1

April 2002 Number 31

F
actsheet
P
hysics
First Law of Thermodynamics
www.curriculumpress.co.uk
This Factsheet is about the first law of thermodynamics, which is concerned
with how energy is transferred from and to any material. In order to
understand the first law of thermodynamics we must first consider the
quantities used in expressing it.

Exam Hint : When asked to define heat or state what you understand by
heat , it should always be mentioned that heat supplied to the system are
considered to be positive values.
Heat
When two objects, at different temperatures are placed next to each other
there will be a transfer of heat.

Specific latent heat
If an object has a change in energy that results in a change of state, from solid
to liquid, liquid to gas or vice versa, then the amount of mass changing from
one state to another is governed by specific latent heat. Every material has
two values of specific latent heat, one value for a change of state from a solid
to a liquid, called the specific latent heat of fusion, and one value for a change
of state from a liquid into a gas, called the specific latent heat of vaporisation.
If a substance is changing from a solid to a liquid or from a liquid to a gas then
energy is being supplied to a substance and Q, is positive.
If a substance is changing from a gas to a liquid or a liquid to a solid then it
is losing energy and the change in heat energy, Q, is negative.
Specific latent heat of fusion is the amount of energy required to
turn 1 kg of a solid into a liquid.
Specific latent heat of vaporisation is the amount of energy required to turn
1 kg of a liquid into a gas.

m
Q
l =
l = specific latent heat are (Jkg
-1
)
Q = heat energy supplied (J)
m = mass of material changing state (kg)
Typical Exam Question
A kettle is filled with 2.0kg of water.
(a) Calculate how much energy is required to increase the temperature
of the water from 20
0
C to boiling point, 100
0
C. [3]
(b) If the kettle is left running so that it supplies another 12000J of
energy, how much of the water will have evaporated and turned
from a liquid into a vapour. [2]
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg
-1 0
C
-1
Specific latent heat of vaporisation of water = 2.3 x 10
6
Jkg
-1
(a) A straight substitution of figures into our equation for specific heat
capacity is all that is required. The equation has been rearranged to
make the change in heat energy, Q, the subject of the equation.
Care must be taken to include the change in temperature of the water.
Change in temperature:
= final temperature initial temperature = 100 20 = 80
o
C
Heat energy supplied, Q = mc = 2 4200 80 = 672,000 J
(b) Again, to answer the question, all that is required is the substitution
of values into the equation for specific latent heat. The equation has
been rearranged to give mass as the subject of the equation.
Mass evaporated:
m =
Q
=
(12000)
l (2.3 10
6
)
= 0.0052kg = 5.2g
As would be expected, this is not a large mass of water
Note how, in each of these equations, the values for energy are positive
as energy has been supplied to the water.

A Note of Caution
The sign convention for the terms in the first law of thermodynamics that
have been used in this factsheet are consistent with AQA specification
B and the Edexcel specifications. The AQA specification A unit 5 option
of applied physics defines work done on a gas as negative and the work
done by the gas as positive. This means that the format of the first law
of thermodynamics takes the form: U = Q- W. Please check that you
are using the correct quantitative form of the first law of thermodynamics
with your specification.
Heat will be transferred from the hotter object to the cooler object. If we
concentrate on just one of those objects, energy supplied to it by heating
has two possible consequences: - a change in its temperature and/or a change
of state, from liquid to gas for example.
Heat supplied to an object or removed from it can lead to a
change in temperature of the object or a change of state of the
object, or even a combination of both of these things.
If the temperature of the substance is increasing then heat is being supplied
to the substance and the change in heat , Q, is positive. If the substance is
cooling down then it is losing energy and the change in heat energy, Q, is
negative.
The symbol used for heat is Q.
Q is a positive number when heat is supplied to an object.
When an object loses heat then Q is negative.
Specific Heat Capacity
If an object has heat supplied or removed such that it results in a change
in temperature then the size of the change in temperature will be governed
by the specific heat capacity of the object. This is the amount of heat
required to increase the temperature of 1 kg of the material by 1
o
C.

=
m
Q
c
c = specific heat capacity (Jkg
-1 o
C
-1
or Jkg
-1
K
-1
)

m = mass of material (kg)
= change in temperature (
o
C)
= final temperature - inital temperature
Q = heat energy supplied (J)
Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat energy needed to
increase the temperature of 1 kg of the material by 1
o
C.
Physics Factsheet
2
First Law of Thermodynamics
www.curriculumpress.co.uk
Work Done
Work is done on a material whenever a force that is being applied to the
material moves through a distance. An example of work being done on a solid
is when a force is being used to move one object across another object against
friction. In this instance, the work done on the solid would cause the two
solid objects to increase in temperature. Work can also be done on fluids such
as a gas being compressed. When the piston of a sealed bike pump is pushed
in, as the force moves through a distance it will increase the temperature of
the gas as well as store some energy in the gas. This stored energy could be
released by letting go of the piston. The piston would spring back out as
the gas expands.
When work is done, energy is transformed from one form to another. Work
done has the same units of energy, joules (J).
Work done and gases
The work done on a gas is also related to the pressure and volume of a gas.
Consider a gas that is enclosed in a cylinder. The pressure of the gas inside
the cylinder is P. One wall of the cylinder is moveable like a piston. A side
view of this situation is shown below.
The amount of work done on the gas is given by its pressure multiplied by
its change in volume.
Internal Energy
Internal Energy is the term used to describe all of the energy contained in a
material and it is given the symbol, U. Any change in the internal energy of
a material is given the symbol, U. There are two forms of energy that can
make up the internal energy of a material:
(i) Potential energy. This is the energy stored in the stretched or
compressed bonds between the molecules of a material.
(ii) Kinetic energy. This is the energy that the molecules in a material have
because they are moving. In a solid, this movement is vibrational
movement centred around a fixed position. In a liquid or a gas this
movement is linear as the molecules travel in straight lines in between
collisions with other molecules or the sides of the container.
In solids there is a roughly equal split between the potential and kinetic
energy.
In a liquid, the majority of the internal energy is made up of the kinetic
energy of the molecules although there is still some potential energy.
In an ideal gas, there are no forces of attraction between the molecules,
so there is no potential energy and all of the internal energy is made up
of the kinetic energy of the fast-moving gas molecules.
Typical Exam Question
Air is enclosed in a container that has a moveable piston. The
container has an initial volume of 7.50 x 10
-4
m
3
. A constant force
of 125N is applied to the piston so that it moves a distance of 4.50cm,
compressing the gas. The pressure of the gas remains at 100,000Pa
throughout the compression.
(a) Calculate the work done in moving the piston. [2]
(b) Calculate the final volume of the gas, stating any assumption
that you make. [4]
(a) A force and distance have been given in the question so that these
numbers can be substituted into our general equation for work done.
Care must be taken to change the units of distance into metres before
substitution into the equation. The final answer has also been quoted
to the same number of significant figures as given in the question.
W = Fx = 125 0.045
= 5.625 = 5.63J
(b) The question provides a pressure for the compression, and a value
for work done has just been calculated. We can use these values to
calculate the change in volume of the gas. Note how the value for work
done calculated in the first part of the question has a positive value as
it represents work being done on the gas. As the question suggests,
an assumption has been made that all the work done in pushing the
piston has been transferred to the gas. Note how all of the significant
figures from the last calculation have been used when substituting into
this equation.
W = pV
V =
W

=

5.625
= 5.625 10
-5
m
3
p 100,000
Knowing the change in volume and the initial volume, the final volume
can now be calculated.
Final volume = initial volume - change in volume
= 7.5 10
-4
5.625 10
-5
= 6.9375 10
-4
= 6.94 10
-4
m
3
Assumption: All of the work done in pushing the piston is transferred
to work done on the gas.

