Preface

Los Alamos National Laboratory, with support from the U.S. Department of Energy, has
been developing geothermal energy technology for nearly 20 years. The technology and
experimental verification concepts developed by the Laboratory's Hot Dry Rock Program
have demonstrated tremendous potential for what is now known as heat mining-the
creation of a man-made heat-exchange system in hot, fractured rock. This method was
developed because much of the Earth's crustal heat resources are found in impermeable
rock that is not capable of supporting the hydrothermal system required for a traditional
geothermal resource.
Geologists at Los Alamos have contributed to the fundamental aspects of this
geothermal energy program since its inception. Because the Laboratory's Hot Dry Rock
experimental facility is located near the Valles caldera of the Jemez volcanic field in
northern New Mexico, much of our geological research has focused on understanding
the ultimate heat source for that experiment: the magma body below the Valles caldera.
One of the most complex problems we have studied is how hydrothermal systems
develop in calderas and the relationship of these systems to volcanic vents and rock
permeability. Research drilling within the Valles caldera and the Long Valley caldera of
California has expanded our knowledge of these relationships.
During the past decade, we have applied the experience gained in the Jemez
volcanic field to numerous volcanic areas throughout the world to evaluate their
geothermal energy resources. This book is a testament of our firm belief that volcanic
geothermal systems are uniquely defined by specific combinations of tectonic
environment and volcanic structure. In recognition of these conditions, we have
attempted to develop a general perspective of such geothermal systems from a
volcanological viewpoint. Modern volcanological concepts have not been adequately
applied to the numerous geothermal ventures now being developed
- xiv -
throughout the world. With the application of volcanological observations, one can
quickly locate the areas within volcanic fields that are most likely to contain
hydrothermal systems. In addition, volcanoes and their products may be seen as the
initial windows to subsurface conditions such as the thermal regime and lithology; this
information can greatly reduce the error involved in locating exploration drill holes and
geophysical surveys.
This book is a collation from vast amounts of many individuals' previous work in
volcanology and geothermal exploration. The key to our presentation of this earlier work
is the development of often unrecognized links between these two fields. In review of
many modern volcanological tools and their potential bearing upon geothermal energy
exploration, we present numerous case histories of geothermal development in volcanic
areas. This approach encourages the reader to begin thinking about volcanoes and
geothermal energy in parallel and-we hope-stimulates thought processes that might
uncover still more links.
Publication of Volcanology and Geothermal Energy is the result of the dedication
and enthusiastic support of numerous individuals. The University of California Press, in
conjunction with Los Alamos National Laboratory, fosters creation of books that pass on
the knowledge and experience gained in sometimes obscure studies at the Laboratory.
We thank Elizabeth Knoll and David Sharp for their roles in this collaboration. The U.S.
Department of Energy, through Laboratory Directed Research and Development at Los
Alamos, dedicated initial funds for the writing of the book; illustration, design, and
editing have been supported by Laboratory Director's funds.
Jody Heiken should by all rights be listed not only as the editor but also as a
contributing author. In addition to steadfastly and thoroughly editing the often disparate
bits and pieces of text she received from us, she recognized and filled gaps in
information, corrected inconsistencies, and discerned technical problems with sound
scientific judgement. She also developed and implemented the book design. As authors,
we owe the actual completion of the book to her long hours of work. Her firm faith in
our knowledge of the subject often bridged the gap between our files of data and
creation of the text.
Lynn Phipps of Tech Reps, assisted by Mike Dominguez, showed ingenious
creativity in developing the more than 250 illustrations in this book, many of which were
adapted from previous publications and required numerous modifications to fit the
evolving text and format of the book. She also was responsible for design of the chapter
icons and the book cover. Lynn's enthusiasm for this often frustrating work has served
as a tremendous inspiration.
Numerous scientific colleagues have enthusiastically supported our work on this
book, although we name but a few here. Drs. Richard V. Fisher and Wendell Duffield
thoroughly reviewed the book, and much of the information contained in it is attributed
to their fruitful careers in volcanology and geothermal energy. Wes Myers, John
Whetten, and Wayne Morris provided institutional support and logistics for our studies.
Fraser Goff has been an extremely knowledgeable and supportive compatriot in
developing our ideas and organizing field work in geothermal areas.
On another level, our wives, Ann and Jody, and our families have happily
accompanied and patiently waited with us through years of exploration in a jungle of
information and experience, which has required laboratory research and travel to
remote geothermal fields. We hope that they also will reap the benefits we have
received in completing this work.
Introduction
[Full Size]
Geothermal energy is an important and promising alternative energy resource that
has shown continual growth throughout this century; regrettably, its fortunes have
reflected the variable successes experienced when traditional petroleum exploration
techniques are used. Because the world's highest temperature-and perhaps most
abundant-geothermal resources are associated with volcanic regions, this book
develops a framework for exploration and development of geothermal resources in
volcanic areas by linking modern volcanological concepts to aspects of geothermal
energy.
We emphasize the importance of volcanic field observations to geothermal
exploration and review the OLADE (Latin American Energy Development Organization)
approach to geothermal energy exploration. We have integrated quantitative
approaches and models that can be used to collect and interpret field and laboratory
data. These quantitative approaches have been introduced, in a simplified theoretical
framework, to also show some links between volcanology and engineering concepts.
Volcanology has largely been an outgrowth of the larger discipline of geology and,
like geology, is mostly a qualitative or "inexact" science. In contrast, much of the
supporting science of geothermal energy has evolved from engineering methods that
were developed in the petroleum industry; hence, it is intrinsically more quantitative
and has a very different technical language. This traditional dichotomy in technological
approach has, we believe, hindered progress in both exploration for and developments
of geothermal systems in volcanic areas. We practice a strategy that bridges that gap
by first synthesizing classical and newly developed models of volcanoes (as well as their
hydrothermal systems) and then applying this synthesis to the quantitative and
engineering aspects of geothermal energy exploitation. This philosophy has been
implicit in the OLADE methodology but has never been described and published in
detail.
- 2 -
Because so much of volcanology has direct societal impact-and thus requires measures
of certainty, the ability to predict, and inter-disciplinary approaches-volcanological
studies have become increasingly quantitative over the last decade or more. For
economic minerals and geologic hazards applications, these studies must address such
problems as investment security, environmental issues, and municipal safety. Our need
for pragmatic approaches to research has spawned new methods in geophysics,
mechanical engineering, and geochemistry; these techniques are now woven into the
fabric of volcanology and have resulted in an increasingly quantitative discipline.
Throughout this book, we attempt to demonstrate how models based upon these
approaches can elucidate the complex and uncertain environments of volcanic
hydrothermal systems.
In developing the text of this book, we have emphasized the inexactitude of the
quantitative or semi-quantitative volcanologic models. Each volcano or volcanic area is
complex and presents an individual problem to be solved systematically. Models only
serve as a framework to focus and possibly enhance the efficiency of exploration and
development. It is for this reason that we use case histories as examples for readers to
consider in terms of typical models.
Finally, it is our intention that by addressing issues of volcanology that can be
directly applied to engineering problems, it will be possible to better incorporate
geologic reasoning into the development of geothermal resources. Through our
experience at Los Alamos National Laboratory, where geologists and engineers work
closely, we have found that the "cross fertilization" of these disciplines produces seeds
of understanding that can grow to strong exploration and development programs, often
surmounting scientific and technological barriers that might have otherwise prevented
success.
Application of Volcanological Observations to Geothermal Exploration
Our experience in numerous geothermal exploration projects has taught us a
fundamental axiom for geothermal exploration in volcanic areas. Many of the
complexities and unknown, subsurface characteristics of a volcanic geothermal field can
be constrained through logical deduction that is based upon careful field observation,
mapping, sample studies, and the integration of related geophysical and
hydrogeochemical data.
We believe that many geothermal exploration projects in volcanic areas have
suffered from the lack of pertinent volcanological observations and interpretations. So
many clues regarding the location and magnitude of geothermal systems are available
from the volcanic structure and deposits that one might say detailed interpretation of
these observations constitutes a type of "exploration drillhole." Therefore, we stress the
need for careful field volcanology during geothermal exploration projects in volcanic
areas.
During the last 10 years, the field of volcanology has been growing rapidly; the
resulting new observations and ideas are providing us with numerous hypotheses on
volcanic structure and processes. In magma genesis, movement, and eruption
phenomena, as well as volcanic structure and thermal histories, there have been many
new discoveries that have engendered a better understanding of igneous systems and
their relationship to high-grade geothermal systems. These hypotheses and discoveries
have important geothermal implications when applied to the interpretation of
volcanological observations.
- 3 -
Geologists must use what is known about volcanoes, their structure, eruption
phenomena, and composition, to reveal necessary information about the heat sources
and settings of groundwater-key factors in formation of a hydrothermal system. A
basic approach to exploration includes good geological mapping by whatever means is
available: topographic maps, aerial photographs, satellite photographs, planetable
surveying, tape and brunton traverses, and panoramic viewpoints. Also, systematic
descriptions of tephra deposits and rocks are vital, especially for core logs from
exploration holes.
In applying volcanological observations, one should integrate the observations (for
example, mapping and sample analyses) with other information on surface springs and
fumaroles, water chemistry and hydrology, and geophysical surveys, including gravity,
electrical resistivity, seismicity, and heat flow. Any of these surveys by itself, without a
geologic framework, is almost useless; integrated with good geological surveys, each is
valuable. Hydrochemists, geophysicists, reservoir engineers, and geologists must talk to
each other and work as teams to successfully develop geothermal resources.
A basic methodology for geothermal exploration in volcanic fields was developed in
1983 by an international team of experts for the Latin American Energy Development
Organization (OLADE, 1983). The field approach involves learning everything possible
about a volcano or volcanic field, including structure, structural setting, eruption
phenomena, composition, and ages of eruptions (see illustration). Using these data, it is
possible to establish hypotheses regarding the location and magnitude of hydrothermal
resources. Simply put, the volcano and its products supply information normally
gathered from the first drillholes and may provide a view of the volcano's geothermal
system or systems. Employed in conjunction with hydrogeochemical sampling of
hydrothermal waters and gases,
[Full Size]
Flow diagram showing steps of the OLADE
methodology for a geothermal project.
the field approach is extremely cost-effective and is the first step toward
prescribing the more expensive geophysical surveys and exploration drilling that will be
needed. The geological and physical volcanological approach involves the three steps
outlined here; these steps are undertaken at the same time as the hydrogeochemical
sampling but before geophysical surveys. Later chapters will expand upon these
techniques and their application.
Step 1
Evaluation of Available Information about the Area to Be Studied
In the initial phase of a project, all existing information is collected and evaluated,
including:
topographic and geological maps at large and small scales;
regional geological syntheses, including stratigraphy, structural geology, and
history of volcanism;
all published and unpublished reports on geology, geochemistry, and geophysics;
satellite images and aerial photography;
- 4 -
information on the presence and characteristics of hot springs, fumaroles, and
hydrothermal alteration;
information on drillholes or coreholes from any source, including water well
drilling, petroleum drilling, and coring by mining companies;
published and unpublished geophysical data; and
information on hydrology and meteorology.
Step 2
Field and Laboratory Investigations
Following analysis and interpretation of prior work, field and laboratory investigations
should be designed to answer specific questions regarding (a) the possible presence of
shallow thermal anomalies, (b) regional hydrologic conditions, and (c) the nature of
thermal manifestations. In volcanic regions, it is important to focus geological
observations on a number of points.
Identify those areas where there are episodes of recent volcanism. The definition
of "recent" varies according to the volume of material erupted because large magma
bodies retain heat much longer than small ones do.
Evaluate the relative quantities of silicic and mafic or intermediate volcanic
products.
Define, on a regional scale, the present relationship between the volcanic
structure and the regional tectonic framework.
Identify phreatic explosion craters.
Systematically collect samples of all lithologic types for laboratory analysis,
including petrographic and chemical analyses.
Collect lithic clasts (xenoliths) from pyroclastic units for petrographic analysis.
Determine the absolute ages of representative lithologic units.
Study (in preliminary form) all possible reservoir and caprock units.
Analysis and interpretation of field and laboratory data at this time will help define
principal geothermal areas to be studied in detail and, if appropriate, selected for
geophysical surveys and exploratory drilling. Along with results of the regional
hydrogeochemical surveys, the preliminary data can be used to determine areas to be
evaluated for potential commercial development.
Step 3
etailed Field and Laboratory Studies! "eology and #ol$anology
Detailed field and laboratory studies begin with (a) interpretation of aerial photography,
(b) preliminary identification of faults and volcanic structures, (c) hypotheses
concerning the regional volcanotectonic setting, and (d) integration of information from
existing maps. Following this work is a detailed field study that comprises the aspects
listed here.
(1) A search for thermal anomalies in the upper crust involves mapping and
sampling young volcanic eruption sequences, especially rock types indicative of shallow
magma bodies. All areas of hydrothermal manifestations, both fossil and active, are
mapped and sampled in conjunction with hydrogeochemical sampling. All volcanic
structures are mapped, including craters, domes, phreatic craters, and associated
faults.
(2) In areas with surface hydrothermal manifestations, potential caprocks are
mapped and sampled, and their origin is determined. In volcanic zones, the search for
phreatic explosion craters is emphasized.
(3) The extent of potential geothermal reservoirs can be estimated through
- 5 -
A study of lithic clasts (xenoliths) in pyroclastic deposits; these clasts provide
information on the nature of rock units underlying the volcano.
Identification and mapping of recent faults. This effort is essential because active
faults frequently represent zones of fracture permeability.
Determination of the degree of hydrovolcanic activity responsible for pyroclastic
deposits in the volcanic field. This work may identify aquifers beneath the volcano
during recent eruptions. These aquifers could be current hydrothermal reservoirs.
(4) In tropical countries where soils form rapidly and outcrops are soon covered by
vegetation, geological mapping is considerably more difficult. In these situations,
several additional approaches are necessary:
Landform mapping. These maps are based primarily on the interpretation of
aerial photographs and satellite images, especially in young volcanic fields. The
interpretations are field checked along road cuts, stream bottoms, and shorelines, as
well as in quarries.
Side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) imagery. Such images are extremely useful in
mapping faults and volcanic landforms in tropical areas, although they may be relatively
expensive to acquire.
Basi$ Approa$h
In this book, we review some important advances in volcanology from the last several
decades and show how an understanding of volcanic systems can be applied to
geothermal systems. We have drawn considerable background information from
