British Forum for Ethnomusicology

Polyphonic Voices: National Identity, World Music and the Recording of Traditional Music in
Corsica
Author(s): Caroline Bithell
Source: British Journal of Ethnomusicology, Vol. 5 (1996), pp. 39-66
Published by: British Forum for Ethnomusicology
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BRITISH JOURNAL OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY
Polyphonic
v oice s :
na t iona l id e nt it y, W or ld Mu s ic a nd
t he
r e cor d ing
of t r a d it iona l m u s ic in Cor s ica
Ca r oline Bit he ll
Following
a br ie f int r od u ct ion
t r a cing
t he
int e r pla y
of
cha ng ing s ocio-polit ica l
cond it ions
a nd m u s ica l t a s t e s be hind t he Cor s ica n cu lt u r a l r e v iv a l of t he
pa s t
t wo d e ca d e s a nd t he
e xt e ns iv e
r e cor d ing a ct iv it y
which ha s r e s u lt e d , t his a r t icle
g oe s
on t o d is cu s s r e ce nt
r e cor d ing s
of t r a d it iona l v oca l m u s ic-in
pa r t icu la r polyphony-a nd
t he
wa y
in which
pe r f or m e r s ' polit ica l
a nd a r t is t ic m ot iv a t ions a nd
id e olog ie s
inf or m t he ir
int e r pr e t a t ion
of
t he
s ong s . Im plica t ions
of t he m e d iu m it s e lf f or
pe r f or m a nce pr a ct ice
a r e a ls o a d d r e s s e d . I
t he n cons id e r t he na t u r e of f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
a nd a s s ocia t e d is s u e s a nd
pr opos e
t he
com ple m e nt a r it y
of f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
a nd com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s
a s m a t e r ia l f or e t hno-
m u s icolog ica l s t u d y. Qu e s t ions of
a u t he nt icit y,
t he na t u r e of "t r a d it ion" a nd t he
r e ce pt ion
of
r e cor d ing s by
ins u la r a u d ie nce s a r e a ls o r a is e d . The
s pir it
be hind
m y
a na lys is
is not t o
s how how t r a d it ions
m ig ht
be s u bv e r t e d , bu t r a t he r t o
inv e s t ig a t e
a nd
s u g g e s t
s om e of t he
m a ny wa ys
in which t he
pr oce s s
of m u s ica l e v olu t ion ca n
ope r a t e .
Cor s ica n
s ing ing
t r a d it ions : d e cline a nd r e v iv a l
Cor s ica 's
s t r a t e g ic pos it ion
in t he Me d it e r r a ne a n ha s le d t o a t u r bu le nt
his t or y,
wit h s u cce s s iv e inv a s ions
by Gr e e ks , Et r u s ca ns , Ca r t ha g inia ns , Rom a ns , Va nd a ls ,
Byza nt ine s ,
Os t r og ot hs ,
Lom ba r d s a nd Sa r a ce ns . Fr om t he 11t h t o t he 18t h
ce nt u r ie s it wa s r u le d
by
Pis a a nd t he n Ge noa . In 1769 it be ca m e
pa r t
of Fr a nce ,
s u bs e qu e nt ly e njoying
a br ie f
s pe ll
a s t he
Ang lo-Cor s ica n king d om d u r ing
t he
ye a r s
1794-6 be f or e
f ina lly pa s s ing
ba ck t o Fr a nce . Fr e nch is now t he of f icia l
la ng u a g e
while t he
ind ig e nou s la ng u a g e , Cor s ica n, is
g iv e n
s ca nt
r e cog nit ion,
a
s it u a t ion which
e ng e nd e r s
m u ch d is cont e nt . The Cor s ica n
la ng u a g e d e v e lope d
f r om La t in a nd is
clos e ly
r e la t e d t o
Sa r d inia n, Sicilia n, t he d ia le ct s t ha t ha v e
be com e
m od e m -d a y
It a lia n a nd , t o a le s s e r
e xt e nt , Spa nis h.
The
popu la t ion
is
cu r r e nt ly
a r ou nd
240, 000.
Alm os t
e v e r yone
in Cor s ica
t od a y
ha s a cou s in who, a m ong s t
ot he r
t hing s ,
"s ing s
in a
g r ou p".1
W hile
m a ny
of t he s e
g r ou ps
a r e
incr e a s ing ly f ind ing
ope ning s
t o
pe r f or m a br oa d , ot he r s lim it t he ir a ct iv it ie s t o t he is la nd it s e lf whe r e
1
The
m a jor it y
of t he s e
s t yle
t he m s e lv e s a s
g r ou pe s cu lt u r e ls ;
t he y r a ng e f r om s m a ll e ns e m ble s
of
s ing e r s
wit h m od e s t ins t r u m e nt a t ion t o t he
g r ou p
I Mu v ini whos e
s t a g e
s hows inclu d e
m a ny
of t he
t r a pping s
of a m or e e s t a blis he d
pop g r ou p.
39
VOL 5
1996
40 Br it is h Jou r na l
of Et hnom u s icolog y, v ol. 5 (1996)
oppor t u nit ie s
t o
pe r f or m
com e in a
v a r ie t y
of
g u is e s . Gr ou ps
t ou r a r ou nd t he
is la nd
d u r ing
t he s u m m e r m ont hs
g iv ing
conce r t s a nd a r e of t e n inv it e d t o
a ppe a r
a t f a ir s , f e s t iv a ls a nd
pa t r on
s a int 's
d a y
ce le br a t ions . Mos t t a ke
pa r t
in "cu lt u r a l
e v e ning s "
a nd in e v e nt s
or g a nis e d by
t he d if f e r e nt na t iona lis t
or g a nis a t ions ,
of t e n
in conne ct ion wit h
s u ppor t
f or
polit ica l
pr is one r s .
The y
a r e a ls o ca lle d
u pon
t o
s ing
t he m a s s f or
we d d ing s
a nd f u ne r a ls .
Ma ny
a r e e s t a blis he d t o t he e xt e nt t ha t
t he y pr od u ce
com m e r cia l CDs which in t u r n a r e
g iv e n
a ir
s pa ce
on t he r a d io. At
t he s a m e t im e , m e m be r s of t e n cont inu e t o
ope r a t e
a s
"or d ina r y" s ing e r s
in t he ir
loca l com m u nit ie s .
The
or ig ina l im pu ls e
f or t his
u ps u r g e
in m u s ica l
a ct iv it y d a t ing
ba ck t o t he
e a r ly
1970s wa s
pr ov id e d by
t he na s ce nt na t iona lis t /a u t onom is t m ov e m e nt ,
in
conju nct ion
wit h which t he r e
d e v e lope d
t he not ion of m ilit a nt s cu lt u r e ls . This in
t u r n
s pa wne d
a n e xt e nd e d
f a m ily
of
g r ou ps , be g inning
wit h Ca nt a u
Popu lu
Cor s u , whos e a im wa s "t o d e f e nd a nd
pr om ot e
Cor s ica n
la ng u a g e
a nd cu lt u r e
by
m e a ns of
s ong " (Ga t t a ce ca 1984),
t he
s ong s
in
qu e s t ion be ing
bot h t r a d it iona l a nd
of t he ir own cr e a t ion, a nd
a lwa ys
in t he Cor s ica n
la ng u a g e .2
The
pot e ncy
of t he
m u s ic a nd it s cont inu e d
a bilit y
t o e v oke a
s t r ong
e m ot iona l
r e s pons e
is
cle a r ly
in
pa r t
cond it ione d
by
it s int im a t e conne ct ion wit h t he
la ng u a g e
is s u e : a t t he t im e ,
t he
s ong s
cons t it u t e d t he
only
ov e r t
r e pr e s e nt a t ion
of t he Cor s ica n
la ng u a g e
in t he
pu blic s phe r e .
Ca nt a u
Popu lu
Cor s u it s e lf
g r e w
ou t of a
m e e t ing
be t we e n t r a d it iona l
s ing e r s
f r om t he
v illa g e
of Se r m a nu a nd a
g r ou p
of
you ng
na t iona lis t s ba s e d a r ou nd t he
t own of
Aja ccio
whe r e
t he y
we r e a s s ocia t e d wit h A Ca s a d i a Cu lt u r a
/
La Ma is on
d e la Cu lt u r e . Se r m a nu wa s one of t he
v illa g e s
whe r e t r a d it iona l
s ing ing s t yle s
a nd
g e nr e s , inclu d ing
a s ize a ble
bod y
of
polyphonic lit u r g ica l m u s ic, ha d be e n
be s t
pr e s e r v e d
a nd a nu m be r of
s ing e r s
f r om t he
v illa g e
we r e
a lr e a d y
inv olv e d
wit h t he m or e f olklor ic
g r ou p
A Ma nne lla . Som e of t he
Aja ccio-ba s e d
m e m be r s
a ls o ca m e f r om f a m ilie s who ha d t he ir r oot s in
v illa g e s
wit h
s t r ong s ing ing
t r a d it ions . The cons t it u t ion of t he
g r ou p
wa s f le xible : a t
a ny
one t im e t he r e cou ld
be a s
m a ny
a s 30 m e m be r s .
In t he la t e 1970s a nd
e a r ly 1980s , a t t e m pt s
t o
or g a nis e
m u s ica l
e v e ning s
or
conce r t s in t he
v illa g e s
we r e
incr e a s ing ly
m e t wit h
hos t ilit y,
not
only by
t he
Fr e nch a u t hor it ie s a nd t he ir loca l
r e pr e s e nt a t iv e s ,
who v ie we d s u ch a ct iv it ie s a s
r e v olu t iona r y
a nd
r e s pond e d a ccor d ing ly,
bu t a ls o
by
s om e of t he is la nd e r s
t he m s e lv e s ,
who f ou nd t he t r a d it iona l
s t yle s
of
s ing ing
a nd t he ir a s s ocia t ion wit h
a
r u r a l, ba ckwa r d s -looking wa y
of lif e
e m ba r r a s s ing
a nd s ha m e f u l, a s we ll a s
be ing
a lie na t e d
by
t he a s s ocia t e d
polit ica l
r he t or ic.
Up
u nt il t he s e v e nt ie s ,
t r a d it iona l m u s ic-a nd in
pa r t icu la r
t he
polyphonic
pa g hje lla
s t yle
of
s ing ing -
ha d s u r v iv e d a s a
liv ing
t r a d it ion
only
in t he
v illa g e s
of t he int e r ior , m a inly
a m ong s t
f a m ilie s of
s he phe r d s ,
a nd wa s
v e r y
m u ch a
pr iv a t e
a f f a ir of whos e
2
Mos t of t he s e
g r ou ps
we r e
f or m a lly
cons t it u t e d a s "a s s ocia t ions " in a ccor d a nce wit h t he la w of
1901. It s hou ld be not e d he r e t ha t
m e m be r s hip wa s , a nd s t ill is , a lm os t
e xclu s iv e ly
m a le . The ir
a ct iv it ie s a r e not r e s t r ict e d t o
pe r f or m a nce a lone , bu t inclu d e a com m it m e nt t o colle ct ion,
r e s e a r ch a nd t r a ns m is s ion of t he m a t e r ia l.
Bit he ll:
Polyphonic
v oice s : t he
r e cor d ing of
t r a d it iona l m u s ic in Cor s ica 41
Fig .
1:
Ma p of
Cor s ica
s howing pla ce s r e f e r r e d
t o in t he t e xt
Spe lonca t u
I
CAP CORSE
Pig na
Mu r u
\\
BASTIA
Lu m iu
d '-P
_^^^-C'Y~~ \ /Col
d e Pr a t u
L.-
?
/*
1_
Ta g liu -ls u la cciu
U Mu ca le
_
Ru s iu
Piog g iola
, <^
.;
(
Sa nt a Lu cia
Olm i
Ca ppe lla c) CORTE 0
d i Me r cu r iu
~
'
^
Se r m a nu
"
"
HAUTE
CORSE \\ CORSE
DU
/
SUD
KS
* '\
j
Cozza no
AJACCIO
Au lle ne
BONIFACIO
e xis t e nce t he inha bit a nt s of t he coa s t a l t owns r e m a ine d
ig nor a nt . Mor e ov e r , t he
d e cim a t ion of t he m a le
popu la t ion by
t he Fir s t a nd Se cond W or ld
W a r s , t og e t he r
wit h t he incr e a s e d
e m ig r a t ion
a nd u r ba nis a t ion which t he wa r s
br ou g ht
in t he ir
wa ke , ha d r e s u lt e d in t he s e v e r e
d e popu la t ion
of t he s e s a m e
v illa g e s .
W he n
W olf g a ng
La a d e v is it e d t he is la nd in 1973 a s a
f ollow-u p
t o his r e s e a r ch int o
Cor s ica n m u s ic
be g u n
in t he la t e
1950s ,
it s e e m e d t ha t t r a d it iona l Cor s ica n m u s ic
wa s
a lr e a d y
in t he
pr oce s s
of
br e a t hing
it s la s t
(La a d e 1981).
42 Br it is h Jou r na l
f Et hnom u s icolog y,
v ol. 5 (1996)
The
pu blic
f a ce of Cor s ica n m u s ic in t he int e r - a nd
pos t -wa r ye a r s
ha d be e n
r e pr e s e nt e d
on t he one ha nd
by ope r a s ing e r s
a nd t he s o-ca lle d cha nt e u r s d e
cha r m e ,
s u ch a s Tino
Ros s i,
who
s a ng
r om a nt icis e d r e nd it ions of m onod ic
s ong s -m a inly ne wly-com pos e d
cha ns ons
oozing nos t a lg ia -in
t he cont e xt of t he
d ia s por ic
e nt e r t a inm e nt cir cu it a nd t he Fr e nch f ilm
ind u s t r y,
a nd on t he ot he r
by
f olklor ic
g r ou ps
who d r e s s e d in
cos t u m e s ,
ca r r ie d
cowbe lls , f la g s , g u ns
a nd
ba s ke t s of f lowe r s a nd
pe r f or m e d
a
r e pe r t oir e
of
pr e d om ina nt ly
u r ba n3
popu la r
s ong s a r r a ng e d
f or
s opr a no, a lt o,
t e nor a nd ba s s .4 In e a ch
ca s e ,
t he cr u d e ne s s of
t he old m od a lit ie s wa s s m oot he d ou t a nd t he
pu ls e r e g u la r is e d ,
a id e d
by
t he
a d d it ion of ins t r u m e nt a l
a ccom pa nim e nt (m a inly g u it a r
a nd
m a nd olin).
The
s ong s
be ca m e "cle a n"
(d e
Ze r bi
1993)
a nd
com f or t a ble , a cce pt a ble
t o t he cont ine nt a l
pa la t e
a nd in
ke e ping
wit h t he s e ns e of
pos t -wa r opt im is m .5
Pa r t of Ca nt a 's
m is s ion wa s t o
r e pla ce
t his d ilu t e d ,
of t e n d e r iv a t iv e a nd
ine s ca pa bly
com m e r cia l
or t ou r is t -or ie nt e d
pr od u ct
wit h "r e a l" Cor s ica n v oice s : t o r e t u r n t o t he r u r a l
r oot s .6.
The y
we r e
e ng a g e d
in a d e libe r a t e
pr oje ct
of cu lt u r a l r e cons t r u ct ion.7 The
3
"Ur ba n" he r e r e f e r s t o t he s t ill
r e la t iv e ly
s m a ll coa s t a l
t owns ,
m os t
not a bly
Ba s t ia in t he nor t h
a nd
Aja ccio
in t he s ou t h. For t he
s ing e r s conce r ne d ,
t he s e
s ong s r e pr e s e nt e d
t he ir own "loca l"
r e pe r t oir e .
4
The s e
g r ou ps
inclu d e d A
Pa g hje lla (e s t . 1937)
a nd A Cim e a
(1948)
in
Pa r is ,
I
Ma cchia g hjoli
(1935)
a nd Ca nt u d i Cim u (1951)
in
Ba s t ia , Es t u d ia nt ina
Aja ccina
(1906)
a nd Sir ina t a
Aja ccina
(1951)
in
Aja ccio
a nd A Ma nne lla
(1958)
in Cor t e . I
Ma cchia g hjoli,
Es t u d ia nt ina
Aja ccina ,
Sir ina t a
Aja ccina
a nd A Ma nne lla a r e s t ill a ct iv e .
5
De Ze r bi (1993)
d oe s ne v e r t he le s s cr e d it ce r t a in of t he s e f olklor ic
g r ou ps
in t he ir s e a r ch f or
g r e a t e r a u t he nt icit y
wit h
hold ing
s om e of t he s e e d s f r om which t he r e v iv a l wa s t o
g r ow.
In
pa r t icu la r
A Ma nne lla , r e pr e s e nt ing
t he t r a d it ions of a
v illa g e
of t he int e r ior , s t a nd s s om e wha t
a pa r t ,
while A Cim e a 's Ev oca t ion d e la Cor s e wa s a n
e a r ly
la nd m a r k in com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s
of a u t he nt ic t r a d it iona l m u s ic. The
g r ou p
inclu d e d in it s
m e m be r s hip
a nu m be r of
v illa g e s ing e r s
f r om t he Cor s ica n int e r ior who we r e a t t ha t t im e
liv ing
a nd
wor king
in Pa r is .
6
W ha t in f a ct
ha ppe ne d
wa s t ha t -in
r e s pons e
t o t he
r a pid
d e t e r ior a t ion of t he
polit ica l
s it u a t ion
d u r ing
t he s e v e nt ie s -t he
pr e d om ina nt ly
t r a d it iona l
r e pe r t oir e
of t he e a r lie s t a lbu m s wa s
incr e a s ing ly r e pla ce d by ne w, polit ica lly ins pir e d s ong s
which ha v e t o s om e e xt e nt com e t o be
r e g a r d e d
a s "t r a d it iona l" in t he ir own
r ig ht
a nd a r e s t ill
s u ng e nt hu s ia s t ica lly by m a ny you ng
s ing e r s
a nd
f r e qu e nt ly pla ye d
on t he r a d io. Ca nt a ce a s e d t o
ope r a t e
a s a
g r ou p
in 1984 bu t ha v e
r e ce nt ly
m a d e a m u ch-f e t e d com e ba ck. The ir ne w a lbu m Sint ine d d i,
which cont a ins
only
t hr e e
int e r pr e t a t ions
of t r a d it iona l
s ong s ,
be a r s wit ne s s t o t he ir
incr e a s ing s ophis t ica t ion
a t a n a r t is t ic
a nd t e chnica l le v e l.
