STAI NLESS

STEEL
FASTENERS
D E S I G N E R
HANDBOOK
with Directory of
Fastener Manufacturers
A SYSTEMATI C APPROACH
TO THEI R SELECTI ON
Stainless
Steel
The
Value
Option

Fasteners 3/28/00 8:25 AM Page 3

suitability for any general and specific
use. The SSINA assumes no liability
or responsibility of any kind in con-
nection with the use of this informa-
tion. The reader is advised that the
material contained herein should not
be used or relied on for any specific
or general applications without first
securing competent advice.
PREFACE/ ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 1
A SYSTEMATI C APPROACH TO STAI NLESS STEEL
FASTENER SELECTI ON 1
MANUFACTURE OF STAI NLESS STEEL FASTENERS 1
WHAT I S STAI NLESS STEEL 2
I DENTI FI CATI ON 2
STAI NLESS STEEL CHARACTERI STI CS
( CORROSI ON RESI STANCE, STRENGTH, MACHI NABI LI TY,
COLD HEADI NG QUALI TY, APPEARANCE/ AESTHETI CS) 3
STAI NLESS STEEL NO PROTECTI VE COATI NG NECESSARY 6
CHOOSI NG THE RI GHT STAI NLESS STEEL 6
TENSI LE AND YI ELD STRENGTH 7
ANCHORS 8
DESI GNI NG AND ENGI NEERI NG CONSI DERATI ONS 8
DESI GNI NG FOR OPTI MUM CORROSI ON RESI STANCE 12
HI GH TEMPERATURE SERVI CE 14
LOW TEMPERATURE SERVI CE 16
STAI NLESS STEEL PHYSI CAL PROPERTI ES 17
FASTENER MARKI NGS 18, 19
FASTENER BASI CS 20
DI RECTORY OF FASTENER
MANUFACTURERS I NSI DE BACK COVER
The Specialty Steel Industry of North
America (SSINA) and the individual
companies it represents have made
every effort to ensure that the infor-
mation presented in this handbook is
technically correct. However, neither
the SSINA nor its member companies
warrants the accuracy of the informa-
tion contained in this handbook or its
T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S

Fasteners 3/28/00 8:26 AM Page 4

1
P R E F A C E
There was a time when the periodic repair
of mechanical and electrical components
was taken for granted. Today, with labor
costs at record levels and going up,
greater consideration at the design level
is being given to the reductionor even
eliminationof maintenance.
In cases where a joint must be taken
apart and reassembled, the corrosion
resistance of the fastener is particularly
important so that corrosion will in no way
hamper or prevent its removal. The cost
of removing rusty bolts, and replacing
them with new ones, is more expensive
than using corrosion resistant fasteners to
begin with.
Other costs resulting from fastener
failure, such as downtime and lost pro-
duction, make an even stronger case for
consideration of high integrity fastener
systems.
The 300 series stainless steels offer
excellent corrosion resistance to most
freshwater environments, but their yield
strengths are low for some applications.
The 400 series stainless steels offer
high mechanical strength, but have a ten-
dency to pit and corrode in many fresh-
water systems.
The precipitation hardened stainless
steels (e.g. 17-4 PH) provide alternative
material considerations to meet both sets
of criteriastrength and corrosion resis-
tancewhile the duplex stainless steels
and super austenitic stainless steels offer
excellent solutions for handling more
aggressive environments.
Consequently, the designer needs
to consider a fastener as a system, and
regard the assembled joint as a critical and
integral portion of the design, since the
joint is normally an area under the highest
stress and often the place where failure is
most likely to occur. A designer should
start with the optimum fastener and design
the joint around that, rather than starting
with the joint and then looking for the
fastener that seems most adequate.
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T
The SSINA wishes to acknowledge that
some of the data contained in this hand-
book were originally prepared by the
committee of Stainless Steel Producers,
American Iron and Steel Institute.
A S Y S T E M A T I C
A P P R O A C H
T O S T A I N L E S S
S T E E L F A S T E N E R
S E L E C T I O N
Selecting the optimum fastener can be an
awesome task for any designer. There is
a staggering diversity of fastener types
available (over 500,000 standard items),
and for any one type there can be a large
number of sizes from which to choose.
For example, one of the smallest stan-
dard fasteners has a head of 0.01 inch
(.254mm) in diameter; the largest has a
head of 4 feet (1.219m).
Stainless steel is used extensively
throughout industry for both original
equipment manufacture as well as for
replacement. The purpose of this publica-
tion is to help designers trace an orderly
path through the fastener complexity to
arrive at a stainless steel fastener system
that best fills the need.
S T A I N L E S S S T E E L
F A S T E N E R S
The stainless steel fastener materials are
identified as the B8 class of alloys and are
identified in the ASTM Specification
A193/193M (Standard Specification for
Alloy Steel and Stainless Steel Bolting
Materials for High Temperature Service).
The corresponding nut specification is
ASTM Specification A194/194M.
ASTM Specification F593 (Standard
Specification for Stainless Steel Bolts,
Hex Cap Screws and Studs) covers the
broad range of commercial ferritic,
martensitic and precipitation hardened
grades of stainless steel, 0.25 to 1.5 inch
nominal diameter.
These specifications cover the 300
series stainless steels and high man-
ganese and high silicon austenitic
grades, all of which are essentially 18-8
(18% chromium and 8% nickel) materials,
with compositions very close to the nomi-
nal composition for Type 304. Because
they have similar corrosion resistance
properties, these 18-8 materials are often
interchanged in fastener applications. If
an application calls for Type 304, the
designer can generally specify an 18-8
(Grade 8) fastener material.
M A N U F A C T U R E O F
S T A I N L E S S S T E E L
F A S T E N E R S
While designers seldom get involved in
the manufacture of fasteners, it can be
useful to know something about the
processes involved. This can be espe-
cially true if the product requires a fas-
tener of special design, such as the many
specials illustrated in the photographs
throughout this booklet.
SYMBOL
B8/B8A
B8C/B8CA
B8M/B8MA/B8M2/B8M3
B8P/B8PA
B8N/B8NA
B8MN/B8MNA
B8MLCuN/B8MLCuNA
B8T/B8TA
B8R/B8RA
B8S/B8SA
ALLOY
Type 304
Type 347
Type 316
Type 305
Type 304N
Type 316N
6% molybdenum alloy
Type 321
Nitronic 50
Nitronic 60
Table 1 GRADE 8 FASTENER MATERI ALS
Source: Stainless Steel Industry Data
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:26 AM Page 5
There are two basic methods for pro-
ducing fastenersmachining and cold
headingboth of which are applicable to
stainless steels.
MACHINING is the oldest method of
fastener production, and it is still specified
for very large diameters and for small pro-