volcanological literature and combined it with our own research experience in
volcanology, which has been to a large degree in support of geothermal exploration.
This book is organized into seven chapters. The first three chapters review general
volcanological principles and aspects of geothermal reservoirs and manifestations. We
employ recent volcanological findings, emphasizing the importance of fragmental
products of volcanoes (tephra). Chapters four through seven discuss the main types of
volcanic fields, including calderas, silicic domes, basaltic volcanoes, and composite
cones. As well as exploring the pertinent geological structures and models of their
origin, we use known case histories as examples of geothermal exploration and
development for each field type.
The seven appendices provide practical background material, including volcanic
field and laboratory study techniques, rock classification schemes and data, engineering
units and conversions with abbreviated steam table data, a two-dimensional heat flow
code for personal computers, logging methods for cores and cuttings, and an extensive
glossary of volcanological terms.
Through a review of recent advances in volcanology, geothermal applications of
pyroclastic rock studies, and geothermal manifestations, we develop a more
quantitative approach than has commonly been used in volcanic fields. We hope this
approach stimulates readers to think about how previously studied volcanic geothermal
areas might benefit from more quantitative applications.
Application of Volcanological Observations to Geothermal Exploration
Our experience in numerous geothermal exploration projects has taught us a
fundamental axiom for geothermal exploration in volcanic areas. Many of the
complexities and unknown, subsurface characteristics of a volcanic geothermal field can
be constrained through logical deduction that is based upon careful field observation,
mapping, sample studies, and the integration of related geophysical and
hydrogeochemical data.
We believe that many geothermal exploration projects in volcanic areas have
suffered from the lack of pertinent volcanological observations and interpretations. So
many clues regarding the location and magnitude of geothermal systems are available
from the volcanic structure and deposits that one might say detailed interpretation of
these observations constitutes a type of "exploration drillhole." Therefore, we stress the
need for careful field volcanology during geothermal exploration projects in volcanic
areas.
During the last 10 years, the field of volcanology has been growing rapidly; the
resulting new observations and ideas are providing us with numerous hypotheses on
volcanic structure and processes. In magma genesis, movement, and eruption
phenomena, as well as volcanic structure and thermal histories, there have been many
new discoveries that have engendered a better understanding of igneous systems and
their relationship to high-grade geothermal systems. These hypotheses and discoveries
have important geothermal implications when applied to the interpretation of
volcanological observations.
- 3 -
Geologists must use what is known about volcanoes, their structure, eruption
phenomena, and composition, to reveal necessary information about the heat sources
and settings of groundwater-key factors in formation of a hydrothermal system. A
basic approach to exploration includes good geological mapping by whatever means is
available: topographic maps, aerial photographs, satellite photographs, planetable
surveying, tape and brunton traverses, and panoramic viewpoints. Also, systematic
descriptions of tephra deposits and rocks are vital, especially for core logs from
exploration holes.
In applying volcanological observations, one should integrate the observations (for
example, mapping and sample analyses) with other information on surface springs and
fumaroles, water chemistry and hydrology, and geophysical surveys, including gravity,
electrical resistivity, seismicity, and heat flow. Any of these surveys by itself, without a
geologic framework, is almost useless; integrated with good geological surveys, each is
valuable. Hydrochemists, geophysicists, reservoir engineers, and geologists must talk to
each other and work as teams to successfully develop geothermal resources.
A basic methodology for geothermal exploration in volcanic fields was developed in
1983 by an international team of experts for the Latin American Energy Development
Organization (OLADE, 1983). The field approach involves learning everything possible
about a volcano or volcanic field, including structure, structural setting, eruption
phenomena, composition, and ages of eruptions (see illustration). Using these data, it is
possible to establish hypotheses regarding the location and magnitude of hydrothermal
resources. Simply put, the volcano and its products supply information normally
gathered from the first drillholes and may provide a view of the volcano's geothermal
system or systems. Employed in conjunction with hydrogeochemical sampling of
hydrothermal waters and gases,
[Full Size]
Flow diagram showing steps of the OLADE
methodology for a geothermal project.
the field approach is extremely cost-effective and is the first step toward
prescribing the more expensive geophysical surveys and exploration drilling that will be
needed. The geological and physical volcanological approach involves the three steps
outlined here; these steps are undertaken at the same time as the hydrogeochemical
sampling but before geophysical surveys. Later chapters will expand upon these
techniques and their application.
Step 1
Evaluation of Available Information about the Area to Be Studied
In the initial phase of a project, all existing information is collected and evaluated,
including:
topographic and geological maps at large and small scales;
regional geological syntheses, including stratigraphy, structural geology, and
history of volcanism;
all published and unpublished reports on geology, geochemistry, and geophysics;
satellite images and aerial photography;
- 4 -
information on the presence and characteristics of hot springs, fumaroles, and
hydrothermal alteration;
information on drillholes or coreholes from any source, including water well
drilling, petroleum drilling, and coring by mining companies;
published and unpublished geophysical data; and
information on hydrology and meteorology.
Step 2
Field and Laboratory Investigations
Following analysis and interpretation of prior work, field and laboratory investigations
should be designed to answer specific questions regarding (a) the possible presence of
shallow thermal anomalies, (b) regional hydrologic conditions, and (c) the nature of
thermal manifestations. In volcanic regions, it is important to focus geological
observations on a number of points.
Identify those areas where there are episodes of recent volcanism. The definition
of "recent" varies according to the volume of material erupted because large magma
bodies retain heat much longer than small ones do.
Evaluate the relative quantities of silicic and mafic or intermediate volcanic
products.
Define, on a regional scale, the present relationship between the volcanic
structure and the regional tectonic framework.
Identify phreatic explosion craters.
Systematically collect samples of all lithologic types for laboratory analysis,
including petrographic and chemical analyses.
Collect lithic clasts (xenoliths) from pyroclastic units for petrographic analysis.
Determine the absolute ages of representative lithologic units.
Study (in preliminary form) all possible reservoir and caprock units.
Analysis and interpretation of field and laboratory data at this time will help define
principal geothermal areas to be studied in detail and, if appropriate, selected for
geophysical surveys and exploratory drilling. Along with results of the regional
hydrogeochemical surveys, the preliminary data can be used to determine areas to be
evaluated for potential commercial development.
Step 3
etailed Field and Laboratory Studies! "eology and #ol$anology
Detailed field and laboratory studies begin with (a) interpretation of aerial photography,
(b) preliminary identification of faults and volcanic structures, (c) hypotheses
concerning the regional volcanotectonic setting, and (d) integration of information from
existing maps. Following this work is a detailed field study that comprises the aspects
listed here.
(1) A search for thermal anomalies in the upper crust involves mapping and
sampling young volcanic eruption sequences, especially rock types indicative of shallow
magma bodies. All areas of hydrothermal manifestations, both fossil and active, are
mapped and sampled in conjunction with hydrogeochemical sampling. All volcanic
structures are mapped, including craters, domes, phreatic craters, and associated
faults.
(2) In areas with surface hydrothermal manifestations, potential caprocks are
mapped and sampled, and their origin is determined. In volcanic zones, the search for
phreatic explosion craters is emphasized.
(3) The extent of potential geothermal reservoirs can be estimated through
- 5 -
A study of lithic clasts (xenoliths) in pyroclastic deposits; these clasts provide
information on the nature of rock units underlying the volcano.
Identification and mapping of recent faults. This effort is essential because active
faults frequently represent zones of fracture permeability.
Determination of the degree of hydrovolcanic activity responsible for pyroclastic
deposits in the volcanic field. This work may identify aquifers beneath the volcano
during recent eruptions. These aquifers could be current hydrothermal reservoirs.
(4) In tropical countries where soils form rapidly and outcrops are soon covered by
vegetation, geological mapping is considerably more difficult. In these situations,
several additional approaches are necessary:
Landform mapping. These maps are based primarily on the interpretation of
aerial photographs and satellite images, especially in young volcanic fields. The
interpretations are field checked along road cuts, stream bottoms, and shorelines, as
well as in quarries.
Side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) imagery. Such images are extremely useful in
mapping faults and volcanic landforms in tropical areas, although they may be relatively
expensive to acquire.
Basi$ Approa$h
In this book, we review some important advances in volcanology from the last several
decades and show how an understanding of volcanic systems can be applied to
geothermal systems. We have drawn considerable background information from
volcanological literature and combined it with our own research experience in
volcanology, which has been to a large degree in support of geothermal exploration.
This book is organized into seven chapters. The first three chapters review general
volcanological principles and aspects of geothermal reservoirs and manifestations. We
employ recent volcanological findings, emphasizing the importance of fragmental
products of volcanoes (tephra). Chapters four through seven discuss the main types of
volcanic fields, including calderas, silicic domes, basaltic volcanoes, and composite
cones. As well as exploring the pertinent geological structures and models of their
origin, we use known case histories as examples of geothermal exploration and
development for each field type.
The seven appendices provide practical background material, including volcanic
field and laboratory study techniques, rock classification schemes and data, engineering
units and conversions with abbreviated steam table data, a two-dimensional heat flow
code for personal computers, logging methods for cores and cuttings, and an extensive
glossary of volcanological terms.
Through a review of recent advances in volcanology, geothermal applications of
pyroclastic rock studies, and geothermal manifestations, we develop a more
quantitative approach than has commonly been used in volcanic fields. We hope this
approach stimulates readers to think about how previously studied volcanic geothermal
areas might benefit from more quantitative applications.
Chapter 1
Recent Practical Advances in Volcanology
[Full Size]
Quantitative methods for studying volcanoes and their products are gaining
importance in the evolving field of volcanology. Using increasingly more precise and
accessible laboratory techniques to determine chemical compositions of rocks and
minerals, petrologists have developed methodologies to understand the origins and
evolution of magma. The constraints on temperature and pressure estimated from
chemical data are enhanced by results of geophysical surveys; together, these efforts
have led to a better understanding of magma-chamber dimensions and locations.
Simultaneously, the development of computer capabilities has allowed volcanologists to
systematically quantify field observations that can be numerically modeled by using fluid
mechanics. Although these developments are still relatively immature compared to
similar work in other scientific fields, the advances constitute a tremendous resource for
practical application in geothermal energy exploration.
In this chapter, we briefly review advances in volcanology that we consider to be
fundamentally important for understanding geothermal resources:
documentation and interpretation of chemical zonation in large-volume
pyroclastic deposits and consequential implications concerning the nature of magma
chambers,
development of quantitative approaches for describing and understanding
eruption dynamics and the emplacement of volcanic products, and
the hydromagmatic theory of eruption mechanics and its significance in the
interpretation of pyroclastic deposits.
- 8 -
Although this list is incomplete if one considers volcanology as a whole, the topics
included here are those we have found to be significant for studies of geothermal
systems in volcanic areas.
As in many other scientific fields, rapidly changing technology is reflected in the
evolving terminology, and we stress this fact because of its importance in the
communication of ideas. Definitions of terms are presented in the Glossary (Appendix
G). Terms used in quantitative methods are especially vital because of their
mathematical roots and because they are widely employed in science and technology.
With this concept in mind, it is appropriate to describe briefly the common quantitative
approaches taken in volcanology before discussing in more detail the three advances
mentioned above.
Quantitative Methodology and Volcanology
The consequence of maps as the fundamental method of data representation is perhaps
unique to the science of geology. Volcanology certainly relies heavily upon maps to
graphically portray research problems, their geographic locations, physical and chemical
trends, and hypothetical arguments. On a map, many types of quantitative data can be
portrayed. For example, mapping contours of deposit thickness (isopachs ) or clast
diameters (isopleths ) within the deposit is a common technique in tephra deposit
studies. The mathematical representation of these contours is a valuable method for
locating vent areas and estimating the volume of eruptive products as well as their
emplacement mechanism (see Chapter 2).
The first step in analyzing a map-oriented data set-especially if a hypothetical
argument is lacking-is statistical analysis of data trends. Examples of geological data
trends are discussed extensively by Davis (1973), and specific cases include:
trend-surface analysis of stratigraphic units and topography,
rose diagrams of structural fabrics,
geographic correlation of absolute and relative rock ages,
areal density of specific surface features, and
cluster analysis of geochemical data to define major variations.
Following statistical analysis, hypothesis development and testing can be
undertaken, and these generally focus upon chemical and physical problems. Several
recent text books have employed quantitative approaches in their discussions of
volcanology. Williams and McBirney (1979), Araa and Ortiz (1984), and Fisher and
Schmincke (1984) are recommended reading for a general background in volcanology.
Statisti$al %ethods
Data correlation and analysis, more than any other quantitative approach, have grown
in consequence as a result of enhanced computer techniques for handling statistics and
data bases. In both the chemical and physical aspects of volcanology, statistical
approaches are vital in the development of quantitative models.
Subsequent analysis of frequency distributions is particularly important in
pyroclastic studies because particle-size distributions are indicative of physical
processes involved in eruptions-processes such as the eruptive energy and the origin
of volatile gases in the magma system. Parameters describing particle sizes have
typically been based on the assumption of lognormal distribution, but this assumption
might not be plausible and might lead only to empirical interpretations (Wohletz et al .,
1989). Because we discuss tephra grain-size parameters and their interpretation
throughout this book,
- 9 -
a complete review of this subject is included in Appendix A.
Data correlation makes it possible to assess underlying physical or chemical
controls in cases where independent and dependent variables are hypothesized. Least
squares, regression, and Fourier techniques are commonly applied to correlated data.
The use of multivariate analysis is an issue of greater controversy, but the method may
have significant application in classification schemes (Sheridan and Kortemeier, 1987).
The following pages outline some fundamental physical and chemical relationships that
directly apply to geothermal systems.
&hysi$al &ro$esses
Energy transfer through the earth's crust (and heat flow in particular) is a basic
component of geothermal systems and volcanoes. In general, heat flow is influenced by
several processes that sum in the following equation (Shimazu, 1963).
[Full Size]
where temporal heat flow (r = density, C = specific heat, T = temperature, and t =
time) is equal to the sum of the adiabatic temperature gradient (a = the coefficient of
thermal expansion, p = pressure), heat conduction (r = radial distance, kt = the thermal
conductivity), radioactive decay heat (Hi = heat liberated by decay of the i th isotope, li
= decay constant), and heat of reaction (Ji = the heat produced or liberated for the ith
chemical reaction).
[
*
]
To estimate heat flow for volcanic and geothermal systems, this
expression must be altered to include convective heat flow, which can be approximated
by replacing in the above equation several elements:

where uconv is the velocity of convection, which can in turn be approximated by a
function of Rayleigh number: uconv@ 3(Ra)
1/3
, where Ra = (ra gD TD
3
)/(dt ), and =
viscosity, g = gravitational acceleration, D = a characteristic length of the flow, and dt =
kt /(r C).
Studies of mass transfer associated with volcanism generally focus on movement
of magma and magmatic volatiles from the magma chamber to the surface of the earth.
Two extreme cases of these processes are (a) eruptions that result in effusions of lava,
and (b) explosive eruptions in which the expansion of gases determines mass transfer
processes. Incompressible approximations of mass and momentum conservation are
useful descriptive equations. For passive magma flow in conduits, the Bernoulli equation
is
[Full Size]
where subscripts denote values measured at two different levels in the conduit or
flow system, h1 , h2 , u = velocity, and fh = a term reflecting frictional losses and is a
function of conduit or substrate surface roughness and Reynolds number: Re = (r
uD)/. Where the expansion of volatile phases under conditions of changing pressure
and temperature causes both fragmentation of magma into tephra and rapid
acceleration of a gas and solid mixture from the vent, it is possible to write the Bernoulli
equation to account for changes in gas pressure. Two end-member processes of gas
decompression are (a) the adiabatic case in which no heat is exchanged between the
gas and solid particles and (b) the isothermal case, in which heat is continuously
supplied to the gas from the tephra during decompression. Both cases depend upon the
gas weight fraction in the mixture:
- 10 -