The work done on a gas is given by the following equation:

W = pV
W = work done (J)
P = pressure (pa)
V= distance moved (m)
Work is done when a force moves through a distance in the
direction of the force.

W = Fx W = work done (J)
F = force applied (N)
x = distance moved (m)
enclosed gas
at pressure P
moveable piston
Force applied
to piston
enclosed gas
decreases
in volume
piston moves
through a distance
Now, imagine a force is exerted on the moveable wall that squashes the gas
a little, moving the piston a small distance. The force has moved through
a distance, doing work on the gas.
When work is being done on a gas (in other words it is being
compressed), work done is given a positive sign.
When work is being done by a gas, (in other words the gas is expanding
and pushing back its boundaries), it is given a negative sign.
Note how the symbol, , which is the greek letter delta, is used to represent
a change in volume. This is in the same way as represents a change in
temperature.
The pressure of the gas is assumed to stay the same when using
this equation.
The internal energy of a material is the total sum of all of the
energy contained in the material. For solids and liquids this will be the
sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy of the molecules. For a gas,
there is no potential energy and the internal energy is the sum of the kinetic
energy of the molecules.

Physics Factsheet
3
www.curriculumpress.co.uk
The First Law of Thermodynamics
The three concepts that have so far been covered by this Factsheet - energy
transferred by heating, work done and internal energy - are linked by the first
law of thermodynamics.
A change in the internal energy of a substance will occur if it
gains or loses heat energy and also if the substance receives or does work
on its surroundings or has work done on it.
U = Q+ W

U = increase in internal energy of the substance (J)
Q = heat energy supplied to the substance (J)
W = work done on the substance (J)
Hence, supplying the substance with heat energy, making Q positive will
increase the internal energy of the substance and U will be positive. Also,
doing work on the substance, making W positive, will also increase the
internal energy of the object, again making U positive.
Similarly, if energy is removed from a substance and it is allowed to cool,
making Q negative, it will experience a decrease in internal energy and U
will be negative. Also if the substance does work on the surrounding, making
W negative, it will experience a decrease in internal energy, and U will be
negative.
A simple example in the use of this equation would be to consider a cleaner
scrubbing the inside of a fridge. As he scrubs, he is applying a force
through a distance and performing 50J of work on the interior of the fridge.
At the same time the interior of the fridge is being cooled and has had 30J
of heat energy removed. If we consider the change in internal energy of
the interior of the fridge by using the first law of thermodynamics we must
first decide the sign of the change in heat energy and work done.
The heat energy supplied to the fridge interior, Q = -30J
The work being done by the fridge interior, W =+50J
Increase in internal energy of the fridge interior;
U = Q + W = -30 +50 = 20J
This increase in internal energy would be seen as an increase in the
temperature of the fridge interior.
Exam Hint : Decide and write down the signs of work done and energy
before using the values in the first law of thermodynamics.
Typical Exam Question
(a) The First Law of thermodynamics can be stated in the form:
U = Q+ W . State what you understand by the term U in this law.
[1]
(b) The diagram below shows a freezer. The fluid inside the pipes
evaporates at A, is compressed by the pump at B and cools as it
passes through the pipes at C.
(c) 3.5 kg of water with a temperature of 20
o
C is placed in the freezer.
It takes 2.0 hours to freeze the water without cooling it below 0
o
C.
(i) How much energy is removed from the water? [5]
(ii) What is the power of the freezer. [2]
Specific latent heat of fusion for water = 3.4 x 10
5
Jkg
-1
(a) U is the change in internal energy of the substance. A positive value
for U represents an increase in internal energy.
(b) (i) The fluid is gaining latent heat energy inside the freezer, at A, as it
changes from a liquid to a gas. The fluid loses heat energy at C
where it cools down.
(ii) The fluid is having work done on it where it is being compressed
in the pump at B. The fluid is doing work at A where it is expanding.
(c) (i) This part of the question requires two initial calculations.
One to calculate the energy removed because the water is cooling
down and one to calculate the energy removed because the water
is changing into a solid.
Considering the cooling process first we can use our equation for
specific heat capacity, rearranged to make energy the subject of
the equation. The change in temperature is from 20
o
C to 0
o
C.
Q = mc = 3.5 4200 20 = 294,000 J
Now we can calculate the energy removed from the water to change
it into a solid using our equation for latent heat.
Q = ml = 3.5 (3.4 10
5
)

= 1190000 J
The total energy removed from the water is the sum of these.
Total heat energy removed
= 294,000 + 1190000
= 1484000
= 1.5 10
6
J (to 2 significant figures as given in the question).
(ii) To calculate the power of the freezer, we need to use the equation
Power =
Energy
Time
remembering to change the time into seconds.
P =
E
=
1.5 10
6

