Ar 0854
Ar 0854
Ar 0854
)
Carbon fiber cloth honeycombs
All honeycombs can be supplied in a range of cell sizes, cell shapes, and core densities. The
normal hexagonal cell core does not bend easily, except when heat-formed. Aramid paper
honeycomb with hexagonal core is often heat-formed by the OEM, as this can be cheaper than
buying over expanded or flex core. Overexpanded honeycomb is made to bend one way and to
wrap around leading edges or to make tubes. Flex core, or double flex core, cell shapes are used
for nose radomes and other double curvature requirements. Only electrically nonconductive core
materials may be used to repair radomes. One problem that can occur with radomes and other
parts during repair is that hexagonal honeycomb, which is supplied flat, will not always take up
the shape required in a radome if the honeycomb cannot be heat-formed. It may be necessary to
request OEM approval to use overexpanded or flex core of equivalent strength and stiffness in
these locations for repairs.
Aluminum alloy honeycomb must be anodized to ensure good environmental resistance and
bond strength to the adhesive that joins it to the skin. The bondline area, end-on to the cells, is
so small that good fillets of adhesive are essential to a good bond (0.5-mm or 0.020-inch
minimum fillet size is recommended). For this reason only, the correct type of film adhesive
must be used to bond honeycomb. If in doubt, always use a slightly heavier than specified film
adhesive when bonding to honeycomb to ensure a good fillet.
A.1.1.1.6 Sandwich Construction.
Aircraft currently contain many parts that use sandwich composite construction, such as flight
control surfaces, undercarriage doors, engine cowlings, fairings, and wing trailing-edge panels.
Sandwich parts consist of two thin facesheets with a core material between them to provide
stiffness and strength at low weight, as shown in figure A-3. Similar to a steel I-beam used in
civil applications, the bending moment is resisted by tensile and compressive axial loads in the
facesheets (skins) and by shear in the core. Because sandwich structure have thin facesheets they
are easily damaged, but are relatively easy to repair.
A-7
Figure A-3. Sandwich Construction (courtesy Heatcon Composite Systems)
These thin-faced structures are easily damaged, but are relatively easy to repair.
Sandwich panels are at optimum design when the weight of the two skins is equal to the weight
of the core material. However, in applications such as passenger and cargo floor panels in
aircraft, the indentation or damage resistance may be very important to the part service life. In
these applications, damage resistance can be improved at the lowest weight by using a heavier,
and hence stronger, core material rather than adding to the weight of the top skin. The size of the
indenting object is also important. Small indenters tend to cause core compression failure, and
larger indenters cause shear failure. Therefore, core materials for these types of applications
need both good compression and shear strengths to prevent damage from wheels for food carts.
A.1.1.2 Describe Various Composite Processing Parameters.
An OEM, or an approved subcontractor, makes composite components to very high standards.
Items and procedures that are considered essential to promote high-quality composite processing
during production and repair of components include:
Production-quality tooling
All film adhesives and prepregs are stored to the manufacturers recommendations, and
records are kept to ensure that materials are within their shelf life and in good condition
at the time of use.
Staff are properly trained in the composite fabrication process.
The workshop temperature and relative humidity are maintained within specified limits.
The part is laid up in a clean room with a positive pressure, where temperature and
humidity are also controlled.
A-8
Some repairs may have to be performed on the aircraft. Unless it is warm and dry
outside, with very little wind to blow dust around, all repairs should be made inside a
hangar. It may be necessary to erect a tent or similar device around the repair area. For
hot-bonded repairs, it is very important to keep the hangar doors closed during the cure
cycle to prevent drafts from cooling the repair area. It may be necessary to use heaters in
this area to ensure that the correct temperature and humidity are maintained for the full
cure time. It should also be noted that room temperature-curing resins will take longer to
cure if the outside or hangar temperatures are below 20C. The prepared repair surface
should be covered with a clean plastic sheet to avoid contamination until the patch has
been applied. Every effort must be made to maintain cleanliness, temperature, and
humidity, within limits, during on-aircraft repairs. Similar requirements apply in
workshops. No diesel or other exhaust fumes are permitted in a bond shop. No smoking
or eating is permitted. No mold release materials may be applied in a workshop. They
must be applied outside the workshop and allowed to dry before tools are brought into the
shop. Dust must be kept to a minimum. If solvents are used to clean a surface, they must
be pure laboratory-grade solvents with minimal residues. Wiping cloths are required to
be free of silicones and any other oils or grease. Wiping must continue until the wiped
surface remains clean. The last wipe should be made with a clean, dry, Type I cloth to
remove the last of the residue. Initial wiping may use Type II cloths.
Schedule activities so there are no long delays between laying up the part and the cure
cycle.
When practical, an autoclave should be used to ensure the required pressure and
temperature with a computer-controlled program to control the heat-up rate, the cure
cycle, and the cooldown rate.