where r g = the gas density, rb = the bulk density of the mixture, and rp = the solid
particle density. The adiabatic and isothermal cases are respectively:
[Full Size]
where g = the gas isentropic exponent (Wilson, 1980).
Various adaptations of Eqs. (1-5) and (1-6) can be applied to different eruptive
conditions (for example, Vulcanian, Plinian, and Strombolian) that are discussed in
Chapter 2); they are then useful in approximating the basic relationships among gas
pressure, temperature, and abundance as well as exit conditions such as ejecta velocity
and column height (see the section on explosive eruptions and quantitative models later
in this chapter). However, these approximations and calculations yield accurate results
only when considered in light of nonlinear relationships like those included in the full set
of Navier-Stokes equations written separately for gas and solid phases (Valentine and
Wohletz, 1989; Wohletz and Valentine, 1990).
'hemi$al &ro$esses
During the past decade, volcanic petrologists have made great strides in understanding
the complex origins of magma chemistry as revealed by analyses of phenocryst and
glassy components of volcanic products. Because these analyses provide abundant
quantitative data, mathematical approaches are particularly suited for modeling the
origins of chemical signatures.
Magma composition generally evolves with time as a result of (a) initial melting
from source rocks, (b) fractional crystallization caused by cooling and the loss of volatile
constituents, and (c) comingling with magmas of different composition (Carmichael et al
., 1974). The behavior of chemical species during these three important differentiation
processes can be quantitatively modeled by using chemical data provided through bulk
and modal analyses in which trace-element behavior is most indicative of the
differentiation mechanism (Arth, 1976; Allegre and Minster, 1978).
The Rayleigh equation (Rayleigh, 1896; Gast, 1968; Greenland, 1970) applies to
fractional crystallization and predicts the concentration of a particular chemical species
remaining in the liquid (c1 ) after crystallization of a specific fraction of crystalline phase
when the original species concentration is co :

kd = the Nernst distribution coefficient, which expresses the fraction of the
chemical species in the liquid that enters the crystalline phase. F = the fraction of
original melt remaining. For cases in which the chemical species enters two or more
phases, kd is replaced by Do , the weighted average of solid-liquid partition coefficients
of all the phases. If crystallization is incomplete at some value of F, then c1 given by Eq.
(1-7) must be multiplied by kd or Do , depending upon the number of phases involved.
For conditions of partial melting, in which the liquid phase remains in equilibrium
with the residual solid phases until it is removed (Shaw, 1970), the Berthelot-Nernst
equation predicts c1 by

- 11 -
Here P = the bulk partition coefficient for the phases that melt, and F = the fraction of
melted material. When only one phase is melted, P = Do .
Fractional crystallization and partial melting result in a logarithmic relationship
between species concentration in the solid/liquid phases and the degree of melting or
crystallization. When both fractional crystallization and partial melting occur and Do
approaches zero, Eqs. (1-7) and (1-8) reduce to c1 = co /F. If one assumes that
fractional crystallization occurs when there is equilibrium between the total crystallizing
solid and melt, its description takes a form analogous to that of partial melting [Eq. (1-
8)].
For situations in which chemical trends are the result of mixing two magmas of
different compositions, a mass balance equation (Gast, 1968) predicts the resulting
concentration in the magma (cx ) of some species; mm1 , c1 , mm2 , and c2 are the
magma mass and species concentration of magma 1 and magma 2, respectively:

In contrast to fractional crystallization and partial melting, the concentration of a
chemical species in a mixed magma is linearly dependent on the degree of mixing.
Isotopic tracers are also very useful for determining the origin and evolution of
magmas (Taylor, 1971; Friedman and O'Niel, 1977; DePaolo, 1985). As in the case of
stable isotopes such as oxygen, the isotopic composition is related to a standard. For
oxygen, the heavy-isotope
18
O abundance is expressed
[Full Size]
where the subscripts s and smow denote the sample and standard mean ocean
water isotopic ratios, respectively. Whereas stable isotopes are considered excellent
chemical tracers, radiogenic isotopes are employed in dating techniques and are widely
used in geochemistry (Faure, 1977).
Magma Generation, Accumulation and Differentiation in hambers, and
Eruptions
Recent geochemical studies in igneous petrology have focused on the processes of
magma generation, evolution, and collection in subsurface reservoirs called magma
chambers. Although chemical reactions continue to change the composition of lava and
tephra after these materials reach the earth's surface, petrologists traditionally studied
only the history of volcanic rocks before their eruption. Major fields of interest have
been the tectonic setting and origin of magma, processes of chemical differentiation,
and magma-chamber dynamics. Recently, with the advent of powerful computers, heat
flow, seismicity, and fluid convective and diffusive processes have been used to develop
comprehensive models of magma chambers. Through geochemical analysis, field
samples of volcanic products yield vital clues about the parent materials of magmas, the
depth of their generation, and the differentiation processes that affected them on their
path through the earth's crust.
(e$toni$ Setting and )rigin of %agmas
Because ~95% of all volcanoes occur at plate margins, their locations are consistent
with the theory of plate tectonics (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984; Wyllie, 1971), as
illustrated by Fig. 1.1. The magma sources of volcanoes that occur in intraplate areas,
whether oceanic or continental, are more difficult to explain (Christiansen, 1987). In
these cases, hypotheses that involve mantle
- 12 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.1
Tectonic setting of volcanism illustrated by estimated volumes of extrusive rocks found
on the
surface of the earth. Magma volumes are expressed in cubic kilometers per year.
(Adapted from Fisher and Schmincke, 1984.)
dynamics, such as hot plumes associated with mantle convection cells (for
example, Clague and Dalrymple, 1987), continental rifting (such as Riecker, 1979), and
lithospheric thinning associated with extensional tectonics (for example, Christiansen
and McKee, 1978) appear to be reasonable. Perhaps the most significant aspect of a
tectonic setting is its effect on observed magma compositions and chamber
development. (Table 1.1 summarizes five tectonic settings and their volcanic
characteristics.) A primary characteristic for geothermal potential is the chamber depth,
which provides information about the magma source and stagnation depth (the
geothermal heat source depth). For mantle-derived magmas, which are mafic and bear
mantle signatures of trace elements and isotopic ratios (Yoder, 1976), source depths of
> 50 km are expected and-in the cases of continental, intraplate volcanoes-may show
no crustal reservoirs. On the other hand, in rifts and extensional terrains, deep mantle
magmas promote melting of crustal rocks so that shallow silicic magma chambers can
develop during long periods of magma flux from the mantle (Hildreth, 1981). In
contrast, arc-related volcanoes show the effect of crustal thickness. Continental arcs
have magmas that, having been generated at intermediate depths of several tens of
kilometers, may stagnate or become contaminated by more siliceous crustal materials
during their assent (Eichelberger, 1974).
- 13 -
%agma 'hambers
Volcanic products are generally classified by their major-element chemistry (Fig. 1.2) or
their modal phenocryst content (Fig. 1.3). These classification schemes (Appendix D)
are useful in relating volcanic rocks to magma types. Accordingly, the origin and
evolution of magma types can be interpreted in a general manner by considering
igneous compositional trends: tholeiitic, transitional, alkalic, potassic, and calcalkalic
(Carmichael et al ., 1974). When the field geologist examines pyroclastic samples that
do not lend themselves to the above classification schemes, the color of glass shards
can be simply related to their refractive index as a function of silica content (see
Appendix D as well as Williams et al ., 1982, p. 73). Rock classification has been a
traditional exercise for volcanologists, and today the results of this work can be used to
determine the nature of the magma source: its shape, depth, and longevity-all of
which are important components when evaluating geothermal potential.
One of the most significant recent advances in volcanology is the development of a
system for relating the chemical aspects of volcanic rocks to magma-chamber
dynamics. This effort has been most fruitful in the cases of volcanoes that have
developed calderas (Williams, 1941). Smith (1979) shows a direct correlation between
caldera area and the volume of products expelled during the caldera-forming eruption
(Fig. 1.4). Where caldera eruptions produce ash flows of differentiated products, Smith
and Shaw (1975, 1979) and Smith (1979) show that the volume of these products is
~10% of the volume of the underlying magma chamber. This simple concept has
profound implications in the search for geothermal heat sources because by using
eruption age constraints, cooling models can predict the residual heat left in and around
the magma chamber (Fig. 1.5). Furthermore, there is growing evidence that zonation of
magma chamber chemistry can be documented by analyses of time-series chemical
trends in eruption products (for example, Hildreth 1979; 1981).
Nonbasaltic volcanic rocks are considered to be products of evolved magmas.
Hildreth (1981) stated, "every large eruption of nonbasaltic magma taps a magma
reservoir that is thermally and compositionally zoned," and "most small eruptions also
tap parts of heterogeneous and evolving magmatic systems." One general hypothesis is
that evolved or otherwise differentiated magmas have a crustal reservoir. The volume of
a crustal magma chamber is directly proportional to the time required for it to evolve.
Consequently,

