is provided &ith needles, &hich stri!e on the graph &ith printing in! according
to the temperature range. $t least every minute the needle stri!es once (one more on the
graph sheet. +ontinuous stri!ing for the gradual heating, soa!ing and cooling period the
dots of stri!e forms a curve on the graph.
$ccording to the diameter and thic!ness of the pipe it may become
necessary to ensure that the heat transfer is uniform at all locations or around the pipes.
To ensure this, more number of thermocouples is attached at equal distance as indicated
belo&. =ach thermocouple stri!e in the graph according to the temperature received on
the thermocouple. 9ue to the same a group of dots appears on the graph. To distinguish
the ma!ing of each thermocouple separate colour is given and the colour of each
thermocouple is listed.
3tress relieving is to be carried out for large pressure vessels also for their
&eld )oints. =ither local stress relieving for individual &eld )oint can be carried out or the
entire pressure vessel can be stress relived by !eeping it in large furnace.
3ome of the storage tan!s fabricated at site (in>site fabrication are to be
stress relieved at same location. Insulation is carried out externally using glass &ool.
1roper burners (oil fired or heaters li!e electric resistance heaters are used to heat the
tan! from inside. This type of heat treatment is !no&n as in site heat treatment.
(< 0=79I*( 1%O+=9E%=
A#
1rocedure means &ritten documents, &hich clearly specifies the method of
carrying out an activity. 0hen &e consider a site fabrication, erection or testing as &ell
as fabrication in a factory, a lot of &or!ers, supervisor/s, engineers and managers are
participating in the activity to complete their responsibility individually and collectively.
=ven though every person !no&s their )ob, a common thread is required bet&een them.
The s!ill, the interest, the health and method of thin!ing are varied from person to person.
=verybody should !no& the aim, time and method of completing the )ob. Their shall be
not any Dif and but/ &hen they complete the &or!. That is the reason a &ritten procedure
is prepared &hich can read and understood by all the people concerned.
=ach and every activity in a construction site or any related industries
should be thoroughly analy5ed by the concerned engineer &ith respect to the client
specification and related standards. $ detailed procedure is prepared by the concerned
engineer and is issued to the supervisors &ho really handle the )ob. The minimum
information is to be specified in a &elding procedure listed belo&.
a. 0elding process
b. Moint details
c. Case metal details
d. :iller metal details
e. 0elding position and progress
f. 1re heat
g. 10HT
h. (as
i. =lectrical characteristics
). Technique
$3'= 3ection I6 is the standard for &elding procedure qualification and
&elder qualification. *ame of the standard is J 0elding and Cra5ing <ualificationsB. $1I
""-4 is the standard for &elding of pipeline and related facilities.
(" $1I ""-4 (0=79I*( O: 1I1= 7I*= $*9 %=7$T=9 :$+I7ITI=3
$1I ""-4 is also !no&n as Jcross country pipeline standard B. The "HHH
edition of $1I ""-4 is explained in total in standards, to clarify ho& an engineer should
read, understand, interpret, evaluate and communicate &ith this specification during
construction of a cross>country pipeline.
(# $3'= 3=+TIO* I6>0=79I*( $*9 C%$II*( <E$7I:I+$TIO*
This is the basic standard accepted for &elding and bra5ing requirements
for pressure vessels specified in $3'= section FIII as &ell as process piping specified in
$3'= C 2".2. $3'= section I6 is having t&o basic sections one in the <0 section
(&elding and other in the <C section (bra5ing. $ basic idea is required for the
concerned engineer to read and understand this standard.
<0> 0=79I*(@
$3'= section I6, <0 (&elding has four articles as listed belo&
$rticle "@ 0elding (eneral requirements
$rticle #@ 0elding 1rocedure <ualification
$rticle 2@ 1erformance <ualification (0elder <ualification
A2
$rticle 4@ 0elder 9ata
a. 0elder 1rocedure <ualification
In order to understand the procedure qualification, the fundamentals of
procedure are to be explained. The fundamentals in general are listed belo&.
a." 0elding 1rocess@
There are different &elding processes used for quality &elding
requirements of the oil field construction. $lmost all processes are explained in previous
pages. 0elding process shall be selected to suit the exact requirements.
a.# Moint@
Moint means the type of gre& design. It can be single F, single E, single M,
double F, fillet etc. In some of the &elding processes type of gre& or type of )oint is an
essential variable but in some other process it is not an essential variable. In this section
the bac!ing strip is explained and the bac!ing strip &ill become an essential variable at
some situations.
a.2 Case 'etal@
0e !no& that the base metal is one of the ma)or variables in &elding
process. The s!ill required for &elding different base materials is different. $ccording to
the change of base material many other characters of procedure qualification such as
filler materials, heat treatment etc may vary. There are different base material such as
carbon steel, 7o& alloy steel (various types, stainless steel, nic!el steel, non ferrous
materials such as $l, +u, Cron5e, In etc. In $3'= section I6 according to the
&eldability the chemical and physical properties, all materials are grouped under a
system called D1/ numbering.
a.2." :errous 'etals
The ferrous metals are classified from 1" to 1"" and non>ferrous metals
are grouped under 1 no #" and above. $ general idea about a 1 numbering is given
belo&, but a &elding engineer should read the standard carefully to get more information.