duction runs. Machining, however, has a
significant disadvantage, as illustrated in
Figure 1a. It disrupts metal grain flow and
creates planes of weakness in the critical
head-to-shank fillet area. The result is
some loss in load-carrying ability and a
drastic reduction in fatigue resistance.
COLD HEADING is a method of forming
wire into various shapes by causing it to
plastically flow into die and punch cavities
without preheating the material (Figure
1b). Bolts, screws, nails and rivets have
long been made by cold heading, but
recent developments in this field have
expanded the market for special
fasteners.
Cold heading has many important
advantages in both quality and economy.
Production rates, for example, can
exceed 12,000 parts per hour. Cold
heading also cold works stainless steels,
which results in significant increases in
strength for the 300 Series types.
Following heading, the blank is ready
for threading, which is frequently done by
roll threading, another cold forming tech-
nique that preserves grain flow patterns.
There are other operations involved in
fastener production, such as head slot-
ting, shank slotting (for thread-cutting
screws), head drilling, etc. But the making
of and threading the blank are the two
major processes.
The markings for stainless steel fas-
teners are defined in ASTM Specification
A193/193M. The grades of stainless
steel are also organized within classes,
1 through 2C. The grade, listed in Table 1
on page 1, and manufacturers identifica-
tion symbols can be found on the end
of the stud or bolt that indicates confor-
mance to the specification.
W H A T I S
S T A I N L E S S S T E E L
Stainless steel is a family of iron-based
alloys containing about 10.5% chromium
or more, plus other alloying elements
such as nickel, manganese, molybde-
num, sulfur, selenium, titanium, etc. (See
Table 2 on page 3.) The chromium is
chiefly responsible for corrosion and heat
resistance; the other alloying elements
are present in stainless steel to enhance
corrosion resistance and to impart certain
characteristics with respect to strength
and fabricability.
A total of 60 commercial stainless
steel types were originally recognized by
the American Iron and Steel Institute
(AISI) as standard compositions. A com-
plete listing of all stainless steels and a
description of each are contained in the
SSINA publication, Design Guidelines for
the Selection and Use of Stainless Steel.
In addition to the standard AISI types,
many special analysis and proprietary
stainless steels are produced in the
United States and Canada.
I D E N T I F I C A T I O N
Most AISI stainless steels are identified by
a system of numbers in either 200, 300,
or 400 Series. In addition, all are identified
by the Unified Numbering System (UNS).
For example, Type 304 is Type S30400 in
UNS. Special analysis and proprietary
stainless steels are identified by trade
names, some of which may resemble
AISI numbers.
There are five primary classifications
of stainless steel:
Austenitic
Martensitic
Ferritic
Precipitation hardening
Duplex
Each characterizes its metallurgical
structure, which, in turn, reflects different
characteristics with respect to corrosion
resistance, hardenability and fabricability.
AUSTENITIC stainless steels are
chromium-nickel-manganese and
chromium-nickel compositions identified
by 200 and 300 Series numbers, respec-
tively. They can only be hardened by cold
work and are non-magnetic in the
annealed condition. Typical of the
austenitic group is Type 304, which con-
tains nominally 18% chromium and 8%
nickel; hence the 18-8 name.
FERRITIC stainless steels are straight-
chromium steels in the 400 Series that are
not hardenable by heat treatment and only
slightly hardenable by cold working. All are
magnetic. Type 430 is typical of this group.
MARTENSITIC stainless steels are
straight-chromium, 400 Series that can be
2
Figure 1a METALLURGI CAL METAL FLOW FOR MACHI NED MATERI ALS
Figure 1b METALLURGI CAL METAL FLOW FOR COLD HEADED MATERI ALS
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:26 AM Page 6
3
hardened by heat treatment only. All are
magnetic. Type 410 is typical of this group.
PRECIPITATION HARDENING stainless
steels are hardenable by a combination of
a low-temperature aging treatment and
cold working. The AISI types are identified
by UNS numbers only, e.g. Type S17400,
although many are referred to in literature
by proprietary trade names such as 17-
4PH. The precipitation hardening stainless
steels are especially useful because fabri-
cation can be completed in an annealed
condition and uniform hardening achieved
without a high-temperature treatment that
may result in distortion and scaling.
DUPLEX stainless steels are character-
ized by their 50% austenitic 50% ferritic
structures which allow these materials to
offer the corrosion resistance for the
austenitic grades of material while provid-
ing higher design properties.
SUPER-AUSTENITIC stainless materials
should be given consideration in those
cases where aggressive chloride environ-
ments are encountered. They have higher
nickel and molybdenum contents for
improved pitting and crevice corrosion
resistance.
S T A I N L E S S S T E E L
C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S
The austenitic stainless steels are charac-
terized as having excellent corrosion
resistance. For example, Type 304 is the
most widely used material that withstands
ordinary rusting. It is virtually immune to
303
304
305
316
XM7*
384
410
416
430
17-4 PH
2205
Austenitic
Stainless
Steel
Austenitic
Stainless
Steel
Austenitic
Stainless
Steel
Austenitic
Stainless
Steel
Austenitic
Stainless
Steel
Austenitic
Stainless
Steel
Martensitic
Stainless
Steel
Martensitic
Stainless
Steel
Ferritic
Stainless
Steel
Precipitation
Hardened
Austenitic Stainless
Duplex
Stainless
Steel
C Mn P S Si Cu Mo Ni Cr Other
ASTM A276 Type 303
QQ-S-764 Class 303
AISI 303
ASTM A276 Type 304
QQ-S-763 Class 304
AISI 304
ASTM A276 Type 305
QQ-S-763 Class 305
AISI 305
ASTM A276 Type 316
QQ-S-763 Class 316
AISI 316
ASTM A493 Type XM7
AISI 384
ASTM A276 Type 410
QQ-S-763 Class 410
AISI 410
ASTM A276 Type 416
QQ-S-764 Class 416
AISI 416
ASTM A276 Type 430
QQ-S-763 Class 430
AISI 430
ASTM A564
AISI 630
ASTM A479
ASTM A276
GENERAL SPECI FI CATI ONS
1
DESCRI PTI ON COVERI NG
OF RAW MATERI ALS CHEMI CAL COMPOSI TI ON, % MAX
GRADE MATERI AL REQUI REMENTS ( UNLESS SHOWN AS MI N OR MAX/ MI N LI MI TS GI VEN)
STAI NLESS STEEL
0.15
0.08
0.12
0.08
0.10
0.08
0.15
0.15
0.12
0.07
0.03
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
1.00
1.25
1.00
1.00
2.00
0.20
0.045
0.045
0.045
0.045
0.045
0.040
0.060
0.040
0.040
0.030
0.15
min
0.030
0.030
0.030
0.030
0.030
0.030
0.15
min
0.030
0.030
0.015
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