7
Re f e r e nce is m a d e on t he ba ck cov e r of t he v olu m e Ca nt a u
Popu lu
Cor s u
(d e
Ze r bi e t a l.
1993) t o t he
g r ou p's pos it ion
"a u coe u r d e ce t t e
e nt r e pr is e
d e r e cons t r u ct ion cu lt u r e lle ". The
wid e r m ov e m e nt of which
t he y
we r e a
pa r t
is now r e f e r r e d t o a s a
g e ne r a zione
d i u s e t t a nt a ("t he
g e ne r a t ion
of 1970")
a nd t he
pr oce s s
of cu lt u r a l r e ne wa l which
t he y
s e t in m ot ion t he
r ia cqu is t u
("r e a cqu is it ion").
Ot he r
s ig nif ica nt pla ye r s
in t he m ov e m e nt inclu d e : Du m e nicu
Tog not t i's
Te a t r u Pa is a nu
(c. 1973-82);
t he e s t a blis hm e nt of wha t r e m a ins Cor s ica 's
pr incipa l r e cor d ing
s t u d io, Ricor d u
("m e m or y"), by
Ant oine Le ona r d i in
1974;
t he
a cqu is it ion
in 1976 of
copie s
of
pa r t
of Fd lix
Qu ilici's
1948-9 f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
f r om t he Mu s d e Na t iona l d e s Ar t s e t Tr a d it ions
Popu la ir e s ;
Miche l Ra f f a e lli's wor k in t he a t r e a nd t r a d it iona l m u s ic
cu lm ina t ing
in t he d is c Ca nt i
cor s i in t r a d izioni
(1989);
v a r iou s
pr oje ct s
ba s e d a r ou nd t he
v illa g e
of
Pig na
a nd t he a s s ocia t ion
E Voce d i U Cu m u ne in t he
Ba la g ne ;
a nd d e Ze r bi's book Ca nt u Nu s t r a le
(1981),
a colle ct ion of
Bit he ll:
Polyphonic
v oice s : t he
r e cor d ing of
t r a d it iona l m u s ic in Cor s ica 43
polyphonic s ong s
wit h t he ir a s s ocia t ion wit h colle ct iv e
a ct iv it y
a nd
e xpe r ie nce -
a nd in
pa r t icu la r
t he
pa g hje lla -s e r v e d
a s t he e m ble m of t his m ov e m e nt t o t he
point whe r e ,
f or a
t im e , t he a ct of
s ing ing pa g hje lle
ca m e t o be
e qu a t e d
wit h a n
e xpr e s s ion
of na t iona lis t
e ng a g e m e nt .8
The
pa g hje lla
(s e e
f ig .
2)
is t he m os t
t ypica l
a nd
u biqu it ou s t ype
of
pr of a ne
polyphonic s ong
which s t ill t hr iv e s in t he
liv ing
t r a d it ion.
Cons is t ing
of a t e xt
a r r a ng e d
in
oct os ylla bic cou ple t s s u ng by
t hr e e v oice s
d e s ig na t e d
ba s s u ("ba s s "),
s e cu nd a
("s e cond "
or m id d le v oice in t e r m s of
pit ch,
bu t in f a ct t he le a d
v oice )
a nd t e r za
("t hir d "
or
u ppe r m os t v oice ),
it e xhibit s a nu m be r of a r cha ic f e a t u r e s ,
bot h in it s m u s ica l
conce pt ion
a nd in it s t r e a t m e nt of t he t e xt . It s m os t d is t inct iv e
f e a t u r e s a r e t he a bs e nce of a s t r ict m e t e r , s t a g g e r e d e nt r y
of t he v oice s , v a r ying
d e g r e e s
of m e lis m a t ic or na m e nt a t ion in t he t wo
u ppe r v oice s , t he u s e of not e s
ou t s id e t he
e v e n-t e m pe r e d
s ca le a nd a t ie r ce d e
Pica r d ie -t ype e nd ing .
Ot he r
f or m s of
s ong
which a r e
s u ng
in t he s a m e
s t yle
a r e s a id t o be
s u ng
a
pa g hje lla .
Pa g hje lla -s ing ing
is not t ie d t o
a ny s pe cif ic
f u nct ion bu t occu r s in cont e xt s of
conv iv ia lit y,
s u ch a s f a ir s a nd s a int s '
d a y ce le br a t ions , g a t he r ing s
of
f a m ily
a nd
f r ie nd s a nd
s he e p-s he a r ing
pa r t ie s .
The t e xt
m ig ht
t a ke t he f or m of a la m e nt , a
lov e
s ong ,
a
lu lla by,
a
s e r e na d e ,
a
s a t ir e -ind e e d , a ny
t e xt ca n be
s u ng
a s
pa g hje lla
a s
long
a s it is
m e t r ica lly com pa t ible ;
t e xt s ca n a ls o be
im pr ov is e d .
The
a ct of
s ing ing
t a ke s on t he na t u r e of a
qu a s i-m ys t ica l e xpe r ie nce , t r a ns por t ing
t he
s ing e r s
t o a
hig he r pla ne
of
s pir it u a l
a s we ll a s m u s ica l
ha r m ony:
one of t he
s a lie nt
point s
a bou t t he
pa g hje lla
is t ha t it is
s u ng pr im a r ily
f or t he be ne f it of t he
pa r t icipa nt s t he m s e lv e s , not f or
a ny
ou t s id e a u d ie nce . As a r e s u lt of
be ing
cha m pione d by
t he cu lt u r a l a ct iv is t s , howe v e r , it now e nt e r e d int o a m or e
pu blic
a r e na .9
In t he cou r s e of t he 1980s , a r t is t ic conce r ns ca m e m or e t o t he f or e . The d is c
Cor s ica : Cha nt s
Polyphoniqu e s by
E Voce d i U Cu m u ne
(1987),
f or
e xa m ple ,
is
pr e s e nt e d
in it s d is c not e s a s "...not a n
e t hnolog ica l r e cor d ing ,
bu t t he wor k of
Cor s ica n a r t is t s ...", while Cor s ica is
r e pr e s e nt e d
a s a s it e whe r e ce r t a in m u s ica l
a r cha is m s ha v e be e n
pr e s e r v e d
a nd a r e s t ill cu r r e nt in t he inhe r it e d
knowle d g e
of
it s t r a d it iona l
s ing e r s ,
whos e
pr a ct ice s m ig ht
t he r e f or e be a ble t o
point
t o s om e of
t he
m is s ing pie ce s
in
a t t e m pt s
t o r e cons t r u ct
pe r f or m a nce pr a ct ice s
of f or m e r
t im e s .
t r a d it iona l
s ong s cu r r e nt ly be ing pr od u ce d
in a r e v is e d , 9-v olu m e s e t in colla bor a t ion wit h
Miche l
[Mig he le ]
Ra f f a e lli (La Ma r g e , Aja ccio).
8
Pe t r ov ic (1995) ha s
s im ila r ly
com m e nt e d on
cha ng e s
in t he
s ym bolic m e a ning s
of
g a ng a
(f ou nd
in t he Dina r ic
r e g ion
of f or m e r
Yu g os la v ia )
a nd t he
wa y
in which t his
s t yle
of
s ing ing
ha s
be e n
a ppr opr ia t e d by
s om e s ocia l
g r ou ps
a s a
powe r f u l
s t a t e m e nt of e t hnic
id e nt it y
in t he cont e xt
of t he
ong oing
civ il wa r .
9
On t he
ps ycho-s ocia l
a nd
s ym bolic pla ne s ,
Cor s ica n
polyphonic s ing ing
ha s m u ch in com m on
wit h t ha t of
ne ig hbou r ing Sa r d inia , a m ply
d ocu m e nt e d
by Lor t a t -Ja cob (e .g . 1990, 1993). The r e
a r e a ls o r e s ona nce s wit h t he
s t or y
of f la m e nco,
in t e r m s of bot h t he
s ing ing s t yle (e s pe cia lly
v oice
pr od u ct ion
a nd
pr oje ct ion)
a nd t he s ocia l t r a ns f or m a t ion of r e ce nt t im e s .
44 Br it is h Jou r na l of Et hnom u s icolog y,
v ol. S (1996)
Fig .
2: - A
pa g hje lla ,
t r a ns cr ibe d
by
t he a u t hor
f r om
t r a ck 6
of
t he d is c Cor s ica :
t r a d it iona l
s ong s
a nd m u s ic (s e e Dis cog r a phy),
r e cor d e d in Ru s iu
v illa g e ,
1973.
At
*
t he
e nt r y of
t he t e r za v oice is
s lig ht ly d e la ye d .
Not e s m a r ke d wit h a n a r r ow in
t he s e cu nd a
pa r t
a r e not a ll a t t he s a m e
pit ch.
* $
I. ~-~
I I
ce --
A.-t 0
J 'L .4ILL I
J
d
#'
ce
t a t xt .
-t t c8j:
I
Cr u -
I
W . -
I
Bit he ll: Polyphonic v oice s : t he
r e cor d ing of
t r a d it iona l m u s ic in Cor s ica 45
The la t e 1980s a ls o
br ou g ht
a n a wa r e ne s s of t he
g r owing phe nom e non
of
"wor ld m u s ic" a nd in
pa r t icu la r
t he s u cce s s of t he
Mys t e r e
d e s Voix
Bu lg a r e s
r e cor d ing s
which
br ou g ht Bu lg a r ia n
v oice s -a lbe it
cons id e r a bly
r e f or m u la t e d -
t o t he int e r na t iona l
s t a g e
a nd whos e s u cce s s m a r ke d a
bu r g e oning
f a s hion f or
wha t
m ig ht
be
loos e ly
t e r m e d "f olk
polyphony"
or
"polyphonie s
of or a l
t r a d it ions ". Ce r t a in Cor s ica n
s ing e r s
t ook a f r e s h look a t t he ir own
u niqu e
t r a d it iona l le pe r t oir e a nd s a id , "W e ca n d o t ha t t oo".
(Ind e e d ,
a nu m be r of
s ing e r s
int e r v ie we d r e f e r r e d
s pe cif ica lly
t o t he
Mys t e r e r e cor d ing s
a s a s ou r ce of
ins pir a t ion.)
Pa r t of t he m ot iv a t ion in t his
ca s e -be yond
t he im m e d ia t e a r t is t ic
cha lle ng e
a nd cr e a t iv e
oppor t u nit y r e pr e s e nt e d by
s u ch a
pr oje ct -la y
in t he
im pu ls e
t o br oa d e n t he cu lt u r a l hor izons , int r od u ce Cor s ica n m u s ic t o ou t s id e
a u d ie nce s a nd s o
pla ce
Cor s ica on t he m u s ica l
m a p (Poli
int e r v ie w
1995).
One of
t he
g r ou ps
who t ook t his
pa t h
is Le s Nou v e lle s
Polyphonie s Cor s e s , 10
who on t he
ba s is of t he ir f ir s t a lbu m we r e s e le ct e d t o
s ing
a t t he
ope ning ce r e m ony
of t he
1992 W int e r
Olym pics
in Albe r t v ille . The
a lbu m -com bining
t r a d it iona l a nd
or ig ina l polyphonic s ong s
wit h
cont e m por a r y-s t yle a ccom pa nim e nt f e a t u r ing
pr om ine nt
e le ct r onics -s old 100, 000 copie s
in Fr a nce a lone , wa s d is t r ibu t e d in 13
cou nt r ie s a nd wa s be v ot e d be s t a lbu m of t r a d it iona l m u s ic in t he 7t h "Vict oir e s
d e la
Mu s iqu e ".
This wa s
s ig nif ica nt
bot h in
ope ning
t he
wa y
f or ot he r Cor s ica n
g r ou ps
in t e r m s of
r e cor d ing com pa nie s
a nd conce r t t ou r s a nd in
e s t a blis hing
t he
t r a d it iona l
polyphonic r e pe r t oir e
in a n a r t is t ic r a t he r t ha n a
polit ica l cont e xt ,
he lping
it t o
f ina lly
ov e r com e t he v a r iou s
s t ig m a s
wit h which it ha d be e n
bu r d e ne d . The ne w e xt e r na l
pe r s pe ct iv e
in it s t u r n d id m u ch t o incr e a s e t he
pr of ile
of t his m u s ic wit hin Cor s ica it s e lf on t he ba s is of it s own a e s t he t ic m e r it s .
The t r a d it iona l
r e pe r t oir e
a nd
cont e m por a r y pe r f or m a nce
The com bina t ion of t he s e t wo
s e pa r a t e
bu t r e la t e d
im pu ls e s -polit ica l
a nd
a r t is t ic-ha s le d t o a s it u a t ion whe r e t he r e now e xis t s a nu m be r of
g r ou ps
wit h
t wo s e t s of
r e pe r t oir e ,
one
cons is t ing
of
ne wly-com pos e d polit ica l
cha ns ons a nd
t he ot he r of
a r r a ng e m e nt s
of t r a d it iona l, m a inly polyphonic s ong s ,
bot h s e cu la r
a nd s a cr e d , t o which a r e
incr e a s ing ly
a d d e d ne w
com pos it ions
in a s im ila r
s t yle .
As a r u le , t he t r a d it iona l
r e pe r t oir e
is d ir e ct e d t owa r d s a n int e r na t iona l a u d ie nce
f or whom it
r e pr e s e nt s
a ne w a nd we lcom e
d is cov e r y.
It cou ld a ls o be
a r g u e d
t ha t
now t ha t
e v e r yone
in Cor s ica is
we ll-a cqu a int e d
wit h t he
pa g hje lla , t he r e is le s s
point
in
s ing ing
one on
s t a g e . Ne v e r t he le s s , conce r t s of
polyphonic s ing ing
r e g u la r ly
t a ke
pla ce
in t he is la nd 's
m a ny chu r che s , pa r t icu la r ly
in conne ct ion wit h
m u s ic f e s t iv a ls . The a nnu a l Re ncont r e s
Polyphoniqu e s
a t Ca lv i
(a n
int e r na t iona l
f e s t iv a l hos t e d
by
t he
g r ou p
A File t t a a nd t he cu lt u r a l a s s ocia t ion U
Sv e g liu
10
It is
s ig nif ica nt
t ha t t he
Mys t e r e r e cor d ing s
f e a t u r e d wom e n's v oice s : it wa s t wo f e m a le
s ing e r s ,
Pa t r izia Poli a nd Pa t r izia Ga t t a ce ca (who be g a n pe r f or m ing
a s E Du ie Pa t r izie while s t ill
a t s chool in t he
1970s ), who we nt on t o f or m t he
g r ou p
Le s Nou v e lle s
Polyphonie s
Cor s e s
whos e m u s ic ha s com e t o
occu py
a
s ym bolic s pa ce t ha t is in
m a ny r e s pe ct s
s im ila r t o t ha t
occu pie d
by
t he
Bu lg a r ia n v oice s , e .g .
in t he ir u s e a s
ba cking
m u s ic f or Br it is h t e le v is ion
d ocu m e nt a r ie s wit h
r e lig iou s or s pir it u a l cont e nt .
46 Br it is h Jou r na l
of Et hnom u s icolog y,
v ol. 5 (1996)
Ca lv e s e ),
f or
e xa m ple , pr ov id e s
a
pla t f or m
f or t his a
ca ppe lla r e pe r t oir e .ll
The
cha ns ons a r e a im e d m or e a t ins u la r a u d ie nce s , t he ir a v owe d f u nct ion
be ing
"t o
pa s s
a
m e s s a g e "
in t e r m s of t he na t iona lis t
s t r u g g le .
The a u d ie nce in t his ca s e is a
v it a l
pa r t
of t he
e qu a t ion:
wit hou t t he m , t he m a t e r ia l wou ld ha v e no ne e d t o e xis t .
An inf or m a l int e r v ie w wit h m e m be r s of one
g r ou p
r e v e a le d s om e
int e r e s t ing
d ile m m a s
conce r ning
t he ir
ha nd ling
of t he ir t wo
r e pe r t oir e s .
W hile
t he y
pe r s ona lly pr e f e r
t o
s ing
t he t r a d it iona l
polyphonic s ong s -t his
is wha t
t he y e njoy
s ing ing -t he y
f e e l t ha t it is t he ir
d u t y
t o
s ing
t he
polit ica l
cha ns ons a s
pa r t
of
t he ir cont inu e d
pe r ce pt ion
of t he m s e lv e s
pr im a r ily
a s m ilit a nt s . W he n
t he y
pe r f or m
on t he Cont ine nt , howe v e r , a u d ie nce s wa nt t o he a r t he t r a d it iona l
r e pe r t oir e , e s pe cia lly
s ince Le s Nou v e lle s
Polyphonie s ' a ppe a r a nce
a t t he
Albe r t v ille
Olym pics
a nd Voce d i Cor s ica 's
t r iu m ph
in t he 1995 "Vict oir e s d e la
Mu s iqu e "
in Pa r is whe r e
t he y
we r e a wa r d e d f ir s t
pr ize
in t he
ca t e g or y
"t r a d it iona l
m u s ic".
The y
r e m a in
hope f u l
t ha t t he ir own cha ns ons will
e njoy g r e a t e r
popu la r it y
in t he f u t u r e .
A f u r t he r
d e v e lopm e nt
on t he a r t is t ic le v e l conce r ns
g r ou ps
who a r e d e d ica t e d
t o t he t r a d it iona l
polyphonic
s t yle s ye t
wis h a t t he s a m e t im e t o
pr og r e s s be yond
t he lim it a t ions of t he
r e pe r t oir e .12
This le a d s t o ne w cr e a t ions which m a ke u s e of
t he
ind ig e nou s
m u s ica l
la ng u a g e
a s t he ir
s t a r t ing point
bu t e xt e nd it s
pos s ibilit ie s ,
int r od u cing
ne w
s ophis t ica t ions
t o e la bor a t e t he
or ig ina l
m od e ls . Bot h Voce d i
Cor s ica a nd Ma d r ica le , f or
e xa m ple ,
ha v e
e m ploye d
d r one s in t he ir own
com pos it ions
a nd m os t of t he
g r ou ps
ha v e
e xpe r im e nt e d
wit h m or e a d v e nt u r ou s
ha r m onic m od u la t ions . Anot he r obv iou s
pos s ibilit y
is t o a d d a f ou r t h v oca l line .