The pressure must be monitored throughout the cure.
Vacuum-bonded repairs usually use a hot-bonding controller and heater blanket to
control the temperature and monitor the vacuum pressure and cure time.
A.1.1.2.1 Repair Processing.
Making a repair to a composite part is a difficult process for the airline or repair station because
there is a lack of information about the construction of the part to be repaired. Because of this,
OEMs have concerns about the quality of repairs made at remote stations around the world.
When composite repairs are performed by non-OEMs, it is essential that the repair materials,
repair processes, and the repair personnel are fully approved and qualified.
Principal processing parameters include the following:
The workshop must be clean, dry, and at the correct temperature and humidity. The
recommended conditions are a clean room with positive air pressure to minimize the
entry of dust and dirt, a room temperature of 18C (64F) to 30C (86F), and a
maximum relative humidity of 60% (35% relative humidity is preferred). Tests have
A-9
shown that relative humidity below 35% does not lead to any significant improvement in
results. Good lighting should be provided.
Any required tooling should be clean and in good condition and must already be in the
clean room.
The component must be clean and dry and the surface must be correctly prepared for
bonding the repair patch. Check the moisture content with a moisture meter
(thermographic-type preferred) if the component is fabricated from fiberglass or aramid
fibers. Dry the surface to approved repair documentation requirements.
The required repair materials must be available and in the correct condition (i.e., dry and
warmed to room temperature (no heating is permitted) and within their specified shelf
lives and out-times.
Each ply of composite must be the correct material type, weave and weight, and laid up
in the right place and in the right direction. All release films must be removed and
discarded in one pile, and then checked to be sure all the release films have been removed
before proceeding with the bagging process. One way of doing this is to remove one
release film during lay-up, lay the ply and then roll the ply down before removing the top
release film for each layer.
If new honeycomb is used in a repair, it must be of the right type, weight, and cell size;
have the specified finish; and be undamaged. It must also be oriented as indicated in the
drawing and in line with the core being repaired. It must be bonded to the skin with the
specified adhesive and bonded to the existing core with potting compound or foaming
adhesive. If other core materials such as foams are used, they must be of the right type
and weight, and they must be joined to the existing core with the adhesive specified in the
approved repair documentation.
If vacuum pressure is used, the bagging film, sealant, and the breather cloth lay-up,
together with all release films (perforated and nonperforated) must be correct and in the
required positions. All the materials must be clean, dry, and in good condition.
Vacuum pressure must be correct and the leakage rate check requirement must be met.
To avoid degradation of film adhesives, prepregs, and wet lay-up resins at room
temperature, bonding should commence as soon as possible after the materials have been
laid up. Some large jobs may take 3 days to lay up, which is a significant amount of the
permitted open time for a prepreg if the material is anywhere near the end if its shelf life.
For such work, the remaining open time for the material should be checked before the
lay-up starts. The specific prepreg material working life is provided in the supplier data
sheet.
The temperature readings from all the thermocouples must be within the required limits
and maintained correctly for the specified length of time to achieve full cure. Localized
heating of cool spots may be needed to maintain a uniform temperature.
A-10
Vacuum pressure must be maintained during the entire cure time and until the component
temperature has fallen to 50C (122F) or less.
After curing, the release films and peel plies must be carefully removed to avoid damage.
Other important processing considerations include the following:
Some prepregs need a perforated release sheet to allow volatiles to escape and to bleed
off excess resin. For example, a sample did not cure using a nonperforated release sheet
on both sides, but it did cure when one nonperforated release sheet was replaced with a
perforated sheet.
The breather cloth must be placed under the vacuum extract fitting to ensure good airflow
and to prevent resin from going into the vacuum line. If resin gets into the exhaust
fitting, it may block it and, when cured, solid resin is difficult to remove.
Do not locate the vacuum extract fitting too close to the part, because it may draw resin
into itself.
Do not place the vacuum port fitting on the part because it will leave a permanent mark.
Tools (molds) must be absolutely clean and smooth; otherwise, all defects will be
impressed on the part.
The release sheet should extend well beyond the end of the part to avoid resin sticking to
the mold face.
Composite laminates will not bond together properly at zero pressure. J ust rolling the
plies together, even with good roller pressure, will not be sufficient. This is especially
true when time-expired material is being used for training purposes. A good vacuum is
essential for a good bond and to extract volatiles.
A.1.1.2.2 Thermocouples.
AIR 4844 defines thermocouples as A device which uses a circuit of two wires of dissimilar
metals or alloys, the two junctions of which are at different temperatures. Thermocouples must
be correctly located. A net electromotive force (emf) occurs as a result of this temperature
difference. Using a number of thermocouples, six or more for large repairs, will assist in
detecting differential temperatures throughout the part. As always, consult the approved repair
documentation for the number required for each task. Thermocouples are often accurate to about
5 degrees. To ensure a good cure, add 5 degrees to the standard cure temperature for the repair.