1" 'aterials@ $ !ind of carbon steel is grouped under 1" materials. There is no
classification of +3 material &ith respect to strength under 1" materials.
1# 'aterials@ The material group is not explained in $3'= section I6.
12 'aterials@ It is one !ind of lo& alloy steel material &hich has alloy elements li!e
+r, 'o, *i etc at a minimum amount, that is -.,. only. 12 materials are also !no&n as
-., 'o materials because 'o is having -.,. in all 12 materials. 12 materials is having
sub group ", #, 2 li!e that.
14 'aterials@ It is another !ind of lo& alloy steel, &hich has any single alloying
elements at a maximum of ".#. (+r, 'o, Fa, *i etc are included some times, but any
such elements should not exceed ".#,..
1, 'aterials@ 1, material group is also lo& alloy steel, &hich have +r . from #.#, to
H. Other allying elements are also included in 1, material but maximum ".. The 1,
material is having different sub groups such as 1, $ (#., to 2., . of +r, 1, C (2., to H
. +r, 1, + has extra -.#,. Fa.
1A 'aterials@ 1A material is a high alloy steel &ith "2. +r. It is also !no&n as J "2
+hrome steel J. In 1A material a small . of 'o, *i, etc are added. $ccording to the
chemistry 1A material is having sub groups ", #, 2 etc.
1K 'aterials@ These are also high alloy steel &ith "K. +r, small amount of 'o,
titanium are also included in 1K material. The +r content may vary up to "L..
A4
1L 'aterials@ It is a purely stainless steel material, &hich contains all grades of
(types stainless steel. $ccording to the chemistry 1L material is having sub groups such
as ", #, 2 etc.
1H 'aterials@ 1H material is lo& alloy steel &ith nic!el content up to 4.,.. $ccording
to the chemistry variation the 1H material is having three varieties, i.e. 1H $, 1H C, 1H +.
1H $ &ith *i maximum #.,, 1H C &ith *i maximum 2.,, 1H + either &ith high
percentage of nic!el (max 4., or &ith other elements such as +r, 'o, Fa etc.
1"- 'aterials@ 1"- material is very difficult to give a clear>cut definition for 1 "-
material because neither it is purely lo& alloy steel nor it is a high alloy steel. 1"-
material grouping is having large varieties starting from 1"- $ to 1"-8.
=g@ 1"- + is purely carbon steel (+, 'n, 3i
1"- C is lo& alloy steel &ith ". +r
1"- $ is ('n> F steel.
1"- H, I, M, 8 etc are high alloy &ith more than #.,. +r 'aterials
1"" 'aterials@ it is also considered as lo& alloy steel. It has got t&o ma)or varieties,
1"" $ and 1"" C. 1"" $ is having *i as the ma)or alloy (2.>H. and 1"" C is having
small amount of alloying elements li!e nic!el, molybdenum, chromium, Fa etc at a
maximum of ".#,..
a.2.# *on>:errous 'etals
*on>ferrous metals have 1 numbering from #" on&ards.
1#" to 12- is $l and its alloys, 12">14- is +u and its alloys, 14">1,- is *i alloys, 1,"
on&ards are Ti and Ti alloys, 1A" on&ards is Iirconium and its alloys.
(2 :I77=% '$T=%I$73 (: numbering@
:iller material means the consumable part employed in &elding. In
3'$0 &elding electrodes is the filler material. In (T$0 filler &ire is the filler material
and in ('$0 and 3$0 the &ire roll is the filler material. 0e !no& the classification of
filler materials and electrodes as per $3'= 3ection II 1art + or as per $03 $ ,.-. Cut
according to the base material grouping, filler materials are grouped as : numbering.
These groupings are starting &ith :", :#, :2 li!e that. $ general idea about the :
grouping is given belo&.
". 3teel and 3teel $lloy (:">:A
#. $l and $l $lloys (:#">:#4
2. +u and +u $lloys (:2">:2K
4. *i and its alloys (:4">:4,
,. Ti and Ti alloys (:,">:A-
A. Ir and its alloys (:A"
K. Hard :acing 0eld 'etal over lay (:K" and :K#, cladding
*ote@ 'ore detail about the : numbering and the &elding electrodes, filler &ire etc
included in each :>number is available in <0>42#.
0=79 '=T$7 $*$7P3I3 *E'C=% ( $ number

0hen &e &eld a base material using a filler material or electrode. The chemistry and
physical properties of the deposited &eld metal &ill have the characters of material and
filler material. In most of the cases it is not a series criteria but &hen &elding dissimilar
A,
materials the &eld metal analysis is to be considered. In $3'= 3ection I6 &eld metal
analysis is classified under D <0 44#/ as $ numbering table. $ general idea about the
number is given belo&.