= 2.1 kW
t 2083

(i) Explain where the fluid is gaining or losing heat energy in
the diagram. [2]
(ii) Explain where the fluid is doing work or is having work done
on it in the diagram. [2]
C
A
B
freezer
interior
First Law of Thermodynamics
Exam Hint: To avoid making errors with units of values used in
calculations it is best to change all units into standard units before starting
any calculation. Some common standard units used in this topic are:
Energy Joules (J), time s, volume m
3
, pressure pascals (pa)
4
Acknowledgements:
This Physics Factsheet was researched and written by Jason Slack
The Curriculum Press,Unit 305B, The Big Peg,120 Vyse Street, Birmingham, B18 6NF
Physics Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students, provided that
their school is a registered subscriber.
No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any other form or by any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher.
ISSN 1351-5136
Physics Factsheet
www.curriculumpress.co.uk
Exam Workshop
This is a typical poor students answer to an exam question. The comments
explain what is wrong with the answer and how they can be improved. The
examiners answer is given below.
(a) The first law of thermodynamics may be written as: U = Q+ W.
State what you understand by each of the terms in the equation.[3]
U is the change in internal energy
Q is heat energy
W is work done 1/3
No direction has been stated. Each term should have stated which
direction of energy transfer is considered positive
(b) 10 g of water occupying a volume of 10 cm
3
is heated in a kettle
from 20
o
C to 100
o
C and then evaporated into steam, which
occupies a volume of 0.0016 m
3
.
(i) Calculate the heat energy required to increase the
temperature of the water to 100
o
C.
Specific heat capacity of water = 4,200 Jkg
-1o
C
-1
[2]
Q = mc = 10 4200 100 = 4,200,000J 1/2
The student has not changed the mass of the water into kg and the
final temperature has been used the calculation, not the change in
temperature this scores 1/2 for the correct equation being used.
(ii) Calculate the heat energy required to turn the water at 100
o
C into
steam. Latent heat of vaporisation for water = 2.3 10
6
Jkg
-1
[2]
Q = ml = 10 2.3 10
6
=2.3 10
7
J 1/2
Once again, the incorrect mass has been used and again scores 1/2 for
the correct equation being used
(iii) What is the total heat energy supplied to the water? [1]
Total energy = 4,200,000 +2.3 10
7
= 2.72 10
7
J 1/1
Although incorrect values for these energies have been used, the
student would receive this mark as his calculation is correct, using
errors that have been carried forward.
(c) Calculate the work is done by the steam as it expands. [2]
W = pV = 101,000 0.0016 = 161.6J 2/2
A correct answer scoring full marks
(d) Calculate the increase in internal energy of the water for the
entire process. [3]
U = Q + W = 2.72 10
7
+ 161.6 = 27,200,161.6 J 1/3
The sign of the work done is incorrect as the gas is doing work. The
answer has also been quoted to an inappropriate number of significant
figures again this scores a single mark for the correct equation being
used.
Examiners Answers
(a) U is the increase in internal energy a substance.
Q is energy supplied to the substance by heating.
W is work done on the substance.
(b) (i) Q = mc = 0.01 4200 (100-20) =3360J ( quote 3.4 10
3
J)
(ii) Q = ml = 0.01 (2.3 10
6
) = 23,000J (quote 2.3 10
4
J)
(iii) Total heat energy supplied = 3360 + 23,000 = 26,360
= 26,400J (quote 2.64 10
4
J)
(c) W = pV = 101,000 0.0016 = 161.6J (quote 1.6 102 J)
(d) U = Q + W = 26360 - 161.6 =26,198.4 = 26,200J
Qualitative (Concept Test)
1. What is specific heat capacity?
2. What is the difference between latent heat of vaporisation and latent heat
of fusion.
3. When a substance changes from a liquid to a solid, does it receive heat
energy or give out heat energy?
4. What sign, positive or negative, is given to the value for the work done
by a gas that expands?
5. What two types of energy generally make up the internal energy of a
substance? What type of substance only contains one of these types of
energy and which is it?
6. What do the three terms represent in the first law of thermodynamics?
Quantitative (Calculation Test)
1. How much heat energy will be supplied to 1.5kg of water when it is heated
from 20
o
C to 80
o
C? Specific heat capacity of water = 4,200Jkg
-1o
C
-1
.
2. How much heat energy will have to be supplied melt to 0.5kg of ice?
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.4 10
5
J kg
-1
3. (a) A gas is allowed to expand at a constant pressure of 150,000Pa from
5m
3
to 15m
3
. What work has been done?
(b) If the gas also receives 3 10
6
J of energy by heating what is the
increase in internal energy of the gas?
4. A man drags a crate across the floor of his refrigerated lorry. The crate
loses 150J of internal energy and has 350J of energy removed from it by
the cold surroundings.
(a) Calculate the work done on the crate.
(b) If the force exerted on the crate is 50N, calculate the distance moved
by the crate.
Qualitative Test Answers
The answers can be found in the text
Quantitative Test Answers
1. Q = mc = (1.5)(4200)(80-20) = 378,000J
2. Q = ml = (0.5)(-3.4 x 10
5
) = -1.7 x 10
5
J. Note how the answer is negative
as the ice is giving out energy and not supplying it.
3. (a) W = pV = (150000)(5-15)=-1,500,000J. Again, note the minus sign
showing that the gas has been doing work.
(b) U = Q+ W = 3 x 10
6
1,500,000 = 1,500,000J
4. (a) W = U Q = -150 (-350) = 200J
(b) x = W/F = (200)/(50) = 4m

First Law of Thermodynamics
1
Molecular Kinetic Theory
January 2002 Number 25
F
actsheet
P
hysics
This Factsheet will explain:
the theory behind the kinetic model for gases;
how the theory agrees with experimentally determined results;
how to use the theory to do simple calculations.
Before studying this Factsheet, you should be familiar with the
simple qualitative ideas of how particles are arranged in solids,
liquids, and gases.
You should know that:
pressure =
force

area
momentum = mass velocity
kinetic energy = mv
2

.
The theory makes several assumptions to simplify the model:
There are many molecules in the gas, so that average figures are
representative of the whole.
The molecules are moving rapidly and randomly.
The behaviour of the molecules can be described by Newtonian
mechanics.
The molecules are far apart(compared until their diameters)and have
no pull on each other.
Any forces acting, do so only during collisions and then only for a
very short time compared with the time between collisions.
The collisions are elastic (kinetic energy is conserved).
The total volume of the molecules is small compared to the volume
of the gas as a whole.
Exam Hint: You will need to know these assumptions of the model.
To understand the basis of the theory
Consider a rectangular box of gas:
The molecules are travelling in random directions with a range of speeds.
The pressure of the gas on the walls of the box is caused by collisions of
the molecules against the walls. A molecules momentum changes when
it hits the wall, (remember momentum is a vector quantity) and the force
is given by the rate of change of momentum. The pressure is then the force
per unit area.
To derive an expression for the pressure
To simplify the ideas consider a molecule of mass m travelling parallel to
the x axis with speed v
x
in a cubic box of side l.
The molecules momentum is mv
x
in the positive x direction.
After an elastic collision with the wall, its momentum will be mv
x
in the
negative x direction, so the change of momentum is 2mv
x
.
It will travel across the box and back, a distance of 2l, at speed v
x
, so
it will take time 2l seconds.
Thus the molecule will hit the face times per second.
Change of momentum per s = 2mv
x