Use the correct thermocouple, as several types are available and their calibration requirements
are very different. In addition, a hot bonder will only work with the thermocouple for which it
was designed. In special laboratory cases, where great accuracy was required, it was common
practice many years ago to place one junction (the cold junction) in melting ice and the other at
the point of temperature measurement. In portable equipment, such as hot bonders, a cold
junction compensation circuit is used, and only the hot junction employed for temperature
A-11
measurement is visible to the user. A net electromotive force (emf), or current, occurs as a result
of the temperature difference between the two junctions. The minute emf, or current voltage, is
sufficient to activate a galvanometer or potentiometer, which are calibrated in terms of
temperature. The most common thermocouple types, listed in order of increasing cost, are
iron/constantan, chromel/alumel, and platinum/platinum rhodium alloy.
A.1.1.3 Describe Composite Material Properties and Effects of Processing.
Material properties include strength, stiffness, impact resistance, fatigue resistance, and creep
resistance, as a function of temperature relative thermal expansion coefficients between different
layers of fabric or tape and between the component and the tools used.
Metals have almost the same strength in all three directions although even metals have lower
transverse properties after being rolled to thickness. Composites are strong only in the directions
of the fibers. Their transverse strength is very low, about 1/30 of the strength in the fiber
direction. This is a similar ratio to wood, which is also strong along the grain but not across the
grain. Metals, except for very low-grade castings, do not have voids, but composites can contain
voids, depending on the quality of the processing. It is important to be aware of these points
when working with composites.
Another factor, especially important when using carbon fiber in conjunction with aluminum, is
the need for corrosion protection at the assembly stage. A layer of fiberglass must be used
between the carbon fiber and aluminum as well as applying any other corrosion protection
specified in approved repair documentation.
Some composite properties that are unique to composites are listed below.
Strength in the fiber direction depends almost entirely on the fibers.
Stiffness in the fiber direction depends almost entirely on the fibers.
Impact resistance depends on the toughness of the fibers and the strain-to-failure of the
resin matrix, as well as the strength of the matrix to fiber bond.
Composite compression strength depends on the fiber and matrix resin modulus and
matrix void content.
Interlaminar shear strength, or short-beam shear strength, depends on resin matrix
properties and void content (ASTM D 2344). Void content is sometimes called porosity.
While the dictionary defines porosity as allowing liquid to soak through, void content
is a better description, as voids in a resin are closed cell. Voids reduce composite
compression strength and other properties, and must be kept to a minimum. Debulking
before cure is important. Vacuum bonded repairs may need extra material to compensate
for a probable higher void content.
Fatigue resistance depends on the relative fatigue strain-to-failure of the fiber and resin.
Some work has shown that if the fiber has a fatigue strain-to-failure higher than the resin,
A-12
then the resin will fail first and laminate failure will be progressive. This work has also
shown that if the resin fatigue strain-to-failure is higher than the fiber, then the fatigue
properties become fiber-dependent.
Fiber-to-resin interface depends strongly on the fiber finish.
The maximum operating temperature of a composite is defined by the maximum
operating temperature of the resin matrix. This is related to the T
g
, which often depends
on the cure temperature. Therefore, the correct resin must be used, and it must be cured
at the correct temperature for the required time.
Creep resistance depends on the creep characteristics of the fiber.
Temperature cycling can have a significant effect on a composite part. For example, if
aramid and carbon fibers are mixed in a laminate and the component suffers a wide range
of temperature cycling, e.g., in an engine cowling, disbonding may occur due to the
stresses imposed by the differential thermal expansion and contraction, because aramid
and carbon fibers have different characteristics. Delaminations have been found to occur
over a period of time in engine cowlings of this design. Cracking, due to linear
expansion differences, has been reported and must be considered in the design.
The resin must be fully cured. If the resin matrix is not fully cured, the performance of
the composite may be seriously affected. The resin matrix may have a lower modulus
than required, and the compression strength could be reduced. The moisture absorption
of the matrix could increase. The T
g
could be lower than the specification requires.
The plies must be debulked prior to cure. If the plies are not debulked sufficiently to
remove air before heat is applied, and the vacuum is not sufficient to remove any solvent
vapors that outgas from the resin during cure, then voids may be present in the cured
product. These can result in reduced compression strength. The correct debulking
procedure must be followed, and the required vacuum or autoclave pressure must be
maintained for the full cure time. The correct perforated release films and breather cloths
must also be used.
For radomes, paint thickness can affect transmission properties; therefore, paint thickness
must be kept within specified limits. If radomes are repainted, the original paint must be
removed to ensure that this requirement is met.
A.1.1.4 Describe Various Composite Machining, Assembly, and Finishing Processes.
A.1.1.4.1 Composite Machining.