3.0
to
4.0

3.0
to
5.0

0.60
3

2.00
to
3.00

0.60
2

3.20
8.00
to
10.00
8.00
to
12.00
10.00
to
13.00
10.00
to
14.00
8.00
to
10.00
17.00
to
19.00

3.0
to
5.0
5.50
17.00
to
19.00
18.00
to
20.00
17.00
to
19.00
16.00
to
18.00
17.00
to
19.00
15.00
to
17.00
11.50
to
13.50
12.00
to
14.00
14.00
to
18.00
15.00
to
17.50
22.00

See
Note
(4)
N
0.18
NOTES TO TABLE 2
1. Legend of specification designations
ASTMAmerican Society for Testing and Materials
AISIAmerican Iron and Steel Institute
QQ-X-XXXFederal Government
2. May be added at manufacturers option.
3. ASTM A276 permits addition of molybdenum, and also
0.12/0.30% lead at manufacturers option. AISI requires
the addition of molybdenum but permits no lead.
4. Cb & Ta 0.15 to 0.45
*Type S30430
Table 2 CHEMI CAL COMPOSI TI ON LI MI TS OF RAW MATERI AL ( ASTM F593- 91)
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:26 AM Page 7
4
foodstuffs, sterilizing solutions, most
organic chemicals and dyestuffs, and a
wide variety of inorganic chemicals. In
fact, the 18-8 austenitic stainless steels
are used in the food and beverage, phar-
maceutical and electronic chip industries,
because they maintain product purity,
with the minimum of contamination.
A general characterization for stainless
steels in handling these environments is
summarized as follows:
Corrosion
Category Type Resistance
Austenitic 316 Superior
304 Excellent
Duplex 2205 Superior
Precipitation
Hardened 17-4 Excellent
Ferritic 430 Good
Martensitic 410 Fair
This guideline can be helpful in nar-
rowing down the choice of materials for
any given corrosive environment. The final
determination, however, should be based
on tests conducted under actual working
conditions. If this is not practical for a
designer, he should consult with a corro-
sion engineer having experience with
stainless steels.
C O R R O S I O N
R E S I S T A N C E
Chromium is the element that provides
the stainless steel with its stainless
name. Generally those alloys with greater
than 12% chromium in their composition
will not rust. The martensitic grades of
material (such as Type 400) offer marginal
or lower corrosion resistance than the
300 series stainless steel for this reason.
However, type 410, performed well
in mild atmospheres, fresh water, mine
water, steam, carbonic acid, crude oil,
gasoline, blood, alcohol, ammonia,
mercury, soap, sugar solutions and other
reagents. It also has good scaling and
oxidation resistance up to 1000F (649C).
Type 416 is a free-machining variation of
Type 410 and has similar characteristics.
If an application calls for a material
with corrosion resistant properties better
than that of Type 304, Type 316 is the
next logical candidate. Type 316 stainless
steel is a higher alloyed material contain-
ing 2-3% molybdenum, which provides
improved pitting and crevice corrosion-
resistant properties, especially in environ-
ments containing chlorides. It has wide
application in pulp and paper mills and
water treatment plants (see photograph
of clarifier construction, bolted weirs and
handrail). It is also widely used in phos-
phoric and acetic acids that tend to
cause pitting corrosion in the 18-8 types.
In more aggressive pitting environ-
ments, those materials with higher levels
of molybdenum should be considered.
For further guidance on material selec-
tion, consult with a corrosion engineer.
S T R E N G T H
Nickel is added to the iron-base alloys to
provide fabricability and improved ductil-
ity. It is a primary austenite former that
directly benefits the workability character-
istics for these alloys. Carbon and nitro-
gen directly impact the strength of these
alloys. The nitrogen variant of these alloys
will offset the loss of mechanical proper-
ties of low carbon grades of austenitic
stainless steels.
Alternatively, the addition of aluminum,
titanium and/or columbium to the
austenitic stainless steel chemistry can
significantly increase the mechanical
properties for these materials through
heat treatment (ageing). Types UNS
S13800, UNS S15500, UNS S17400 and
UNS S17700 are used to advantage by
designers in the aerospace industry or in
the manufacture of large diameter bolting
for major civil engineering requirements.
Mixed structures (ferrite/austenite),
typical of the duplex stainless steels, will
also provide higher strength characteris-
tics than those of the fully austenitic
grades, while retaining excellent corrosion
properties.
This photograph shows a secondary clarifier retrofit
at a municipal wastewater treatment plant.
This is a close up of the weirs of the clarifier and
shows the use of 316 stainless steel bolting.
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:26 AM Page 8
KEYS TO TABLE 3
1. Legend of grade designations:
Asolution annealed
SHstrain hardened
Hhardened and tempered at 1100 F min.
HThardened and tempered at 525 F 50 F
2. Yield strength is the stress at which an offset of 0.2% of gauge length
occurs for all stainless steels.
3. Elongation is determined using a gauge length of 2 in. or 4 diameters
of test specimen in accordance with Federal Standard 151, Method 211.
NOTES
4. Loads at minimum yield strength and minimum ultimate tensile
strength for full size products may be computed by multiplying the
yield strength and tensile strength stresses as given in Table 3 by the
stress area for the product size and thread series as given in Table 5.
5. Proof loads of nuts (in pounds) may be computed by multiplying the
proof load stress as given in Table 3 by the stress area for the nut
size and thread series given in Table 5.
6. Ausenitic stainless steel, strain hardened bolts, screws, studs and
nuts shall have the following strength properties:
PRODUCT SI ZE
i n.
to
5
8 in.
over
5
8 to 1 in.
over 1 to 1
1
2 in.
YI ELD STRENGTH
mi n ksi
100
70
50
TENSILE STRENGTH
mi n ksi
125
105
90
YI ELD STRENGTH
mi n ksi
90
65
45
TENSILE STRENGTH
mi n ksi
115
100
85
PROOF LOAD
STRESS
ksi
125
105
90
TESTED FULL SI ZE MACHI NED TEST SPECI MENS
BOLTS, SCREWS, STUDS NUTS
303-A
304-A
304
305
316
384
XM7*
305-A
316-A
384-A
XM7-A*
304-SH
305-SH
316-SH
410-H
416-H
410-HT
416-HT
430
Austenitic
Stainless Steel-
Sol. Annealed
Austenitic
Stainless Steel-
Cold Worked
Austenitic
Stainless Steel-
Sol. Annealed
Austenitic
Stainless Steel-
Strain Hardened
Martensitic
Stainless Steel-
Hardened and
Tempered
Martensitic
Stainless Steel-
Hardened and
Tempered
Ferritic
Stainless Steel-
YI ELD
2
STRENGTH
mi n ksi
TENSI LE
STRENGTH
mi n ksi
YI ELD
2
STRENGTH
mi n ksi
TENSI LE
STRENGTH
mi n ksi
ELON-
GATI ON
3
% Mi n
HARDNESS
ROCKWELL
Mi n
PROOF
LOAD
STRESS
ksi
HARDNESS
ROCKWELL
Mi n
MECHANI CAL REQUI REMENTS
BOLTS, SCREWS AND STUDS NUTS
FULL SI ZE BOLTS, MACHI NED TEST SPECI MENS OF
SCREWS, STUDS BOLTS, SCREWS, STUDS
GENERAL
GRADE
1
DESCRI PTI ON
30
50
30
See
Note 6
95
135
40
75
90
75
See
Note 6
125
180
70
30
45
30
See
Note 6
95
135
40
75
85
75
See
Note 6
125
180
70
20
20
20
15
20
12
20
B75
B85
B70
C25
C22
C36
B75
75
90
75
See
Note 6
125
180
70
B75
B85
B70
C20
C22
C36
B75
Table 3 MECHANI CAL REQUI REMENTS FOR STAI NLESS STEEL BOLTS, SCREWS, STUDS AND NUTS ( ASTM F593- 91)
* Type 30430
5
M A C H I N A B I L I T Y
The addition of sulfur and selenium to the
austenitic grades of material improves the
machinability of these alloys. These ele-
ments, in combination with the chromium
and manganese in these alloys, form
stringer like inclusions in the structure,
which allow better chip removal.
For instance, Type 303 has a consid-
erably higher sulfur content that enhances
machining characteristics. This property
might be very beneficial in the production
of large bolts or where small production
runs or specials are needed.
However, it should be recognized that
while the 18-8 stainless steels are consid-
ered to have similar corrosion resistance
to one another, the sulfide stringers in
Type 303 can result in end grain attack at
cut ends, especially when exposed to
water or some chemical solutions.
Accordingly, a designer should specify
Type 304 when it is known that Type 303
is not suitable for the application. When in
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:26 AM Page 9
6
doubt, the designer should consult with a
corrosion engineer.
Type 416-ferritic stainless steel also
has sulfur in its composition in order to
provide improved machinability for the
martensitic grades of stainless steel.
C O L D H E A D I N G
Q U A L I T Y
The addition of copper in Type 302 stain-
less steel (UNS S30430) and higher levels
of nickel in Types 305 (UNS S30500) and
384 (UNS S38400) results in lower work-
hardening rates, which allows improved
cold heading and workability for these
grades of material. This is very desirable for
lower costs and for large production runs.
These materials have been used for fas-
teners, cold headed bolts, screws, upset
nuts, instrument parts and jobs involving
severe coining, extrusion and swaging.
A P P E A R A N C E /
A E S T H E T I C S
Type 304 and 316 fasteners have been
used extensively in architectural applica-
tions for both their eye appeal and their
structural and corrosion properties (see
photograph of handrails and sign sup-
ports at Ronald Reagan Washington
National Airport).
Some applications do not require the
high degree of corrosion resistance
offered by the 18-8 stainless steels or the
higher alloyed types. In these cases, the
designer can consider types that may be
lower in cost. For example, Type 430
stainless steel contains about 18%
chromium, but no nickel. Although it has
lower corrosion-resistance properties
than the 18-8 types, it has wide applica-
tion for decorative trim because when it is
buffed it closely resembles a material that
has been chromium plated. Typical appli-
cations include trim on automobiles,
cameras, vending machines, counters,
appliances, showcases, and a host of
other products that need dressing up or
eye appeal to increase their salability.
S T A I N L E S S S T E E L
N O P R O T E C T I V E
C O A T I N G N E C E S S A R Y
Some designers may be inclined to think
of plated fasteners as a low-cost solution
to corrosion. While plated fasteners do
serve a useful purpose in some applica-
tions, such as when a plated coating is
added for purposes of creating a special
finish or color match, it is far more desir-
able to use a fastener in which corrosion
protection is inherent within the material
itself and not just added to the surface.
Stainless steels do not need any form
of protective coating for resistance to cor-
rosion, in contrast with plain steel and