Som e of t he s e
com pos it ions ,
e s pe cia lly
t hos e
u s ing lit u r g ica l
or ne w
r e lig iou s
t e xt s , ca n t a ke on a r e a l f u nct ion in t he m u s ica l lif e of t he
com m u nit y
a nd
pa s s
int o t he
r e pe r t oir e s
of ot he r
s ing e r s .13
Innov a t ion ca n t hu s be com e a
pa r t
of t he
pr oce s s
of e v olu t ion.
Ye t a not he r
pos s ibilit y,
of t e n com bine d wit h t he
a bov e ,
is t o
r e cycle
t r a d it iona l
m a t e r ia l in a
t ot a lly
ne w
a r r a ng e m e nt ,
of t e n
f ollowing
t r e nd s which a r e
ope r a t ing
a t a
g loba l le v e l,
f or
e xa m ple ,
colla bor a t ions wit h
ja zz
m u s icia ns or
pe r cu s s ionis t s
f r om ot he r m u s ica l t r a d it ions . Su ch
pr oje ct s
a r e bot h
e xpe r im e nt a l
a nd a
pr od u ct
11
Polyphony
is s e e n
by m a ny
a s
s om e t hing
t ha t d oe s not be long
on t he
s t a g e .
The chu r ch,
howe v e r , r e m a ins a m or e na t u r a l cont e xt , e v e n f or t he
pr of a ne s ong s ,
a nd of f e r s a
g r e a t e r
pos s ibilit y
of
int im a cy
be t we e n
s ing e r s
a nd a u d ie nce t ha n t he
la r g e
ou t d oor
s t a g e s
f a v ou r e d f or
m a ny
of t he s u m m e r conce r t s .
12
Exa m ple s
a r e t he
g r ou ps
A File t t a , Voce d i Cor s ica , Ma d r ica le ,
Cinqu i
S6!, Ta v a g na
a nd Le s
Nou v e lle s
Polyphonie s ,
while s om e of Miche l Ra f f a e lli's
com pos it ions
ha v e be e n r e cor d e d
by
t he a ll-wom e n
g r ou p
Donnis u la na a s we ll a s
be ing
inclu d e d in his s ou nd t r a ck f or t he f ilm Nou s
De u x.
13
A r e ce nt
e xa m ple
is "U La m e nt u d i
Ghje s u " by
G.D. Ma r cot or chino, T.
Ca s a long a ,
N.
Acqu a v iv a
a nd L.
Gr im a ld i, or ig ina lly com pos e d
f or t he Pa s s ion a t Ca le nza na in 1982 a nd
r e cor d e d
by
t he
g r ou p
A File t t a on t he d is cs A'u v is u d i t a nt i a nd Ab Et e r nu . It is now
pe r f or m ne d
by
ot he r
g r ou ps
a nd ha s e v e n f ou nd it s
wa y int o t he Ea s t e r ce le br a t ions of ot he r v illa g e s .
Bit he ll:
Polyphonic
v oice s : t he
r e cor d ing of
t r a d it iona l m u s ic in Cor s ica 47
of t he ir t im e s l4 a nd d o not ind ica t e
a ny
r e a l
cha ng e
in m u s ica l
s t yle . The y
d o not
ha v e
a ny g r e a t im pa ct
a t t he
popu la r
le v e l. This is , howe v e r , one of t he
ing r e d ie nt s
in t he
r e cipe
be hind t he s u cce s s of Le s Nou v e lle s
Polyphonie s .
A
pa r a lle l
t r e nd t o t he
g r ou p phe nom e non
ha s inv olv e d t he f or m a t ion
by
s m a ll
g r ou ps
of e nt hu s ia s t s of "cu lt u r a l a s s ocia t ions " whos e a im is t o r e s e a r ch, r e s u r r e ct
a nd ,
whe r e
ne ce s s a r y,
r e cons t r u ct loca l m a t e r ia l,
in
pa r t icu la r s e t t ing s
of t he m a s s .
The r e s u lt s of s u ch
pr oje ct s
a r e a ls o
incr e a s ing ly f ind ing
t he ir
wa y
int o
com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s .15
The
f ollowing
s e ct ion e xa m ine s is s u e s r a is e d
by
t his
pr of u s ion
of
r e cor d ing
a ct iv it y
a nd t he
g r e a t ly
incr e a s e d
pr e occu pa t ion
wit h m u s ica l
m a t t e r s ,
a t bot h a
pr a ct ica l
a nd a t he or e t ica l le v e l, which it
im plie s .
I
be g in
wit h a cons id e r a t ion of
cont e m por a r y int e r pr e t a t ions
of m a t e r ia l f r om t he old e r t r a d it iona l
r e pe r t oir e .
The
s ing e r s
a nd
g r ou ps
cit e d a r e
a m ong
t hos e cons id e r e d t o be clos e s t t o t he t r a d it ion:
t he ir d is cs f e a t u r e it e m s f r om t he t r a d it iona l ca non
int e r pr e t e d
wit hou t
m a jor
cons ciou s m od if ica t ion or innov a t ion on t he
pa r t
of t he
pe r f or m e r s .
W it hou t t he
d is t r a ct ion of a d d e d ins t r u m e nt a l
a ccom pa nim e nt
or
a ny s im ila r ly
obv iou s
nov e lt y,
a nu m be r of
int e r e s t ing
a nd
s ig nif ica nt d e v e lopm e nt s
ca n ne v e r t he le s s be
obs e r v e d . Since t he s e
r e cor d ing s
a r e t hos e t ha t
e qu a t e
m os t
clos e ly
t o t he
liv ing
t r a d it ion, t he y
a r e a ls o t hos e m os t
like ly
t o ha v e a n e f f e ct on t he
pr a ct ice
of
s ing e r s
wit hin t ha t
t r a d it ion, t he
m a jor it y
of whom ha v e ne it he r t he
e xpe r t is e
nor
t he r e s ou r ce s t o
r e pr od u ce com ple x
ins t r u m e nt a l t r a cks , which a r e of t e n e xe cu t e d
by
ou t s id e m u s icia ns of int e r na t iona l r e nown a nd a ls o
r e ly he a v ily
on
im pr ov is a t ion (a s
wit h t he d is c Le s Nou v e lle s
Polyphonie s Cor s e s ).
Com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s
a s a m e d iu m
Com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s
d if f e r f r om f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
in a nu m be r of ba s ic
wa ys .
Mos t
obv iou s ly t he y r e pr e s e nt
a d e libe r a t e , s e lf -cons ciou s a ct . Choice s ha v e be e n
m a d e
by
bot h t he
pe r f or m e r s
a nd t he r e cor d
com pa ny
in t e r m s of cont e nt , s t yle
a nd
pr e s e nt a t ion.
The r e is of t e n a cle a r int e nt ion t o
pr om ot e s om e t hing ,
wit h a n
a s s ocia t e d d is cou r s e which is not
ne ce s s a r ily f u lly
s t a t e d in t he d ocu m e nt a t ion
a ccom pa nying
t he
r e cor d ing .
The
pe r f or m a nce
is r e he a r s e d a nd
polis he d
t o m e e t
t he
r e qu ir e d
s t a nd a r d s . A
d e g r e e
of
or ig ina lit y
is
r e qu ir e d
a s
ju s t if ica t ion
f or
pr od u cing
t he
r e cor d ing
in t he f ir s t
pla ce :
t he
s ing e r s
a r e
e xpe ct e d
t o be a r t is t s of
pr ov e n t a le nt , not
ju s t
a nyone .
Fie ld
r e cor d ing s
d o not m a ke t his d e m a nd : he r e ,
t he ind iv id u a l
s ing e r
is
r e qu ir e d
t o be
r e pr e s e nt a t iv e
of t he wid e r
s ing ing
14
An
e xa m ple
of a s im ila r
t r a d it iona l/cont e m por a r y
colla bor a t ion f r om a not he r t r a d it ion wou ld
be Ma r t a
Se be s t yd n's Apocr ypha ,
"Ea s t e r n
Eu r ope 's
m os t
g lor iou s
v oice in a ne w
s e t t ing ,
whe r e
t r a d it iona l
s ong s
a nd ins t r u m e nt s cr os s
pa t hs
wit h m od e m
t e chnolog y".
15
The e a r lie s t s u ch
pr oje ct
wa s ca r r ie d ou t
by
m e m be r s of t he a s s ocia t ion E Voce d i U Cu m u ne
in colla bor a t ion wit h loca l
s ing e r s
in t he
v illa g e s
of U Mu ca le ,
Piog g iola ,
Olm i Ca ppe lla
a nd
Spe lonca t u (nor t he r n Cor s ica )
in t he 1980s a nd
e a r ly '90s . Som e of t he r e s u lt s a r e on t he d is c
by
A
Cu m pa g nia
in t he
Dis cog r a phy.
This
pr oje ct a nd t he
phe nom e non
of r e cons t r u ct ion of
polyphonic
m a t e r ia l in
g e ne r a l
a r e d e t a ile d in
m y pa pe r a t t he s ym pos iu m "The
Ar cha e olog y
of
t he Voice "
(Apr il 1996, Ce nt r e f or Pe r f or m a nce Re s e a r ch, Ca r d if f ).
48 Br it is h Jou r na l
of Ehnom u s icolog y,
v ol. 5 (1996)
Fig .
3: The
g r ou p
Ma d r ica le
pe r f or m ing
in t he chu r ch
of
t he
v illa g e of
Mu r u on
t he
f e a s t of
St
Ja qu e s ,
Ju ly
1994
Fig .
4:
You ng pa g hje lla -s ing e r s
a t t he
f a ir of
t he Col d e Pr a t u
(A
Fie r a d i a
Bocca d i u
Pr a t u ), Ju ly
1994
Bit he ll:
Polyphonic v oice s : t he
r e cor d ing of
t r a d it iona l m u s ic in Cor s ica 49
com m u nit y. Es s e nt ia lly,
a com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing
is a
pr od u ct
in a
wa y
t ha t a f ie ld
r e cor d ing
is not . In
conju nct ion
wit h a n
a na lys is
of t he m u s ic
it s e lf , t he r e f or e ,
cons id e r a t ion ne e d s t o be
g iv e n
t o t he m ot iv a t ions a nd
point s
of
d e pa r t u r e
of t he
pe r f or m e r s
a nd
e qu a lly
t o t he
wa y
in which t he
r e cor d ing
ha s be e n r e ce iv e d
by
loca l a u d ie nce s .
Pr e cis e ly
be ca u s e
t he y
a r e a
pr od u ct
of r e f le ct ion, com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s
ca n
pr ov id e
u s wit h v it a l inf or m a t ion in t e r m s of how t he
pe r f or m e r s pe r ce iv e
t he ir
own t r a d it ion a nd how
t he y
wis h t o
pr e s e nt
it t o t he ou t s id e wor ld .
St ylis t ic
choice s -which
m ig ht
or
m ig ht
not be
cons ciou s ly a r t icu la t e d -u s u a lly
r e s u lt
f r om a com bina t ion of
polit ica l
a nd a e s t he t ic cons id e r a t ions . The r e f ollows a
d is cu s s ion of a nu m be r of
wa ys
in which r e ce nt
r e cor d ing s
f r om Cor s ica
m ig ht
r e pr e s e nt
a
d e v e lopm e nt
or e v olu t ion of t he ba s ic
t r a d it ion, s om e of t he m
conce r ning
t he m u s ica l
conce pt ion
a nd ot he r s d ict a t e d
by
t he na t u r e of t he
m e d iu m it s e lf or
by
ot he r e xt r a -m u s ica l f a ct or s . At t he s a m e
t im e , it m u s t be
a llowe d t ha t in s om e ins t a nce s t he
r e cor d ing s
a r e
r e f le ct ing
t r e nd s t ha t ha v e
a lr e a d y
be e n s e t in m ot ion wit hin t he
s ing ing com m u nit y
in
g e ne r a l
a nd a r e
t he r e f or e not
pr im a r ily
or
e xclu s iv e ly pe r f or m a nce -r e la t e d :
in t his ca s e t he
r e cor d ing s
a r e
pla ying
a
pa r t
in t he ir m or e f or m a l e s t a blis hm e nt a nd
pe r pe t u a t ion.16
a .
Exploit a t ion
of
d is t inct iv e or e xot ic e le m e nt s
Mu s ica l e le m e nt s which a r e s e e n t o be m os t
qu int e s s e nt ia lly
Cor s ica n or m os t
e xot ic ca n be
e xa g g e r a t e d .
Me lis m a t ic
f ig u r e s
in
pa r t icu la r
t e nd t o be e la bor a t e d
by you ng e r s ing e r s
who ha v e not
ye t
u nd e r s t ood
t ha t ,
in t he wor d s of one old e r
s ing e r ,
"one is not m e a nt t o be
s pe ct a cu la r ".
One
t e a che r , he r s e lf a
s ing e r ,
s a id of
t he
boys
who a t t e nd he r cla s s e s in
polyphony
a t t he loca l
colle g e
t ha t f or t he m
m e lis m a ha s be com e m or e or le s s
s ynonym ou s
wit h
polyphony.
She ha s t o
im pr e s s u pon
t he m
cont inu a lly
t ha t t he
point
of t he e xe r cis e is not t o
pu t
in a s
m u ch m e lis m a a s
pos s ible t hr ou g hou t
t he whole line a nd in a ll t he v oice s
s im u lt a ne ou s ly.17
Me lis m a is f u r t he r id e nt if ie d
by
s om e a s a
s pe cif ica lly
or ie nt a l f e a t u r e a nd s o
com e s t o
pla y
a n
im por t a nt pa r t
in
e s t a blis hing pe d ig r e e
a nd in
m a int a ining
d is t a nce f r om t he m a in
bod y
of W e s t e r n
Eu r ope a n
m u s ic. It
be long s
t o a
pr oce s s
whe r e by
d if f e r e nt m u s ica l f e a t u r e s a r e
or g a nis e d a ccor d ing
t o a s e t of ba s ic
oppos it ions ,
in t his ca s e
Ea s t /W e s t , wit h Cor s ica
be ing f ir m ly
loca t e d in t he
16
The old
r e cor d ing s
r e f e r r e d t o in t he
f ollowing d is cu s s ion a r e f r om colle ct ions of f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
m a d e
by
Fe lix
Qu ilici (be t we e n 1948 a nd 1963; s e le ct ions in
Mu s iqu e
Cor s e ... in
Dis cog r a phy), W olf g a ng
La a d e (1955-73; s e le ct ions in Cor s ica
...) a nd
Fr a nqois
Flor i (1957-
60; no com m e r cia l
r e le a s e s ). A f u r t he r s u bs t a nt ia l s e t of
r e cor d ing s (m a inly
of m a s s
s e t t ing s )
r e s u lt e d f r om Ma r ku s R6m e r 's
s t u d y
of s a cr e d m u s ic in t he 1970s (no com m e r cia l r e le a s e s ; s e e
R6m e r 1983). For t he loca t ion of t he s e colle ct ions , s e e not e a t e nd of
Dis cog r a phy.
17
An incr e a s e in m e lis m a t ic
d e ns it y
ca n a ls o be obs e r v e d in
pe r f or m a nce s
of s om e
pr of e s -
s iona lly
a ct iv e
s ing e r s
ov e r a
pe r iod
of
ye a r s . The s e
s ing e r s
a r e not
ne ce s s a r ily
cons ciou s of t his
d e v e lopm e nt .
50 Br it is h Jou r na l
of Et hnom s icolog y,
v ol. 5 (1996)
Ea s t .18 This ha s occu r r e d in
pa r t
a s a n
a t t e m pt
t o cou nt e r t he
pr oce s s
of
W e s t e r nis a t ion.
As
pa r t
of a r e ce nt s e r ie s of s e m ina r s , I a s ke d
(non-Cor s ica n)
s t u d e nt s t o lis t e n
t o a nd
com pa r e
t hr e e d if f e r e nt
r e cor d ing s
of t he
m a d r ig a le
"Ecco Be lla "-t wo
f ie ld
r e cor d ing s d a t ing
f r om 1962
(Qu ilici colle ct ion)
a nd 1973 (La a d e colle ct ion)
a nd t he
int e r pr e t a t ion
f ou nd on t he r e ce nt Voce d i Cor s ica d is c
Polyphonie s .19
The ir init ia l
r e s pons e
t o t he la t t e r wa s one of
s u r pr is e
t ha t it wa s in f a ct t he s a m e
s ong ,
s ince t he ov e r a ll s ou nd wa s s o d if f e r e nt . This
pe r ce pt ion
inv olv e d t he
s t r u ct u r a l int e r a ct ion of t he v oca l line s a s we ll a s t he t im br a l
qu a lit ie s
of t he
v oice s t he m s e lv e s a nd t he r e s ona nce of t he
r e cor d ing s . The y r e pe a t e d ly e xpr e s s e d
t he
f e e ling
t ha t t he Voce d i Cor s ica
a r r a ng e m e nt
wa s "le s s
polyphonic"
in t he
s e ns e of
be ing
a m or e "chor a l" or
hom ophonic
s ou nd whe r e t he
e m pha s is
is on
t he e f f e ct cr e a t e d
by
t he s u m of t he v oice s
(plu s
a t ou ch of
r e v e r b),
in cont r a s t t o
t he ot he r t wo
e xa m ple s
whe r e t he ind iv id u a l v oice s a nd m e lod ic line s a r e f a r
m or e
cle a r ly
d if f e r e nt ia t e d a nd be ha v e m or e
ind e pe nd e nt ly.
The ot he r m os t
s t r iking
d if f e r e nce is in t he a m ou nt of m e lis m a t ic
a ct iv it y.
W hile t he f ir s t t wo
r e cor d ing s
a r e
s lig ht ly
s hor t e r in t e r m s of d u r a t ion, t he
im pr e s s ion
is t ha t
t he y
a r e
a ct u a lly
s lowe r in
pa ce .