$". 'ild 3teel
$#. +arbon>'o 3teel
$2. +r>'o 3teel ( -.4 .> #.
$4. +r>'- 3teel ( #>A . +r
4. 1osition

0elding position is also one of the ma)or variable in &elding . 0elding positions are
explained as "(, #(, 2(. 4(,,(, and A( for butt &elding and ":,#:,2: and 4: for fillet
&elding. In each position the &elding s!ill is varied. $ccordingly the &elding
progression is classified as up hill and do&n hill. The &elding position is specified in the
&eld progression.
=g@> ,( up hill,2( do&n hill etc.
,.1re heat and Inter pass Temperature.
1re heating means heating of the base material prior to &elding, pre heating is carried
out for different reasons
$ To remove moisture from the &eld area.
C $n initial temperature is given for the base material to to achieve proper fusion and
avoid crac!.
Inter pass temperature means the temperature of initial pass &hen the next pass of
&elding starts. It is considered as pre heating of the deposited &eld metal before the next
pass, &elding starts.
A.Other Fariables
The other variables are 10HT ( rate of heating, rate of cooling etc., trailing gas etc.
and the flo& rate electrical characteristics ( $+, 9+, electrode positive , electrode
negative and the amperage range of ach pass . Technique ( &elding, grinding,travel
speed etc.
$3'= 3ection I6 $rticle." V 0elding general %equirements.
$s explained earlier it is the first article of part &elding in $3'= 3ection I6 . This
chapter ( article explains the general requirements in qualifying a &elding procedure as
&ell as &elder qualification test. =ach paragraph of this article is identical &ith letter <0
follo&ed by a 2 digital number of "-- series. $ll basic information required for
procedure classification as &ell as performance qualification are listed in this article.
:or =xample.
AA
". <0>"-- (eneral
#. <0>"-" 3cope
2. <0 "-# Term ? +lassification
4. <0 "-2 %esponsibility.
This paragraph tells that the responsibility of qualifying a procedure and qualifying
the &elder is either on the manufacture or the contractor.
<0>"#-.Test 1osition for (roove.
The groove &elding test position are explained separately for the plate and the pipe
&ith s!etches."(, #(, 2(,4(,,( and A( are sho&n or indicated here.
( %efer <0 4A".# or <0 AA".2 for 3!etch
<0>"2- Test position for fillet &eld.
In this paragraph the fillet &eld position ":,#:,2: and 4: are specified.
<0> "4- Types and purpose of test and examination
In this paragraph it is explained that the mechanical test and the requirement such as
tensile test, guided bend test, filled &eld test, notch toughness ( impact test etc. D<0
"4"/ explains the mechanical and <0 "4# explained the radiographic test.
<0 ",-> Tensile Test
In this paragraph the selection of the tensile test specimen based on the thic!ness and
the diameter of the test piece is explained. D<0 4-# ? 4A2 explains the mar!ing of
tensile test specimen from a plate or a pipe &ith s!etch.
$fter selecting, cutting, machining ? testing of tensile specimen the test result is to
be evaluated as per the acceptance criteria specified in <0 ",2.
<0 ",2> $cceptance criteria, Tension test
in order to pass the tensile test specimen it should have a strength that is not less than
(a The specified minimum tensile strength of the base metal.
(b The specified minimum tensile strength of the &ea!er of the
t&o, if the base metal of different minimum tensile strength is
used.
(c The specified minimum tensile strength of the &eld metal
&hen the applicable section provide for the &eld metal having
lo&er room temperature strength than the base metal.
(d If the specimen brea!s in the base metal out side of the &eld
metal or fusion line, the test shall be accepted as meeting the
requirements, provided the strength is not more than ,. belo&
the specified minimum tensile strength of the base metal.
Cend test
AK
<0 "A- (EI9= C=*9 T=3T
In this paragraph it is explained that the requirement of bend test, the types
of bend test etc. <0 "A" tells us the type of specimen for transverse bend test (transverse
root bend ? face bend and longitudinal bend test (longitudinal root bend ? face bend.
The bend test procedure is specified in <0 "A2. The above paragraph &ill have cross>
reference regarding the test to the other paragraph for more details.
=g. <0 4AA is the detail for the test )ig.
<0 4A# gives detail about the test specimen.
The $cceptance +riteria (<0 "A2 Of Cend Test
(a 9uring bend testing it should be ensured that the &eld and H$I of the transverse
bend test, specimen shall be completely &ithin the bend portion of the specimen.