=

mv
x
2
l
To generalise from this one molecule to average values for all the molecules,
consider a molecule with speed v in a random direction.
It will have components v
x
, v
y
, v
z
.
By Pythagoras: v
2
= v
x
2
+ v
y
2
+ v
z
2
Since the directions are random, there is no preference for any particular
direction, so we can assume that on average for all the molecules:
<v
x
2
> = <v
y
2
> = <v
z
2
>
so
<v
x
2
> = <v
2
>
So the average change in momentum per s for n molecules on this one face,
becomes:
pressure = , so the pressure due to all the molecules
P =
P = where V is the volume of the box.
RMS Speed.
The speed v
rms
is the root mean square value of the speed. It is
important to realise that the root mean square speed is not the same as
the mean of the speeds. It is the square root of the mean of the squares
of the speeds. Consider speeds of 1,2,3,4, and 5.
The mean speed <v> is found by adding up 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 then
dividing by 5 to give 3. The mean square speed <v
2
> is found by
squaring the speeds = 1, 4, 9, 16, 25. Adding them up gives 55 and
dividing by 5 gives 11. The r.m.s.speed is then the square root of
11 = 3.317 (3 D.P)
Exam hint: A2 level questions often ask you to do this derivation in
some form or other, often in words.
v
x
v
x

2l
v
x

2l
y
v
x
z
1
3
nm<v
2
>
l
force
area
1
3
nm<v
2
>
l
3
1
3
nm<v
2
>
V
1
3
Molecular Kinetic Theory Physics Factsheet
2
Worked example
A tank contains 2 moles of Neon (Relative Atomic Mass 20; i.e. the
molar mass is 20g) at 20
o
C.
Calculate:
a) The total K.E. of the gas.
b) v
RMS
of the molecules. (take R = 8.3 JK
1
mol
1
)
a) Total K.E = nRT
[Tip: Remember that T is the absolute temperature.]
= 2 8.3 293
= 7.3 10
3
J
b) Total K.E. = nN
A
m<v
2
> where nN
A
m is the number of moles molar mass
<v
2
> = 2 7.3 10
3
/20 10
3
= 7.3 10
5
v
RMS
= 850 ms
-1
(2sf) Worked example
The density of a gas at 20
o
C is 1.22kgm
3
. Assuming atmospheric
pressure of 1.0 10
5
Nm
2
, calculate v
RMS
of the molecules.
p = <v
2
>
<v
2
> = 3 1 10
5
/1.22 = 2.46 10
5

v
RMS
= <v
2
>= 496ms
1
3. The Universal Gas Law gives:
1
3
3
2
3
2
1
2
From our derivation:
pV = N
A
m<v
2
>

[N
A
is Avagadros number, the number of
molecules in 1 mole of gas.]
So
N
A
m<v
2
> = RT
The kinetic energy of one mole of molecules is N
A
m<v
2
>
so E
K
= RT (= N
A
m <v
2
>)
i.e., the KE of the gas is directly related to the absolute temperature.
For the kinetic energy of 1molecule we must divide by N
A
, which gives:
E
K
=
= kT where k = ,
k is called the Boltzmann constant.
1
3
1
3
3
2
3
2
1
2
RT
N
A
R
N
A
This is an important result that we can consider in a number of ways:
1.
The quantities on the right-hand side are all constant for a given gas at a given
temperature, so this agrees with Boyles Law that pV is a constant at a given
temperature.
2. The density of the gas = so we could write:
n m
V
Typical Exam Question
a) State four assumptions of the Kinetic Theory of Gases. [4]
b) A gas molecule in a cubical box travels with speed v at right
angles to one wall of the box. Show that the average pressure
exerted on the wall is proportional to v
2
. [4]
c) A container of volume 1.0 10
3
m
3
has hydrogen at a pressure of
3 10
5
Nm
2
and temperature 20
o
C.
[Molar mass of hydrogen is 2g.
Take R = 8.3JK
1
mol
1
, N
A
= 6.02 10
23
mol
1
]
Calculate i) the number of molecules in the container. [4]
ii) the v
RMS
of the molecules. [3]
a) Any four of:
pressure =
momentum = mass velocity
kinetic energy = mv
2
The collisions are elastic (kinetic energy is conserved).
b) The molecules's momentum is mv, the average chanage in
momentum when it hit a wall is 2mv. !
It takes to travel across the box and back,
so it will hit a face times per second. !
So change of momentum per second = 2mv !
=
pressure = = 2/l = !
c) i) PV = nRT
n = 3 10
5
1 10
3
/(8.3 293) !
= 0.12 moles !
number of molecules
= 0.12 6.02 10
23
!
= 7.43 10
22
!
ii) pV = nN
A
m<v
2
>
<v
2
> = 2 3 10
5
10
3
/ (0.12 2 10
3
) !
[N
A
m is the molar mass in kg]
<v
2
> = 6 10
5
/ 0.24 = 2.5 10
6
!
v
RMS
= 1900ms
1
! (2SF)
1
2
force
area
2l
V
V
2l
V
2l
mv
2
l
force
area
mv
2
l
2
mv
2
l
3
1
3
3
2

1
3
pV = nm<v
2
>
1
3
p = <v
2
> where is the density of the gas
Universal Gas Law: pV = nRT, where n = the number of
moles of gas, T = absolute temperature (
o
C + 273) Take care not to
confuse this n for the number of moles, with the n used earlier for the
number of molecules.

3
2
K.E. of gases and molecules.
The K.E.of 1 mole of gas = RT, where R is the molar gas constant.
The K.E. of 1 molecule = kT where k is the Boltzmann constant (= )
3
2
3
2
R
N
A