The r e a s on f or t his is t ha t while t he s e t wo
r e cor d ing s
cont a in a nu m be r of
long
s u s t a ine d not e s , t he Voce d i Cor s ica
s ing e r s
f ill s om e of
t he s e
s pa ce s
wit h
g r e a t ly
incr e a s e d m e lis m a t ic or na m e nt a t ion which
ke e ps
t he
v oice s on t he m ov e . In s om e ca s e s , wha t wa s lit t le m or e t ha n a v ibr a t o or a br ie f
t u r n or m or d e nt in t he s e cu nd a v oice of t he e a r lie r
r e cor d ing s
ha s now be e n
d e v e lope d
int o a m or e d e f init e a nd
s t ylis e d
m e lod ic
f ig u r e
which in t u r n ha s
a cqu ir e d
it s own a d d it iona l m e lis m a t ic e la bor a t ion. The t e r za is
cons id e r a bly
m or e
pr om ine nt
a nd is like wis e
s u bje ct
t o m or e e xt e ns iv e m e lis m a t ic
d e v e lopm e nt
which a ls o occa s ions a
s lig ht e xpa ns ion
of it s
r a ng e .
In old e r f ie ld
r e cor d ing s , m a d r ig a li
t e nd t o be
s u ng
wit h
not ice a bly
le s s m e lis m a t ha n
pa g hje lle ,
e v e n whe n
s u ng by
t he s a m e
s ing e r s .
This
s t ylis t ic
d if f e r e nce ha s now
be e n m inim is e d a s
m a d r ig a li
t e nd t o be t r e a t e d a s if
t he y
we r e
pa g hje lle .
b. The or e t ica l
r e f le ct ion
a nd r a t iona lis a t ion
As t r a d it iona l m u s ic ha s be ne f it t e d f r om
im pr ov e d
s t a t u s a nd incr e a s e d v a lu e , s o
it ha s a ls o
ins pir e d v a r ying d e g r e e s
of a ca d e m ic or t he or e t ica l
s pe cu la t ion
a s
pe ople
ha v e com e t o r e f le ct on wha t
e xa ct ly
it is t ha t
d is t ing u is he s
Cor s ica n
18Fonnu la t ions of t his
oppos it ion
of t e n
a ppe a r
in s t a t e m e nt s like :
"s ing ing
he r e is
s om e t hing
t ha t
com e s
na t u r a lly,
a s in Af r ica or t he e a s t , r a t he r t ha n
s om e t hing
which ha s t o be le a r nt a s it is in
t he we s t ...." I wou ld
s u g g e s t t ha t , while it wou ld be
pa t e nt ly
ina ppiopt ia t e
t o
cla s s if y
Cor s ica n
m u s ic a s "we s t e r n" wit h a ll t ha t t his
s ig nif ie s
in t e r m s of t he m od e m wor ld , a s im ple e a s t /we s t
d ia le ct ic r e m a ins
ina d e qu a t e .
The "we s t " a ls o ha s a "hid d e n f a ce " which r e f u s e s t o be
incor por a t e d
int o t he his t or ica l
pe r s pe ct iv e .
19
The
g r ou p
Voce d i Cor s ica , f or m e d in 1987, inclu d e s
s ing e r s
f r om Se r m a nu a nd Ru s iu
v illa g e s ,
which f e a t u r e
a m ong
t hos e whe r e t r a d it iona l m u s ica l
pr a ct ice s
we r e be s t
pr e s e r v e d .
Som e of t he s e
s ing e r s
we r e
or ig ina lly
a ct iv e wit h Ca nt a . The
Qu ilici
a nd La a d e r e cor d ing s
we r e
bot h m a d e wit h
s ing e r s
f r om
Ta g liu -Is u la cciu .
Bit he ll:
Polyphonic v oice s : t he
r e cor d ing of
t r a d it iona l m u s ic in Cor s ica 51
m u s ic a nd le nd s it it s
u niqu e ne s s .
Int e r e s t ha s f ocu s e d in
pa r t icu la r
on
qu e s t ions
of s t r u ct u r e a nd
m od a lit y.
Obs e r v a t ions ha v e be e n m a d e , f or
e xa m ple ,
wit h
r e s pe ct
t o t he
conce pt
of a u r a l colonis a t ion a nd t he e f f e ct s of m e d ia bom ba r d m e nt
which r e s u lt in
t od a y's
e a r
be ing f ir m ly
t u ne d t o
m a jor
a nd
m inor , s o t ha t
you ng
s ing e r s
a r e no
long e r
a ble t o m a s t e r t he
v a r ie t y
of m od a l inf le ct ions which t he ir
e ld e r s
d e ploy
wit h s u ch na t u r a l e a s e . W hile s u ch conce r ns s e r v e in
pa r t
t o f ocu s
a t t e nt ion on
a s pe ct s
of
ind ig e nou s s t yle
which a r e in
d a ng e r
of
be ing
los t -
whe t he r
t hr ou g h
la ck of a wa r e ne s s or la ck of
a ppr e cia t ion-a pr e occu pa t ion
wit h
t he or e t ica l
qu e s t ions
ca n r e s u lt in
a t t e m pt s
a t s che m a t is a t ion whe r e
t he or y
is in
d a ng e r
of
pr e -e m pt ing
pr a ct ice ,
i.e . t he
a ct iv it y
ca n be com e
pr e s cr ipt iv e
r a t he r
t ha n
d e s cr ipt iv e , los ing s ig ht
of t he
f u nd a m e nt a lly
hu m a n a nd
or g a nic
na t u r e of
t he m u s ica l
e nt e r pr is e .
In t he r e a lm of
m od a lit y,
t his t e nd s t o r e s u lt in
pa r t icu la r
in a n
ov e r -e m pha s is
on t he
pit ching
of t he
m e d ia nt ,
t he t e r za m e za na ,
or m id d le
t hir d , ha v ing
be e n
s ing le d
ou t
by
s om e a s a not he r of t he m a in f e a t u r e s which
d is t ing u is he s
Cor s ica n
m u s ic f r om W e s t e r n cla s s ica l m u s ic, Ang lo-Am e r ica n popu la r
m u s ic a nd
m a ins t r e a m Fr e nch m u s ic.20 W hile it is
im m e d ia t e ly
obv iou s t ha t not e s ou t s id e
t he
t e m pe r e d
s ca le a r e
ha bit u a lly be ing
u s e d
by
t he old e r
s ing e r s ,
t he t hir d
be ing
pa r t icu la r ly u ns t a ble , t he ir u s e is not , howe v e r , ne ce s s a r ily
cons is t e nt . In s om e
old e r f ie ld
r e cor d ing s , 21
t he t hir d is in a s t a t e of cons t a nt f lu ct u a t ion, be ing
pit che d d if f e r e nt ly
a lm os t
e v e r y
t im e it is
s u ng .
The f ina l t hir d is not
a lwa ys qu it e
s ha r p e nou g h
t o
qu a lif y
a s
be ing d e f init iv e ly m a jor ,
bu t s ince t he f ina l ca d e nce
ha s be e n
pe r ce iv e d
a s a t ie r ce d e Pica r d ie
e nd ing
t his f ina l t hir d now t e nd s t o be
e xe cu t e d a s
u nm is t a ka bly
m a jor .
Ins is t e nce on ce r t a in inf le ct ions ca n be t a ke n t o
e xt r e m e s : t hu s one
s ing e r
s a id t o m e of a not he r
(joking ly, pe r ha ps ):
"He d oe s n't
t hink it 's
r ig ht
u nle s s it 's ou t of t u ne ."
On t he ot he r
ha nd , g r ou ps wis hing
t o s ou nd
u ne qu iv oca lly
m od e m will s m oot h
ou t t ona l a nd ha r m onic
id e os yncr a cie s : t he y
d o not wa nt t o be
pe r ce iv e d
a s
s ing ing
"ou t of t u ne " like s om e of t he old m e n in t he f a ir s . In bot h of t he s e ca s e s ,
howe v e r , t he
pe r f or m a nce e njoys
a
g r e a t e r
s e ns e of wha t one
m ig ht
ca ll
"m u s ica lit y"
t ha n s om e of t he old
r e cor d ing s
which ca n s ou nd
s t r a ng e ly
d is joint e d
a nd
d is t inct ly pr im a l.
W it h t he
you ng e r g e ne r a t ion
of
s ing e r s ,
inca nt a t ion ha s be com e
qu it e d e f init e ly s ong .
The
u ppe r m os t
v oice
(t he t e r za )
ha s
pr og r e s s e d
f r om
pu nct u a t ion
t o e la bor a t ion while t he ba s s , which of t e n s e e m s
s om e wha t t e nt a t iv e or
im pr ov is e d
in ce r t a in of t he old
r e cor d ing s ,
now of f e r s a
f ir m a nd conf id e nt
s u ppor t
ba s e d on cle a r ca d e nt ia l
pa t t e r ns .22
20
In t he ca s e of t he m u s icia ns a s s ocia t e d wit h t he Ca s a Mu s ica le in
Pig na ,
t he u s e of t he t e r za
m e za na , ca lcu la t e d a s
ha v ing
a r a t io of 6: 5 (a s
in t he
ju s t
m inor t hir d ; s e e CEF 1992), ha s be e n
e xt e nd e d t o t he m a nu f a ct u r e a nd
pla ying
of m u s ica l ins t r u m e nt s .
21
For
e xa m ple ,
t he
pa g hje lla "Qu a nt u pa s s i
ci
a g hju
f a t t u " a s inclu d e d on t he d is c Cor s ica :
Tr a d it iona l
Song s
a nd Mu s ic, on which t he
t r a ns cr ipt ion
f e a t u r e d he r e in
f ig .
2 is a ls o ba s e d .
22
Sing e r s t he m s e lv e s a r e of t e n
s u r pr is e d
on
lis t e ning
t o old
r e cor d ing s
a t t he nu m be r of
d if f e r e nce s in
pe r f or m a nce s t yle .
The m os t "r oot e d "
s ing e r s
r e t a in t he
a bilit y
t o
pa s s
wit h
r e la t iv e e a s e f r om one m u s ica l
s ys t e m
t o a not he r , u s ing
W e s t e r n
t e m pe r e d s ca le s f or t he ir
52 Br it is h Jou r na l
of Et hnom u s icolog y
v ol. 5 (1996)
c. The cha nt lcha ns on d is cou r s e
Ot he r
a s pe ct s
of t he t r e a t m e nt
g iv e n
t o t r a d it iona l
pie ce s
a r e d e r iv e d f r om t he
d is cou r s e
conce r ning
t he
oppos it ion
cha nt v e r s u s cha ns on.23 Cha nt ha s t he s t a t u s
of a s cie nce whos e
com pr e he ns iv e
a nd
s ophis t ica t e d r e pe r t oir e
of v oca l
t e chniqu e s
is
g r a d u a lly be ing
d im inis he d u nd e r t he inf lu e nce of t he m or e
popu la r
a nd
u biqu it ou s
m od e m cha ns on
s t yle .
A cha ns on is cha r a ct e r is e d
by r e g u la r it y,
in
pa r t icu la r t e m por a l r e g u la r it y,
a nd is s e e n a s
la cking
t he ov e r a ll
pr of u nd it y
of t he
s ong s
ha nd e d d own
by
t he a ncie nt s . Once t his
oppos it ion
ha s be e n a r t icu la t e d , a n
e le m e nt of
ov e r -com pe ns a t ion
ca n occu r . Thu s in or d e r t ha t a
s ong
be
f ir m ly
e s t a blis he d a s
be long ing
t o t he m or e
pr e s t ig iou s ca t e g or y
of cha nt s a nd
pr e v e nt e d
f r om
f a lling pr e y
t o t he le s s
r ig or ou s
d e m a nd s of t he cha ns on, it s
ir r e g u la r it ie s
m u s t be
ca r e f u lly pr e s e r v e d a nd , if
ne ce s s a r y, hig hlig ht e d .
A
s ong
t ha t
be g ins
lif e
a s a cha ns on ca n e v e n
g r a d u a t e
t o t he s t a t u s of cha nt
by a cqu ir ing
t he
ne ce s s a r y
ir r e g u la r it ie s
in t he cou r s e of it s
d e v e lopm e nt , t og e t he r
wit h a ne w
polyphonic
a r r a ng e m e nt .24
One
m ig ht
e v e n
pos t u la t e
t ha t s om e
g r ou ps u nd e r g o
a
pr oce s s
of
conv e r s ion f r om cha ns on t o cha nt , a t r e nd which
be long s
in t he cont e xt of t he
ong oing pr oje ct
t o r e s t or e t o Cor s ica n
s ong
it s
or ig ina l int e g r it y, s e ns it iv y
a nd
cr e a t iv e
s pir it ,
while a ls o
r e f le ct ing
t he r e a lis a t ion t ha t ne w m a t e r ia l ca n be
g e ne r a t e d u s ing
t he old e r
s t yle s
a s we ll a s in a m or e m od e m id iom .
The
e qu a t ion
of Cor s ica wit h
polyphony
ca n
e a s ily
le a d t o t he
a s s u m pt ion
t ha t
s om e it e m s which ha v e s u r v iv e d in m onod ic f or m m u s t once ha v e be e n in
polyphony
a nd cont a in e choe s of los t v oice s
wa it ing
t o be r e s t or e d . This ca n
inv olv e a
pr oce s s whe r e by s t ylis t ic
f e a t u r e s
be long ing
t o t he
polyphonic
r e pe r t oir e
a r e ca r r ie d ov e r a nd
a pplie d
t o
s ong s
which we r e
cle a r ly or ig ina lly
conce iv e d a s m onod ic a nd whos e
his t or y
or
a nce s t r y
is
qu it e
d if f e r e nt .25 A ca s e in
point
is t he
r e pe r t oir e
of
pr oce s s iona l s ong s , m a ny
of which a r e in old It a lia n or
Tu s ca n a nd
a ppe a r
t o ha v e
be g u n
lif e wit h
r e g u la r ly m e t e r e d , non-m e lis m a t ic
m e lod ie s int e nd e d t o be
s u ng by
t he whole
cong r e g a t ion
or
pu blic,
s om e t im e s
wit h
r u d im e nt a r y
ha r m onie s a d d e d .
cha ns ons bu t
r e v e r t ing
t o t he old e r m od a lit ie s f or a
ca pe lla polyphonic s ong s .
The la t t e r
ne v e r t he le s s ha v e a s om e wha t
polis he d
a ir .
23
This
oppos it ion
is
r e g u la r ly
a llu d e d t o in t he
polyphony wor ks hops
r u n
by
m e m be r s of t he
g r ou p
A File t t a a t t he ir ba s e in Lu m iu , which I a t t e nd e d of t e n
d u r ing
1994-5. Act iv e s ince 1978
a nd one of t he be s t known Cor s ica n
g r ou ps a br oa d , One of t he be s t -known Cor s ica n
g r ou ps
a br oa d a s we ll a s one of t he m os t
r e s pe ct e d
on t he is la nd it s e lf , A File t t a a ls o
pla y
a
s ig nif ica nt
pa r t
in t he cu lt u r a l lif e of t he
Ba la g ne .
24
In a conce r t
g iv e n by
t he
g r ou p
A File t t a in
Aja ccio,
one it e m ("A
Pa g hje lla
d i
l'Im picca t i",
f r om t he d is c Una t a r r a ci he ) wa s int r od u ce d a s "a cha ns on which ha s now be com e a cha nt ."
This is one of t he m os t
s t r iking
of t he r e ce nt
polyphonic com pos it ions .
25
To s om e e xt e nt , t his e xt e nt ion of t he
a pplica t ion
of t he t r a d it iona l
polyphonic
m u s ica l
la ng u a g e
ca n be s e e n t o
ope r a t e
a t a f u nct iona l le v e l in t he cont e xt of
id e nt it y
is s u e s bu t it is a ls o
s im ply
t he inhe r it e d a nd ha bit u a l m u s ica l
la ng u a g e
which
pr ov id e s
t he m od e ls f or t he
wa y
in
which m a t e r ia l is
d e v e lope d .
Gof f r e (1990) ha s r e f e r r e d t o t he s e ne w
polyphonic a r r a ng e m e nt s
or
r e com pos it ions
a s
"'ne o-polyphonie s ".
Bit he ll:
Polyphonic
v oice s : t he
r e cor d ing of
t r a d it iona l m u s ic in Cor s ica 53
The
r e pe r t oir e
of t he
g r ou p
A File t t a inclu d e s s om e of t he
pr oce s s iona l s ong s
s u ng d u r ing Holy
W e e k a t Ca lv i.26 The
wa y
in which t he s e a r e
int e r pr e t e d by
t he
g r ou p
is a llowe d
by
t he f a ct t ha t in a
pe r f or m a nce
s it u a t ion t he
pie ce
is no
long e r
bou nd t o it s conne ct ion wit h t he m ov e m e nt of t he
pr oce s s ion, t og e t he r
wit h t he
f a ct t ha t t he
u ppe r
line s a r e now
be ing s u ng by
ind iv id u a l v oice s which t he r e f or e
ha v e f a r
g r e a t e r
f r e e d om of
e xpr e s s ion
in t e r m s of
t im ing
a nd or na m e nt a t ion. The
t e r za v oice in
pa r t icu la r
is
g r e a t ly d e v e lope d
a nd
ind u lg e s
in a
hig h d e ns it y
of
m e lis m a t ic or na m e nt a t ion. The ha r m onie s a r e no
long e r s im ply
f u nct iona l a nd
conce iv e d on a v e r t ica l
pla ne
bu t a r e t e a s e d ou t a nd
e xplor e d
on a hor izont a l
pla ne
a s e a ch v oice m ov e s a f r a ct ion be f or e or a f t e r a not he r , a s is
t ypica l
of t he
pa g hje lla
s t yle .
The r e is a s e ns e t ha t t he
s ing e r s
a r e incline d t owa r d s one a not he r ,
r e s u lt ing
in a m or e int e ns e com m u nica t ion which in t u r n a llows t he m t o
d e v e lop
t he
pie ce
in a m or e int u it iv e m a nne r .