Drilling and machining of composites requires different techniques than metals. Different drills
and cutters and different cutting speeds and feed rates are required, and cooling is very
important. Approved source documentation must be consulted for the correct tools and
procedures. Cutting tools must be sharp, and cutting speeds and feed rates must be correct.
A-13
Use of a backing plate of wood, plywood, or plastic can avoid breakout on the rear face. For
example, placing a piece of wood or plywood in a vice and pushing a twist drill through it at a
high feed rate will result in large splinters.
Position a composite so that the fibers are cut or sanded in tension. This is especially important
with aramid fibers. Aramid fibers are softer and need a sharper cutting tool. Tools that were
previously used to cut glass or carbon fibers will generally not be sharp enough to cut aramid
fibers. Since carbon fiber wears out steel tools, frequent sharpening of all cutting tools is
necessary.
A.1.1.4.2 Routers.
Routing is a very coarse cutting system. Only sharp routing tools should be used with the
support of templates.
High-speed diamond grit-coated band saws are good for cutting composites, but require backing
support. Dust extraction must be provided on all power tools, and all dust produced by hand
tools should be removed with a vacuum cleaner as soon as possible. Never use a pressurized air
line to blow dust away, as this only adds to the particle concentration in the air and is an
unacceptable health hazard.
A.1.1.4.3 Cutting Honeycomb Cores.
Aluminum alloy, aramid, and other honeycomb materials used as honeycomb can be supplied in
sheets cut to the required thickness. A sharp knife, e.g., Stanley
or BOELUBE
1
are
suitable media. It is important not to exceed the T
g
of the resin during drilling.
A.1.1.4.10 Hole Drilling.
One of the problems of structural repairs with mechanical fasteners is ensuring the accurate
alignment of holes and close-tolerance holes. When mechanical fasteners are used that require
either a close-tolerance hole or a small degree of interference fit, a very accurate hole needs to be
made with the proper drilling tool. A jig may be needed to ensure accurate hole alignment and
hole size.
Hole tolerances for mechanically fastening composite parts are not the same as those for
fastening metal parts. The appropriate authoritative documentation should be consulted. When
drilling composites, using a backing block can avoid splitting the laminate on the back face.
A.1.1.4.11 High-Speed Grinders.
High-speed grinders are used for light sanding, feather edging, and cutting. They must be small
and light enough to be handled easily. A high skill level is required to achieve good results. Use
the correct disc with the right grit type and size. Generally, 120 grit should be coarse enough to
remove paint and 240-320 grit is suitable for preparing surfaces for adhesive bonding. The
objective is to lightly abrade the resin at the surface without cutting into any of the surface fibers.
A.1.1.4.12 Orbital Sanders.
Orbital sanders are normally air-powered and should be used carefully with the correct grit type
and size. When the first piece of grit paper becomes worn-out or clogged, the grit paper should
be replaced. While it is important not to remove too much material too quickly, using a grit size
that is too coarse, after time, becomes a finer grade because grit on worn paper slowly breaks up
into a smaller grit size.
1
BOELUBE is a registered trademark of The Boeing Company. These products represent a family of proprietary
lubricants developed through Boeing manufacturing operations and lubricant experience. The Orelube
Corporation holds an exclusive worldwide license from The Boeing Company to manufacture and market the
BOELUBE series of lubricants.
A-16
A.1.1.4.13 Abrasive Papers and Grits.
Too fine a grit size will cause frictional heat and a slow rate of material removal. However, too
large a grit size will cause deep scratches and may remove more material than intended, which
could lead to a larger repair. Choosing the optimum grit size and type is essential.
Aluminum oxide and silicon carbide are the most commonly used grits. Suitable grades of 3M
Scotch-Brite
Tedlar
, use
a strong primer that will remain on the aircraft for its whole life. An intercoat is then applied and
followed by a topcoat. The use of a solvent stripper, based on benzyl alcohol, allows the topcoat
and intercoat to be removed several times without damaging the primer. Great care must be
taken with this process as many aircraft are repainted ten or more times during a 30-year service
life. Repair areas will need to use the manufacturers primer to restore this capability. Metals
almost always use primers to minimize corrosion and increase durability of the bond. Similarly,
composites use a primer to protect the first layer of fiber. This paint system is also used for
metals when a brightly colored, high-strength, durable primer is used to protect an anodized
aluminum surface.
Similarities between metal and composite bond repairs are described below.
Adequate pressure is needed for bonding.
Correct cure temperatures and times must be used.
A-36
Composite repair patches cured at high temperature often use a film adhesive to help
achieve a good bonding of the repair patch to the honeycomb and to the skin. This is
similar to a metal repair patch.
Only anodized aluminum alloy honeycomb should be used for repair or manufacture.
This applies to composite and metal panels if aluminum honeycomb is used in the
original panel. Note that most composite-skinned honeycomb panels use aramid
honeycomb or foam cores.