Physics Factsheet
3
Molecular Kinetic Theory
Exam Workshop
This is a typical poor students answer to an exam question. The
comments explain what is wrong with the answers and how they
can be improved. The examiners mark scheme is given below.
(a) How does Kinetic Theory explain the pressure exerted by
a gas on the walls of its container? [3]
The molecules of the gas collide with the walls of the container.
1/3
(b) State and explain circumstances in which the Kinetic Theory
expression for pressure in a gas p = <v
2
> does not hold.
[2]
At low temperature and pressure. 1/2
(c) A pressurised tank at 25
o
C contains 2 moles of helium gas
(Molar mass of helium = 4g). Take R = 8.3JK
1
mol
1
Calculate i) the total K.E. of the gas. [2]
i) K.E. = RT = 8.3 25 = 31lJ 1/2
The candidate should have realised that this is insufficient detail for 3
marks. The collisions cause a change in momentum of the molecules,
and the force is the rate of change of momentum. Pressure is force per
unit area.
Insufficient detail. It will not hold if the conditions mean that any of the
assumptions of the theory are invalid. e.g. for small quantities of gas
there may not be enough molecules to justify statistical averages. At
very low volume and high pressure the assumption that the volume of
the molecules themselves is much less than the volume of the container
may not be valid.
Two common mistakes the candidate has forgotten that there are 2
moles of gas and has failed to convert the temperature to absolute
temperature.
ii) V
RMS
for the molecules. [3]
ii) K.E. = nN
A
m<v
2
>
311 = 4 <v
2
>
<v
2
>= 311 2/4
v
RMS
= 12.5 ms
1
2/3
The candidate has already been penalised for the incorrect calculation
for the K.E. and for omitting the number of moles, so that would be
error carried forward (e.c.f), but s/he has now forgotten to express the
molar mass in kg. S/he should have realised that this value is far too low
for a v
RMS
.
Examiners answers
a) Pressure is force per unit area.! Force is rate of change of
momentum.! The force of the molecules against the walls arises
from the change in momentum which occurs when molecules
collide elastically with the walls. !
b) The expression will not hold if any of the assumptions of the
theory is invalid.! e.g. if the volume of the container is not large
compared with the volume of the molecules themselves.
c) i) KE = nRT !
= 2 8.3 298 !
= 7420J !
ii) KE = nN
A
m<v
2
>
= 2 4 10
3
<v
2
> !
<v
2
> = 7420/4 10
3
!
= 1.86 10
6
!
v
RMS
= 1-36 10
3
ms
1
!
v
RMS
= 854 ms
1
Questions
1. Use the ideas of Kinetic Theory to show that <v
2
> is proportional
to the absolute temperature.
2. Explain what is meant by v
RMS
for the molecules of a gas.
3. A gas exerts a pressure of 2 10
5
Pa. The v
RMS
is found to be 1100ms
1
.
What is the density of the gas?
4. i) Calculate the temperature at which hydrogen molecules have an
RMS speed of 1200ms
1
. R = 8.3JK
1
.mol
1
.
(Molar mass of hydrogen = 2g.)
ii) Calculate the KE of 1 mole of hydrogen gas at this temperature.
iii) Calculate the KE of 1 molecule of hydrogen at this temperature.
The Boltzmann constant k = 1.4 10
23
.
Answers
1. See text.
2. v
RMS
is the square root of the mean value of the speeds of the molecules.
3. = p<v
2
>
p = 3 2
= 0.50kgm
3
4.i) RT = N
A
m<v
2
>
T = 2 10
3

= 116K
ii) Energy of 1mole = RT
= 8.3 116
= 1.4 10
2
J
iii) Energy of 1 molecule

=
energy of 1 unit
number of molecule per mole
= 1.4 10
2
J
N
A
= 1.4 10
2
J

6.02 10
23
3
2
1
3
1
3
1
3
3
2
3
2
1200
2
8.3
10
5
1100
2
Acknowledgements:
This Physics Factsheet was researched and written by Janice Jones
The Curriculum Press,Unit 305B, The Big Peg,120 Vyse Street, Birmingham, B18 6NF
Physics Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students, provided that
their school is a registered subscriber.
No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any other form or by any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher.
ISSN 1351-5136
3
2
1
3
!
3
2
3
2
= 2.3 10
23
J
Specific Heat Capacity and Specific Latent Heat
September 2002 Number 37
F
actsheet
P
hysics
1

Heat Energy
When an object is either supplied with heat energy, or it loses heat energy,
there are two possible consequences for the object, a change in its
temperature and a change of state (from liquid to gas for example). This
factsheet is concerned with understanding and describing these two
consequences of heat energy transfer.
The symbol used for heat energy is Q.
material being heated, you will only get half the temperature rise if the same
amount of heat energy is supplied. A graph of temperature rise against
mass of material would look like the following:
The two consequences of a change in heat energy:
Changes in the heat energy of an object can lead to a change in
temperature of the object, a change of state of the object or a
combination of both of these things.
If an object is heating up it has had an increase in heat energy
and it is said to have had a positive change in heat energy
Q will be a positive number.
If an object is cooling down its heat energy is decreasing and
it is said to have had a negative change in heat energy
Q will be a negative number.
Specific Heat Capacity changes in temperature.
From everyday experience of heating substances, such as heating up water
for a cup of coffee, it is easy to believe that the more heat energy that a
substance receives, the larger its temperature rise. In fact accurate
experiments would show that if you double the amount of heat energy that
you give to a material, you would double the increase in temperature of the
substance. A graph of temperature rise against energy supplied would be
a straight line through the origin, as shown below.
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

r
i
s
e
heat energy supplied
This shows that temperature rise and heat energy supplied are directly
proportional to each other.
The symbol for temperature rise is . (The symbol represents
temperature and the symbol represents a change.) An increase in
temperature is given a positive value.
Mathematically we can express that change in temperature is proportional
to the heat energy supplied as follows:
Q
Similarly, it is easy to understand that if you take greater and greater
masses of a substance and supply each mass with the same amount of heat
energy, they will have smaller and smaller increases in temperature. This
can be seen through every day experience as well; a kettle may boil a cup
full of water in a few minutes, but if the kettle is full of water and you still
only switch it on for a few minutes, the water may only be lukewarm.
More accurate experiments reveal that if you double the mass of the
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

r
i
s
e
mass
This type of relationship shows that temperature rise is inversely
proportional to the mass of the material being heated. Mathematically, we
can express that temperature rise is inversely proportional to the mass of
material being heated as:

1
m
The factors affecting the temperature rise of a material.
As the heat energy supplied to a constant mass of material is increased,
the temperature rise of the material increases.
Energy supplied and temperature rise are directly proportional.
As the mass of a material increases the temperature rise decreases for
a constant amount of energy supplied.
Mass of material and temperature rise are inversely proportional.
The two proportionalities given above can be combined into one:

Q
m
This combined proportionality can be turned into an equation by inserting
a constant of proportionality, c.
c =
The constant of proportionality c is known as the specific heat capacity.
Q
m
Definition of specific heat capacity
Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat energy needed to increase
the temperature of 1 kg of the material by 1
o
C.
c =
c = specific heat capacity (Jkg
-1 o
C
-1
)
Q = heat energy supplied (J)
m = mass of material being heated (kg)
= increase in temperature (
o
C)
Q
m
Typical exam question
An immersion heater is to heat 50kg of water contained in a copper
hot water tank of mass 12 kg.
(a) Calculate how much energy is required to increase the temperature
of the water from 20
o
C to its boiling point.(2)
(b) What assumption have you made in the calculation for part (a)? (1)
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg
-1 o
C
-1
(a) Increase in temperature, = final temperature initial temperature
= 100 20 = 80
o
C
Heat energy supplied, Q = mc = (50)(4200)(80)! = 16,800,000 J!
(b) That none of the water has evaporated !
Specific Heat Capacity and Specific Latent Heat
Physics Factsheet
2
Exam Hint: - Dont be concerned when your answers to calculations
seem to be large numbers for the amount of heat energy needed for heating
up materials such as water. It requires lots of energy to increase the
temperature of some materials.
Specific heat capacity and cooling down
The equation for specific heat capacity is not confined to heating up
materials, it can also be used when materials cool down. It is important to
remember that when a material is cooling down it is losing heat energy so
the value for heat energy supplied, Q, will be negative. Similarly, the
temperature of the material will be falling, and the value for temperature
increase, , will be negative.
Worked Example: An oven tray of mass 120g and made of iron is taken
out of the oven and cools by losing 8,000 J of heat energy. When the tray
is initially at a temperature of 200
o
C what will be its final temperature?
The specific heat capacity of iron = 470 Jkg
-1 o
C
-1
A rearranged specific heat capacity equation can be used to find the increase
in temperature for the tray but it is important to include the negative sign in
front of the value for heat energy supplied. Also note how the mass of the
tray has been converted into kilograms before it has been substituted into
the equation.
= Q/mc = (-8000)/(0.12)(470) = -142
o
C
This has now given us a negative value for temperature rise, as we would
expect because the tray is cooling.
Final temperature = 200 142 = 58
o
C
Specific latent heat changes in state
If a material is going through a change of state, from solid to liquid, liquid to
gas or vice versa, then its temperature will remain constant. The material
will still require heat energy to melt it or boil it, but the heat energy is used
to alter the arrangement of the molecules of the material. The spacing between
the molecules is increased and work is done against the forces of attraction
between the molecules. Similarly, the material will also give out heat energy
if it is condensing or freezing.
Our existing equation for specific heat capacity cannot be used for changes
of state.
The more heat energy that is supplied to a material that is changing state,
the more of that material will change. Heat energy supplied, Q, and mass
of material changing state, m, are directly proportional.
Q m
Once again, this proportionality can be changed into an equation by inserting
a constant of proportionality, l.
Q = lm
Q = Heat energy supplied (J)
m = Mass of material changing state (kg)
The constant of proportionality, l, is called the specific latent heat and it has
the units Jkg
-1
.
Every material has two values of specific latent heat, one value for a change
of state from a solid to a liquid, called the specific latent heat of fusion(fusion
is another word for melting), and one value for a change of state from a liquid
into a gas, called the specific latent heat of vaporisation.
The symbol used for both specific latent heat of fusion and specific latent
heat of vaporisation is l.
Energy supplied when cooling down
When a material is cooling down its total amount of heat energy is
decreasing, and any value for heat energy supplied, Q, will be
negative. This will also mean a negative value for increase in
temperature, , as the temperature of the material is decreasing.
Definition of specific latent heat
Specific latent heat of fusion is defined as the amount of energy required
to turn 1 kg of a solid into a liquid at a constant temperature.
Specific latent heat of vaporisation is defined as the amount of energy
required to turn 1 kg of a liquid into a gas at a constant temperature.
l = Q/m
l = specific latent heat (Jkg
-1
)
Q = heat energy supplied (J)
m = mass of material changing state (kg)
Gaining and losing heat energy when changing state
If a substance is changing from a solid to a liquid or from a liquid
to a gas then heat energy is being supplied to a substance and Q
is positive.
If a substance is changing from a gas to a liquid or a liquid to a
solid then it is losing heat energy and the heat energy supplied,
Q, is negative.
Typical exam question
A kettle is filled with 2.0kg of water.
(a) Calculate how much energy is required to increase the
temperature of the water from 20
o
C to boiling point, 100
o
C. (3)
(b) If the kettle is left running so that it supplies another 12000J of
energy, how much of the water will have evaporated and turned
from a liquid into a gas.(2)
specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg
-1 o
C
-1
specific latent heat of vaporisation of water = 2.3 10
6
Jkg
-1
(a) Change in temperature, = final temperature initial temperature
= 100 20 = 80
o
C !
Heat energy supplied, Q = mc = (2)(4200)(80) ! = 672,000 J !
(b) Mass evaporated, m=Q/l=(12000)/(2.3 10
6
) !=0.0052kg = 5.2g !
.
Qualitative (Concept Test)
(1) What are the two possible consequences of heating or cooling a sample
of material?
(2) (a) If different masses of the same material are supplied with equal
amounts of heat energy, how will the temperature increase depend
on the mass?
(b) Sketch a graph of temperature increase against mass.
(3) Define specific heat capacity as an equation and in words.
(4) What happens to the temperature of a substance as it changes from a
liquid to a solid?
(5) Define, in words, the specific latent heat of vaporisation.
(6) What is the difference between latent heat of vaporisation and latent
heat of fusion?
Quantitative (Calculation Test)
(1) What is the specific heat capacity of aluminium if it takes 18,200 J of
energy to increase the temperature of a 5.0 kg block of aluminium by
4.0
o
C?(2)
(2) How much heat energy will be supplied to 1.5kg of water when it is
heated from 20
o
C to 80
o
C? (2)
(Specific heat capacity of water = 4,200 Jkg
-1 o
C
-1
)
(3) How much heat energy will be given out by a block of copper with a
mass of 2.0 kg, which is cooling down from 150
o
C to 20
o
C? Specific
heat of copper = 390 Jkg
-1 o
C
-1
(2)
(4) How much heat energy will have to be supplied to melt 0.50kg of ice?
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 330,000 J/kg. (2)
(5) (a) What is the total amount of energy needed to heat up a copper kettle
of mass 1.5 kg, from 20
o
C to boiling. The kettle is filled with water
of mass 2.5 kg.(5)
(b) Give 2 assumptions made in your calculation.(2)
Physics Factsheet
3
Exam Workshop
This is a typical answer that might might be given by a weak student
in an examination. The comments explain what is wrong with the
answers and how they can be improved. The examiners answer is
given below.
The graph below shows how the temperature is changing over a period
of time for 25g of water that is being cooled, turned into ice, and taken
to a final temperature of -4
o
C.
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Specific Heat Capacity and Specific Latent Heat
region A
region B
region C
Time (minutes)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