Or ig ina lly
m onod ic
s ong s
which ha v e be e n
g iv e n
t his
t ype
of t r e a t m e nt f or t he
f ir s t t im e in a
pe r f or m a nce s e t t ing m ig ht u nd e r g o cha ng e
a t a
g r a s s -r oot s
le v e l a s
s om e of t he s e innov a t ions a r e t a ke n ov e r
by
t hos e who cont inu e t o
s ing
t he
s ong s
in t he ir
or ig ina l
cont e xt . Som e loca l
s ing e r s
s t r iv e ha r d t o r e s is t s u ch
cha ng e s ,
wa g g ing
a
f ing e r
a t t he
you ng boys
who a r e ke e n t o
t r y
ou t a
ha r m ony
line a nd
ins is t ing
t ha t "he r e we
s ing
like t his , not like t he
g r ou ps ."
d . Voice
pla ce m e nt
a nd t im br e
Som e f e a t u r e s of
pe r f or m a nce
s u ch a s t im br e ca n be a f f e ct e d
by t ot a lly
non-
m u s ica l cons id e r a t ions . Som e
s ing e r s
wit h a na t iona lis t
e ng a g e m e nt ine v it a bly
a d opt
a s om e wha t m ilit a nt s t a nce which ca n be ca r r ie d ov e r f r om t he
polit ica l
cha ns ons t o t he t r a d it iona l
r e pe r t oir e
a nd which le a d s t he m t o a ba nd on t he
cu s t om a r y pla ce m e nt
of t he v oice
m a inly
in t he t hr oa t a nd t o a le s s e r e xt e nt t he
nos e in f a v ou r of a
s t r ong e r
a nd m or e he r oic
s ou nd ing
che s t v oice . The
pa g hje lla
s e r v e s f or t he s e
s ing e r s
a s a
s ym bol
of
s olid a r it y, e m powe r m e nt
a nd cu lt u r a l
r e cla m a t ion s o t ha t
s ing ing
one ca n be com e a
polit ica l
a ct r a t he r t ha n a n a ct of
com m u nion be t we e n t he
s ing e r s ,
which is wha t it
r e pr e s e nt s
in it s na t u r a l
s e t t ing ,
a nd t his is
s om e t hing
t ha t ca n be
cle a r ly
he a r d .
At t he s a m e
t im e , a cons ciou s e f f or t is
be ing
m a d e
by
s om e
s ing e r s
t o
pr od u ce
a s ou nd which a u d ie nce s will not f ind
a lie na t ing . Ma ny
f e e l t ha t if
t he y
u s e d t he
qu a lit y
of t im br e
com m only
f ou nd in old e r
r e cor d ing s , "pe ople
wou ld
la u g h".
The
s ing e r s
f e a t u r e d in t he old f ie ld
r e cor d ing s ,
on t he ot he r ha nd , "che r che nt
pa s
a e t r e
a g r e a ble " (Ra f f a e lli int e r v ie w). Tod a y's s ing e r s
ha v e int e r na lis e d a n
a e s t he t ic which ha d no
pla ce
in t he wor ld of t he ir a nce s t or s a nd t he ir conce r n t o
be
a cce pt a ble
is
pa r t
of t he
cont inu ing ne g ot ia t ion
be t we e n t r a d it ion a nd
cont e m por a ne it y.
St u d e nt s
lis t e ning
t o t he
r e cor d ing s
of t he
m a d r ig a le
"Ecco Be lla " a s d is cu s s e d
in
(a )
a bov e
ju d g e d
t he Voce d i Cor s ica r e nd it ion t o be
pit che d
f a r lowe r t ha n t he
La a d e
r e cor d ing .
In
f a ct , t he
pit ch
is id e nt ica l: it is t he v oice
pla ce m e nt
t ha t is
26
The d is c Ab Et e r nu f e a t u r e s t he
s ong s
"Pr e s s o il
le g no"
a nd 'Te cco d ile t t a m a d r e ".
54 Br it is h Jou r na l f Et hnom u s icolog y,
v ol. 5 (1996)
d if f e r e nt . To s om e e xt e nt t his is a ls o linke d t o t he
pr a ct ica l e xig e ncie s
of a
s t a g e
pe r f or m a nce
a nd t he u s e of
m icr ophone s
whe r e t he
qu e s t ion
of
pr oje ct ion
ha s
d if f e r e nt
im plica t ions .
The d if f e r e nce in
bod y pos t u r e
m u s t
e qu a lly pla y
a
pa r t :
on
s t a g e ,
t he
s ing e r s
a r e
s t a nd ing u pr ig ht ,
not
le a ning
on one a not he r s ' s hou ld e r s or
t he cou nt e r of a ba r .
The y
a r e
t e nd ing
t o br e a t he m or e f r om t he s t om a ch.
(In
s om e
ca s e s , s u ch
br e a t hing
is
cons ciou s ly pr om ot e d
a s a
t e chniqu e .)
It cou ld a ls o be
a r g u e d
t ha t wit h s om e of t he
e a r ly g r ou ps
ca m e a
cha ng e
in t he
v e r y conce pt
of t he Cor s ica n v oice , a f f e ct ing pla ce m e nt ,
t e xt u r e a nd v oice
pr od u ct ion.
It be ca m e , d e s pit e it s e lf , m or e
cla s s ica lly
a nd
cont ine nt a lly
inf lu e nce d . In Miche l Ra f f a e lli's a r t is t ic d ir e ct ion of t he Ca nt i cor s i d is c, by
cont r a s t , conce r n wit h a m or e t r a d it iona l or
ind ig e nou s
t im br a l
qu a lit y pla ye d
a
pr om ine nt pa r t .
e .
St ylis a t ion
A f u r t he r t r e nd which ca n be obs e r v e d in com m e r cia l d is cs is a
t e nd e ncy
t owa r d s
cond e ns a t ion a nd
a m a lg a m a t ion
of ce r t a in m u s ica l f e a t u r e s . In a f ie ld
r e cor d ing
t he r e
m ig ht
be a nu m be r of v a r ia t ions be t we e n s t a nza s : t he m or e s t a nza s t he r e a r e ,
t he m or e v a r ia t ions a r e
pos s ible .
The s e v a r ia t ions ca n be m e lod ic a nd or na m e nt a l
or ,
in t he ca s e of
polyphony,
ca n conce r n t he
point
a nd not e of
e nt r y
of t he
d if f e r e nt v oice s
(i.e . t he y
ca n
ope r a t e
on bot h a hor izont a l a nd a v e r t ica l
pla ne ).
For t he
pu r pos e s
of a com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing
t he s u m of t he
s t ylis t ic
v a r ia nt s
m a y
be r e f or m u la t e d t o
pr od u ce
a
t ype
of
pr ot os t a nza
which is f a r m or e
s t ylis e d
t ha n
t he
or ig ina l.
W he n t he
pa g hje lla
is
s u ng
in it s na t u r a l cont e xt t he r e is
a lwa ys
a
d e g r e e
of
f le xibilit y.
Ev e n wit hin t he s a m e
s ong ,
it is r a r e t o f ind e a ch m u s ica l s t a nza
s u ng
a bs olu t e ly id e nt ica lly.27
In t he ca s e of a com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing
or
s t a g e
pe r f or m a nce , howe v e r , e a ch s t a nza is a lm os t
inv a r ia bly
id e nt ica l: t he
a r r a ng e m e nt
is bot h r e he a r s e d a nd
r e pr od u cible .
The e le m e nt of
s pont a ne it y
a nd
cr e a t iv it y
ha s
no
pla ce
in t his cont e xt , while t he
d ou bling
of t he ba s s v oice which
com m only
occu r s in t he
pe r f or m a nce s e t t ing
f u r t he r r e d u ce s
f le xibilit y.
This ca n be s e e n a s
pa r t
of t he
pr oce s s whe r e by
t he
r e pe r t oir e
s hif t s -a s it m ov e s ont o t he
s t a g e -
f r om
popu la r e xpr e s s ion
t o a r t is t ic
pr od u ct .
In s om e ca s e s t he r e s u lt is a
s im plif ica t ion
bu t it ca n
e qu a lly
le a d t o a n
im pr e s s ion
of
g r e a t e r s ophis t ica t ion.
This
t ype
of
d e v e lopm e nt
ca n be s e e n in
t e r m s of
r e s t or ing
a ce r t a in cha r a ct e r which
m ig ht
ha v e be e n los t in t he s om e t im e s
f r a g m e nt a r y
v e r s ions of
s ong s
t ha t f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
ca n
r e pr e s e nt :
t he
a s s u m pt ion
he r e is t ha t t he f ie ld
r e cor d ing
is it s e lf
only
a n
im pov e r is he d
v e r s ion of t he
"or ig ina l".
Thu s Miche l Ra f f a e lli wr it e s of t he ne e d t o
r e a d a pt ,
t o r e cons t r u ct
27
An e le m e nt of
im pr ov is a t ion (wit hin ce r t a in s e t
pa r a m e t e r s )
is int r ins ic t o t he t r a d it iona l
conce pt ion
of
s ong :
t he
s ong
is cr e a t e d in t he m om e nt . In t he ca s e of
polyphonic s ing ing ,
t he
v oice s a r e a ls o
cons t a nt ly a d a pt ing
t o one a not he r a s t he
s ong
u nf old s
or g a nica lly.
Bit he ll:
Polyphonic
v oice s : t he
r e cor d ing of
t r a d it iona l m u s ic in Cor s ica 55
f r om t he t r a ce s t ha t r e m a in, t o r e s t or e colou r a nd wa r m t h t o a
pe r f or m a nce (in
d e
Ze r bi a nd Dia ni 1992:
34-5).28
f
Re f e r e nce
t o ot he r m u s ica l
la ng u a g e s
The a d d it ion of ins t r u m e nt a l
a ccom pa nim e nt
ca n
d e pe nd
on
pa r t icu la r pe r ce pt ions
of how Cor s ica n m u s ic
m ig ht
r e la t e t o ot he r m u s ica l t r a d it ions bot h
g e og r a phica lly
a nd
his t or ica lly.
The ce t e r a 29
pla ye d
in t he
s t yle
of a n u d a nd a
d a r a bu ka -like
pe r cu s s ion
line
m ig ht
be a d d e d
by
m u s icia ns int e r e s t e d in
e xplor ing pos s ible
links be t we e n Cor s ica n a nd Nor t h Af r ica n or Ar a bic m u s ic.
Ot he r Me d it e r r a ne a n a nd Or ie nt a l conne ct ions a r e
s im ila r ly s u g g e s t e d by
t he
a d d it ion of a ce r t a in
t ype
of ins t r u m e nt a t ion.30
Or g a n a ccom pa nim e nt s
a nd
int e r lu d e s com e f r om t hos e
wis hing
t o e s t a blis h a conne ct ion wit h m or e cla s s ica l
t r e nd s in
Ba r oqu e
m u s ic.31 Su ch
r e cor d ing s
d o not
pr ov e a nyt hing
d e f init iv e
a bou t a ct u a l
pe r f or m a nce pr a ct ice
bu t e xis t a s
e xpe r im e nt a l
d e m ons t r a t ions or
e xplor a t ions
of id e a s , of t e n in
r e s pons e
t o u nr e s olv e d
qu e s t ions .
The m u s ica l
la ng u a g e
which
d e v e lope d
a s a v e hicle f or t he cha ns ons r e v e a ls a
s t or y
of
polit ica l
a s we ll a s a r t is t ic
s ym pa t hie s .
Som e Cor s ica n na t iona lis t
s ing e r s
we r e
g r e a t ly
inf lu e nce d in t he 1970s
by
ce r t a in Sou t h Am e r ica n
g r ou ps -e ng a g e d
in t he
f ig ht a g a ins t polit ica l r e pr e s s ion
in t he ir own cou nt r ie s bu t
liv ing
in e xile in
Eu r ope -t o
t he e xt e nt of
a d opt ing cha r a ng os
or
pla ying
t he
g u it a r
in
cha r a ng o
s t yle .32
This is a cle a r
e xa m ple
of how
polit ica l
a nd m u s ica l
ins pir a t ion
ca n
g o
ha nd in ha nd a nd how m u s ica l e le m e nt s ca n be
im por t e d
a s a n
a d ju nct
t o a n id e a
or be ha v iou r
pa t t e r n
of which
t he y
a r e a
pa r t .
Re ce pt ion by ind ig e nou s
a u d ie nce s
The r e a ct ions of
ind ig e nou s
a u d ie nce s t o a
r e cor d ing
m u s t a ls o f or m
pa r t
of it s
s t or y.
Do
t he y a cce pt
it a s a n a u t he nt ic a nd f a it hf u l
r e pr e s e nt a t ion
of t he ir cu lt u r e
or d o
t he y
s e e it a s a cons t r u ct which
m ig ht
ha v e u nd e nia ble a r t is t ic m e r it bu t
which
t he y
d o not
r e cog nis e
a s
ha v ing a nyt hing
t o d o wit h t he t r a d it ion a s
t he y
t he m s e lv e s
e xpe r ie nce
it ? The is s u e of
a u t he nt icit y
is
s ha r pe ne d by
t he f a ct t ha t
t he t r a d it ion
be ing pr e s e nt e d
in t he d is cs is s t ill a liv e a nd t he r e f or e
v e r y
clos e .
28
In t his ins t a nce he is
r e f e r r ing
t o
Mig he le
Pa oli's
int e r pr e t a t ion
of t he
s ong
"Lis a Be d d a " on
one of t he Ca nt a d is cs , com pa r ing
it wit h a
r e cor d ing
m a d e
by Qu ilici
in 1949.
29
A
t ype
of cit t e m , once
a g a in be ing
m a d e
by
Cor s ica n ins t r u m e nt -m a ke r s who ha v e u s e d a s
t he ir m od e ls
e xa m ple s
of t he ins t r u m e nt
r e ce nt ly
d is cov e r e d on t he is la nd . The ce t e r a is now
inclu d e d in t he
line -u p
of a nu m be r of
g r ou ps
a s a t r a d it iona l ins t r u m e nt .
30
Two r e ce nt d is cs which
s pe cif ica lly
s e t ou t t o
e xplor e
s u ch conne ct ions a r e U Ca nt u Pr u f ond u
by Mig he la
Ce s a r i a nd
Mig he le Ra f f a e lli, a nd Com '
a cqu a
lind a
by
t he
g r ou p
Cinqu i
S6.
31
E.g .
A
Cu m pa g nia :
Mis s a Cor s ica in Mont ice llu , pu t
ou t a s
pa r t
of a s e r ie s e nt it le d "Le s
che m ins d u
Ba r oqu e
cor s e ".
32
A nu m be r of t he m u s icia ns in
qu e s t ion
ha v e s a id t ha t one f e a t u r e which
t he y cons ciou s ly
a d opt e d
wa s
"r hyt hm ",
hit he r t o
cons picu ou s ly la cking
in Cor s ica n m u s ic in
g e ne r a l.
56 Br it is h Jou r na l
f Et hnom u s icolog y,
v ol. 5 (1996)
The
s ing e r s
in t he
g r ou ps
ca n be
com pa r e d
not
only
wit h "how
t he y
u s e d t o
s ing "
in t he
pa s t ,
bu t a ls o wit h ot he r
s ing e r s
in t he
pr e s e nt .
Som e of t he Cor s ica n
g r ou ps
a r e s e e n t o be
pr od u cing
a r t r a t he r t ha n
popu la r m u s ic; ot he r s a r e cons id e r e d t o be
in it
"ju s t
f or t he
m one y".
Som e
r e cor d ing s
a r e in
d a ng e r
of
be ing r e je ct e d by
ce r t a in s e ct or s of t he
pu blic
a s
be ing "t r a f iqu e "-"int e r f e r e d
wit h". Ev e n t hos e
wit h t he be s t m ot iv e s ha v e of t e n
by-pa s s e d
wha t is cons id e r e d a
pr ope r pr oce s s
of
init ia t ion wit h loca l
s ing e r s ,
ins t e a d
le a r ning
t he ir
r e pe r t oir e
f r om ot he r
you ng
s ing e r s ,
e it he r
d ir e ct ly
or v ia t he ir
r e cor d ing s .
Som e who cla im t o ha v e le a r nt
f r om old e r t r a d it iona l
s ing e r s
ha v e be e n m or e s e le ct iv e t ha n
t he y m ig ht
r e a lis e in
t e r m s of wha t
t he y
ha v e r e t a ine d a nd wha t
t he y
ha v e
cha ng e d .
Som e old
s ing e r s
com pla in
of
be ing
v is it e d
by
a s t r e a m of
you ng
m e n
e a g e r
t o le a r n t he old
s ong s :
la t e r
t he y
he a r t he m
s ing ing
t he s e s a m e
s ong s
on t he r a d io in a
wa y
t ha t m a ke s
t he m
ba r e ly r e cog nis a ble . The y
a r e
he a r ing
wit h d if f e r e nt e a r s ,
e v e n
t hou g h
t o a n
ou t s id e r t he
cha ng e s m ig ht a ppe a r
m inim a l.
An
ov e r r id ing
conce r n f or
a ny pe r f or m e r
in t he f ie ld of t r a d it iona l m u s ic is t o
a ppe a r
a u t he nt ic. Thu s
s ong s
a r e
ha bit u a lly
lis t e d a s "t r a d ., na m e of
v illa g e
of
or ig in".
The
s ong s a r e , howe v e r , of t e n
be ing
r e cor d e d
by s ing e r s
who d o not
or ig ina t e
f r om t he
v illa g e
in
qu e s t ion,
a nd
r e cog nit ion
of t he s e
pie ce s by
t he
v illa g e r s
t he m s e lv e s ca n
d e pe nd
on
qu it e s t r ing e nt
cr it e r ia ba s e d on a
conce pt ion
of a
s ong
a s
cons is t ing
of m or e t ha n
m e r e ly
m u s ica l f a ct or s . Not
only
ca n t he
g r ou p
be a ccu s e d of a n obv iou s m od if ica t ion s u ch a s
a d d ing
a cont r a -t e r za ; t he y
ca n a ls o be
ju d g e d
t o ha v e d if f e r e nt int ona t ion, t im br e , t im ing ,
br e a t h cont r ol e t c.
wit h t he r e s u lt t ha t t he ir
pe r f or m a nce
d oe s not
qu a lif y
a s t he s a m e
s ong .
"Ils ne
cha nt e nt
pa s [na m e
of
v illa g e ], " pe ople
will
s a y,
"c'e s t
pa s
, a ." In one s e ns e s u ch
s t a t e m e nt s s e r v e a
pr ot e ct iv e
f u nct ion:
owne r s hip
of t he
r e pe r t oir e by
t he
v illa g e
of
or ig in
is not
t r u ly
t hr e a t e ne d
by
ou t s id e
s ing e r s
s ince it
only qu a lif ie s
a s t he
r e a l
t hing
whe n
s u ng by
t hos e who ha v e
g r own u p
a nd le a r nt in t he
v illa g e .