some nonferrous fastener materials.
While plated or galvanized steel fasteners
are adequate where corrosive conditions
are not severe, many designers consider
the extra cost of stainless steel fasteners
as inexpensive insurance against possible
failure or loss of eye appeal. When the
cost of failure is considered, in conjunc-
tion with the ease in which damage can
occur to a protective coating, it makes
good sense to specify a fastener made of
a material which is inherently corrosion
resistant. Often, a minute discontinuity in a
plated surface is all that is needed to lead
to corrosive failure. Such discontinuities
result from wrench or driver damage,
poor plating practices, or simply from the
turning action of thread against thread.
Furthermore, while the cost of stain-
less steel fasteners may be more than
plated fasteners, the overall cost of the
finished product (from a small appliance
to a large plant) will generally be affected
only by an insignificant amount.
Interestingly, plated coatings are
applied to stainless steels for purposes of
changing appearance. For instance, the
designer may want a black fastener, or a
highly reflective chrome plated fastener to
match the surfaces being joined. Such
requirements can be accommodated in
stainless steel.
C H O O S I N G T H E R I G H T
S T A I N L E S S S T E E L
Once the design engineer has determined
the correct candidate fastener materials
on the basis of their corrosion-resistant
properties, the next concern probably will
be the mechanical and physical properties
Bolting applications at the Ronald Reagan National
Airport, Washington, DC.
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:26 AM Page 10
7
of these materials. Once again, the family
of stainless steels offers a wide choice.
Many engineers who have attempted
to design a product using stainless steel
fasteners have learned that meaningful
data on fastener properties are some-
times difficult to find. In many situations,
the designer has had to rely on technical
data based on the mechanical properties
of the materials from which the fasteners
are made. All too often these properties
vary considerably from the actual proper-
ties of the manufactured fasteners.
ASTM Specifications A193/193M,
A194/194M, F593 and F594 provide the
reference base for material selection and
specification purposes.
The original Industrial Fasteners
Institute (IFI) specificationIFI-104that
covered the mechanical, metallurgical and
quality requirements of the common stain-
less steels used for bolts, screws, studs,
and nuts, has been replaced by the
respective ASTM specifications relating to
these materials and their product forms,
e.g., ASTM specifications F467/467M,
F468/468M, F738M, F836M, F837/837M,
F879/879M and F880/880M.
T E N S I L E A N D Y I E L D
S T R E N G T H
Tensile or ultimate strength is that prop-
erty of a material which determines how
much load it can withstand until failure.
Yield strength is a measure of the resis-
tance of a material to plastic deformation;
that is, before assuming a permanent set
under load. For stainless steels, the yield
strength is calculated on a stress-strain
diagram (Figure 2), and it is a point at
which a line drawn parallel to and offset
0.2% from the straight line portion of the
curve intersects the curve. For stainless
steel, the yield point is not a clear-cut,
identifiable point.
It can be seen from the data in Table 3
on page 5 that there is a considerable
spread between the tensile and yield
strength values, which is characteristic of
stainless steels. The yield strength is used
for design calculations and is the stress at
which the mechanical properties (tensile
and yield strengths) can be increased by
cold work or strain hardening.
The ASTM specification clearly distin-
guishes these finished conditions as:
CLASS 1 - Carbide solution annealed
CLASS 2 - Carbide solution annealed and
strain hardened.
For example, full size bolts of 18-8
stainless steel in the annealed condition
will have a minimum yield strength of 30
ksi (207 MPa). If the bolt is cold worked
15-20%, its yield strength level will
increase to 50 ksi (345 MPa) minimum.
Cold worked from 35 to 40%, the mater-
ial is considered to be strain-hardened
and the minimum yield strength level is as
high as 100 ksi (690 MPa), depending
upon size of the fastener. This condition
allows the design engineer to specify and
take advantage of a corrosion resistant
material with higher strength criteria.
Likewise, the characteristics of the
stress-strain curve can be changed by
heat treatment and ageing of the precipi-
tation hardened stainless steel and hard-
ening and tempering of the martensitic
grades of stainless steel. The different
conditions are designated by a letter;
A - Solution annealed
SH - Strain hardened
H- Hardened
HT - Hardened and tempered
AH - Age hardened
Figure 2 YI ELD STRENGTH
Figure 2 DETERMI NED BY OFFSET
Material
Typical
Tensile Strength
ksi
Density
Lbs./Cu. In.
Strength-to-Weight
Ratio Inches x 10
2
180
60
125
50
12
80
80
75
60
50
.280
.098
.290
.163
.041
.290
.319
.308
.308
.282
6.4
6.1
4.3
3.1
2.9
2.8
2.5
2.4
2.0
1.8
Martensitic Stainless
Steel (410, 416)
Aluminum (2024-T4)
Austenitic Stainless
Steel (18-8)
Strain hardened
Titanium
Commercially pure
Nylon
Austenitic Stainless
Steel (18-8), annealed
Monel 400
Silicon Bronze
Brass
Mild Steel
Table 4 STRENGTH- TO- WEI GHT RATI O
Source: ITT Harper
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:27 AM Page 11
8
Figure 3 is a relative comparison of
strength values between stainless steels
and other corrosion resistant fastener
materials. In applications where weight is
an important consideration, as in aircraft
design, designers look to strength-to-
weight ratios for an indication of the most
efficient material to use. The strength-to-
weight ratio is defined as the ratio of tensile
strength to density. Some typical proper-
ties of corrosion-resistant fastener materi-
als, including strength-to-weight ratios are
given in Table 4 on page 7. Of particular
interest is the similarity between Type 410
stainless steel and aluminum, and the fact
that Type 410 has a higher strength-to-
weight ratio than aluminum 2024-T4.
A N C H O R S
There are a number of types of mechani-
cal anchor systemsinserts; wedge-
type; drop-in; shell-type; sleeve-type. All
types can be considered for anchorage
into concrete. Sleeve-type anchors can
be considered for use in masonry, grout
filled block and hollow block.
Unlike mechanical anchors, which exert
pressure on concrete when expanded,
chemical anchors using adhesives provide
secure fastening in which the load is dis-
tributed along the length of the anchor.
These systems are suitable for anchoring
concrete and hollow masonry applications.
The austenitic stainless steels provide
excellent corrosion resistance in a wide
variety of masonry and concrete environ-
ments, where high alkalinity (pH) is preva-
lent. They also provide axial strength in
wall tie systems to withstand wind load-
ings and tension and compression
stresses in accommodating normal build-
ing movement.
D E S I G N I N G &
E N G I N E E R I N G
C O N S I D E R A T I O N S
In selecting a stainless steel on the basis
of mechanical and physical properties,
designers should keep in mind the follow-
ing considerations.
THREAD STRENGTH - Thread forms on
fasteners are manufactured by cutting,
rolling, or grinding. The best quality high-
est-strength thread, however, is achieved
by thread rolling. This is because the
plastic deformationor cold working
involved in rolling threads results in; (1)
more accurate and uniform thread dimen-
sions, giving a better fit between threaded
parts and fewer concentrated loads at
points of misfit; (2) smoother thread sur-
faces and, thus, fewer scratches and
other markings to initiate cracks, or
galling; and (3) higher yield, tensile, and
shear properties to better withstand ser-
Figure 3 TENSI LE STRENGTH OF NI NE FASTENER ALLOYS
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:27 AM Page 12
9
vice loads. Design characteristics are
based on the number of threads per inch
of stock and the bolt diameter, as shown
in Table 5. This can be important in civil
engineering applications as shown in the
sluice gate photograph.
SHEAR STRENGTH - Shear is transverse
rupture. It is caused by a pushing or
pulling force at 90
0
from the axis of a part.
Thus, a rivet used as a pulley axle will
shear if the load on the pulley exceeds
the shear value of the rivet. Shear
strength is defined as the load in pounds
to cause rupture, divided by the cross
sectional area in square inches of the part
along the rupture plane.
The allowable shear stresses for stain-
less steel bolts are given in Table 6, which
is based on the AISI publication, Stainless
Steel Cold-Formed Structural Design
Manual, 1974 Edition. The allowable shear
stress for bolts with no threads in the shear
plane was taken as 60% of the minimum
tensile strength divided by a safety factor
of 3.0. This allowable shear stress provides
a minimum safety factor of about 1.2
against shear yielding of the bolt material.
When threads are included in the shear
plane, 70% of the nominal allowable shear
stress is used due to the fact that the
COARSE THREAD ( UNC) FI NE THREAD ( UNF)
Table 5 TENSI LE STRESS AREAS AND THREADS PER I NCH
Tensile stress areas are computed using the
following formula:
Where A
s
= tensile stress area in square inches
D = nominal size (basic major diameter)
in inches
n = number of threads per inch
PRODUCT SIZE
DIA. in.
6
8
10
12
1
4
5
16
3
8
7
16
1
2
9
16
5
8
3
4
7
8
1
1
1
8
1
1
4
1
3
8
1
1
2
STRESS AREA
sq i n.
0.00909
0.0140
0.0175
0.0242
0.0318
0.0524
0.0775
0.1063
0.1419
0.1820
0.2260
0.3340
0.4620
0.6060
0.7630
0.9690
1.1550
1.4050
THREADS
per i n.
32
32
24
24
20
18
16
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
7
6
6
STRESS AREA
sq i n.
0.01015
0.01474
0.0200
0.0258
0.0364
0.0580
0.0878
0.1187
0.1599
0.2030
0.2560
0.3730
0.5090
0.6630
0.8560
1.0730
1.3150
1.5810
THREADS
per i n.
40
36
32
28
28
24
24
20
20
18
18
16
14
12
12
12
12
12
A
s
= 0.7854
[
D
0.9743
]
2
n
Type
302**
304
316
302
304
316
302**
304
316
Finish
Hot Finished
Cold Finished
Cold Finished
Condition and Specification
Condition A (Annealed)
in ASTM A276-71
Class 1 (solution treated)
in ASTM A193-71
Condition A (Annealed)
in ASTM A276-71
Condition B (cold-worked)
in ASTM A276-71
Class 2 (solution treated
and strain hardened)
in ASTM A193-71*
Diameter d
(in.)
all