(b $fter completing the bend test the specimen shall be inspected for ensuring the
acceptance. $3'= section I6 clearly says that the bend test specimen shall have
the follo&ing requirement after testing. The specimen shall have no open defects
exceeding "/L inch (2.#mm measured in any direction on the convex surface of
the specimen after bending, except the crac!s occurring on the corner of the
specimen during testing shall not be considered, unless there is definite evidence
that they result from slag inclusion or other internal defects.
<0> "K- *otch Toughness Test
*otch toughness test is also !no&n as impact test. This can be carried out
either a F notch charpy impact test or drop &eight test. In most of the case impact test is
carried out only for lo&er temperature service. The notch toughness is one of the
supplementary tests carried out for lo&er temperature service.
$ minimum of three specimens is to be used for the test and the average
value as &ell as individual value is evaluated.
<0 "L- :illet 0eld Test
In this paragraph the test requirement for &elding procedure and &elder
qualification test are specified. <0"L# explains the fracture test, <0 "L2 the macro
examination for procedure and <0"L4 for macro examination for &elder test.
<0 "H- other Test $nd =xamination
In this paragraph the radiographic examination, the acceptance criteria, the
acceptance standard etc are specified. The &elding inspector or the <+ inspector shall
evaluate the radiographic films of the production &eld or the &elder qualification test as
per this paragraph. The discontinuities such as porosity, slag, incomplete fusion,
incomplete penetration, crac! etc are evaluated as per the acceptance criteria of the
radiographic test.
<0 "H" %adiographic =xamination
The radiographic examination in <0 "4# for &elders and
in <0 "42 for &elding operators shall meet the technique requirement of $rticle II
section F except as given in <0 "H"." and the acceptance standard of <0 "H".#.
<0"H"." final acceptance of radiograph shall be based on
the ability to see the prescribed quality of the radiograph as per the article II of section F.
AL
<0 "H".# %adiographic $cceptance +riteria.
7inear Indications@
+rac!, incomplete fusion, incomplete penetration and slag represented on
the radiograph as linear indications in &hich the length is more than three times the
&idth.
%ounded Indications@
1orosity, burn through, internal concavity and indications of slag or
tungsten arc represented on the radiograph as round indication in &hich length is less
than three times the &idth.
$cceptance 3tandard
0elder and &elding operator performance test by radiography of the &eld is )udged
as unacceptable &hen the imperfection (defects in excess of the limit specified belo&.
$. 7inear Indications
". $ny type of crac! or 5one of incomplete fusion or penetration.
#. $ny elongated slag inclusions &hich has a length greater than,
a. "/L inch (2.# mm for thic!ness up to 2/L inch ("- mm inclusive
b. "/2 t (thic!ness for Dt/ over 2/L to # W inch ("->,mm inclusive
c. [ inch ("H mm for Dt/ over # W inch (,K mm
2. $ny group of slag inclusion in line &hich have an aggregate length
greater than Dt/ in the length of "# inch, except &hen the distance
bet&een the successive imperfection exceeds DA7/ &here 7 is the length
of longest imperfection in the group.
C. %ounded Indications
". The maximum permissible dimension for the rounded indication shall be
#-. of Dt/ or "/L inch (2.#mm &hich ever is smaller.
#. :or &elds in the material less than "/L inch (2.#mm in thic!ness the
maximum number of acceptable rounded indications shall not exceed "#
nos in a A inch length of &eld. 1roportionately fe& numbers of rounded
indications shall be permitted in &eld less than A>inch length.
2. :or &eld in material "/L inch (2.# mm or greater in thic!ness, the chart
in appendix " represent the maximum acceptable types of rounded
indications of clustered, assorted and random configurations.
$rticle # 0elding 1rocedure <ualifications
0elding procedure classification is the process of testing a &elding
activity &ithin the limits of the required data. The expected data to get a good result of
the required &elding is listed out is !no&n as &elding procedure qualification. $s per the
$rticle II of $3'= 3ection I6 the &elding procedure specification is defined as follo&s.
<0#-" J each manufacturer or contractor shall list the parameters
applicable to &elding that is to be performed in construction of &eld>ment built in
accordance &ith this code. These parameters shall be listed in a document !no&n as
&elding procedure specification (013B.
AH
In the 013 the data are listed in a prescribed form. The totals data are "->
inch main headings and the detailed data are listed under each main heading. The main
"->inch data are listed belo& and details are explained earlier.
". 0elding 1rocess
#. Moint 9etails
2. Case 'etal 9etails
4. :iller 'etal 9etails
,. 0eld 1osition $nd 1rogress
A. 1re>heat
K. 10HT
L. (as
H. =lectrical +haracteristics
"-. Technique
These details are listed &ith more information in a format in <04L#. The
013 is to be prepared in this format. $ccording to the data specified in 013 the base
material (plates or pipes is cut in the necessary si5e and the &elding is performed on it.
This &elding is inspected visually to ensure the procedure. The visual inspection &ill
have a general chec! to ensure the parameters specified in the 013 are properly applied
during &elding. It is to be also ensured that the root penetration, fill up and capping is
reasonably satisfied. Test sample (Test +oupon of the base metal &ith edge preparation
is indicated belo& as =g.