Bu t
be yond
t his lie s a
g e nu ine
s e ns e of a la r m t ha t t he nu a nce s a nd inf le ct ions which
cons t it u t e a d is t inct iv e
r e g iona l s t yle m ig ht g r a d u a lly
be e r od e d . W hile s om e
g r ou ps
d o
a t t e m pt
t o
r e plica t e
t he
s ing ing s t yle
of t he
v illa g e
f r om which a
s ong
or ig ina t e s ,
ot he r s e xe cu t e t he ir
com ple t e r e pe r t oir e
in t he s a m e u nif or m
s t yle :
wha t t he lis t e ne r he a r s is t he s ou nd of t he
g r ou p (a s
in "t he Be a t le s s ou nd ").
Vie we d f r om a not he r
a ng le ,
t his
phe nom e non qu a lif ie s
a s "a u t he nt ic"
by a na log y
wit h t he old
v illa g e d qu ipe s who, d u r ing ye a r s
of
s ing ing t og e t he r ,
wou ld e v olv e
t he ir own
u niqu e s t yle
Pr oble m s ca n a ls o a r is e in r e la t ion t o
pa r t s
of t he ca non t ha t ha v e
r e ce nt ly
be e n
"r e cons t r u ct e d ".
(This u s u a lly
inv olv e s t he r e cons t r u ct ion of t he ba s s u a nd /or
t e r za v oice s of a
pie ce
which u s e d t o be
s u ng
in
polyphony
bu t of which
only
t he
m a in
m e lod y
or s e cu nd a line ha s be e n
pr e s e r v e d
int a ct in
m e m or y.)
The r e is no
g u a r a nt e e
t ha t s u ch
r e com pos it ions ,
s om e of which ha v e be e n a chie v e d wit h
ou t s id e
he lp,
will be
a cce pt e d by
a ll m e m be r s of t he loca l
com m u nit y
a s a n
a ccu r a t e
r e pr od u ct ion
of t he
ha lf -f or g ot t e n or ig ina l,
e v e n
t hou g h t he y m ig ht g o
on
t o f e a t u r e on a
r e cor d ing
m a d e
by
ou t s id e
s ing e r s
a s "t r a d it iona l". This r a is e s t he
qu e s t ion
of how m u ch, a s a n
e t hnom u s icolog is t ,
one ne e d s t o know in or d e r t o be
a ble t o e v a lu a t e t he
r e cor d ing s pr od u ce d .
In t he
e a r ly d a ys
of f ie ld
r e cor d ing ,
Bit he ll:
Polyphonic
v oice s : t he
r e cor d ing of t r a d it iona l m u s ic in Cor s ica 57
na m e a nd
a g e
of
pe r f or m e r , v illa g e
of
or ig in
a nd
occu pa t ion m ig ht
ha v e s u f f ice d .
Tod a y
t he
qu e s t ions
s e e m m or e
com ple x
a nd
pe r ha ps
le s s innoce nt .
The
e nt r y
of
ind ig e nou s
m u s ics int o t he wor ld m a r ke t conf u s e s t he is s u e e v e n
f u r t he r .
Re g a r d le s s
of whe t he r a d is c is
g r e e t e d
wit h
a ppr ov a l
or ot he r wis e
by
loca l a u d ie nce s , it ca n
pr ov e
t o be a
m a jor
s u cce s s a br oa d on t he m e r it s of it s f a ce
v a lu e a lone a nd s o be com e
f ir m ly
e s t a blis he d a s a
com pone nt
of t he "Cor s ica n
s ou nd " a s he a r d f r om a cr os s t he wa t e r .
It
m u s t , ne v e r t he le s s , be
e m pha s is e d
t ha t t he r e a ct ions a nd
ju d g e m e nt s
of
ind ig e nou s
cr it ics a r e
u lt im a t e ly
d e t e r m ine d
by
t he ir own
a g e nd a s
a nd
pr ior it ie s .
Som e lis t e ne r s a r e
lis t e ning
f or a m or e
polis he d pe r f or m a nce
which
t he y
f e e l d oe s
t he m cr e d it
by a t t a ining
t he
r e qu ir e d pr of e s s iona l
s t a nd a r d s while ot he r s a r e
lis t e ning
f or
s om e t hing
cr u d e r
which, t o t he ir
e a r s ,
is m or e a u t he nt ic. Ye t ot he r s
a r e
lis t e ning
a bov e a ll f or t he
s pir it
be hind t he
pe r f or m a nce ,
which
m ig ht
or
m ig ht
not be t r u s t e d , ir r e s pe ct iv e
of t he
s ing e r s '
a r t is t ic
ca pa bilit ie s .
Re cor d ing
in t he
f ie ld t od a y
It is
t e m pt ing
t o s e e f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
a s
r e pr e s e nt ing
a
r e f r e s hing ly u ncom plica t e d ,
u na d u lt e r a t e d
pr od u ct .
Ev e n
he r e , howe v e r , a
d e g r e e
of ca u t ion is
r e qu ir e d .
Ou r
own f ie ld
r e cor d ing s m ig ht
be f ir s t ha nd bu t t he r e a r e s t ill
qu e s t ions
t o be a s ke d
conce r ning
t he m a t e r ia l r e cor d e d . The
f a r -r e a ching
inf lu e nce of com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s
ha s t o be
cons t a nt ly
bor ne in m ind whe n
m a king
ne w
r e cor d ing s
in t he
f ie ld in Cor s ica
t od a y.
Since
t a pe s
a nd CDs a r e s o
wid e ly
a v a ila ble in cont r a s t t o
t he old f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
whe r e a cce s s is of t e n
t ig ht ly r e s t r ict e d , it is t he f or m e r
t ha t s e r v e a s m od e ls f or
m a ny you ng s ing e r s ,
who ca n le a r n t he ir
r e pe r t oir e
a t
hom e wit h f r ie nd s t he n
t r y
ou t t he ir ne w s kills a t f a ir s or ot he r
com m u nit y
e v e nt s .
Any
lis t e ne r f a m ilia r wit h r e ce nt com m e r cia l
ou t pu t
ca n
e a s ily pinpoint
which
CDs
t he y
ha v e be e n
lis t e ning
t o. At t he s a m e t im e t he ir
pe r f or m a nce m ig ht
it s e lf
be com e im m or t a lis e d in a ne w f ie ld
r e cor d ing .
An
e xa m ple
is t he t wo-v oice
s ong
or ig ina t ing
f r om
Se r m a nu , "Le t t e r a a
Ma m a ", a s f e a t u r e d on t he d is c Cor s ica :
Cha nt s
Polyphoniqu e s by
E Voce d i u Cu m u ne . He r e t he
u ppe r
v oice is t r e a t e d t o
a kind of
t r opic d e v e lopm e nt -t o s t u nning
e f f e ct -in a m a nne r t ha t is
a cknowle d g e d
in t he d is c not e s t o be non-t r a d it iona l.33 I ha v e he a r d t his s a m e
a r r a ng e m e nt r e pr od u ce d , e qu a lly s t u nning ly, by you ng s ing e r s
in
Ca p
Cor s e . In
t his
wa y, s t ylis t ic
innov a t ions which
or ig ina t e
wit h a
pa r t icu la r g r ou p
or
s ing e r
ca n
qu ickly pa s s
ov e r int o t he
liv ing
t r a d it ion. Je a n-Cla u d e
Acqu a v iv a
of t he
g r ou p
A File t t a
(int e r v ie w 1994)
e v oke s t he
d a ng e r
of t he t r a d it ion
be ing cha ng e d
by
s u ch innov a t ions bu t conclu d e s t ha t
u lt im a t e ly pe ople
will
ke e p
wha t
t he y
wa nt t o
ke e p:
in t his s e ns e t he r e is a colle ct iv e s e le ct iv e
pr oce s s
a t wor k.
W ha t e v e r
ha ppe ns ,
t he t r a d it ion ha s t o m ov e on.
Me a nwhile , t he m a s s e s of Ru s iu a nd
Se r m a nu , wid e ly
d if f u s e d v ia a nu m be r of
r e cor d ing s
m a d e
d u r ing
t he
pa s t
30 or 40
ye a r s ,
ca n now be r e cor d e d a ll ov e r t he
33
"This f or m of
t r e a t ing
cha nt s d id not e xis t in Cor s ica n t r a d it ion."
58 Br it is h Jou r na l of Et hnom u s icolog y,
v ol. 5 (1996)
is la nd , s u ng by s ing e r s
who ha v e no conne ct ion wit h t he
v illa g e s
t he m s e lv e s .
The y
ha v e be com e t he cu lt u r a l
pr ope r t y
of t he whole is la nd .
The bou nd a r ie s be t we e n loca l t r a d it iona l
s ing e r s ,
t he
conf r e r ie s , 34
t he e cole s d e
cha nt 35 a nd
g r ou ps
a r e f u r t he r m or e
be com ing incr e a s ing ly
conf u s e d . The r e v iv a l
of t he m u s ica l lif e of one
v illa g e s t u d ie d , f or
e xa m ple , be g a n
wit h t he
s e t t ing u p
of a n e cole d e cha nt wit h t e a che r a nd le a r ne r s , s ing e r s
a nd
non-s ing e r s ,
Cor s ica ns
a nd non-Cor s ica ns , m e e t ing
in t he loca l chu r ch.
Pr e s e nt ly
t he
v illa g e conf r e r ie ,
which ha d be e n ina ct iv e f or a nu m be r of
ye a r s ,
wa s r e s u r r e ct e d , inclu d ing
in it s
m e m be r s hip
s e v e r a l m e m be r s of t he e cole d e cha nt who t hu s
be g a n
t o
s ing
t he
m a s s f or
f e a s t -d a ys
a nd f u ne r a ls . The m os t r e ce nt
d e v e lopm e nt
is t ha t t he m or e
e s t a blis he d m e m be r s of t he e cole ha v e now be e n inv it e d t o
pe r f or m
a s a
g r ou p
a t
e v e nt s ou t s id e t he is la nd : f or t his
t he y
ha v e ha d t o
a d opt
a na m e . Ne xt , t he y
a r e
t hinking
of
m a king
a
t a pe .
The d is t inct ions be t we e n t he d if f e r e nt f or m a t ions or
com bina t ions of
s ing e r s
a nd t he s t a t u s of t he ir m u s ica l a ct iv it ie s ha v e t hu s
be com e blu r r e d . W ha t ,
in a ll of t his , m ig ht
cons t it u t e a f ie ld
r e cor d ing ?
A f u r t he r
e xa m ple
is t he ca s e of t he
conf r e r ie s
of Bonif a cio who a r e now
m a king
t he ir own
r e cor d ing s
of a ll t he Of f ice s , Ve s pe r s ,
e t c.
s u ng
on d if f e r e nt s a int s '
d a ys
a nd will
t he n be
s e lling
t he m a s
t a pe s .
Ar e t he s e f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
or com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s ?
Ar e
t he y
d if f e r e nt in s t a t u s f r om a
r e cor d ing
I
m ig ht
ha v e m a d e (if
pe r m it t e d )
on t he s a m e occa s ion?
His t or ica l
f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
In t he ca s e of his t or ica l f ie ld
r e cor d ing s , like wis e , a
d e g r e e
of
r e int e r pr e t a t ion
or
r e cons t r u ct ion is of t e n ne e d e d .
Re cor d ing s com m only
com e d own t o u s wit h
m inim a l d ocu m e nt a t ion, le a v ing
u s t o m a ke ou r own
ju d g e m e nt s .
The ou t com e of
a f ie ld wor k
t r ip
ca n be d e t e r m ine d
by
a com bina t ion of f a ct or s , inclu d ing
t im e
r e s t r ict ions , s e a s ona l v a r ia t ions , we a t he r cond it ions , f le xibilit y
of t he t r a v e l
s che d u le , pr ope r f u nct ioning
of
e qu ipm e nt ,
f ina ncia l cons t r a int s , t he
g e nd e r
of t he
f ie ld wor ke r , t he e s t a blis hm e nt of a
g ood r a ppor t
wit h inf or m a nt s a nd t he int e r e s t s
of t he inf or m a nt s t he m s e lv e s .36 Mor e ov e r , it is not u nknown f or e t hnom u s icolog -
is t s t o ha v e be e n le d
u p
t he
pr ov e r bia l g a r d e n pa t h by
ce r t a in of t he ir inf or m a nt s
in t e r m s of t he inf or m a t ion
pr of f e r e d .
Fu r t he r m or e , r e cor d ing s
ca n
e njoy
d if f e r e nt s t a t u s e s a nd
pr e s e nt
u s wit h
d if f e r e nt s e t s of
qu e s t ions , a ccor d ing
t o whe t he r
t he y
we r e
a ct u a lit y r e cor d ing s
34
The conf r Er ie s a r e s e cu la r la y
br ot he r hood s d e d ica t e d t o a
pa r t icu la r
s a int a nd t o which in t he
pa s t
m os t m e n in t he
loca lit y
wou ld ha v e
be long e d .
The ir a ct iv it ie s inclu d e s ing ing
t he Of f ice s
a nd
Re qu ie m
Ma s s e s a nd
or g a nis ing pr oce s s ions
a nd f u ne r a ls .
Ma ny
ha v e
r e ce nt ly
be e n r e v iv e d .
35
A nu m be r of t he s e e cole s
a ppe a r e d
a s a
by-pr od u ct
of t he
r ia cqu is t u ,
m a ny be ing
s e t
u p by
m e m be r s of Ca nt a a nd ot he r
g r ou ps , or ig ina lly
in t he m a in t owns of
Aja ccio
a nd Ba s t ia , a s a
m e a ns of t r a ns m it t ing
t he
r e pe r t oir e (a nd it s a s s ocia t e d
polit ics )
t o
you ng s ing e r s g r owing u p
a wa y
f r om t he
v illa g e s .
36
The
"jou r na l
d 'a ct iv it d " of
Qu ilici's
1948 m is s ion
(Ca nt e lla
1991) a nd La a d e 's a ccou nt of his
t ou r a r ou nd t he is la nd in 1973 (La a d e 1981) r e v e a l t he e xt e nt t o which t he m a t e r ia l r e cor d e d wa s
d e t e r m nnine d
by
t he
int e r pla y
of t he s e v a r iou s f a ct or s .
Bit he ll:
Polyphonic
v oice s : t he
r e cor d ing of
t r a d it iona l m u s ic in Cor s ica 59
(m a d e ,
f or
e xa m ple ,
in a ba r , a t a f a ir , on a
m ou nt a int op
or in a
chu r ch),
or
r e cor d ing s
m a d e in a
s pe cia lly a r r a ng e d
s e s s ion
(which m ig ht
ha v e t a ke n
pla ce
a t
t he
s ing e r 's
hom e ,
in a s choolr oom or in t he
e t hnom u s icolog is t 's
own hot e l
r oom ).
The f or m e r s it u a t ion conce r ns a n e v e nt which is
t a king pla ce
in r e a l t im e
a nd is not in
a ny
d ir e ct
wa y d e pe nd e nt
on t he
pr e s e nce
of t he
e t hnom u s icolog is t ,
while t he la t t e r s it u a t ion
u s u a lly
inv olv e s a n old
pe r s on be ing
s olicit e d t o r e ca ll
t he
s ong s
of t he ir
you t h. Re cor d ing s
of t his
t ype
m ig ht
be m a d e wit h a
r e cog nis e d
s ing e r
or
s im ply
wit h whoe v e r is a v a ila ble a t t he t im e ,
in which ca s e t he m u s ica l
com pone nt m ig ht
be r e d u ce d t o t he r ole of
s im ply pr ov id ing
a v e hicle f or t he t e xt
wit h t he r e s u lt t ha t m u ch of t he
s t ylis t ic
cont e nt is los t . Pe r f or m a nce s f or f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
a r e
r a r e ly r e he a r s e d , a nd of t e n conce r n a
s t a g e
in t he
pr oce s s
of
r e m e m be r ing
r a t he r t ha n t he f ina l
pr od u ct . Com pe ns a t ion
m u s t
s im ila r ly
be m a d e
f or t he r e d u ce d
f le xibilit y
of old v oice s .
(The s e point s
r e la t e t o Ra f f a e lli's
pos it ion
a s d is cu s s e d in
(e ) a bov e .)
Som e of t he
s ing e r s
wit h whom I wor ke d com m e nt e d on t he
d if f icu lt y
of
g e ne r a lis ing
on t he ba s is of a f e w f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
t o t he e xt e nt of
s a ying ,
"This is
how it u s e d t o be
s u ng "
or e v e n "This is how it s hou ld be
s u ng ". The y qu it e
r ig ht ly point
ou t t ha t t he
s ing e r s
a r e of t e n
v e r y
old a nd
m ig ht
not ha v e
s u ng
f or
s om e t im e . Som e a r e s hor t of br e a t h be ca u s e of t he ir
a g e .
An
of t -r e pe a t e d
e xa m ple
conce r ne d a n old
s ing e r
who ha d a s t hm a : s om e
pe ople
le a r ning
f r om
r e cor d ing s
of his
s ing ing
ins is t e d on
r e pr od u cing
t he s ou nd of his
br e a t hing ,
conf u s ing
his a s t hm a t ic whe e ze wit h s om e e s ot e r ic v oca l
t e chniqu e . Equ a lly,
t he r e a r e ca s e s whe r e , t he or e t ica lly,
one ha s t o be a llowe d t o v e nt u r e t he
opinion
t ha t t he
s ing e r
ha s
qu it e s im ply g ot
it
wr ong (Ca s a bia nca int e r v ie w).
The
a s s ig nm e nt
of
s u pe r ior
s t a t u s t o f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
in t he cont e s t a t ion of
cor r e ct ne s s ha s t he r e f or e t o be
qu e s t ione d .
If f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
a r e s e e n a s
be ing
pr e s cr ipt iv e
r a t he r t ha n
d e s cr ipt iv e
t his ca n le a d t o a n ov e r -f u nd a m e nt a lis t (Ma lm
1993)
or
pu r is t a ppr oa ch
which s t if le s t he e le m e nt of
cr e a t iv it y
or
f le xibilit y
t ha t
is
a lwa ys
a
pa r t
of a
liv ing
t r a d it ion.
Es s e nt ia lly,
wha t a f ie ld
r e cor d ing r e pr e s e nt s
is one
pe r f or m a nce by
one
s ing e r
or
g r ou p
of
s ing e r s
on one occa s ion. It is not
ne ce s s a r ily r e pr od u cible ,
e v e n
by
t he
or ig ina l s ing e r s .
It is
only
t he
r e cor d ing
a s a
m e d iu m a nd t he
r e pe a t e d pla ying
of t ha t
r e cor d ing
t ha t e nd ows it wit h a f ixe d
qu a lit y.