1
2

3
4
0.2% Yield
Strength (ksi)
30.0
45.0
100.0
Tensile
Strength (ksi)
75.0
90.0
125.0
No Threads
in Shear Plane
15.0
18.0
25.0
Threads
in Shear Plane
10.5
12.6
17.5
Minimum Tensile Requirements Allowable Shear Stress (ksi)
Table 6 ALLOWABLE SHEAR STRESS FOR STAI NLESS STEEL BOLTS
** For Class 2: B8M in ASTM A193, the allowable shear stress
** is 22.0 ksi when threading is excluded from the shear plane,
** or 15.0 ksi when threads are in the shear plane.
** ASTM A276-71 only.
This is a photograph of a sluice gate (open position)
on the Thames River Barrier in London. Monel alloy
K-500 bolting was used for all the structurals.
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:27 AM Page 13
10
actual shear stress in bolts is to be calcu-
lated on the basis of the gross cross-sec-
tional area or nominal area, and that the
ratios of stress area to nominal area range
from 0.65 to 0.76 for diameters of bolts
varying from 1/4 to 3/4 inch (6.3-19.1mm).
This practice is comparable to that for
high-strength carbon steel structural
bolts. However, it is slightly more liberal
because of the generally shorter joint
lengths in cold-formed stainless steel
construction. For bolts not listed in Table
6, the allowable shear stress can be
determined in the same manner.
TORQUE - Another consideration in a
properly fastened joint is the twisting
force applied to a fastener. Table 7 offers
some suggested maximum torque values
for stainless steel fasteners. This table is a
guide based on industry tests that pro-
vide maximum clamping values with mini-
mum risk of seizing. The values are based
on fasteners that are dryfree of any
lubricantand wiped clean of chips and
foreign matter.
Most production lines are equipped
with assembly tools that can be adjusted
BOLT SI ZE
2-56
2-64
3-48
3-56
4-40
4-48
5-40
5-44
6-32
6-40
8-32
8-36
10-24
10-32
1
4"-20
1
4"-28
5
16"-18
5
16"-24
3
8"-16
3
8"-24
7
16"-14
7
16"-20
1
2"-13
1
2"-20
9
16"-12
9
16"-18
5
8"-11
5
8"-18
3
4"-10
3
4"-16
7
8"-9
7
8"-14
1"-8
1"-14
1
1
8"-7
1
1
8"-12
1
1
4"-7
1
1
4"-12
1
1
2"-6
1
1
2"-12
TYPE 304 ST. ST.
2.5
3.0
3.9
4.4
5.2
6.6
7.7
9.4
9.6
12.1
19.8
22.0
22.8
31.7
75.2
94.0
132
142
236
259
376
400
517
541
682
752
1110
1244
1530
1490
2328
2318
3440
3110
413
390
523
480
888
703
TYPE 316 ST. ST.
2.6
3.2
4.0
4.6
5.5
6.9
8.1
9.8
10.1
12.7
20.7
23.0
23.8
33.1
78.8
99.0
138
147
247
271
393
418
542
565
713
787
1160
1301
1582
1558
2430
2420
3595
3250
432
408
546
504
930
732
Table 7 TORQUE GUI DE
Source: ITT Harper
Suggested Max Torquing Valuesa guide based upon industry tests on dry products wiped clean. Values
thru 1" diameter are stated in inch pounds; over 1" diameter, in foot pounds. The
3
8" diameter and under
metal products were roll-threaded and, where size range permitted, were made on Bolt Maker equipment.
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:27 AM Page 14
11
to specific torque values. The most trou-
ble occurs when replacement is being
made under conditions where torque
tools are not available. There are some
guidelines for these circumstances:
1. Tighten the nut finger tightabout
one foot-pound of torque or less.
2. Tighten the nut one additional turn,
360 degrees, for proper torque. This is an
arbitrary figure that applies primarily to
300 Series fasteners. For hardened and
tempered 400 Series fasteners, they may
be too high. In any event, a trial test
should be conducted with a torque
wrench for best results.
In service at elevated temperature, the
buildup of oxides or scale on fastener
surfaces may fuse threaded surfaces
together. Regular loosening and re-tight-
ening can prevent this from happening.
Some engineers are of the opinion
that the only way to avoid seizing and
galling is to lubricate the threaded joint
before its assembled. Adding a lubricant
can affect the torque-tension relation-
ships, as shown in Figure 4. A lubricated
fastener requires less torque to achieve
the same degree of tension or clamping
force. Different lubricants have different
effects also. Wax, for example, on either
the bolt or nut, or both, acts to reduce
the torque requirements.
If a lubricant is going to be used, tests
should be conducted to determine torque
requirements and to evaluate the com-
patibility of the lubricant to the environ-
mentsuch as high temperature. Among
the popular lubricants are those which
contain substantial amounts of molybde-
num disulfide, graphite, mica, talc, cop-
per or zinc fines, or zinc oxide. However,
the zinc- and copper-bearing anti-seize
lubricants are not recommended for use
with stainless steel.
G A L L I N G & S E I Z I N G
To have an effective fastener system, the
designer should also be concerned with
proper utilization, especially how the
fasteners will be installed.
With any product, effective utilization
requires knowledge of the products
characteristics as well as its proper use.
Failure to follow accepted practices can
lead to difficulties, such as seizing and
galling, which can be encountered with
fasteners made of any material including
stainless steels. There are several
courses of action open to designers that
will minimize or eliminate such difficulties.
One of the common causes for galling
is mismatched threads, or threads that
Figure 4 FASTENER LUBRI CATI ON
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:27 AM Page 15
12
are not uniform from shank or shoulder to
point. Fasteners made in accordance
with nationally recognized standards,
such as those published by the American
National Standards Institute, Inc., (ANSI),
will assure that nuts and bolts are uni-
formly threaded.
Reasonable care should be exercised
in the handling of fasteners to keep
threads clean and free of dirt, especially
coarse grime and sand. If threads are
tightened down on sand, the chance of
galling or seizingin any fastener mater-
ialincreases significantly.
D E S I G N I N G F O R
O P T I M U M C O R R O -
S I O N R E S I S T A N C E
Corrosion protection for a fastened joint
encompasses much more than a consid-
eration of the corrosion resistance of the
fastener itself. By their very nature, fas-
tener systems represent inherent crevices
(under aqueous conditions) and notches
(fatigue; corrosion fatigue impact), if not
designed or specified correctly for the
conditions of operation. An analysis of the
entire assembled joint as a system is
required, which would include evaluation
of the structural design, materials,
stresses, product life expectancy and
environmental conditions.
Since corrosion resistance is an
important aspect of product reliability,
inherent in any attempt to prevent corro-
sion is the careful selection of fastener
materials. A common practice in industry
is to use fasteners made of metals or
alloys that are more corrosion resistant
than the materials they join.
The austenitic stainless steels, with
more than 12% chromium in their chem-
istry, provide corrosion resistance to a
wide variety of environments and espe-
cially in low chloride waters (less than
2000ppm chlorides). Additionally, stainless
steel is invariably more noble (cathodic)
than the structural members they join,
and are therefore protected by them.
The stainless characteristics of these
materials make them ideal fasteners for
many architectural applications and suit-
able for atmospheric (indoor and outdoor)
services.
A Q U E O U S C O R R O S I O N
Corrosion is the wearing away or alter-
ation of a metal either by direct chemical
attack or by electrochemical reaction.
This can lead to a weakened or impaired
structural system, which could result in
downtime, replacement and repairs.
Overall corrosion loss, reflected by
weight loss, is the most common form of
attack. More serious attack can often be
seen in the form of localized pitting and
pitting attack. This is especially prevalent
in chloride and acid chloride types of
environments. If the environment cannot
be controlled, modified or changed, then
materials with higher corrosion resistance
may have to be considered.
There are several basic types of corro-
sion that may occur, singly or in combi-
nation, necessitating an understanding of