The original primer must be restored in repaired areas.
A.1.2.6 Describe the Process of Metal Bonding.
Good surface preparation of metals and most other surfaces is the single-most important factor in
achieving good, durable adhesive bonds.
Sheet metal, for adhesively bonded construction or repair, should be kept clean and free of
scratches until the anodizing or other treatment processes. All cutting, trimming, and edge
chamfering should be completed before the part is anodized or given any other surface treatment.
Holes and countersinks should also be drilled before anodizing, if possible. One OEM process
specification for phosphoric acid anodizing is as follows:
Step 1. Vapor degreasing.
Step 2. Alkaline cleaning in a tank.
Step 3. Alkaline solution rinsed in clean water.
Step 4. Deoxidize per OEM specification.
Step 5. Rinse again.
Step 6. Anodize in phosphoric acid solution at the specified voltage for the required
period of time.
Step 7. Remove details from the anodizing solution and start rinsing within 2 minutes
after the current is switched off. Cold water rinse for 10-15 minutes.
Step 8. Dry thoroughly at 60C (maximum).
Step 9. Examine for the presence of an anodic coating.
After thorough drying and within 4 hours, the part should be sprayed with a primer and allowed
to dry. It is then ready for the bonding process. If the bonding process does not take place
immediately, the part should be placed in a clean plastic bag. Priming within 4 hours of drying is
essential, as the highly reactive surface produced will attract dust and dirt that will progressively
reduce the high surface energy required for good bonding.
A-37
A.1.2.7 Discuss the Importance of Approved Data, Methods, and Procedures Used in Product-
Specific, Composite Maintenance and Repair.
The essential theme throughout this course is to stress the importance of technicians, inspectors,
and engineers working as a team. In remote regions that require repairs, these functions must be
fulfilled even if individuals are not assigned to these functions. Therefore, personnel must have
the proper skills to perform an acceptable repair, depending on their unique environments. Each
teammate involved in damage disposition, inspection, and repair should have the training needed
to complete their tasks.
Teamwork is essential to composite maintenance, particularly as associated with the steps
involved in aircraft structural inspection, disposition, and repair. Team members should have
some awareness of the different skills needed to successfully perform each step. This awareness
serves to better understand personal skill limits and where to get help. The information
contained in approved documentation [A-1] for a particular aircraft structure should have the
necessary supporting databases and sufficient details to guide a team in the field through the
steps of inspection, disposition, and repair.
This topic is discussed in more detail in sections A.1.3.6 and A.1.3.7.
A.1.2.8 Related Documentation.
Armstrong, Keith B., Bevan, L. Graham, and Cole, William F., II, Care and Repair of
Advanced Composites, second edition, SAE International, 400, Commonwealth Drive,
Warrendale, Pennsylvania 15096-0001, USA, 2005, ISBN 0-7680-1062-4.
A.1.3 UNDERSTAND OTHER CRITICAL ELEMENTS OF COMPOSITE MAINTENANCE
AND REPAIR.
A.1.3.1 Discuss Issues Affecting the Selection of Bonded or Bolted Repairs.
If a stiffened laminate structure has to be repaired, it is generally accepted that bonded joints are
more effective for thin laminates. As an example, the required bolt pattern for a repair to a small
through penetration of a current-generation commercial aircraft composite horizontal stabilizer is
larger in area than a bonded repair for the same damage, and there is the additional weight of the
repair plate and the metal fasteners. For thin laminates, there is also the concern of short grip
lengths and low thickness-to-diameter ratio. As thicker stiffened laminate primary structure
(e.g., wing main toque box skins and spars) comes into use, bolted repairs will become more
efficient due to the lengths of the required scarf or ply steps for bonded repairs. Bolted repairs
are currently more easily inspected for structural integrity than bonded repairs.
Repairs are intended to restore the load path removed by damage, which in the ideal case,
restores the original load distribution of the component.
There are four main approaches to patch repairs:
External bonded patches
A-38
Flush (scarf-bonded) patches
Bolted patches
Bolted and bonded patches
Adhesively bonded patches provide effective load transfer; external patches minimize further
damage to the structure since fastener holes are not required and less material is removed
compared to flush-bonded patches. In general, bonded repairs are capable of restoring the
original strength of the composite, but require increased technical skills due to the greater degree
of complexity. Repair time is often longer, the need for dry parts to avoid porosity associated
with the formation of water vapor during cure, and the limited storage life of adhesives and other
materials are other disadvantages of bonded repairs.
External bonded patches are generally restricted to thin-skin applications (up to 2-3 millimeters
in thickness for carbon/epoxy structures), whereas flush (scarf-bonded) and bolted repairs are
applicable to thicker sections.