De s pit e
t he s e
r e s e r v a t ions , howe v e r , f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
cont inu e t o s e r v e a s
a
pr iv ile g e d point
of r e f e r e nce in
a ny a t t e m pt
t o d ocu m e nt m u s ica l
cha ng e .
The
com ple m e nt a r it y of f ie ld r e cor d ing s
a nd com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s
Fie ld
r e cor d ing s
a nd com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s
ca n t u r n ou t t o be
com ple m e nt a r y
in
m a ny wa ys .
In t e r m s of cont e nt , t he old f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
of Cor s ica n
s ong s
m a d e
by
Fe lix
Qu ilici
a nd
W olf g a ng
La a d e be t we e n 1948 a nd 1973 cont a in a
hig h
pr opor t ion
of m onod ic
s ong s
a nd
r e la t iv e ly
f e w in
polyphony, 37
while in t he ca s e
37
For
e xa m ple ,
ou t of ov e r 260 r e cor d e d it e m s
r e s u lt ing
f r om Qu ilici's m is s ion of 1948, t he r e
a r e
only
15
com ple t e
pa g hje lle
plu s
a f e w
f r a g m e nt s or f a ile d
a t t e m pt s . Qu ilici's hu nt f or t he
60 Br it is h Jou r na l
f Et hnom u s icolog y,
v ol. 5
(1996)
of t he com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s
m a d e in t he
pa s t
t e n
ye a r s
t he
oppos it e
is t r u e .
Tod a y
it is e a s ie r t o m a ke
r e cor d ing s
of
polyphonic s ong s
in t he f ie ld while
pe r f or m a nce s
of m onod ic
s ong s
a r e ha r d e r t o e licit . Bot h a r e e s s e nt ia l t o
a ny
e t hnom u s icolog ica l
wor k
s im ply
in t e r m s of -ba s ic
r e pe r t oir e .
The
hig h
incid e nce
of m onod ic
s ong s
in old f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
is
pa r t ly-t o
be a ccou nt e d f or
by
t he f a ct
t ha t t he colle ct or wa s of t e n
wor king
wit h
ind iv id u a ls ,
whe t he r in t he ir own hom e s
or in t he loca l ba r , a nd in a m a nne r which f or v a r iou s r e a s ons wa s not cond u civ e
t o t he
f le xibilit y r e qu ir e d
t o t r a ck d own t he m or e e lu s iv e
polyphonic
s ing ing .
Ev e n
s o,
t he
pr e pond e r a nce
of
a ppa r e nt ly
m onod ic
s ong s m ig ht
be
m is le a d ing .
My
own
a t t e m pt s
t o r e cor d m onod ic
s ong s
wit h old
s ing e r s
we r e of t e n
a ccom pa nie d by
t he
qu a lif ica t ion,
"Bu t
t he y
s ou nd be t t e r whe n
s u ng
e n choe u r "
(e .g .
De f r a nchi
int e r v ie w). Polyphony
is m or e
popu la r
a nd f a s hiona ble
t od a y,
in
t he f ie ld a s we ll a s on t he
s t a g e ,
in
pa r t
be ca u s e it ha s t a ke n on t he
s ym bolis m
of
s olid a r it y
a nd m or e
e a s ily e qu a t e s
wit h not ions of
pa t r im oine .
In obv iou s cont r a s t
t o t he m onod ic
r e pe r t oir e ,
t he t e xt it s e lf is of
r e la t iv e ly
lit t le
im por t .
It is t he a ct of
s ing ing t og e t he r
t ha t is cr u cia l. In
a d d it ion, m onod ic
s ong s
ha v e be e n m or e
a f f e ct e d
by
los s of f u nct ion, t e nd ing
t o
d is a ppe a r t og e t he r
wit h t he
pr a ct ice s
which
t he y
once
a ccom pa nie d . Polyphonic s ing ing ,
not
be ing
t ie d t o a
s pe cif ic
f u nct ion,
ha s r e m a ine d m or e
a d a pt a ble .
W om e n a r e
v e r y poor ly r e pr e s e nt e d
on t he com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s
a v a ila ble .
This is
pa r t ly
d ict a t e d
by
t he
r e pe r t oir e
in s o f a r a s wom e n d o not
t r a d it iona lly
s ing
polyphony,
a nd in
pa r t icu la r t he y
d o not
s ing
t he
polyphonic
s a cr e d m u s ic
which now f e a t u r e s on
m a ny
com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s .38
W om e n's
r e pe r t oir e
in t he
pa s t
cons is t e d
m a inly
of lu lla bie s a nd la m e nt s ,
which ca n be f ou nd in a bu nd a nce
in t he old f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
bu t a r e now
r a r e ly
he a r d in a
s ocie t y
whe r e t he r ole of
wom e n ha s
u nd e r g one
s u ch
r a pid
a nd d r a s t ic
cha ng e .
The not ion of
s ing ing
a s a
m ilit a nt a ct f u r t he r a ccou nt s f or t he e xclu s ion of wom e n f r om t he
s t a g e .39
Fu r t he r m or e , t he r e is no
wa y
of
d e d u cing
f r om com m e r cia l
ou t pu t
which
g e nr e s
ca n s t ill be f ou nd in t he f ie ld . Se r e na d e s
r a r e ly
f e a t u r e on m od e m
d is cs ,
nor d o t he int e r m ina ble
im pr ov is a t ions
which f ill
t a pe u pon t a pe
in colle ct ions of
f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
a nd f or m t he ba s is of s om e of t he m os t
f a s cina t ing
inf or m a t ion
a bou t t he old e r cu lt u r a l s t r a t a : t his is d u e
pa r t ly
t o t he r e s is t a nce of t he
poe t s
t he m s e lv e s , who a r e
na t u r a lly
d is t r u s t f u l of
a ny
m e d ia or ot he r int e r e s t which
id e nt if ie s t he m a s a n
obje ct
of
s t u d y,
a nd
pa r t ly
t o t he f a ct t ha t a box of CDs
pa g hje lla
be g a n
t o a s s u m e t he
s ym bolic pr opor t ions
of Ar t hu r 's hu nt f or t he e lu s iv e Twr ch
Tr wyt h
in t he old Ce lt ic
le g e nd s .
38
The r e a r e , of cou r s e , e xce pt ions .
A s m a ll
m inor it y
of wom e n ha v e
a lwa ys joine d
in
poly-
phonic s ing ing
wit hin t he
f a m ily
or e v e n
s u ng
wit h t he m e n a t t he f a ir s . As f or t he s a cr e d
r e pe r t oir e ,
a
g r ou p
of wom e n
a t t e nd ing
A File t t a 's
wor ks hops
ha v e
r e ce nt ly be g u n
t o
s ing
t he
m a s s
t og e t he r .
39
Not a ble
e xce pt ions
inclu d e Donnis u la na , u nt il
r e ce nt ly
t he
only
a ll-wom e n
g r ou p s ing ing
polyphony.
The
ne wly-cr e a t e d
f e m a le
g r ou p Ang hju la
De a is t o
r e pr e s e nt
Cor s ica a t t he 1997
"Pr int e m ps
d e
Bou r g e s " f e s t iv a l. Le s Nou v e lle s
Polyphonie s
a nd A
Cu m pa g nia
inclu d e bot h
m a le a nd f e m a le v oice s . Pa t r izia Poli, Mig he la
Ce s a r i a nd
Ja cky
Mica e lli a r e a ls o
d e v e loping
ca r e e r s a s s olo
s ing e r s .
Bit he ll:
Polyphonic v oice s : t he r e cor d ing of
t r a d it iona l m u s ic in Cor s ica 61
Fig .
5:
Pos t -pr a nd ia l pa g hje lla -s ing ing d u r ing
a
s he e p-s he a r ing d a y (t u nd e r a )
ne a r Sa nt a Lu cia d i Me r cu r iu , Ju ne 1995
f e a t u r ing
t he s a m e t hr e e -line
m e lod y a ct ing
a s a v e hicle f or a d e ba t e in a
la ng u a g e
which f e w
pe ople
u nd e r s t a nd wou ld not
a ppe a r
a n a t t r a ct iv e com m e r cia l
opt ion.
Ev e n in t he ca s e of t he
pa g hje lla , e xa m ple s
of which f e a t u r e on m os t
CDs ,
lit t le is
be t r a ye d by
t he s e
r e cor d ing s
wit h
r e s pe ct
t o t he ir t r u e cont e xt . On a d is c
or on
s t a g e ,
it is
cu s t om a r y
t o
s ing only
one s t a nza of t e xt which a ccou nt s f or
t hr e e m u s ica l u nit s . In t he f ie ld , howe v e r ,
a s e s s ion of
pa g hje lla s ing ing
ca n
g o
on
f or hou r s a s d if f e r e nt
g r ou ps
of t hr e e or f ou r
s ing e r s
a lt e r na t e wit h one a not he r ,
s t r ing ing t og e t he r
wha t e v e r t e xt s com e int o t he ir he a d s . Mor e ov e r , s u ch
s ing ing
f r e qu e nt ly
t a ke s
pla ce a g a ins t
a n inor d ina t e a m ou nt of m is ce lla ne ou s
ba ckg r ou nd
nois e which m a ke s it cle a r t ha t t he e xe r cis e is a bou t
pa r t icipa t ion,
not
pe r f or m a nce .
As a
s ing e r , you
"la u nch" a
pa g hje lla
be ca u s e
you
f e e l m ov e d t o d o
s o:
s pont a ne it y
a nd a s e ns e of
com plicit y
a r e e s s e nt ia l t o it s
s pir it .
Fina lly,
com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s
will
r a r e ly
f e a t u r e t he v oice s of t hos e
s ing e r s
who ha v e m a d e a d e libe r a t e choice not t o
s ing
in a
g r ou p
or on
s t a g e
a nd who a r e
of t e n cou nt e d
a m ong
t hos e wit h t he
d e e pe s t knowle d g e
of a nd clos e s t cont a ct
wit h t he
liv ing
t r a d it ion.
62 Br it is h Jou r na l
f Et hnom u s icolog y,
v ol. 5 (1996)
Conclu s ion
Com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s
in Cor s ica ha v e
pla ye d
a ce nt r a l
pa r t
in t he
pr oce s s
whe r e by
t he t r a d it ion ha s r e d e f ine d it s e lf -or , pe r ha ps ,
be e n r e d e f ine d
by
ce r t a in
pa r t icipa nt s a nd , t o a le s s e r
e xt e nt , s pe cif ic
ot he r s a t one r e m ov e f r om t he
liv ing
t r a d it ion,
who ha v e f e d ba ck in
r e cons t r u ct ions , cor r e ct ions , s ophis t ica t ions
a nd
ne w cr e a t ions . W hile s om e old e r
pe ople m ig ht d e cr y
t he
wa y
in which
pa r t s
of
t he t r a d it ion ha v e be e n
a ppcopiia t e d
a nd ,
in t he ir
e ye s ,
s om e t im e s
m is r e pr e s e nt e d
by s e lf -a ppoint e d
cu lt u r a l
a m ba s s a d or s ,
t he f a ct r e m a ins t ha t t he we a lt h a nd
a cce s s ibilit y
of r e ce nt com m e r cia l
ou t pu t
ha s cont r ibu t e d
g r e a t ly
t o t he
int e g r a l
pa r t pla ye d by s ing ing
in t he liv e s of
m a ny you ng
Cor s ica ns
t od a y,
t o t he ir
f a m ilia r it y
wit h t he ir own t r a d it ions a nd t o a wa r e ne s s of Cor s ica n m u s ic
by
non-
Cor s ica n a u d ie nce s whos e
pos it iv e
a nd e nt hu s ia s t ic
r e s pons e
ha s in t u r n
he lpe d
t o
r a is e t he
pr of ile
of t r a d it iona l m u s ica l
s t yle s
wit hin t he is la nd it s e lf . Miche l
Ra f f a e lli
s pe a ks
f or
m a ny
in his
a cknowle d g e m e nt
of t he e xt e nt of Cor s ica 's
ind e bt e d ne s s t o t he wor ld m u s ic
s t a g e :
"4a nou s a s a u v e d e l'is ole m e nt e t d e la
pe r t e
d e not r e
pa t r im oine " (int e r v ie w 1995).
The wor ld m u s ic
m a r ke t pla ce ope ns u p
a ne w a r e a of
r e pr e s e nt a t ion
of a
cu lt u r e
by
it s own
pa r t icipa nt s ,
while t he
hig h d e ns it y
of
r e cor d ing
in it s t u r n
s t im u la t e s a n incr e a s e d
pr e occu pa t ion
wit hin t he cu lt u r e wit h
qu e s t ions
of
m u s ica l
id e nt it y,
a ll of which
pr ov id e s
f e r t ile
g r ou nd
f or
e t hnom u s icolog ica l
r e s e a r ch. The
e ns u ing
d e t e ct iv e wor k is a im e d not a t
f lu s hing
ou t ca s e s of
ina u t he nt icit y,
bu t a t
u ncov e r ing
e v e r m or e
pie ce s
of a m u lt i-d im e ns iona l
jig s a w
r ich in
u ne xpe ct e d m e e t ing s
a nd
ha ppy
a ccid e nt s a nd d ocu m e nt e d in d if f e r e nt
wa ys by
f ie ld
r e cor d ing s
a nd com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s
a like .
W hile s om e of t he
g r ou ps id e nt if y
t he m s e lv e s
com ple t e ly
wit h t he not ion of
"t he t r a d it ion", r e g a r d le s s
of wha t
t he y
a r e
a ct u a lly d oing
in
pr a ct ice ,
ot he r s a r e
qu it e
cle a r t ha t
t he y
a r e
s im ply
"d oing
wha t
t he y
wa nt t o d o" a nd r e s e nt t he
im pos it ion
of t he
s pe ct r e
of t r a d it ion a s a r e s t r ict iv e f r a m e wor k
(e .g .
Minica le
int e r v ie w
1994). The y
d o not in
a ny
ca s e v ie w t he t r a d it ion a s
s om e t hing
f ixe d -
t his ca n
only
le a d t o os s if ica t ion-bu t a s a
cont inu a lly e v olv ing or g a nic e nt it y
which ne e d s t o f ind
cont e m por a r y
f or m s of
e xpr e s s ion
(e .g .
Poli int e r v ie w
1995).
The y
f e e l t ha t
t he y
s hou ld not be he ld t o r a ns om
by
t he not ion of t r a d it ion or
m or e
pr e cis e ly by
ot he r
pe ople 's pe r ce pt ion
of t he ir t r a d it ion.
(The y
r e m a in
conce r ne d , none t he le s s , t ha t
t he y
s hou ld be s e e n a s
be ing g r ou nd e d
in t he
t r a d it ion.)
W ha t is a t s t a ke is not wha t is d one bu t t he
wa y
in which t he
"t r a d it iona l" la be l is
a ppiopr ia t e d .
At t he s a m e t im e , t he
conce pt
of t r a d it ion it s e lf
is
cle a r ly
f le xible a nd cont e s t e d a nd d oe s not
ne ce s s a r ily im ply
e it he r
g r e a t a g e
or
s u pe r ior
s t a t u s .
(The
a lt e r na t iv e
d e s ig na t ion "popu la r "
d oe s not s ha r e t his
pr oble m bu t ,
in t he m od e m m e d ia
a g e ,
cr e a t e s ne w d if f icu lt ie s . It a ls o f a ils t o
be s t ow a
s u f f icie nt ly
e le v a t e d
a u r a .)
The r e is a ls o a
d a ng e r
of
id e a lis ing
or
r om a nt icis ing
t he
wor king s
of t he or a l
t r a d it ion whe r e
s ong s
we r e
pa s s e d
d own
d ir e ct ly
f r om one
g e ne r a t ion
t o t he ne xt .
In
r e a lit y,
t he
pr oce s s
d id not
a lwa ys
r u n
s m oot hly.
Som e old e r
s ing e r s
we r e
je a lou s
of t he ir
r e pe r t oir e
a nd r e lu ct a nt t o
pa s s
on t he ir s e cr e t s t o
you ng e r s ing e r s .
In
m a ny pla ce s , s ing ing
r e m a ine d t he
pr e r og a t iv e
of t he old e r m e n
(Sa r r occhi
Bit he ll:
Polyphonic
v oice s : t he
r e cor d ing of
t r a d it iona l m u s ic in Cor s ica 63
int e r v ie w).
The
a v a ila bilit y
of com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s
m e a ns t ha t s om e of t he s e
hu m a n d if f icu lt ie s ca n be
by-pa s s e d
a nd t he
you ng e r g e ne r a t ions
of
s ing e r s
ca n
e m powe r
t he m s e lv e s a s a nd whe n
t he y
a r e
r e a d y
t o d o s o.
The s u m of t he m u s ica l
a ct iv it y
d is cu s s e d in t his
pa pe r
ha s cont r ibu t e d t o
Cor s ica
e m e r g ing
a s one of t he s u cce s s s t or ie s ,
in m u s ica l t e r m s ,
of a n e r a whe r e
t he r e a r e t a le s
a ple nt y
of once
u niqu e
a nd
f lou r is hing
m u s ica l cu lt u r e s
t hr e a t e ning
t o
d is a ppe a r
f or e v e r a s t he d e s ce nd a nt s of m a s t e r -m u s icia ns t r a ns f e r t he ir
a lle g ia nce s
t o t he la t e s t icon of t he
Ang lo-Am e r ica n
pop
wor ld . Com m e r cia l
r e cor d ing s
a r e a cr u cia l
com pone nt
in t he d ocu m e nt a t ion of t he
pr oce s s whe r e by
ind ig e nou s
m u s ic ha s be e n
pu lle d
f r om t he br ink of t he
g r a v e
a nd
g r own
t o t a ke
it s
pla ce
a s a na t iona l e m ble m . The
g r ou ps
ha v e
ne ce s s a r ily pla ye d
a v it a l r ole in
t his
pr oce s s ,
one which cou ld not s o
a ppr opr ia t e ly
ha v e be e n
pla ye d by
le s s s e lf -
a s s u r e d or
ou t wa r d -looking v illa g e s ing e r s .
In t he ca s e of
Cor s ica ,
t he
g r ou ps
ha v e
la r g e ly
r e m a ine d in cont r ol of t he ir own
ou t pu t ,
r a t he r t ha n
s im ply be com ing pu ppe t s
in t he ha nd s of t he r e cor d
com pa nie s .