material selection for basic design
guidelines.
GALVANIC CORROSION can occur
when dissimilar metals are in contact in
the presence of an electrolyte, which may
be nothing more than a wet industrial
atmosphere.
When two different metals are in con-
tact with one another, in the presence of
a liquid, a battery cell is created, allowing
Bolting applications at the Ronald Reagan National
Airport, Washington, DC.
This photograph shows a secondary clarifier retrofit
at a municipal wastewater treatment plant.
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:28 AM Page 16
13
current to flow with corrosion occurring at
the anodic component of the cell. Figure
5 provides a guide to the relative anodic
and cathodic relationships of metals to
one another when exposed in sea water,
which is known as the galvanic series of
metals and alloys. The further apart the
combination of alloys, the greater is the
corrosion attack at the anodic compo-
nent. It is well recognized that magne-
sium, zinc and aluminum anodes, when
attached to a steel hull of a ship, will cor-
rode preferentially, thereby protecting the
structural integrity of the cathodic com-
ponents. By comparison, no serious gal-
vanic action will result from the coupling
of metals with the same group (stainless
to stainless) or to near alloys in the gal-
vanic series (stainless to copper-nickel).
It is also important to have an under-
standing of the relative areas of the two
different materials that are in direct con-
tact with one another (the fastener sys-
tem will normally represent the smallest
surface area for materials being joined).
Consequently, the fastener system
should be cathodic to the materials being
joined. This can be seen in the pho-
tographs showing the bolting materials
used in the construction of the Thames
River Barrier on page 14.
In the aircraft industry, designers
depend on this area-relationship principle
when they specify stainless steel fasteners
in aluminum structures. The greater the
relative area of the anodic (aluminum
material), the less severe is the corrosion.
By comparison, steel or copper alloy
studs for joining stainless steel would
accelerate corrosion of the fastener sys-
tem, although the extent of the galvanic
attack would depend upon the relative
area of each material.
The area relationship depends not only
on the relative area of the materials in the
structure, but also on the number of fas-
teners. Sometimes an acceptable balance
of incompatible metals may be achieved
by adjusting the number of fasteners to
distribute them more uniformly to avoid a
local condition of low relative area.
A general rule to remember is to use
the more-noble metal for the part with the
smaller surface area. This makes a good
case for using stainless steel fasteners for
joining metals that are less corrosion
resistant. Table 12 on page 20 provides
guidelines for the selection of fasteners for
various base metals. If the potential is
high for galvanic corrosion in a fastened
joint, it is possible to insulate the fastener.
CONCENTRATION CELL CORROSION
occurs when two or more areas on the
surface of a metal are exposed to differ-
ent concentrations of the same solution,
such as under deposits or in crevices.
A difference in electrical potential results
and corrosion takes place. Unlike gal-
vanic corrosion, it does not require dis-
similar metals.
Figure 5 GALVANI C SERI ES OF METALS & ALLOYS I N SEAWATER
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:28 AM Page 17
14
In the case of very tight stationary
crevices, oxygen depletion at the inter-
face of the metals, relative to the aqueous
environment, can create localized anodic
and cathodic differences at the mating
interfaces. Such might be the case at
flanged joints where gaskets or o-ring
seals are used, or at bolted connections.
Underdeposit or crevice attack may
occur, especially when chlorides are pre-
sent in the aqueous system.
In the case of ambient temperature, it
has been determined that this form of
attack is unlikely to occur with Type 304
stainless steel systems when the chloride
levels are less than 200ppm, and, in the
case of Type 316 stainless steel systems,
when the chloride levels are less than
1000ppm. Higher molybdenum contain-
ing alloys offer greater corrosion resis-
tance to this form of attack than the 300
series stainless steel materials.
To avoid this form of corrosion, keep
surfaces smooth and minimize or elimi-
nate lap joints, crevices, and seams.
Surfaces should be clean of organic
material and dirt. Bolts and nuts should
have smooth surfaces, especially in the
seating areas. Flush-head bolts should be
used where possible.
CHLORIDE ION STRESS CORROSION
CRACKING is a recognized phenomenon
with the 300 series stainless steel materi-
als. Three conditions must exist before it
can occur; chlorides (environment) must
be present; stress (inherent with tension-
ing of fasteners); and temperature (usually
does not occur below 60
0
C). Under this
combination of conditions, alternative
stainless steel materials can be consid-
ered, namely the duplex stainless steels
or the more highly alloyed nickel contain-
ing materials, typical of 6% molybdenum
grades. The straight chromium 400 series
stainless steels are not subject to this
form of attack, but usually they do not
provide suitable corrosion resistance.
CORROSION FATIGUE is accelerated
fatigue failure occurring in a corrosive
medium. The general fatigue characteris-
tics of the ferritic, martensitic and alloy
steels are usually significantly reduced,
as a result of general aqueous corrosion
or pitting attack. The austenitic, duplex
and super austenitic stainless steels
exhibit some lowering of their air-fatigue
properties.
Factors extending fatigue perform-
ance are application and maintenance of
a high preload, and proper alignment to
avoid bending stress.
H I G H T E M P E R A T U R E
S E R V I C E
The selection of stainless steel fasteners
for high-temperature service is complex
because of the many factors involved.
Mechanical and physical properties have
to be considered together with corrosion
resistance.
Typical stainless steel structural bolting.
(Thames River Barrier)
Thames River Barrier
Figure 6 EFFECT OF CHROMI UM CONTENT ON SCALI NG RESI STANCE OF
Figure 6 CHROMI UM- I RON ALLOYS ( AT 1800
0
F OR 982
0
C)
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:28 AM Page 18
15
Chromium also plays an important
part in the high temperature resistance
characteristics for stainless steels. Figure
6 on page 14 shows this effect on the
scaling resistance of chromium-iron alloys.
Consequently, stainless steel Types 309,
310, 314, 442 and 446 would provide
suitable performance in many of these
environments, while grades with titanium,
columbium and tantalum such as type
321, 347 and 348 can also be considered
for elevated temperature service.
In all bolted joints, the fasteners are
tightened to some initial elastic stress and
corresponding strain. At elevated temper-
atures, creep occurs in which some of
the elastic strain is transformed to plastic
strain with a corresponding reduction in
stress. This behavior is termed relaxation.
When bolts relax they no longer maintain
a tight joint.
Resistance to creep, or relaxation, is
an important consideration for fastener
systems at elevated temperature. Table 8
shows creep values for several widely
used stainless steels, some of which are
readily available as off-the-shelf
fasteners.
Other considerations for elevated-
temperature service include thermal
expansion characteristics and oxidation
resistance.
The thermal expansion of a fastener
should match the expansion characteris-
tics of the materials being fastened (Table
9), with a logical conclusion that stainless
steel fasteners are best for stainless steel
AI SI TYPE
303
304
305
309
310
316
321
347
430
446
410
416
1000 F
16.5
20
19
16.5
33
25
18
32
8.5
6.4
11.5
11
1100 F
11.5
12
12.5
12.5
23
17.4
17
23
4.7
2.9
4.3
4.6
1200 F
6.5
7.5
8
10
15
11.6
9
16
2.6
1.4
2
2
1300 F
3.5
4
4.5
6
10
7.5
5
10
1.4
0.6
1.5
1.2
1500 F
0.7
1.5
2
3
3
2.4
1.5
2