Scarf repairs are also used when either aerodynamic smoothness or other operational
characteristics are required. Scarf repairs to thick laminates are difficult to apply, requiring
highly skilled technicians. In addition, scarf repairs to thick laminates require removal of a large
amount of material because of the shallow scarf angles required. The obvious disadvantage is
that there is less of the original material to carry the load. Scarfed or stepped joints used for
thick materials require very long overlaps or scarfed areas to meet the recommended overlap or
scarf length (50 to 80 times the thickness) of the material being repaired. Some scarf joints are
specified with 30 times the thickness of the material as the taper. To achieve the full benefit of
scarf joints, the scarf on the structure and the repair section must be accurately matched. One
way to reduce the removal of good material for a scarfed joint is to make the joint double-sided,
as shown in figure A-4. Stepped lap joints must be cut carefully to avoid cutting part way
through any ply. This may require the use of special tooling. The advantage of stepped lap
joints over scarf joints is the adhesive has less of a tendency to run out of the joint.
Scarf distance
Double-sided
Figure A-4. Single- and Double-Sided Scarfing
(Courtesy Abaris Training Resources Incorporated)
Single-sided
Scarf distance
A-39
If a quick, temporary repair has to be made to a sandwich panel or fairing, a bolted repair, using
a thin sheet of metal on the outside and large washers on the inside, can allow the aircraft to
return to base. This may be economical if it allows the aircraft to be in position for the next
days operations. Such a temporary repair will ultimately require a large permanent repair and
may result in the part being scrapped.
Titanium alloy is generally used for a metal patch due to its resistance to corrosion when in
contact with carbon/epoxy. Aluminum alloys do corrode when used with carbon/epoxy;
however, it can be used if precautions are taken to avoid corrosion by insulating the repair from
the carbon/epoxy structure. Aluminum alloy is significantly easier to drill than titanium.
Another alternative is to use a carbon/epoxy patch that has been formed by wet lay-up from
carbon cloth, although the load-bearing capacity is less than titanium alloy.
Types of repair are related to damage assessment and location on the aircraft. For instance:
If a low-observability repair is required, a flush bonded repair will have to be made.
In areas where the airflow is critical, such as the leading edge of a wing or an engine
nacelle, a flush bonded repair is required.
If damage occurs to a heavily loaded, stiffened laminate structure, bolted repairs are most
likely to be used, sometimes in conjunction with adhesive bonding. For example, wing
skins, stiffened by stringers, are likely to be repaired using bolts or blind fasteners.
When these scenarios are considered, the number of occasions when there is a choice,
bolting is less likely to be chosen.
In general, if the panels are of sandwich construction, bonded repairs are usually chosen.
If the parts are heavily loaded, stiffened laminate structures, bolted repairs are quite often
used.
A.1.3.2 Describe Various Electrical Requirements and Effects, Including Prevention of
Corrosion, Hazards of Electromagnetic Interference, and Electrostatic Discharge (lightning
protection systems), and how They Need to be Considered During the Repair Processes.
A.1.3.2.1 Corrosion Prevention.
When aluminum parts are in contact with composite parts, the possibility of corrosion to
the aluminum needs to be considered.
All bolts and fasteners used in carbon fiber composites must be made from bare titanium
alloy, titanium alloy coated with aluminum, or corrosion-resistant steel.
Aluminum or alloy steel fasteners may not be used in carbon fiber (graphite) structures.
A-40
Glass fiber and aramid fiber composites are not a problem, because they are not
electrically conductive.
Metal parts used as reinforcements in composites must be properly surface-treated and
primed.
Aluminum alloys adjacent to carbon-reinforced composite parts require a layer of glass
fiber to be applied to the composite parts to minimize electrical contact and prevent
corrosion to the aluminum parts. The adhesive should also be nonconductive and have
low moisture uptake.
Trials using carbon fiber composites as reinforcements for cracked aluminum alloy parts
have consistently shown that if moisture enters the crack, severe aluminum corrosion
takes place.
A.1.3.2.2 Hazards of Electromagnetic Interference.
For many years, aircraft made from aluminum alloys have had very few problems with
electromagnetic interference, because the aircraft structure could conduct the signals away and
prevent any unwanted effects.
With the increased use of composites, this problem has become more significant. If radio
frequency/electromagnetic interference shielding is included in any part of the design, repair
work must ensure that this protection is replaced and tested to ensure that the original level of
protection is replaced and meets the specification requirements as well as the latest Aeronautical
Radio Incorporated standards.
A.1.3.2.3 Lightning Protection Systems.
Lightning strikes are powerful and can reach up to 2 million volts and up to 300 amps.
Lightning protection systems are applied to radomes, wing tips, rudder and elevator tips, and any
aircraft extremities, including the leading edges of engine nacelles. These protection systems are
vital to safe aircraft operation. If parts that are coated with lightning protection systems have to
be repaired, the repair must include full restoration of the lightning protection system.