Table 1.1. Characteristics of Volcanic Systems and Tectonic Settings
Tectonic
Setting
Regional
Stress
Magma
Volume
a
Dominant
Composition
Chamber
Depth
Island Arcs
Continental Arcs

25.6
Mafic-Intermediate
Intermediate-Silicic
Intermediate
Shallow
Rifts Extensive 62.5 Mafic-Silicic Deep-Shallow
Intraplate Various 5.5 Mafic Deep-Shallow
a
Magma volumes are expressed as a percentage of annual global production (Schmincke, 1982); the volumes for island arcs and
continental arcs are listed as a combined total.
- 14 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.2
Classification of volcanic rocks by major-element chemistry as expressed in alkali-silica
variation
diagrams; details for major oxide concentrations (at right) are shown weight percent.
(Adapted from Cox et al ., 1979.)
differentiated volcanic products-especially where they are several cubic kilometers
in volume-are good indicators of a crustal magma chamber (Fig. 1.5).
Smith's (1979) observation of the correlation between caldera area and ejecta
volume opened the door for interpretation of chemical zonation in silicic magma
chambers. He predicted that "all caldera-forming ash-flow sheets should, when studied
in detail, show some degree of chemical and/or mineralogic gradients inherited from the
magma chamber." Hildreth (1979) documented such gradients in the Bishop Tuff in
eastern California. Assuming that earlier erupted products originate from the top of a
magma chamber and later materials derive from lower portions, it is likely that the
time-sequenced chemical characteristics of
- 15 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.3
Classification of volcanic rocks by modal phenocryst content plotted on a quartz (Q) - al
kali feldspar
(A) - feldspathoid (F) - plagioclase (P) diagram. Petrographic analysis may not always b
e sufficient to
determine the percentage of minerals present in volcanic rocks; a calculated mineral co
mposition,
based upon normative (chemical) composition might be necessary. Williams
et al . (1982) question
this approach to classification because it presupposes "the need to agree upon a single r
ational and
workable system . . ." and it incorporates both "igneous and igneous-looking rocks" in s
uch a
way that it may conceal the natural association and relative abundances of rock types.
(Adapted from Streckheisen, 1967.)
volcanic ejecta depict an inverse order of the magma chamber's compositional
stratification (Fig. 1.6). This chemical stratification also is reflected by oxygen fugacity
and mineral equilibrium temperatures that increase with time in products from a large
eruption (Hildreth, 1981). Several other petrologic features of volcanic ejecta that
suggest magma chamber zonation are isotopic ratios, phenocryst abundances that
increase with SiO2 values (Fig. 1.7), and volatile component abundances. This latter
feature is best typified by stratigraphic relationships showing that early products
resulted from more explosive, gas-rich eruptions and later materials were from
- 16 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.4
Correlation between caldera area and volume of products (ash flows); diagonal lines plo
t the
model's draw-down depths of magma chambers.
(Adapted from Smith, 1979.)
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.5
Conductive models of heat resource as a function of the age and volume of magma
chambers. Odd numbers refer to slab-like magma chamber shapes and even numbers
represent cubic shapes. Lines 1 and 2 take into account heat transfer effects of con-
vection within the magma body, whereas lines 3 and 4 ignore this effect. Systems in
which estimated magma bodies plot above line 5 and 6 have cooled to near ambient
temperatures; those plotting below lines 1 and 2 may still have near solidus tempera-
tures; and those plotting between lines 3 and 4 are at post magmatic temperatures
>300C. (Adapted from Smith and Shaw, 1975.)
- 17 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.6
Plot of elemental enrichment factors as abundance ratios of early to late products of the
Bishop
Tuff eruptions shows the overall difference in magma composition. The line drawn at an
enrichment factor of 1 demarks no enrichment or depletion; elements plotting above thi
s line are
enriched in early products and those plotting below the line are enriched in late product
s.
These enrichment factors are interpreted to reflect magma chamber zonation, assuming
that the eruption taps different parts of the chamber with time.
(Adapted from Hildreth, 1981.)
gas-poor effusive extrusion. However, Eichelberger et al . (1986) suggested that
this apparent volatile zonation in rhyolitic eruptions might only reflect eruptive
conditions. In Eichelberger's model, the volatiles are not stratified in the magma. Early
eruptions are explosive because the volatile flux is confined within a narrow vent region,
whereas later effusive eruptions involve a gradual degassing of the rhyolite through
permeable vent-wall rocks-a process that results in a volatile-poor magma by the time
it reaches the surface and is extruded as a lava flow.
Although major-element abundances do support hypotheses of magma-chamber
zonation, it is analyses of the trace elements that best portray the nature of the
zonation and mechanisms of differentiation as a result of their variable compatibility in
various phenocryst and liquid phases (Fig. 1.8). Petrologic studies of magma suggest
that large chambers are fundamentally basaltic because mantle melting supplies heat to
the crust for crustal melting, provides a mafic component to hybridize with the crustal
melts, and generates a thermal gradient to drive various differentiation processes in the
crustal magma reservoir (Fig. 1.9). This general evolution of crustal magma chambers
may depend upon tectonic environment (Fig. 1.10).
- 18 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.7
Plot of phenocryst abundances vs bulk-rock SiO2 of silicic magma for various
volcanoes. The decrease of phenocryst abundance with increasing SiO2 content is
interpreted to reflect liquidus depression caused by dissolved volatiles, which are
supposed to be more abundant in silica-rich magmas found near the tops of magma
chambers. A = caldera-forming eruption of Aniakchak (Miller and Smith, 1977);
FC = Fish Canyon Tuff (Lipman, 1975); FCM = Fish Creek Mountain Tuff (McKee,
1970); KN = Kneeling Nun Tuff (Elston et al ., 1976); MT = Monotony Tuff (Ekren et al
., 1971);
LC = Lava Creek Tuff (Christiansen and Blank,
1972); SM = Snowshoe Mountain Tuff (Ratt
and Steven, 1967); AS = Apache Springs Tuff (Rhodes, 1976); AT = Ammonia Tanks
(Byers et al ., 1976); A-4 = Aso-4 (Lipman, 1967); BT = Bishop Tuff (Hildreth, 1979);
RM = Ranier Mesa (Christiansen et al ., 1977b); S = Shikotsu caldera eruption
(Katsui, 1963); T = Tshirege (Smith and Bailey, 1966); TC = Tiva Canyon
(Christiansen et al ., 1977b); TS = Topopah Spring (Christiansen et al ., 1977b).
(Adapted from Hildreth, 1981.)
Explosive Eruptions and Quantitative Models
For reasons that will be discussed later in Chapter 2, explosive volcanic eruptions are
significant in the development of geothermal systems. Over the past two decades, our
general knowledge of explosive eruption mechanisms has evolved from the application
of theoretical models to quantitative field data. For example, a tripartite field
classification scheme shown in Table 1.2 is based upon the assumption that products of
explosive eruptions are emplaced as pyroclastic deposits by fallout, flow, and surge.
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.8
Plot of rare-earth element (REE) partition
coefficients for clinopyroxene/glass in various
magma compositions. SiO2 content greatly
affects these values; similar trends towards
high partition coefficients with increasing SiO2
content are evident for other phases, including
Fe-Ti oxides, fayalite, and feldspars.
(Adapted from Hildreth, 1981.)
Walker (1973) showed how grain-size characteristics and dispersal area of a
pyroclastic deposit can be used to deduce the type of volcanic eruption from which it
was produced (Fig. 1.11).
A stylized explosive eruption system is depicted in Fig. 1.12. Although relatively
little is known about subsurface processes in the volcanic conduit, the behavior of
eruption columns has been deduced from observations; this information allowed Wilson
(1976) and Sparks and Wilson (1976) to formulate physical conditions in explosive
eruption columns (see also
- 19 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.9
Illustration of processes affecting magma chamber differentiation; idealized thermogravi
tational
column is at left. Early stage crustal heating by intermediate to basaltic volcanism trigge
rs
crustal melting and buoyant rise of magmas (diapirism), followed by segregation of liqui
d
phases in a silicic magma chamber. Within the silicic chamber, convection enhances diff
usion
processes such as that of Soret (between cold walls and hot center), volatile mass trans
port (dots),
and wallrock exchange. Stippled pattern depicts enriched zones in the magma chamber
roof
and at both ends of the thermogravitational column. Such differentiation processes prob
ably
last longer than the eruptive history of the associated volcanic field,
typically 10
6
to 10
7
years in large systems.
(Adapted from Hildreth, 1981.)
Wilson et al . 1980). The basic equations for the eruption are
[Full Size]
which express conservation of mass and momentum, respectively, for one-
dimensional flow along the subsurface volcanic conduit. The h and rc = vertical distance
and conduit radius, respectively; g = gravitational acceleration, u = the magma's
velocity, p = rg RT (perfect gas law pressure), and r = bulk density. fh is the factor
expressing frictional loses along the conduit walls. The relationship among bulk (rb ),
solid (rp ), and gas (r g ) densities is expressed as in Eq. (1-4).
Equations (1-5) and (1-6) earlier in this chapter are solutions for the conservation
relationships of Eqs. (1-11) and (1-12). This quantitative approach to understanding
volcanic phenomena is well summarized by Head and Wilson (1986) for a variety of
eruption types, including effusive processes, Strombolian (scoria cone), Hawaiian (lava
fountain), Plinian
- 20 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.10
Evolution of silicic magma chambers as a function of tectonic environment. These idealiz
ed
diagrams illustrate the profound effect of crustal stress on the size and geometry of evol
ving
magma bodies. The top diagrams depict basalt-rhyolite magmatism in regions of crustal
extension for (a) early and (b) advanced stages. The lower diagrams show two possible
stages of dominantly intermediate volcanism in convergent tectonic regions:
(c) early stage and (d) intermediate stage; the late stage shown in Fig. 1.9.
(Adapted from Hildreth, 1981.)
- 21 -