0.4

Table 8 CREEP STRENGTHS OF TYPICAL STAINLESS STEEL FASTENER MATERIALS

Source: Industry Data
LOAD FOR 1% ELONGATI ON I N 10, 000 Hr, ksi
Alloy Temperature Range
o
F
32 to 212
32 to 572
32 to 1112
32 to 212
32 to 572
32 to 1112
32 to 212
32 to 1000
68 to 572
68 to 572
68 to 572
68 to 212
32 to 68
32 to 1600
-76 to 68
68 to 212
68 to 392
Mean Coefficient of
Thermal Expansion
In./In./
o
F(10
6
)
9.6
9.9
10.4
8.9
9.0
10.3
6.1
7.2
11.3
10.0
11.8
7.8
4.7
5.6
21.4
22.8
23.9
Table 9 THERMAL EXPANSI ON OF CORROSI ON- RESI STANT FASTENER ALLOYS
Source: ITT Harper
Type 304 Stainless Steel
Type 316 Stainless Steel
Type 410 Stainless Steel
Brass
Naval Bronze
Silicon Bronze
Monel
Titanium
Aluminum (2024)
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:29 AM Page 19
16
base metal joints; otherwise, there can be
over-stressing and possible failure, or a
rapid loss in clamping stress.
The oxidation or scaling resistance of
stainless steels under constant tempera-
ture condition is, for the most part,
related to chromium content, as illus-
trated in Figure 6 on page 14. In Table 10,
scale resistance is expressed as temper-
ature at maximum continuous service and
maximum intermittent service (in which
temperature cycling occurs).
As the high-temperature environment
becomes contaminated by compounds
of sulfur, carbon, hydrogen, and the halo-
gens, the problem of materials selection
becomes even more complex.
Nevertheless, stainless steels are widely
used in these environments. A fairly com-
prehensive discussion of their application
is found in a publication by The
International Nickel Company, Corrosion
Resistance of the Austenitic Chromium-
Nickel Stainless Steels in High-
Temperature Environments.
L O W T E M P E R A T U R E
S E R V I C E
Of primary importance to the develop-
ment of the worlds natural gas supplies
is the handling and storage of liquid nat-
ural gas (LNG). Fasteners have a role in
LNG processing for piping and heat
exchanger flanges, pumps and various
related equipment.
Austenitic stainless steels are the most
widely used materials in cryogenic appli-
cations, especially Type 304, because it
does not become brittle as it is chilled.
Not only does Type 304 remain tough
and ductile at LNG temperatureminus
260F (-162C)but it retains excellent
properties with liquid hydrogen at minus
423F (-253C) and liquid helium at minus
452F (-268C). Table 11 shows low-tem-
perature mechanical properties of several
stainless steels used in cryogenic service.
AI SI TYPE
303
304
305
309
310
316
321
347
430
446
410
416
MAX. CONTI NUOUS
SERVI CE, AI R,
O
F
1650
1650
1650
1950
2050
1650
1650
1650
1550
1950
1300
1250
MAX. I NTERMI TTENT
SERVI CE, AI R,
O
F
1400
1550