In one case of a lightning-damaged elevator, the inductive forces had fractured the grounding
lead between the horizontal stabilizer and the elevator, although it was about 3 cm wide and
about 3 mm thick. The electrical current also ran along the carbon fiber front spar, up through a
bolt, and out the elevator tip. The bolt was undercut at the head and the bolt hole was enlarged.
The temperature was so high at the bolt position (approximately 1000C) that the resin had
completely vanished from the fibers. In addition, the current had traveled from the fuselage and
through the elevator-operating ball race bearing. The bearing itself felt gritty, wherein each ball
had been almost welded to the race bearing itself. One elevator hinge bearing felt much the
same.
On one other recorded occasion, a light aircraft was lost because the elevator control bearing had
been welded in similar circumstances.
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Lightning strike protection (LSP) systems are bonded to the exposed surfaces of the component
in the form of metallic mesh, flame-sprayed coatings, or metallic grids to protect the aircraft
from lightning damage. The grids, often referred to as picture frames, are comprised of solid
metallic strips, which are bonded in a grid fashion over lightning-susceptible locations that
contain fasteners. Many of these susceptible fasteners are located in fuelled areas or in areas
covering electrical-sensitive equipment. The fasteners are drilled and countersunk through the
bonded grid such that the fastener heads are nearly touching the metallic strip.
With this configuration, a lightning strike to the fastener head will be conducted from the
fastener head to the grid for dispersal along the part surface, rather than having the strike
penetrate into the part. The dispersal by the grid, rather than into the laminate, prevents a
concentrated charge from damaging the fastener and the fastener hole laminate structure, because
copper is closer to graphite in the galvanic series.
LSPs are not always in the form of coatings and may consist of aluminum strips, usually on the
outside of radomes, but sometimes on the inside. Picture frames made of aluminum are usually
used at rudder, aileron, and elevator tips.
Copper mesh and foil are also used for LSP when applied to graphite structures to eliminate
galvanic-corrosion effects.
The conductive coating forms of lightning protection are:
Flame-sprayed aluminumMetal-coated fabrics, such as Thorstrand, Alumesh, and
Alutiss. These fibers are coated with aluminum and embedded in the outer layer of
composite components. Wire mesh has also been used, i.e., woven aluminum wire
fabric.
Expanded foil mesh is a relatively recent development and has good conductivity.
Copper or aluminum foil can be used to make the mesh. In some cases, an aluminum foil
was laid into a mold and the composite prepreg laid up onto it. On some occasions, a
layer of SpeedTape may be used as a temporary replacement for an area of flame-sprayed
aluminum on the surface of a composite part after a repair had removed the original layer.
A.1.3.2.4 Electrostatic Discharge.
The friction of high-velocity air passing over a large-surface electrical insulator, such as a
radome or cockpit window, results in the build-up of static electricity that periodically discharges
by arcing to a metallic part of the aircraft.
These discharges can punch very small holes in a radomes protective coating and through the
outer skin, which can lead to moisture penetration and a loss of radar signal strength. Using an
anti-static coating, which allows the charge to slowly bleed away, can solve this problem.
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A.1.3.2.5 Precipitation Static.
Static charge and precipitation static have a common origin but differ in degree. Normal air
produces a static charge by the friction of air molecules, but precipitation static comes from
larger masses, such as raindrops, hailstones, dry ice, and snow. This is also known as p-static.
P-static can lead to radio communication problems, often at low altitudes when communications
for landing are most important. For these reasons, conductive coatings are applied to windows
and radomes and must be restored when radomes are repaired.
Composite structures are very susceptible to p-static effects. Care must be taken to maintain
configurations that bleed off p-static charge when designing and implementing composite
repairs.
A.1.3.2.6 Radar Signals and Radomes.
Most aircraft radomes are made from fiberglass or aramid skins with honeycomb cores. Some
use quartz fiber fabrics.
The thickness of the sandwich is critical. It must be one quarter of the radar signal wavelength
for maximum signal transmission. The correct thickness must be maintained and pass the wave
test, which checks the signal transmission. For an X-Band Radar, the correct thickness is
0.31 inch (8 mm).
Resins used to repair radomes must not contain any conductive fillers. These too can drain away
some of the signal and reduce transmission strength.
A.1.3.2.7 Safety Issues Related to Electrical Requirements.
Work strictly to approved source documentation.
Do not use more than the specified amount of paint on a radome, as this can reduce signal
transmission.
Always perform a wave test and ensure that this meets the standard required.
Restore any lightning protection system fitted to the radome and check that it meets the
electrical resistance requirement.
A.1.3.3 Understand the Need for Protective Coatings and Surface Finishing Steps Used for
Composite Aircraft Structure.
Protective coatings may be used for static bleed-off, as mentioned above, or they may be needed
for lightning or erosion protection.
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A.1.3.3.1 Erosion-Resistant Coatings.