Table 1.2. Tripartite Classification of Pyroclastic Materials
a

Emplacement
Mechanism
Areal
Dispersal
Deposit
Textures
Grain-Size
Characteristics
Eruption Mechanism
Class

Fall


Ballistic, aerodynamic Symmetrical along Mantles topography; Well sorted by All
drag modified;
suspension
wind vectors;
relatively wide-spread
normally
and reversely (Plinian)
graded beds
terminal velocity;
coarse near vent, fines
at distance
Flo


Steady, lateral
movement over
substrate by grain
flow, saltation,
suspension
Directed,
radial from vent,
following drainages up
to tens of kilometers
Massive;
confined to
topographic lows; fine
base with reverse
pumice grading; some
bedded intervals
Poorly sorted fine to
coarse ash with near
vent breccia
Plinian, Vulcanian,
Pelean,
Merapian
Surge


Unsteady, lateral blast
over substrate by
pulsating saltation,
suspension, and grain
flow locally accelerated
by shocks
Directed,
partially confined by
drainages (some
mantling), up to
several vent radii from
source
Thinly bedded,
showing variety of
bedforms: dunes,
plane beds, massive
beds, wet sediment
deformations
Poor to moderate
sorting of fine to
coarse ash; zones of
fine ash depletion
Vulcanian, Surseyan,
Plinian, phreatic,
hydrothermal
a
See Glossary (Appendix G) for definition of terms.
(pumice and ash columns), Vulcanian (cannon-like explosions), and Pelean (lava
dome destruction).
&yro$lasti$ Fallout
Pyroclastic fall deposits (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984) are characterized by their
relatively well sorted size characteristics, topography-blanketing dispersal, and graded
bedding, but lack of other internal bedforms. The emplacement characteristics of these
deposits are controlled by the terminal fall velocities of individual pyroclasts (Walker et
al ., 1971; Wilson, 1972). One important component for this modeling is the assumption
that eruption columns behave as thermal plumes in which the height of the plume (ht )
is proportional to the quarter root of the mass flux (d m/d t):

The constant of proportionality (kh ) is ~43.7 for steady columns and 7.22 for
discrete explosions when d m/d t is expressed in kilograms per second (1 kg/s @ 1.1
kW) and ht in meters. For a convecting eruption column, a second important assumption
is that vertical velocities (uv ) fit a gaussian function of distance from the plume axis
(Carey and Sparks, 1986):

- 22 -
where uc = the centerline velocity at height h as determined from solutions of Eqs. (1-5)
and (1-6) (Wilson, 1980); x = the radial distance from the plume axis, and be = the e-
folding distance of uc ; 2be is the approximate distance from the plume axis to the
visible edge of the plume (Sparks and Wilson, 1982). Superimposed upon uv is ur , the
radial velocity of lateral plume spread, which is defined as

where rp = the plume radius, ra = the mean air density between ht (the plume
height) and hb (the height at which the plume is neutrally buoyant and begins
appreciable lateral movement). Figures 1.13 and 1.14 illustrate the features of this
fallout model.
&yro$lasti$ Flo*s
Pyroclastic flows (ignimbrites) comprise some of the most voluminous explosive
products in the geologic record, and one possible emplacement model is that for the
gravitational collapse of an eruptive column (Sparks and Wilson, 1976; Wright, 1979).
Based upon Prandtl's (1949) theory of turbulent fluid jets, in which ambient air is
incorporated into the jet-thus changing its bulk density, the equation of motion for an
eruptive column (Wilson, 1976) is written:

where q = a ratio of the average column velocity to its centerline velocity, rb = the
bulk density of the column, rv = the vent radius, and ra = the density of the ambient air.
Numerical solutions to this equation, summarized by Sparks et al . (1978), relate
column height to gas velocity, vent radius, and water content (Fig. 1.15). Column
collapse is predicted for columns that do not continue their upward motion because
buoyancy forces can no longer offset drag forces on the margins of the column.
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.11
Classification (Walker, 1973) of eruptive mechanism by grain size and dispersal charact
eristics of
fallout deposits. Ft
is the weight percent of tephra finer than 1 mm found along the dispersal axis
where the deposit thickness is 10% of its maximum. Ad
is the area of the deposit where its
thickness is at least 1% of its maximum.
(Adapted from Wright et al ., 1981.)
- 23 -
Figure 1.16 depicts the onset of gravitational collapse predicted by solutions to Eq. (1-
16). Plinian eruptive column collapse can be precipitated by increases in vent radius or
decreases in the water content of erupting materials; either condition decreases the
initial velocities of the column and leads to its collapse.
Sheridan (1979) and Malin and Sheridan (1982) modeled the runout of pyroclastic
flows and surges by employing an "energy line" concept (Fig. 1.17) derived by analogy
to rock-fall debris streams (Hsu, 1975), which are dominantly gravity-driven flows. The
maximum distance of runout is computed as the loci of points at which the potential
energy surface of the flow intersects the topographic surface. The velocity of the flow at
any increment (i) along its flow path [v(i)] is simply modeled as its gravitational
potential velocity path: v(i) = [2gD h(i)]
1/2
, where D h(i) = height of the energy surface
above the local topography; in general, this value is initially determined by height above
the vent from which the pyroclastic flow collapses. For directed blasts (for example,
Hoblitt et al ., 1981), the initial velocity [v(0)] can be taken as a calculated gas-dynamic
velocity such as the blast's sound speed. The flow accelerates with incremental runout
distance:

for which q (i) = the local slope and h = the tangent of the energy surface slope
(qe ), called the Heim coefficient (Heim, 1932). This number can vary from 0.06, for
highly mobile, large pyroclastic flows, to 0.74, for small pyroclastic flows with low
mobility (Sheridan, 1979). The flow accelerates and decelerates depending upon the
local slope, in such a way that it flows over a total runout distance (Lf ) to where its
velocity v(i) = 0; v(i) = [vo + 2a(i)Le (i)]
1/2
, where Le (i) is measured from topographic
maps and t(i) = 2Le (i)/v(i)].
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.12
Schematic of an idealized volcanic eruptive system.
Although analytical solutions for subsurface
flow of magma and volatiles can be made,
the exact physical conditions of this flow are
unknown, and this lack of information limits
the calculation of mass and energy transport
within the erupted jet and plume.
(Adapted from Wilson et al ., 1980.)
- 24 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.13
Clast trajectories from the umbrella region of a Plinian eruption column; clast sizes
are given in centimeters. Note that the dispersal is greater for the 35-km-high
column than for the 21-km-high column.
(Adapted from Carey and Sparks, 1986.)
&yro$lasti$ Surge
Relatively thin bedding (generally less than a decimeter), and a multiplicity of bedforms
distinguish the deposits of pyroclastic surges (Fisher and Waters, 1970; Wohletz and
Sheridan, 1979). These textural features are thought to indicate unsteady flow and
rapid variations in particle-to-gas volume ratios-flow conditions that are especially
prevalent during eruptive blasts such as those that may occur during the initial
moments of Plinian eruption (Kieffer, 1981; Wohletz et al ., 1984) and explosive
hydrovolcanic activity (Waters and Fisher, 1971).
Kieffer (1984b) showed that some volcanic blasts have a jet structure when they
emanate from the vent orifice. The conditions of the jet can be initially supersonic and
will vary with decompression of the magma reservoir. As Kieffer (1977) showed, the
sound speed of multiphased fluids (cs ), such as steam loaded with solid particles found
in volcanic columns, can be substantially less than that of the constituent phases
(Marble, 1970). The sound speed may be several tens to several hundreds of meters
per second for steam and tephra mixtures. Because observed velocities of volcanic
ejecta are in the range of 100 to 500 m/s, their flow is internally supersonic and the
effects of gas compressibility are important. The Bernoulli Eq. (1-3) can be written to
show the effect of Mach number (M = u/cs ):

in which po = the stagnation pressure (the pressure of the erupting mixture at zero
velocity; for example, the chamber overpressure), ps = the static pressure, and g , the
isentropic exponent (ratio of heat capacities at constant pressure and constant volume),
expresses the degree to which the erupting mixture approaches isothermal expansion
(g = 1.0). In contrast to the incompressible Bernoulli Eq. (1-3), in which the pressure is
a function of velocity only, the compressible form shows that pressure is also a function
of thermodynamic parameters. For eruption columns modeled by incompressible
equations, the pressure along the axis of the column is nearly atmospheric, but for
columns erupted as supersonic jets, the effects of compressibility cause pressure and
density to vary by large factors along the column's axis.
- 25 -
To understand flow conditions for surge-producing blasts, it is necessary to solve non-
linear forms of the equations of motion. In simplified form (Kieffer, 1984b), these
equations express
[Full Size]
where r = density, = the velocity vector, and = the nabla operator that
signifies spatial differentiation. Unlike previous models of eruption columns (for
example, Wilson et al ., 1980; Wilson and Walker, 1986; Woods, 1988), these equations
cannot be solved analytically, which is the main reason previous researchers used
incompressible approximations. However, using the classical method of characteristics,
Kieffer (1984b) obtained solutions for the continuous ranges of the equations to show
their profound effect upon the flow of tephra and gas during blast eruptions (Fig. 1.18).
A more complete formulation of this problem (Fig. 1.19) involves the complete set of
multiphase, Navier-Stokes equations and employs a high-speed computer (Valentine
and Wohletz, 1989). However, the emplacement of pyroclastic surges, a topic of great
importance in volcanic hazard analysis, has not been so completely analyzed that
quantitative models can predict field relationships.
The above discussion of important quantitative models includes those that have
had wide applications in recent years and are frequently cited. With improved modeling
approaches and close development of theory in conjunction with field observation, it will
be possible to use field measurements to constrain eruptive mechanisms and subsurface
conditions that are needed to understand the thermal regime and hydrothermal
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.14
Plots of maximum clast isopleths show the
effect of crosswind velocities (v) of 30, 20,
and 10 m/s on a 28-km-high eruption column.
The isopleth contours are for clast diameters (in
centimeters) and clast densities of 2500 kg/m
3
.
(Adapted from Carey and Sparks, 1986.)
- 26 -
systems associated with volcanoes. Progress towards these latter goals has been greatly
aided by the development of a hydrovolcanism theory that links quantitative models of
explosive eruption with the hydrological character of the volcano. Through this theory,
both the heat resource and water necessary for a geothermal system can be simply
assessed by characterization of explosive eruption products.
!ydrovolcanism
Hydrovolcanism is a broad term that encompasses the role of external (nonmagmatic)
water in volcanic activity; synonyms include phreatomagmatism and hydromagmatism .
This topic may have its roots in the 18th Century Neptunists' theory about the origin of
basaltic rocks in oceans (which was later formalized by Abraham Werner). After the
eruption of Krakatau in 1883, world attention was focused on the dynamic potential of
oceanic volcanism (Verbeek, 1885). Because water plays such a fundamental role in
geothermal systems, we will briefly describe some research efforts that have unraveled
the complexities of water/magma interactions in volcanic settings. This research has led
to the development of systematics for inferring the existence of external water in
volcanic areas. Such systematics concentrate on the interpretation of volcanic landforms
and tephra deposits, which is viewed as a first step toward finding areas in which both a
heat source and water exist. The study and characterization of hydrovolcanic features is
chiefly used to make quick estimates of the abundance of water in a hydrothermal
system. Detailed studies of water/magma interaction constrain subsurface conditions
that have evolved within a geothermal system; for example, depth and lithology of
aquifers and permeable formations, temperature of hydrothermal alteration, and spatial
and temporal variations in subsurface hydrothermal behavior.
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.15
Velocity/height profiles for the lower part of a Plinian eruption column. Calculated by the
method
proposed by Wilson (1976), the plots show consecutively the effect of (a) variable water
content
(n = 1.5, 2, 3, and 10 wt%), with a constant initial velocity of 400 m/s, and a constant
vent radius
(rv ) of 200 m, (b) variable initial velocity with n = 3.0 wt% and rv
= 200 m, and (c) variable vent
radius (rv
= 200, 400, and 600 m) with constant initial velocity and water content (n = 3.0 wt%).
(Adapted from Sparks et al ., 1978.)
- 27 -
A host of natural phenomena are produced by the interaction of magma or magmatic
heat with an external source of water. Because the earth's crust is, in general, saturated
with water, most volcanic fields have at least one feature produced by hydrovolcanic
phenomena. Most widely recognized are phreatomagmatic and phreatic explosions (see
Appendix G for definitions). Many hydrovolcanic phenomena, such as the gradual
fracturing of country rock around magma intrusions and the alteration of rocks in
hydrothermal systems are neither explosive nor readily observable. In their review of
hydrovolcanism, Sheridan and Wohletz (1983a) discuss various aspects of research,
including
geologic environments where systems occur,
the range of physical phenomena,
the wide variety of classical eruption types and landforms,
experimental modeling,
petrography of hydrovolcanic products,
textural analysis and indicators of water abundance in deposits, and
hydrovolcanic cycles.
During recent years, hydrovolcanism has developed as a field theory that applies
to a range of physical as well as chemical processes (for example, magma
differentiation by fluid and vapor transport, dynamic magma alteration during eruption,
and contamination of magma bodies by external water). The brief review included in
this chapter serves as an introduction to more detailed considerations of hydrovolcanism
and geothermal energy that are provided in later chapters.
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.16
Prediction of column collapse as a function of (a) increasing vent radius, (b) decreasing
exsolved
gas content and increasing vent radius, and (c) decreasing gas content with constant ve
nt radius.
These scenarios can be used to interpret emplacement of Plinian falls and pyroclastic flo
ws
under changing eruption conditions.
(Adapted from Wilson et al ., 1980.)
- 28 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.17
Illustration of the "energy-line" concept for a Plinian eruption from a hypothetical compo
site cone.
The gas and convective thrust regions of the eruption column (Wilson, 1976; Sparks
et al ., 1978)
are shown with a pyroclastic flow that is initiated by collapse near the top of the gas thr
ust
region (hc ) with the vent at a height of h(0). The initial potential velocity of the pyroclas
tic flow is
constrained by v(0) = [2gD h(0)]
1/2
, where D h(0) = hc
- ho . Flow acceleration a(i) and runout are
a function of the local topographic slope [q
(i)] and the Heim coefficient (h ) shown by Eq. (1-17).
The general slope of the energy line (qe ) is given by arctan (hc /Lf ) for which Lf
= the distance from
the vent where v(i) vanishes (that is, where the energy line intersects the topographic s
urface).
(Adapted from Sheridan, 1979.)
- 29 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.18
Schematic of (a) an idealized overpressured jet and (b) the jet structure calculated for
conditions of supersonic flow [overpressure of 12.5 MPa; Mach number (M) = 1.02] as
they occurred during the lateral blast and pyroclastic surge of Mount St. Helens on
May 18, 1980. Dimensions x and y are scaled to vent diameter (d @ 0.5 km).
An overpressured jet rapidly expands through rarefaction waves [lines that extend from
the conduit vent sides in (a)] that form a rarefaction fan. As the fluid expands, its atmos
pheric
boundary initially diverges from axial flow, giving the jet a flaring structure. With substa
ntial
overpressure, the jet may overexpand, developing a subatmospheric pressure zone in t
he
center of the flow [shaded zone in (b)], which allows the atmosphere to cause downstre
am
constriction of the jet. Reflections of rarefaction waves from the atmospheric boundaries
of
the jet form compression waves that coalesce into weak (intercepting) shocks, which in
turn
coalesce downstream to set up a Mach disk shock. Zones of supersonic and subsonic flo
w are
designated by Mach number. Across the intercepting shocks, the flow velocities decreas
e,
whereas pressure increases and streamlines (dashed lines with arrows) are deflected.
The supersonic area of the jet, upstream from the Mach disk, corresponds approximatel
y to
the zone of directed blast devastation and pyroclastic surge deposits.
- 30 -
Environments of +ydrovol$anism
During its ascent to the surface, magma commonly encounters groundwater; connate
water; marine, fluvial, or lacustrine water; ice; or rain water. The subaqueous
environment includes all activity beneath a standing body of water (Kokelaar, 1986);
products of this activity have been called subaquatic (Sigvaldason, 1968), aquagene
(Carlisle, 1963), hyaloclastite (for deep marine; Bonatti, 1976), hyalotuff (for shallow
marine; Honnorez and Kirst, 1975), and littoral (Wentworth, 1938). Volcanism that
heats groundwater to produce steam explosions that do not eject juvenile magma
fragments is called phreatic (Ollier, 1974) or hydrothermal (Muffler et al ., 1971; Nairn
and Solia, 1980). Subglacial volcanism (Noe-Nygaard, 1940) is noted by its products,
including massive floods (j!ullaups ), table mountains (stapi ), and ridges (mobergs ).
The wide variety of hydrovolcanic phenomena underscores the fact that interaction
between water and magma or magmatic heat should be expected in any volcanic
setting. One long-held theory suggests that the depth below surface at which dynamic,
water/magma interaction is possible is limited by the critical pressure of water or water-
rich fluids, and that above this pressure, the phase change from liquid to gas upon
heating does not involve large-volume changes (Lorenz, 1986). Accordingly, depths of
0.8 to 2.2 km were considered limits to explosive magma/water interaction. However,
more recent work suggests that the critical point need not be a limitation to dynamic
interaction and that expansion of water through its two-phase field is not required for
rapid volume changes (Wohletz, 1986).
,ature of +ydrovol$ani$ &henomena
The physical phenomena of hydrovolcanism belong to a class of well-studied physical
processes termed fuel"coolant interactions (FCI). Fig. 1.20 depicts a hypothetical
geologic
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.19
illustration of the calculated pyroclastic surge
generated during initial moments of Plinian
eruption. (a)An overpressured burst propagates
a bow shock into the atmosphere ahead of
lithic-rich ash as a rarefaction wave recedes
into the magma reservoir. (b and c) Reflected
rarefactions from the reservoir and flow margins
form weak shocks that accelerate ash in surges.
Together, these phenomena constitute a blast
wave that precedes (d) the flow of
juvenile ash from the vent.
(Adapted from Wohletz et al ., 1984).
system in which magma (fuel) explosively interacts with water-saturated
sediments (coolant). This process occurs in stages of (a) initial contact and steam-film
development, (b) coarse mixing of magma and water or water-rich rock, (c) vapor
expansion and flow, and finally (d) explosion and fine fragmentation of the magma. The
process does not necessarily evolve through all these stages and may be arrested, for
instance, before mixing or explosion.
- 31 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.20
Hypothetical setting of subsurface hydrovolcanic activity, showing (a) initial contact of
magma with
water-saturated sediments, (b) vapor film growth, (c) mixing of magma with the sedim
ents, and
(d) expansion of the high-pressure steam in an explosion.
(Adapted from Sheridan and Wohletz, 1983a.)
Much of our theoretical-understanding of hydrovolcanism has developed from
laboratory experiments (for example, Wohletz and McQueen, 1984). This approach has
made it possible to quantify some controlling parameters by using field and laboratory
measurements of hydrovolcanic products. Figure 1.21 shows results from early
experiments (Sheridan and Wohletz, 1983a), in which the mass ratio of water and
magma (thermite analog) interacted and confining pressure controlled the explosive
efficiency of the system.
The thermodynamics of heat transfer is also a significant aspect of hydrovolcanic
systems and their physical and chemical effects. The mechanical work produced by
interaction of magma with external water is partitioned into many possible modes,
including fragmentation of the magma and country rock; excavation of a crater;
dispersal of tephra; seismic and acoustic perturbations; and chemical processes such as
solution and precipitation, mass diffusion, and magma quenching and crystallization.
- 32 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.21
Some results of experimental studies (indicated by number) by Wohletz and McQueen (
1984)
showing explosive efficiency as a function of water-to-magma mass ratio and confining
pressure.
Note the apparent maximum near 0.5 and the increased explosivity of high-confinement
pressure tests. Explosive interaction occurred at 5200 psi (~350 bars) confining pressur
e,
which is well above the previously assumed limit at water's critical pressure.
This work, D Wsys , is the sum of changes in kinetic energy (D Ek ), potential energy
(D Ep ), and volume-change work (pD Vsys ), which is given by