This is
pe r ha ps
cond it ione d
by
t he ir
s t r ong polit ica l
a nd colle ct iv e
a wa r e ne s s : t he ir
pr im e
m ot iv a t ion is not
u s u a lly
t o be com e a "s t a r " a nd win
ins t a nt f a m e a nd f or t u ne . The
m a jor it y
of
g r ou ps
s ince t he
e a r ly
s e v e nt ie s ha v e a t
s om e
point
r e cor d e d wit h t he m a in ins u la r la be l, Ricor d u ,
r a t he r t ha n t he
int e r na t iona l wor ld m u s ic la be ls , 40 a nd
r e cor d ing s
of Cor s ica n m u s ic ha v e be e n
not or iou s ly
d if f icu lt t o f ind ou t s id e Cor s ica it s e lf .
The y
a r e not
pa r t icu la r ly
int e r e s t e d in
be ing pa r t
of
a ny
W or ld Be a t
s ynd r om e :
t he r e is
not hing
in
a ny
of
t his
ou t pu t
e v e n
r e m ot e ly
s u it e d t o t he d is co f loor . It d oe s not f it int o
a ny
of t he
com m on d e f init ions of wor ld m u s ic a s
g loba l pop
or t he s u bs e t of
r e ce nt ly
e m e r g e d popu la r
m u s ics which inclu d e s s u ch
g e nr e s
a s zou k, r a i a nd s ou kou s
(e .g .
a s d is cu s s e d in Gu ilba u lt
1993).
Nor d oe s it
qu it e
m a t ch t he s t a nd a r d
d e f init ions of f olk m u s ic: t he r e is not ,
in
g e ne r a l,
t he
t ype
of cle a r d iv is ion
be t we e n e d u ca t e d
e xpone nt s
of t he t r a d it ion a nd "t he
g r e a t m a jor it y
of loca l
pe ople ",
a s d e s cr ibe d
by Cha pm a n
f or Ce lt ic m u s ic, f or
e xa m ple (Cha pm a n
1994).41
W ha t
m ig ht ,
in ot he r cu lt u r e s , ha v e
a lr e a d y
be com e
pa r t
of a
m yt hica l
pa s t ca n, wit h a lit t le d e d ica t ion, s t ill be u ncov e r e d in Cor s ica . Mu ch of t he
r e pe r t oir e
f e a t u r e d on t he s e d is cs is s t ill t o be f ou nd in t he
liv ing t r a d it ion, s u ng
by or d ina r y pe ople
in
or d ina r y
s it u a t ions in a non-r e f le ct iv e , u ns e lf cons ciou s
wa y.
It is com m e r cia l a nd
cu s t om a r y
a t one a nd t he s a m e t im e . Dif f e r e nce s in
int e r pr e t a t ion
be t we e n t he
g r ou ps
a nd
v illa g e s ing e r s ,
a s d is cu s s e d a bov e , ca n be
cle a r ly d is ce r ne d , ye t
in t he
g r a nd
s che m e of
t hing s t he y
a r e
pe r ha ps r e la t iv e ly
m inor .
Fr om a n
e t hnom u s icolog ica l v ie wpoint ,
innov a t ions
pe r s e a r e not t o be
ce ns u r e d .
Ev e r yt hing
is cons t r u ct e d or f a br ica t e d , in t he s e ns e t ha t
a ny
t r a d it ion
40
W hile Ricor d u 's t e chnica l
ca pa cit ie s
ha v e
im pr ov e d cons id e r a bly
in r e ce nt ye a r s ,
s om e
g r ou ps
a r e now
choos ing
cont ine nt a l la be ls
(e .g .
Sile x or
Philips )
which a r e be t t e r
int e g r a t e d
int o
t he d is t r ibu t ion ne t wor ks .
41
Ha v ing
s a id t his , it is t he ca s e t ha t
m a ny
of t he
pr e s e nt g e ne r a t ion
of
you t h
owe t he ir init ia t ion
int o Cor s ica n
s ong
t o t he ir
t e e na g e ye a r s s pe nt
a t t he
colle g e s
a nd
lyce e s
a nd
e xe m plif y
t he u s u a l
ze a l of t he ne wly conv e r t e d .
64 Br it is h Jou r na l
of Et hnom u s icolog y,
v ol. 5
(1996)
cons is t s of
la ye r u pon la ye r
of
a ccr e t ions , a nd , a s
long
a s it is
a liv e ,
r e m a ins in a
s t a t e of cons t a nt f lu x.
Cha ng e s
ha v e in
a ny
ca s e t a ke n
pla ce na t u r a lly, or g a nica lly
a nd
u ns e lf cons ciou s ly,
a nd t o s om e e xt e nt t he d is cs a r e
r e f le ct ing
a nd
a m plif ying
t his . The r e ca n be no d e f init iv e
ju d g e m e nt
a s t o wha t is
g ood
a nd wha t is ba d , bu t
s im ply
a
r e cor d ing
of how it is , wit h t he
s t or y
t old a s
f a it hf u lly,
a s
com ple t e ly
a nd
f r om a s
m a ny
d if f e r e nt
v a nt a g e point s
a s
pos s ible . Ult im a t e ly
t he r e is
pe r ha ps
not hing
s a cr os a nct a bou t a t r a d it ion: t he r e a r e
a lwa ys g a ins
a nd los s e s , a nd t he
wa y
in which
t hing s ope r a t e
in t he
pr e s e nt m ig ht
we ll be
s im ply
a cont inu a t ion of
t he
wa y
in which
t he y
ha v e
a lwa ys
d one s o. W ha t we a r e
wit ne s s ing t od a y
is a n
a cce le r a t ion of t his
pr oce s s cou ple d
wit h a n incr e a s e d
t r a ns pa r e ncy
of t he
wor king s
inv olv e d -bot h of which a r e
int im a t e ly
conne ct e d wit h t he e xt e r na l
pr oce s s e s
of
g loba lis a t ion
a nd
t e chnolog ica l
a d v a nce m e nt .
For Cor s ica n
s ing e r s t od a y,
t he
cha lle ng e
is t o a r r iv e a t a m od e of
e xpr e s s ion
which s t r iv e s t o
ke e p
f a it h wit h t he t r a d it ion, t o
r e s pe ct
t he
int e g r it y
of t he
cu lt u r a l
he r it a g e
a nd t o m a int a in a s e ns e of
cont inu it y
wit h t he
pa s t ,
while a t t he
s a m e t im e
be ing ca pa ble
of
s a t is f ying cont e m por a r y
t a s t e s a nd
a s pir a t ions ,
a nd
e m bod ying
t he lif e
e xpe r ie nce
of
t od a y's g e ne r a t ion
of
s ing e r s ,
which is
u nd e nia bly v a s t ly
d if f e r e nt f r om t ha t of t he ir a nce s t or s . As f or a ll t he cou s ins ,
which of t he m a r e d e s t ine d t o be com e "t he a ncie nt s " of t om or r ow r e m a ins t o be
s e e n.
ACKNOW LEDGEMENTS
This
pa pe r
is a r e v is e d a nd
e xpa nd e d
v e r s ion of t ha t
pr e s e nt e d
a t t he
one -d a y
conf e r e nce
of t he Br it is h For u m f or
Et hnom u s icolog y
he ld a t
Cit y Univ e r s it y
in Nov e m be r 1995
wit h t he t he m e
"Et hnom u s icolog y
a nd W or ld Mu s ic", a nd is ba s e d on r e s e a r ch ca r r ie d
ou t in conne ct ion wit h
m y
PhD t he s is
(in pr og r e s s : Univ e r s it y
of W a le s , Ba ng or )
on
a s pe ct s
of t r a d it iona l v oca l m u s ic in
Cor s ica , f or which I
g r a t e f u lly a cknowle d g e
t he
f ina ncia l
s u ppor t
of t he Br it is h
Aca d e m y.
I wou ld a ls o like t o t ha nk t he Mu s ic
De pa r t m e nt
a t
Ba ng or
f or t he ir cont r ibu t ion t owa r d s a br ie f
pr e lim ina r y t r ip
in Ma r ch
1994 a nd
m y s u pe r v is or , W yn Thom a s , f or his
u nf a iling s u ppor t
a nd
e ncou r a g e m e nt .
Bot h he a nd Ke v in Da we of f e r e d we lcom e com m e nt s on a n e a r lie r d r a f t of t his a r t icle .
For
m y
init ia l int r od u ct ion t o Cor s ica n m u s ic I t ha nk Nicole
Ca s a long a . My
t im e in
Cor s ica wou ld ha v e be e n
inf init e ly
m or e
pr e ca r iou s
wit hou t t he
hos pit a lit y
s o
g e ne r ou s ly
e xt e nd e d t o m e
by
Line
Ma r ia ni-Pla yf a ir . Fina lly, m y
he a r t f e lt t ha nks
g o
t o
t he
m a ny pe ople
in Cor s ica who we lcom e d m e int o t he ir liv e s a nd t he ir hom e s a nd s o
g e ne r ou s ly
s ha r e d wit h m e t he ir
knowle d g e ,
conce r ns a nd e nt hu s ia s m .
INTERVIEW S
Acqu a v iv a ,
Je a n-Cla u d e : Lu m iu 1994.
Ca s a bia nca , Gilbe r t e :
Pig na
1994.
De f r a nchi, Sim on:
Gu a g no
1995.
Minica le :
Aja ccio
1994.
Poli, Pa t r izia : Ba s t ia 1995.
Ra f f a e lli, Miche l: Ba s t ia 1995
Sa r r occhi, Be noit : Me zza na 1995.
Bit he ll:
Polyphonic
v oice s : t he r e cor d ing of
t r a d it iona l m u s ic in Cor s ica 65
REFERENCES
Ca nt e lla , Dor a (1991) "La
pa g hje lla
cor s a e la
poliv oca lit A
d e ll'It a lia ins u la r e ." The s is (Te s i
d i
La u r e a )
in
Et hnom u s icolog y,
Univ . of
Bolog na ,
a ca d e m ic
ye a r
1990-91.
[CEF]
= Ce nt r e
d 'Et hnolog ie
Fr a nca is e , ATP & E Voce d i u Cu m u ne (1992)
Cont r ibu t ions a u x
r e che r che s s u r le cha nt cor s e 1:
Polyphonie s
v oca le s e t
or g u e .
Pa r is : ATP/EVC.
Cha pm a n,
Ma lcolm (1994) "Thou g ht s
on Ce lt ic m u s ic." In Ma r t in St oke s (e d .) Et hnicit y,
id e nt it y
a nd m u s ic: t he m u s ica l cons t r u ct ion of
pla ce ,
29-44. Oxf or d :
Be r g .
d e Ze r bi,
Ghje nna na
(1981)
Ca nt u Nu s t r a le . Schola Cor s a .
(1993) "Sple nd e u r
e t m is e r e d u cha nt Cor s e ." In d e Ze r bi e t a l. 1993: 11-27.
a nd
Fr a ncois
Dia ni, e d .
(1992)
Ca nt u Cor s u : cont ou r s d 'u ne
e xpr e s s ion popu la ir e .
Aja ccio:
Ed it ions
Cym os
e t Md d it e r r a nd e .
e t a l (1993)
Ca nt a u
Popu lu
Cor s u . Le v ie : Ed it ions Albia na .
Ga t t a ce ca , Pa t r izia (1984)
"La
pr od u ct ion d is cog r a phiqu e
cor s e d e 1973 A 1983." DEA t he s is ,
Univ e r s it y
of Cor t e .
Gof f r e , Annie
(1990) "Nd opolyphonie s , pou r qu oi?'.
In
Polyphonie s
d e t r a d it ion or a le (Act e s
d u
colloqu e
d e
Roya u m ont 1990),
85-99. Pa r is : Ed it ions
Cr 6a phis .
Gu ilba u lt , Joce lyne (1993)
"On
r e d e f ining
t he "loca l"
t hr ou g h
wor ld m u s ic." The W or ld
of
Mu s ic 2/1993: 33-47.
La a d e , W olf g a ng (1981)
Da s kor s is che Volks lie d :
Et hnog r a phie
u nd Ge s chicht e , Ga t t u ng e n
u nd
St il. W ie s ba d e n: Fr a nz St e ine r
Ve r la g .
Lor t a t -Ja cob, Be r na r d (1990) "Sa v oir le s cha nt e r , pou v oir
e n
pa r le r :
cha nt s d e la Pa s s ion e n
Sa r d a ig ne ."
Ca hie r s d e
Mu s iqu e s
Tr a d it ionne lle s 3: 5-22.
_____ (1993)
"En a ccor d :
polyphonie s
d e
Sa r d a ig ne : qu a t r e
v oix
qu i
n'e n f ont
qu 'u ne ."
Ca hie r s
d e
Mu s iqu e s
Tr a d it ionne lle s 6: 69-86.
Ma lm , Kr is t e r (1993) "Mu s ic on t he m ov e : t r a d it ions a nd m a s s m e d ia ." Et hnom u s icolog y
37.3:
339-52.
Pe t r ov ic, Ankica (1995)
"Pe r ce pt ions
of
g a ng a ."
The W or ld
of
Mu s ic 37.2: 60-71.
ROm e r , Ma r ku s (1983) Schr if t liche u nd m iind liche Tr a d it ione n
g e is t liche r Ge s d ng e a u f
Kor s ika .
W ie s ba d e n: Fr a nz St e ine r
Ve r la g .
DISCOGRAPHY
A Cim e a : Ev oca t ion d e la Cor s e (Cons u l
K7 110; Gr a nd Pr ix d u
Dis qu e 1956)
A
Cu m pa g nia :
Mis s a Cor s ica in Mont ice llu ("K.617" (Fr a nce ), K617043, 1994)
A File t t a : A'u v is u d i t a nt i: Pu lif u nie (Ka llis t e KAJC 66)
A File t t a : Ab Et e r nu
(Sa r a v a h 591061, 1992)
A File t t a : Una t a r r a ci he
(Oliv i Mu s ic OVI 45206-4, 1994)
Ca nt a u
Popu lu
Cor s u : Sint ine d d i (Albia na
CDAL 001, 1995)
Ca nt i cor s i in t r a d izioni (m u s ica l
d ir e ct ion Miche l Ra f f a e lli; f ont i m u s ica li f m d 158, 1989)
Cinqu i
Sb: Com '
a cqu a
lind a
(Pla ne t t -Ricor d u 242069, 1994)
Cor s ica : Tr a d it iona l
Song s
a nd Mu s ic (f ie ld r e cor d ing s by W olf g a ng La a d e , 1958 & 1973;
Je cklin-Dis co JD 650-2, 1990)
E Voce d i U Cu m u ne : Cor s ica : Cha nt s
Polyphoniqu e s (Ha r m onia Mu nd i HMC 901256, 1987)
Le
Mys t e r e
d e s Voix
Bu lg a r e s (v ol. 1: None s u ch 79165, 1987; v ol. 2: None s u ch 79201, 1988;
v ol. 3:
Polyg r a m /For t u na 846626, 1990)
Le s Nou v e lle s
Polyphonie s
Cor s e s : Le s Nou v e lle s
Polyphonie s
Cor s e s
(Philips 848515-2, 1991)
Mlr t a
Se be s t yd n: Apocr ypha (Ha nniba l HNBC 1368, 1992)
Mig he la
Ce s a r i &
Mig he le
Ra f f a e lli: U Ca nt u
Pr u f ond u
(Ricor d u CDR088, 1993)
Mu s iqu e
Cor s e d e Tr a d it ion Or a le (f ie ld r e cor d ing s by
Fd lix
Qu ilici, 1961-63, wit h bookle t ;
Ar chiv e s Sonor e s d e la
Phonot hMqu e
Na t iona le , Pa r is , APN 82-1/3, 1982)
Nou s De u x (f ilm s ou nd t r a ck, m u s ic
by
Miche l Ra f f a e lli; Sile x Y225012, 1992)
Voce d i Cor s ica : Polyphonie s (Oliv i Mu s ic OVI 45204-2, 1993)
66 Br it is h Jou r na l of Et hnom u s icolog y,
v ol. 5 (1996)
Not e on f ie ld
r e cor d ing s :
I cons u lt e d t he Qu ilici 1948 colle ct ion
(copy)
a t t he Ce nt r e f or
Cor s ica n St u d ie s , Pa la zzu Na ziu na le , Cor t e (Cor s ica );
t he La a d e a nd Rom e r colle ct ions
(copie s )
a t t he
Phonot he qu e
of t he Mu s d e d e la Cor s e , Cor t e ; a nd t he Flor i colle ct ion a t t he Ar chiv e s
Dd pa r t e m e nt a le s
of Ha u t e Cor s e in Ba s t ia . Qu ilici's v a r iou s m is s ions we r e cond u ct e d on be ha lf
of d if f e r e nt bod ie s : 1948, Mu s d e Na t iona l d e s Ar t s e t Tr a d it ions
Popu la ir e s [ATP];
1949,
Ra d iod if f u s ion Fr a n;a is e ; 1960/3, Ce nt r e Na t iona l d e la Re che r che Scie nt if iqu e [CNRS];
t he
or ig ina ls
a r e hou s e d a t v a r iou s loca t ions a r ou nd Pa r is .
Copie s
of a ll of t he s e f ie ld
r e cor d ing
colle ct ions a r e in t he
pr oce s s
of
be ing
u nit e d a t t he
Phonot he qu e
of t he Mu s 6e d e la Cor s e ,
Cor t e , whe r e
t he y will be a v a ila ble f or
pu blic
cons u lt a t ion.
Not e on Cor s ica n na m e s : Mos t Cor s ica ns ha v e t wo v e r s ions , Cor s ica n a nd Fr e nch, of t he ir
g iv e n
na m e . Thu s
Mig he le
Ra f f a e lli a nd Miche l Ra f f a e lli a r e t he s a m e
pe r s on.
Ca r oline Bit he ll is
cu r r e nt ly com ple t ing
wor k f or he r PhD a t t he
De pa r t m e nt
of Mu s ic,
Univ e r s it y
of W a le s a t
Ba ng or .
Since 1993 s he ha s
s pe nt
a t ot a l of f if t e e n m ont hs
ca r r ying
ou t f ie ld wor k in Cor s ica . Ad d r e s s :
De pt .
of Mu s ic,
Univ e r s it y
of W a le s ,
Ba ng or , Gwyne d d ,
LL57 2DG. E-m a il:
<ca b@t yca s a .d e m on.co.u k>