$fter the successful completetion of &elding exactly as per the data
specified in 013 the test coupon is mar!ed for the mechanical test such as tensile test,
bend test, impact test etc. The test specimen are cut and machined and the test carried out.
If the test values are acceptable as required this values are tabulated in another format and
!ept as record. This record is !no&n as 1rocedure <ualification %ecord (1<%.
The $3'= 3ection I6 $rticle II clearly specifies ho& to prepare the 013
and ho& to perform the procedure qualification test. $ccording to the change in the
variables such as &elding process, base material, filler &ire etc separate 013 and 1<% is
to be made. These variables are !no&n as essential variables. The production &eld is to
be carried out &ithin the ranges of parameters used in the procedure qualification. 3ome
of the minor changes required for the production &eld &ith respect to the procedure may
not be considered as serious. This !ind of changes is termed as non>essential variables.
F$%IC7= $::=+TI*( TH= 1%O+=9E%= <E$7I:I+$TIO*
$3'= section I6 is an elaborate code of &elding and bra5ing
qualification. $ll the &elding requirement for different types of fabrication such as
pressure vessel, storage tan!, boiler, high pressure and lo& pressure piping and structural
etc. are to be covered in a single standard. 9ue this reason an engineer &ho deals &ith
any !ind of the above types of &elding should be familiar &ith this standard and capable
of finding out the necessary information from the standard.
There are a lot of essential variables, supplementary essential variable and
non>essential variable in this standard. 3upplementary essential variable is the variable
generally applicable at special occasions such as lo& temperature services, 10HT etc.
Ho& To %ead The Fariables
K-
The above "- variables are affecting the &elding process in different
manner. 3ome of the variables are essential and some of them are non>essential. In order
to ma!e the selection of the variable easy, the &elding process !ept constant and the other
nine variables are evaluated based on &elding process. 9etails of each variable listed in
<0 #,2 are explained in &elding data of article 4. $pplicable variables are selected from
the &elding data as indicated in example. (%efer <0 #,2.
(<0 #,2 3'$0 Table
$ccording to the <0#,2 table the essential variable for 3'$0 is listed
out in three columns. 0e under stand that there is no essential variable indicated for )oint,
means single F, double F, single E, )oint &ith bac!ing strip, )oint &ithout bac!ing strip
and such other variable do not cause pre qualification. 0hen going through base metal,
1aragraph 4-2.L, 4-2.H, 4-2."" and 4-2."2 are the essential variable.
:or example, <0 4-2.L say that if the thic!ness of the base metal of the
production )oint exceeds the range of the range of thic!ness specified in the table <0
4," a requalification is required. 3o let us see the range of thic!ness as per <0 4,".
:rom the table <04," it is clear that there are thic!ness ranges for a
&elding procedure. $s per the "
st
column if a procedure is carried out belo& "/"A>inch
(".Amm thic!ness plate or pipe, the min thic!ness qualified is # times the thic!ness of
the specimen. To ma!e it too clear if the qualification test is carried out on "mm
thic!ness plate, production &eld can be carried out &ith min thic!ness and max thic!ness
and max ("x# mm is equal to #mm, li!e that as per second column if the procedure is
carried out on a 4mm thic!ness qualified is ".Amm ("/"A inch and max thic!ness
qualified is (4x# Lmm. <0 4-2."" is one of the variables seriously affecting the base
material &ith respect to the 1 numbers the paragraph is as follo&s.
<0 4-2.""
D $ change from a base metal listed under one 1 number to a base metal
listed under another 1 number. 0hen )oints are made bet&een t&o base metals that have
different 1 numbers, requalification is required even though the base metals have been
independently qualified using the same procedure. Ho&ever for base metals of 1 numbers
", 2, 4 ? , (of 2. max nominal +r content, a procedure qualification test &ith one 1
number shall also qualify for that p number metal &elded to each of the lo&er 1 number,
but not vice versa. :or more details refer code.
$rticle III 1erformance <ualification
In this article the requirements of &elder/&elding operator
qualification is specified. The basic data is available from the &elding procedure
qualification record. Cased on this data &elders are tested for their the ability to perform
acceptable &eld. $lmost all variable of &elder qualification are same as procedure
qualification but some of variables are different. <0 2,2 is the table of variable for
&elder qualification for 3'$0.
CHAPTER 4
DOCUMENTATION
K"
)A+ INTRODUCTION
9ocumentation means !eep record of each construction
activities completed at site. *o activity is considered as completed until the documents
signed by the authorities. To ma!e the documentation is necessary to have a general
!no&ledge about the sequence of operation and an overall out loo! of the construction
activities.