o
f

w
a
t
e
r
/
i
c
e

(
o
C
)
For this question you will need to know:
specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg
-1 o
C
-1
;
specific latent heat of fusion of water/ice = 3.3 10
5
Jkg
-1
.
(a) In which region of the graph, A, B, or C, is the water changing into
ice? (1)
C # 0/1
In region C the water has completely turned to ice and has started to
cool further. The temperature of all materials remains constant as they
change state. The student should be looking for the region of the graph
where the temperature does not change.
(b) How much heat is extracted from the water to cool it during the
first 20 minutes of the graph? (2)
Q = mc = (25)(4200)(5) #= 525,000J # 0/2
The student has used the correct equation for specific heat capacity
but has not converted the value for mass into kilograms and the value
for time must also be converted into seconds.
(c) How much heat energy is extracted from the water during the
time that the temperature remains constant at 0
o
C? (2)
Q = ml = (25)(3.3 10
5
) != 8,250,000J !ecf 2/2
The student has correctly used the equation but with the same mistake
in the units of mass. This mistake would probably not be penalised
a second time in the same question.
(d) If a total of 210J of energy are extracted from the ice in the final
10 minutes shown by the graph, calculate the specific heat
capacity of ice. (2)
c = Q/m = (210)/(25)(-4) = -0.21 Jkg
-1 o
C
-1
# 0/2
The student has not given the heat removed a negative sign (as energy
has been extracted from the ice). This has given an incorrect negative
answer, which is also a thousand times too small because of the
recurring mistake of quoting mass in g instead of kg.
Examiners Answers
(a) C
(b) Q = mc = (0.025)(4200)(5) = 525 J
(c) Q = ml = (0.025)(3.3 10
5
) = 8,250 J
(d) c = Q/m = (-210)/(0.025)(-4) = 2,100 Jkg
-1 o
C
-1
Acknowledgements: This Physics Factsheet was researched and written
by Jason Slack.
The Curriculum Press,Unit 305B, The Big Peg,120 Vyse Street,
Birmingham, B18 6NF.
Physics Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or
students, provided that their school is a registered subscriber.
No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any other form or by any other means, without
the prior permission of the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136
Quantitative Test Answers
(1) c = Q/ m = (18,200)/(5)(4) = 910 Jkg
-1 o
C
-1
.
(2) Q = mc = (1.5)(4200)(80-20) = 378,000J
(3) Q = mc = (2)(390)(20-150) = -101,400J. Note the answer is
negative, showing the copper block to be cooling.
(4) Q = ml = (0.5)(-330,000) = -165,000J. Note the answer is negative
showing that the ice is giving out energy and not being supplied with
it.
(5) (a) Energy needed to heat up water = mc = (1.5)(4200)(100-20)
=504,000 J
Energy needed to heat up kettle= mc =(2.5)(390)(100-20)
=78,000 J
Total energy needed = 504,000 + 78,000 = 582,000 J
(b) The copper heats up to the same temperature as the water.
There is no energy loss to the surroundings of the kettle such as air
and the surface that it stands on.
1
April 2002 Number 34
F
actsheet
P
hysics
The Gas Laws
This Factsheet will explain:
how Boyles Law is arrived at experimentally;
how Charles Law is arrived at experimentally;
the Kelvin temperature scale;
how the Pressure Law is arrived at experimentally;
how these three are combined into the Universal Gas Law;
how to use the Gas Laws to do simple calculations.
Before studying this Factsheet, you should have an idea of how particles are
arranged in solids, liquids and gases and know that because the particles in
a gas are far apart they can be pushed together easily. You should know that
gases exert a pressure on the walls of their container by the particles hitting
the walls. You should know that pressure = force/area. You should also be
familiar with the Celsius scale of temperature and the concept of a mole of
a substance (you find the moles of a substance by dividing its mass in
grammes by its molecular mass).
Boyles law
From your knowledge of how particles are arranged in a gas it should seem
likely that if you decrease the volume of a gas, its pressure will increase,
because the particles will have less far to travel between hitting the walls and
so will hit the walls more often. It was Robert Boyle who investigated this
effect more carefully using a thick-walled pressure vessel with variable
volume, which could be altered by turning a screw. The pressure was
measured using a manometer. He arrived at the result that the pressure of
a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume. i.e. if you halve
the volume the pressure will double, provided that the temperature does not
change. This can also be expressed as:
pV = constant
Boyle's Law:
For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperarure PV = constant
Typical Exam Question
1. 5l of a gas is at a pressure of 1 atmosphere. What will its volume
be if the pressure is increased to 1.5 atmosphere, with no change
in temperature?
pV = constant, so 5 1 = V 1.5
So V =
5
1.5
= 3.33l
2. A gas occupies a volume of 3l at a pressure of 1.9 atmosphere.
What pressure would reduce its volume to 1.6l assuming there
is no change in temperature?
pV = constant, so 3 1.9 = P 1.6
So p =
3 1.9
1.6
= 3.56 atmos
Charles law
Fig. 1 Apparatus for investigating the volume of a fixed mass of gas at
different temperatures
Ruler
Beaker of water of
variable temperature
Thermometer
Column of air trapper
by a bead of conc.
sulphuric acid
The apparatus shown in fig.1 can be used to find the volume of a fixed mass
of gas at different temperatures. When the results are plotted on a graph of
temperature, in
0
C, against volume, as in Fig.2 a) the result is a straight line
but it does not go through the origin. When the graph is replotted to show
the intercept on the temperature axis, as in Fig.2 b) it is found that the
intercept is at 273.16
O
C. This temperature is known as absolute zero and
it represents the temperature at which the volume of the gas would be zero.
Fig. 2 Volume against temperature for a fixed mass of gas at constant
pressure
a)
b)
Temperature/
o
C
Volume
0 -273
Volume
Temperature/
o
C 0
www.curriculumpress.co.uk
Physics Factsheet
2
The Gas Laws
It is very important to realize that in extrapolating the graph to absolute zero
you are making the assumption that the gas continues to behave in exactly
the same manner. A gas that does this is called an ideal gas. In practice, no
gases behave exactly as ideal gases, but many approximate to ideal gas
behaviour, so the concept is useful.
The Kelvin Temperature Scale
If we shift the origin of the graph to absolute zero, then the graph of volume
against temperature becomes a straight line through the origin. This means that
we can say that volume is proportional to the new temperature. This new
temperature scale is called the kelvin temperature scale (also the absolute
temperature scale) and is arrived at by adding 273 to the temperature in
o
C
1. Give the following Celsius temperatures in kelvin
a) 23
0
C b) 94


0
C c) 120
0
C
a) 23
0
C = 23 + 273 = 296K
b) 94


0
C = 94 + 273 = 367K
c) 120
0
C = 120 + 273 = 393K
2. Give the following kelvin temperatures in
0
C
a) 420K b) 368K c) 420K
a) 420K = 420 273 = 147
0
C
b) 368K = 368 273 = 95
0
C
c) 315K = 315 273 = 42
0
C
Practice Question
Provided the temperatures are on the kelvin scale, we can express Charles
law as:
V