1850
1900
1550
1550
1550
1650
2050
1450
1400
Table 10 SCALI NG ( OXI DATI ON) RESI STANCE OF
Table 10 TYPI CAL STAI NLESS STEEL FASTENER MATERI ALS
Source: Stainless Steel Industry Data
AI SI
TYPE
304
316
430
410
o
F
-40
-80
-320
-423
-40
-80
-320
-423
-40
-80
-320
-40
-80
-320
o
C
-40
-62
-196
-252
-40
-62
-196
-252
-40
-62
-196
-40
-62
-196
ksi
34.0
34.0
39.0
50.0
41.0
44.0
75.0
84.0
41.0
44.0
88.0
90.0
94.0
148.0
kg/mm
2
24.0
24.0
27.0
35.0
29.0
31.0
53.0
59.0
29.0
31.0
62.0
63.0
66.0
104.0
ksi
155.0
170.0
221.0
243.0
104.0
118.0
185.0
210.0
76.0
81.0
92.0
122.0
128.0
158.0
kg/mm
2
109.0
120.0
155.0
171.0
73.0
83.0
130.0
148.0
53.0
57.0
65.0
86.0
90.0
111.0
Elongation
% in 2"
(5.08 cm)
47.0
39.0
40.0
40.0
59.0
57.0
59.0
52.0
36.0
36.0
2.0
23.0
22.0
10.0
% Reduction
of Area
64.0
63.0
55.0
50.0
75.0
73.0
76.0
60.0
72.0
70.0
4.0
64.0
60.0
11.0
ft-lb
110
110
110
110
110
110
10
8
2
25
25
5
kg-m
15.2
15.2
15.2
15.2
15.2
15.2
1.4
1.1
0.3
3.5
3.5
0.7
Tensile Strength Izod-Impact
Yield Strength
0.2% Offset Test Temperature
Table 11 CRYOGENI C PROPERTI ES OF STAI NLESS STEELS
Not Available
Not Available
Source: Stainless Steel Industry Data
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:29 AM Page 20
17
S T A I N L E S S S T E E L
P H Y S I C A L
P R O P E R T I E S
M A G N E T I C P R O P E R T I E S
Magnetism, for purposes of this discus-
sion, is the ability of a part to be attracted
by a magnet and not the parts ability to
function as a magnet. It is more accu-
rately expressed as magnetic permeabil-
ity, and it can be an important design
consideration. One reason is the need to
have a magnetic material for automatic
assembly operations. On the other hand,
some highly sophisticated electronic
equipment may require materials with
very low or nil magnetic permeability.
Stainless steels can satisfy either
requirement.
The austenitic group of stainless steels
have essentially low magnetic permeabil-
ity in the annealed condition; i.e., they will
not be attracted by a magnet. Some of
the austenitic materials, however, are
weakly attracted by a magnet after severe
cold working. The effect of cold working
on magnetic properties for a few com-
mon 18-8 stainless steels is shown in
Figure 7. The magnetic permeability of
the same group, but expressed as a
function of tensile strength, is shown in
Figure 8.
The straight-chromium, 400 Series
stainless steels are always strongly mag-
netic. The degree of magnetic permeabil-
ity, however, is affected by chemical
composition and heat treatment. For
highest initial permeability, the carbon
content should be kept low; Types 416
and 430 should be fully annealed for the
best magnetic behavior.
During annealing, a dry hydrogen
atmosphere should be used to keep sur-
faces bright and free of contamination,
such as carbon or nitrogen, which can
decrease permeability.
Chemical cleaning, which removes
iron particles from the surface, may also
improve permeability.
Figure 7 WHEN COLD WORKING IS EMPLOYED, SOME
Figure 7 NORMALLY NON-MAGNETIC AUSTENITIC
Figure 7 STEELS BECOME SUBSTANTIALLY MAGNETIC
Figure 8 MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY OF AUSTENITIC ALLOYS
Figure 8 SUBJECTED TO COLD WORKING CAN ALSO BE EXPRESSED
Figure 8 AS A FUNCTION OF TENSILE STRENGTH
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:29 AM Page 21
18
AS TM AL L OY GRADE
S PE CI F I CATI ON DE S CRI PTI ON MARKI NG
Bolts, Screws and Studs Class1
(High Temperature Service) I IA IB IC II
ASTM A193 AISI 510 B5
AISI 410 B6
AISI 304N B8N B8NA
AISI 316N B8MNA B8MN
UNS 20901 (XM19) B8R
2
B8RA
3
Bolts, Screws and Studs
(High and Low Temperature Service)
ASTM A193 &
ASTM A320 AISI 304 B8 B8A B8
AISI 347 B8C B8CA B8C
AISI 316 B8M B8MA B8M
AISI 305 B8P B8PA B8P
AISI 321 B8T B8TA B8T
AISI 304N B8LN B8LNA B8N
AISI 316N B8MLN BMNLNA B8MN
AS TM AL L OY GRADE
S PE CI F I CATI ON DE S CRI PTI ON MARKI NG
Nuts Machined Soln. Strain
(High Pressure and Temperature Service) From Bar Forged Treat Harden
ASTM A194 AISI 510 3 3A
(Heat treated)
AISI 410 6 6B
(Heat treated)
AISI 304 8 8B 8A 8
AISI 347 8C 8CB 8CA 8C
AISI 316 8M 8MB 8MA 8M
AISI 321 8T 8TB 8TA 8T
AISI 303 or 303Se 8F 8FB 8FA 8F
AISI 305 8P 8PB 8PA 8P
AISI 304N 8N 8NB 8NA 8N
AISI 316N 8MN 8MNB 8MNA 8MN
XM19 8R 8RB 8RA
AISI 304 low C 8LN 8LNB 8LNA
AISI 316 low C 8MLN 8MLNB 8MLNA
AS TM AL L OY GRADE TE MPE R
S PE CI F I CATI ON DE S CRI PTI ON MARKI NG CONDI TI ON
Bolts, Hex Cap Screws and Studs
(General Corrosion Resistant Service)
ASTM 593 AISI 304, 305, 384, XM7 1 CW
AISI 316 2 CW
AISI 321, 347 3 CW
AISI 430 4 A
AISI 431 5 H
Alloy 630 6 AH
NOTE: Unless otherwise specified on the inquiry or order, fasteners will be supplied in the above condition.
Key
1. Classes I & IB: Carbide solution
1. treated (annealed)
Classes IA & IC: Carbide
solution treated in the finished
condition.
Class II: Strain hardened
condition
2. Carbide solution treated.
3. Carbide solution treated in the
3. finished condition.
Key
CW coldworked
A annealed or solution annealed
H hardened and tempered at
H 1050F minimum
AH age hardened
F A S T E N E R M A R K I N G S
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:29 AM Page 22
19
AS TM AL L OY GRADE
S PE CI F I CATI ON DE S CRI PTI ON MARKI NG
Nuts
(General Corrosion Resistant Service)
ASTM A594 AISI 303 or 303Se, 304, 305
AISI 384, XM1, XM7 1
AISI 316 2
AISI 321 3
AISI 430, 430F 4
AISI 410, 416, 416Se 5
AISI 431 6
Alloy 630 7
Note: The same markings are used for ASTM Specification F593 (Bolts, Hex Cap Screws and Studs)
AS TM AL L OY GRADE TE MPE R
S PE CI F I CATI ON DE S CRI PTI ON MARKI NG CONDI TI ON
Metric Nuts
ASTM A836 AISI 303, 304, 305,
AISI 384, XM1, XM7 A1-50 A
A1-70 CW
A1-80 M
AISI 321, 347 A2-50 A
A2-70 CW
A2-80 M
AISI 316 A4-50 A
A4-70 CW
A4-80 M
AISI 430, 430F F1-45 M
C1-70 H565
C1-110 H275
AISI 431 C3-80 H565
C3-120 H275
AISI 416, 416Se C4-70 H565
C4-110 H275
Alloy 630 P1-90 AH
AS TM AL L OY GRADE TE MPE R
S PE CI F I CATI ON DE S CRI PTI ON MARKI NG CONDI TI ON
(Metric Bolts, Hex Cap Screws and Studs)
ASTM F738 AISI 303, 303Se, 304, 305,
AISI 384, XM1, XM7 A1-70 CW
A1-80 M
AISI 321, 347 A2-50 A
A2-70 CW
A2-80 M
AISI 316 A4-50 A
A4-70 CW
A4-80 M
AISI 410 C1-50 M
C1-70 H565
C1-110 H275
AISI 431 C3-80 H565
C3-120 H275
AIAI 416, 416Se C4-50 M
C4-70 H565
C4-110 H275
AISI 430, 430F F1-45 A
F1-60 CW
Key
A Machined from ann. or soln.
ann stock and re-annealed
M Machined from strain
hardened stock.
CW Cold worked
H565 Hardened and tempered
at 565C
H275 Hardened and tempered
at 275C
AH Solution annealed and age
hardened after forming
Key
A Headed and rolled from
annealed stock and
re-annealed
M Machined from strain
hardened stock
CW Cold Worked
H580 Hardened and tempered
at 565C min.
H275 Hardened and tempered
at 275C min.
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:29 AM Page 23
20
FASTENER BASICS
An analysis of standard
fasteners, such as bolts
and screws, reveals that all
have certain characteristics
in common. Further, their dif-
ferences can be classified as
shown here. Each bolt and
screw is, in effect, made up of
a series of component parts;
thus, the fasteners may have
some or all of these: (a) a
head; (b) a driving recess; (c)
a shoulder; (d) an unthreaded
shank; (e) a threaded shank;
and (f) a point.
Certain combinations of these
components, because of
usage are considered stan-
dard. Others are non-stan-
dard, but nearly any combina-
tion can be readily produced.
This analysis of fastener parts
is presented in the hope that
it will assist the user in under-
standing and specifying bolts
and screws.
Source: ITT Harper
Fastener Metal
Base Metal
Zinc and
Galvanized Steel
Aluminum and
Aluminum Alloys
Steel and Cast Iron
Terne (Lead-Tin)
Plated Steel Sheets
Brasses, Copper,
Bronzes, Monel
Ferritic Stainless Steel
(Type 430)
Austenitic Stainless Steel
(Type 302/304)
Zinc & Galvanized
Steel
A
A
AD
ADE
ADE
ADE
ADE
Aluminum &
Aluminum Alloys
B
A
A
AE
AE
AE
AE
Steel & Cast Iron
B
B
A
AE
AE
AE
AE
Brasses, Copper,
Bronzes, Monel
C
C
C
C
A
A
AE
Martensitic
Stainless Type 410
C
C
C
A
A
A
Austenitic Stainless
Types 302/304,
303, 305
C
B
B
B
B
A
A
Table 12 GUI DELI NES FOR SELECTI ON OF FASTENERS BASED ON GALVANI C ACTI ON
KEY
A. The corrosion of the base metal is not
increased by the fastener.
B. The corrosion of the base metal is marginally
increased by the fastener.
C. The corrosion of the base metal may be
markedly increased by the fastener material.
D. The plating on the fastener is rapidly
consumed, leaving the bare fastener metal.
E. The corrosion of the fastener is increased by
the base metal.
NOTE
Surface treatment and environment can change activity.
Not
Recommended
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:30 AM Page 24

D I R E C T O R Y O F F A S T E N E R MA N U F A C T U R E R S
Fasteners 3/28/00 8:30 AM Page 25