),+ CONTRACTOR
The term contractor means a company, &hich underta!es the
construction activities for a client. The contractor requires a lot of construction
equipments and manpo&er to complete a pro)ect. The technical information required for
construction is obtained for construction is obtained from the client. 3ome times all
engineering calculations, design, drafting, purchase of construction material, construction
of facility, quality control and commissioning are totally under ta!en by the contractor as
required by the client. 3uch contractor is !no&n as D=1+/ contract (=ngineering
1rocurement and +onstruction. $nother name for such contractor is 73T8 (7ump 3um
Turn 8ey contractor.
)C+ TENDER DOCU"ENT
The client prepares all technical information regarding a
pro)ect as guideline for the contractor is !no&n as tender document. Tender document
include all basic engineering dra&ings, standards and specifications regarding the pro)ect.
)D+ TENDERING S1STE"
'ost of the time large pro)ects tenders are global tenders, for
&hich, quotations shall be submitted by a company from any country. The first stage of
tender system is the pre>qualification tender. 1re>qualification means qualifying a
company for their ability to underta!e the specified pro)ect. The company submitted pre>
qualification tender should prove that they have done such pro)ects before and have
enough equipments, tools manpo&er and financial bac! up. Once the client is satisfied
that the contractor meets the above requirements they approve the contractor to submit
their for the actual &or!. This is called pre>qualification of a contractor.
+ontractor interested to submit the pre>qualification tender
shall do the same but only those &ho have passed the prequalification are eligible for
submitting the actual tender. The pre>qualified contractors are eligible to collect the
tender the tender document from the client. The contractor reads and understands the
tender document. $ccordingly they consider all necessary point and prepare the tender.
)E+ INDUSTRIAL ORGANI.ATION
Once the contract is signed for a pro)ect, the level of
involvement of the client, the consultant and the contractor to complete a )ob is different.
It is a collective responsibility for all. The contractor is real company directly involved in
construction and they require maximum manpo&er to complete a pro)ect. $ mechanical
engineer has )ob requirements &ith the client, the consultant as &ell as the contractor.
K#
The contractor may require large number of engineers. The )unior level of engineers can
&or! in different disciplines as listed belo&.
". 9esign =ngineer
#. 1lanning =ngineer
2. +onstruction =ngineer
4. :abrication =ngineer
,. 3ite =ngineer
A. 0elding =ngineer
K. 'aterial =ngineer
L. 3tore 3upervisor
H. <+ =ngineer
"-. *9T =ngineer
"". 9raftsman
"#. <uality 3urveyor
In order to handle above such )obs it is necessary to have
good !no&ledge in engineering dra&ings, construction materials, &elding engineering
and non>destructive testing in oilfield refineries and related industry.
)F+ DESIGN AND DRAFTING
$fter signing a contract the design department of an =1+
contractor starts &or!ing &ith the basic information and dra&ings available from tender
document. The basic dra&ings are developed to detailed dra&ings to distribute to the
&or!ing level technician and engineers.
)G+ PROCURE"ENT
Epon the availability of dra&ings and specification of
equipments and the construction materials, it is responsibility of the purchase the required
materials. The purchase engineer should have thorough technical !no&ledge to specify
the material description.
)H+ PURCHASE ORDER
Thousands of varieties of materials are required for the
construction of one oil production facility or refinery. =ach material has a specific
dra&ing, description and standard. =ither the client or the ma)or contractor is responsible
for purchasing each and every material required for that particular pro)ect. If the
contractor is in the =1+ system, the responsibility of the material purchase belongs to the
contractor. $ system shall be developed to purchase the material to ma!e it clear for the
purchaser and the supplier or manufacturer. The ma)or points included in a purchase
order are listed belo&.
". The si5e (length, &idth, diameter, thic!ness etc.
#. The material specification (+3, 33, $l, etc and their sub specification such as
type, grade etc.
2. 9escription of the item (1ipe, elbo&, flange etc.
4. 3tandard of manufacturing ($3T' $ "-A, I3 "#4H etc.
,. 3tandards of dimension ($*3I C "A.,, "A.H etc.
A. <uality (Total length, Total number etc.
K2
K. 3upply +ondition (Transportation by suppliers or by contractor.
L. 9elivery date (&hether the item is to be complete together or supply can be
made as part quantity if so the date and quantity for each delivery.
H. Inspection Test 1lan (IT1.
"-. +ost of the item.
The purchase engineer is responsible for the preparation of
purchase order specifications, finding out the competitive manufacturer or supplier
placing the order and follo& up the progress.
)I+ APPRO2ED 2ENDORS
=ven though purchasing of construction materials is the
responsibility of the contractor, in most of the case client insist the contractor to purchase
the construction materials from the reputed manufactures. 0ith the previous experience
the client ma!e a list of reputed manufacturers or suppliers of each item.
)C+ THIRD PART1 INSPECTION
It is the common system follo&ed in the oilfield construction
industry that the client engages an independent third party to carry out the quality chec!
or inspection of the construction activities. 3ince quality of the material is to be ensured
before purchasing, the third party inspection is involved in procurement also. 3ome of the
third party inspection agencies functioning in India are listed belo&.