T
Charles' Law:
For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure
V

T where V is the volume
T is the temperature (Kelvin (K))
Exam Hint: Always remember to use kelvin temperatures for any gas
calculations. The symbol T is used for a temperature in Kelvin.
The Pressure law
So far we have considered:
a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature and found a relationship for
p and V
a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure and found a relationship for V
and T
Not surprisingly, there is also a relationship between p and temperature for
a fixed mass of gas at constant volume. This is known as the Pressure law.
Plotting p against temperature in
o
C for a fixed mass of gas results in an
intercept on the temperature axis of 273.16, just as for V against temperature.
So using temperature on the kelvin scale applies to the Pressure law as well.
Typical Exam Question
The temperature of 1 litre of gas is raised from 10
o
C to 20
o
C.
What will be its volume at the higher temperature, if the pressure
is kept constant?
V T, so
V
T
is constant.
1 V
283
=
293
V =
293
283
= 1.04l
The Pressure law:
For a fixed mass of gas at a constant volume: = constant
The Ideal Gas Equation.
The three gas laws can be combined into a single equation, which can cope
with a change in more than one variable at once. This combination is known
as the ideal gas equation. It can be stated as:
= constant for 1mole of gas
The constant for 1 mole of gas is known as the molar gas constant, R and
has the value 8.3 JK
-1
mole
-1
If there is more than 1 mole of gas then we need to multiply by the number
of moles.
The final statement of all this information is: pV = nRT, where n is the number
of moles.
Typical Exam Question
The temperature of a fixed volume of gas at a pressure of 2.0 10
5
Pa

is increased from 23
0
C to 37
0
C. What will be the new pressure?
2.0 10
5
296
=
310
p
= 2.1 10
5
Pa p =
2.0 10
5
310
296
= constant, so
Exam Hint: You may find volumes quoted in litres or m
3
, pressures quoted
in atmospheres or pascals (Pa) 1 Pa = 1Nm
-2
. If you are using Boyle's
or the Pressure Law, just leave it in whatever unit it is given in.
The ideal gas equation:
pV = nRT Where p = pressure in Pa

,
V = volume in m
3
n = the number of moles of gas
R = the molar gas constant
T = the temperature in kelvin.
Exam Hint: In using the ideal gas equation, it does matter which units
you use. When the pressure is in Pa

the volume must be in m
3
and the
temperature in K otherwise R would not be 8.3 JK
-1
mol
-1
.
p
T
p
T
www.curriculumpress.co.uk
pV
T
Physics Factsheet
3
Exam Workshop
This is a typical poor students answer to an exam question. The
comments explain what is wrong with the answers and how they can be
improved. The examiners mark scheme is given below.
a) State and explain the ideal gas equation. [2]
pV = nRT 1/2
b) Explain why it is necessary, when using the gas laws, to express
the temperature on the kelvin temperature scale. [2]
Because it wont work otherwise. 0/2
c) The volume of a balloon containing gas is 0.4l at a temperature
of 15
o
C, and a pressure of 101kPa. What will be the new volume
of the balloon, if the temperature rises to 25
o
C and the pressure
decreases to 95kPa? [3]
pV
T
= constant
so 101 0.4
=
95 V
15 25
V =
101 0.4 25
15 95
= 6396.7l 1/3
Examiners Answers
a) pV = nRT where p = pressure in Pa

, V = volume in m
3
n = number of moles of gas, R = universal gas constant,
T = temperature in K.
This is true only for gases which approximate to ideal gas behaviour.
b) The temperatures must be in K because, for proportionality, the graph
must be a straight line, through the origin. This happens for volume
and pressure, only if the origin is shifted to where the volume or
pressure line crosses the temperature axis i.e. 273
0
C.
c) pV
T
= constant
so
101 0.4 95 V
288
=
298
V =
101 0.4 298
(288 95)
= 0.44l
Typical Exam Question
a) State the conditions under which p, the pressure of a gas is
proportional to T, the absolute temperature. [2]
b) A bottle of gas has a pressure of 200 kPa above atmospheric
pressure at a temperature of 0
0
C.
The atmospheric pressure is 102kPa. Calculate the new pressure
in the bottle when the temperature rises to 25
0
C. [3]
c) A mass of gas is at a pressure of 100 kPa and a temperature of 24
o
C.
If it occupies a volume of 10litres, how many moles of gas are
present? Take R= 8.31 J

mol
-1
K
-1
[3]
a) p is proportional to T for a fixed mass of gas , which approximates
sufficiently closely to ideal gas behaviour. i.e. at low pressure
b) p = 302kPa , T = 273K
New T = 298 K
=
p =
302 298
273
c) pV = nRT
100kPa = 100 10
3
Pa and 10 l = 10 10
-3
m
3

100 10
3
10 10
-3
= n 8.31 297
n =
1000
8.31 297
302
273
p
298
= 329.7kPa
= 0.4 moles
Although correct, this is insufficient for both marks. The candidate
should have explained the meaning of the terms and stated that this
is for an ideal gas.
This has not answered the question. The examiner is looking for
an understanding that for proportionality, the graph must be a
straight line, through the origin, so the origin must be shifted to
where the graph cuts the temperature-axis.

The candidate is using the correct method but, despite the gentle
reminder in part b) s/he has forgotten to convert the temperature
into K and has then made a calculator error by multiplying by 95,
instead of dividing by it. The candidate should realize that this is
not a sensible figure for the answer and check his/her work.
Questions
1 The table gives volumes of a fixed mass of gas at various pressures.
volume/litres 12 6 4 3 2.4 2
pressure/Pa 1 2 3 4 5 6
a) Plot a graph of pressure (p) against volume (V). Plot p on the x-axis.
b) This graph looks like a y = graph, suggesting that V is proportional
to , to confirm this plot a graph of V against .
c) What feature of the graph confirms that V is proportional to ?
2. Two gas canisters contain different gases, but they are at the same
temperature, pressure and volume. Use the ideal gas equation to show
that each canister contains the same number of molecules.
3. A gas canister contains a mass of 64g of oxygen at a pressure of 105 kPa and
a temperature of 22
0
C. What is its volume? [Take R = 8.3JK
-1
mol
-1
,
relative molecular mass for oxygen is 32]
The Gas Laws
www.curriculumpress.co.uk

1
x
1
p
1
p
1
p
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
4
Acknowledgements:
This Physics Factsheet was researched and written by Janice Jones.
The Curriculum Press,Unit 305B, The Big Peg,120 Vyse Street, Birmingham, B18 6NF
Physics Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students, provided that
their school is a registered subscriber.
No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any other form or by any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher.
ISSN 1351-5136
Answers
1. a)
b)
V/litres 12 6 4 3 2.4 2
1/p /Pa
-1
1 0.5 0.33 0.25 0.2 0.17
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
P/Pa
V/l
V
/
l
1/P /pa-1
c) The graph is a straight line through the origin, this confirms V is
proportional to 1/p.
2. The ideal gas equation is pV = nRT. If p,V and T are all equal for the two
gases, then each must contain the same number of moles, since R is a
universal constant. If each gas has the same number of moles, then each
has the same number of molecules.
3. Since there are 64g of oxygen, the number of moles is 2.
pV = nRT
so 105 10
3
V = 2 8.3 295
V =
2 8.3 295
105 10
3

= 0.047 m
3
The Gas Laws
Physics Factsheet
www.curriculumpress.co.uk