Erosion-resistant coatings have a number of applications ranging from polyurethane paint
coatings or polyurethane or neoprene boots on radomes to metal erosion shields on the leading
edges of helicopter blades and on gas turbine engine bypass fan blades. If boots are used, they
should be 0.5 mm (0.02 inch) thick, or thicker, to give longer service life.
These coatings are used to reduce erosion caused by rain, hail, dust, or sand. The higher the
speed of an aircraft or the airspeed of a helicopter blade or engine fan blade, the more erosion is
likely to take place. Clearly, if helicopters are operated in desert areas, or aircraft fly to dusty
airfields, then more erosion will take place.
Metal erosion shields are often made from titanium alloy, corrosion-resistant steel, or aluminum
sheet formed to the required contour.
A.1.3.4 Describe Typical Paint and Surface-Layer Removal Techniques for Finished Composite
Parts.
A.1.3.4.1 Paint Removal for Repair.
The paint system must be removed to perform any bonded repair. For small- to medium-sized
repairs, aluminum oxide, silicon carbide abrasive papers, or Scotch-Brite pads of suitable grit
size are commonly used. Care must be taken not to go through the primer coat or to damage the
first layer of fibers. When the primer coat is visible, a finer abrasive paper should be used to
avoid damage to the first layer of fiber. Abrasive papers become finer as the grit breaks up with
use, but this usually generates more heat. Hand abrasion is preferred since mechanical abrasion
may cause further damage to the component.
A.1.3.4.2 Large Area Paint Removal.
If a large part or the entire aircraft needs to be repainted, alternative systems need to be
considered. The paint scheme on an aircraft can be changed ten or more times during the life of
an aircraft. Aircraft made today are expected to be in service for about 30 years. Paint is heavy,
so it must be removed before the new paint is applied. If an aircraft is rented to a number of
airlines over the years, then the number of paint scheme changes could be even larger. This is a
difficult area to deal with because new methods are being tried at frequent intervals. This has
also been studied by an SAE committee, which produced the documents SAE MA 4872, Paint
Stripping of Commercial AircraftEvaluation of Materials and Processes, and IATA
Guidelines for Evaluation of Aircraft Paint Stripping Materials and Processes, latest issue. SAE
MA 4872 was last amended in March 1998, and copies can be obtained from SAE. SAE MA
4872 describes the methods to evaluate paint-stripping systems; it does not give
recommendations or procedures for using them during maintenance.
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A.1.3.4.3 Paint-Stripping Methods.
The objective for paint-stripping methods is to remove existing paint quickly, easily, and cheaply
without damaging the first ply of composite, or in the case of aluminum alloy skins, the anodized
oxide layer. Certain paints are more easily removed, such as Desothane CA 8000 polyurethane
paint. If this system is used, the topcoat and inner coat can be removed with a solvent to avoid
mechanical damage. Only the primer will need to be removed with an abrasive paper. SAE MA
4872 includes:
High-pressure water blasting, with or without the use of chemical paint softeners
Dry-media blasting (e.g., wheat starch, plastic media blast (PMB), etc.)
Wet-media blasting (e.g., sodium bicarbonate)
Ice pellet blasting (e.g., CO
2
or water, with or without the use of chemical paint
softeners)
Chemical paint stripping (e.g., with or without a dedicated strippable layer in the paint
system)
Thermal paint stripping (with or without the use of ice pellet stripping)
These techniques must be used with care and in accordance with any procedures that have been
developed. It is essential that no damage is done either to an anodized metallic surface or to the
outer ply of a composite component. Although inclusion in this report does not authoritatively
endorse any of these processes, the following alternatives have been tried:
The use of paint-stripping chemicals should be avoided, as they can damage the resin
matrix. For example, a methylene chloride paint stripper was used on a fiberglass-
skinned honeycomb panel. (The operators said they thought it was aluminum.) As a
result, two layers of fiberglass skin were partially peeled away from the honeycomb.
One technique to avoid this problem was to coat the composite with a relatively thick
layer of bright-orange primer so it would be obvious to the person preparing the surface
that it was time to stop before damage was done. This was not helpful if the operator lost
concentration for more than a few seconds.
Another technique is to use a strong primer coat, brightly colored as mentioned above,
and then apply an inner coat, followed by a topcoat of polyurethane paint. These two
layers can be removed using a benzyl alcohol-based solvent, which does not damage the
primer coat. This paint scheme Desothane HS (CA 8000), from PPG Aerospace /PRC
De Soto, has been successfully used for 5 years and is very durable. The topcoat and
inner coat can be removed using a benzyl alcohol-based solvent without damaging the
primer. This can be done many times if care is taken with this process. The neutral
version of benzyl alcohol should be used because it does not damage aluminum
structures, unlike the acidic versions, which must not be used on aluminum.
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Another potential method is from Sponge-J et