". =ngineers India 7td (=I7 $ (ovt underta!ing
#. Cureau Feritas (CF
2. 7loyd %egister of Industrial 3ervices (7%I3
4. $merican Cureau of 3hipping ($C3
,. (ermanister 7loyd ((7
A. Indian register of 3hipping (I%3
The third party inspection agencies act as an independent
body bet&een the purchaser and manufacturer/supplier. They carry out the inspection as
per the purchase order and related specification and standards.
)B+ INSPECTION TEST PLAN )ITP+ or
0UALIT1 ASSURANCE PLAN )0AP+
IT1 is one of the inspection documents agreed bet&een the
manufacturer and purchaser. This document clearly specifies the inspection stages during
manufacturing of a material.
The IT1 is submitted to the manufacturer along &ith the
purchase order so that the manufacturer can prepare for inspection of the product at each
stage. The involvement of the manufacturers quality control engineer third party
inspector and the client are specified in IT1.
$ sample IT1 of a pressure vessel manufacturing is
indicated belo&.
NO A/tiDit< "anufa/turer'
0C
Thir& Part< Client
K4
" 'aterial
Inspection
0 0 %
# 'ar!ing 0 > >
2 +utting 0 > >
4 =dge
1reparation
0 > >
, 3hell %olling 0 > >
A 9ish 3pinning 0 > >
K 3hell 7ong
3eam fit up
0 0 >
L 3hell to shell
air 3eam fit up
0 0 >
H 9ish dimension
chec!
0 0 >
"- 9ish to shell
fit up
0 0 >
"" *o55le
Orientation
mar!ing
0 > >
"# *o55le fit up
inspection
0 0 >
"2 %: pad and
other items fit
up
0 % >
"4 0eld Fisual
inspection
0 % >
", *9T = % >
"A Fessel
+ompletion
%eport
% >
"K 3tress relieving = % >
"L 9ocumentation
before hydro
test
% % >
"H Hydro Test 0 0 >
0> 0itness => =valuation %> %evie&
)L+ "ATERIAL INSPECTION an& TEST CERTIFICATE
9uring manufacturing of a specific item for a construction
pro)ect, for example pipes, plates, pressure vessel, heat exchanger etc.almost all stages
are inspected by the <+ engineer of the manufacturer. 3ome of the ma)or stages are
specified in the IT1 is )ointly inspected by the third party inspector and the internal <+
engineer. 0hen all inspection and test results found satisfactory, an inspection certificate
is prepared and and signed by the manufacturer and the T1I.this test certificate indicates
purchase order number, item number, quantity, material specification, identification
mar!s, inspection results and test values
K,
)"+ INCO"ING "ATERIAL INSPECTION AT SITE
The materials ordered at various manufactures and suppliers
starts reaching at construction site after successful inspection by third party the purchase
engineer ma!es necessary follo& up for the delivery of the ordered item at site in time
.the materials engineer at site ma!es necessary inspection to ensure that the materials
reached at site are correct as per purchase order. The follo&ing stages are involved in the
incoming material inspection
".:ind out the material category
#.collet the lorry details
2.Ta!e out the purchase order copy of the incoming material from the site file
4.+hec! the item number of the purchase order, find out the identification number
mar!ed on the item and compare the same &ith the test certificate
,.+ompare the test certificate values &ith the material standard
A.+arry out the surface inspection for the damage during transportation
K.+arry out the dimensional chec!
L.+ompare the quantity received top the purchase order
H.If everything found correct the material is accepted and an inspection
report is
prepared and issued to the stress
)N+ THE SITE STORE
$ll materials accepted and released by the materials engineer is stored at the site store.
3mall items such as nut, bolt, gas!et, valves etc are !ept inside the stoc! room. Cul!
items such as pipes, plates, equipment, large valves stored at stoc! yard .all these
materials are under the control of store !eeper .the construction engineer shall issue
Jmaterial requestB to the store!eeper &hen they need any material
)O+ FA,RICATION
The site fabrication activities are classified into three
".3tructural fabrication
#.1iping
2.storage tan! fabrication
The steps for fabrication and erection are similar for all. Ho&ever the construction and
quality control steps of piping fabrication is explained here for more details.
FIT UP INSPECTION REPORT
0hen the fit up of a &eld )oint is ready for &elding, the
fabrication supervisor issues a fit up inspection request to the quality control inspector.
The quality control inspector inspects the fit up. 9uring the fit up inspection the quality
control inspector ensure the follo&ing points are correct.
The components used for fit up are inspected and released for
construction by the materials engineer during incoming material inspection.
(identification mar!s traceable on each component and the material inspection report are
comparable.
KA
The bevel, root gap, root face, alignment etc. as per the
dra&ing.
The fit up is made as per the north indication of the isometric
dra&ing.
The dimension such as diameter, thic!ness, length etc are
correct as indicated in the isometric dra&ing. 0hen the above inspection points are
acceptable, the quality control inspector prepare a fit up inspection report and the fit up is
released for &elding. If the client or the third party is involved in the fit up inspection as
per IT1, the fit up inspection report is counter signed by them.
!ELD 2ISUAL INSPECTION REPORT
$fter completing the &elding of the )oint, it is to be inspected
by the quality control inspector or &elding inspector to ensure that the &eld )oint is
uniform, smooth and free from defects li!e under cut, insufficient capping, open porosity
etc. accordingly the &eld )oint is released for *9T.
NDT REPORT
The non>destructive test required for the &eld )oint is clearly
specified in the isometric dra&ing or the concerned document. %adiographic test,
ultrasonic test, magnetic particle test, penetrant test etc are the normal *9T carried out
for &eld )oints. The quality control inspector either &itnesses the *9T during testing or
revie& the test report as specified in IT1. Once the *9T result is accepted the &eld )oint
is released for stress relieving, if the same is specified in the dra&ing or concerned
document.
STRESS RELIEVING (PWHT) REPORT
The quality inspector carry out necessary inspection during stress relieving and the
stress>relieving chart is revie&ed. Epon successful inspection the stress relieving report is
prepared. =ach and every &eld )oint are sub)ected to the inspection activities and proper
reporting (documentation is maintained during fabrication. Epon completion of the
above activities, each piping spool is stac!ed &ith a tag indicating the spool number. The
erecting group starts erection of spools as per dra&ing (1?I9, ($9 etc.
TEST PACK
The piping engineer prepares the test pac! or test loop based
on the piping system. One test pac! includes one or more number of isometrics. The test
limit is mar!ed &ith flag indication.
The isometric include is a test pac! are filed in a folder file.
KK
In order to give clearance for hydro test of the test pac!, the quality control engineer has
to chec! all supporting documents. The supporting documents for a test pac! are listed
belo&.
(" The 1?I9
The 1?I9 sheet or sheets indicate the continuity and test limits of a test
pac!. :lag mar!ing is done to indicate the test limits.
(# The Isometric 9ra&ing
Once the test limits are mar!ed in 1?I9 all isometric dra&ings related to
the test limits are attached in the test pac!. :lag mar!ing is to be done on each isometrics
to indicate the test limits of that sheet.
(# History sheet.
History sheet of each isometric dra&ing is to be prepared. $ll inspection
reports related top each isometric are summari5ed in the history sheet. Inspection reports
as supporting documents shall be attached to the history sheet. 1erforma of a summary
sheet for a isometric is indicated belo&.
*o Moint
*o
+omponents *ormal
si5e
'aterial
inspection
report
:it up
report
0eld
visual
report
*9T
result
10HT
"
#
2
4
,
1repared by@ +hec!ed by@
$pproved by@

Once the test pac!s are cleared by the <+ or responsible engineer, that
part of the piping system is released for hydro test.
PUNCH LIST
1unch list is the list of activities of rectification to be attended. The punch
list prepared by the engineer and supervisors, by physical chec!ing of the piping,
structures, storage tan!s and other construction activities at final stage. $ccording to
t,he completion of the rectification activities, it is re>inspected and the punch points
are cleared.
KL
ERECTION
=rection means installation of the fabricated item at specified
location at site. =rection of pressure vessels, heat exchangers and other static
equipment, structure, pipe spools etc are to be carried out as per specified procedures.
7arge cranes and lifting facilities required for erection and maximum safety
precaution are to be applied.
$lignment, hori5ontality, verticality, orientation, elevation
etc are to be strictly chec!ed and confirmed during erection of each item.
CORROSION
3ince the basic material of construction is steel especially
good percentage is carbon steel, it is important to thin! about the protection from
corrosion. There are different types of corrosion affecting the metal, it is clarified into
t&o ma)or parts, surface corrosion and inter granular/ stress corrosion.
". 3urface corrosion
Oxidation is the most commonly seen surface corrosion.
These types of corrosion gradually affect the material either locally or on the entire
surface. 3urface corrosion can be prevented by any of the follo&ing methods.
a. 1ainting
b. (alvani5ing
c. +athodic 1rotection
#. Inter granular stress corrosion.
This type of corrosion affects the grain structure of the metals
and result sudden failure after long time. Inter granular corrosion is not visible &ith
na!ed eyes. *arro& crac!s develop at grain boundary of the material due to many
reasons.
Hydrogen induced crac! (HI+ and sulphur stress corrosion
crac! (33++ are the most commonly affected inter granular stress corrosion.
*ational $ssociation Of +orrosion =ngineers (*$+= made
through study about all !inds of corrosion affected on material and provides remedies
for the same. 'ore information is available from standards of '%>-">H, and %1>H,.
KH