There are several ways by which to evaluate the above expression, but one of the
most direct methods is to estimate the change in the internal energy of the
water/magma mixture (D Umix ); by definition D Wsys# -D Umix , where

and m = mass, U = internal energy, and subscripts w and m denote water and
magma, respectively. Wohletz (1986) demonstrated a method for evaluating Eq. (1-23)
that requires data from extended steam tables (Burnham et al ., 1969; Haar et al .,
1984). Further consideration of the mixing and explosion stage (Wohletz, 1986) yields
information on particle velocities and sizes. Heiken et al . (1988) extended these
calculations to explain country rock fracture by hydrovolcanic processes.
Experimental investigations of water/magma interactions have displayed a variety
of explosive and nonexplosive behaviors that are analogous to natural volcanic activity.
These results support observations of hydrovolcanic eruptions in which a wide variety of
classical eruption types (for example, Strombolian,
- 33 -
Surtseyan, Vulcanian, and Plinian) have involved external water. There is additional
evidence of hydrovolcanism in a variety of landforms that range from small
maar/tuffring craters to some large caldera outflow sheets of tephra. Such features as
peperites, mud volcanoes, hydrothermal explosion pits, pillow lavas and breccias, and
parts of composite cones can also be attributed to hydrovolcanic activity. These eruptive
behaviors and resulting landforms are, in a general fashion, related to the degree of
water interaction, as is shown in Fig. 1.22.
+ydrovol$ani$ &rodu$ts
Hydrovolcanic solid products are generally fragmental and are termed hydroclasts by
Fisher and Schmincke (1984), instead of pyroclasts , which refers solely to the
fragmental products of magmatic eruption. Hydrovolcanic solid products include tephra,
explosion breccia, pillow lava, palagonitic and zeolitic tuff, lahars, blocks and bombs,
silica sinter and travertine, and intrusive breccia and tuff. Some of these materials
involve posteruptive processes (for example, hydrothermal) in which water interacts
with volcanic products.
Petrographic studies of hydrovolcanic products involve determining the grain-size
and textures of tephra and the chemical signatures caused by rapid and slow alteration.
These data are indicators of the degree and type of water interaction. For example, the
grain size of hydroclasts is a function of the mass ratio of interacting water and magma;
grain textures are indicative of the type of interaction-passive, explosive, extensive, or
transient. Field characterization of hydroclastic products focuses on (a) analysis of
various ejecta deposit characteristics, including textural analysis of bedforms,
lithification, and deposit thickness vs distance from the vent, and (b) correlation of
these observations with vent type (for example, composite cone, tuff ring, or caldera).
A correlation can be made between the median grain diameters of hydrovolcanic
products and the water/magma mass ratio (Fig. 1.23); this correlation was developed
from both experimental and field applications. In general, hydrovolcanic tephra are
distinguishable from magmatic tephra by their much finer grain size. Microscopic
examination of grain shapes and textures also reveals hydrovolcanic features (Fig.
1.24). Quantitative analyses of these features can document the relative importance of
hydrovolcanic (wet) and magmatic (dry) mechanisms in samples from deposits of mixed
origins. Hydrovolcanic grain textures are also indicative of the type of water/magma
interaction (for example, wet vs dry; Wohletz, 1983).
+ydrovol$ani$ 'y$les and "eothermal Energy
Hydrovolcanic phenomena occur in regular patterns at some volcanoes and thus can
assist in defining cycles that in turn are useful in both predictions of future activity and
estimates of subsurface hydrological conditions. The eruptive cycles portrayed in Fig.
1.25, for example, show the changing availability of groundwater during periods of
activity at several volcanoes. Cycles can be documented by careful field and laboratory
analyses of volcanic products in which the abundance of erupted steam and its
temperature are constrained by textural indicators of grain cohesion, deposit mobility as
a function of moisture abundance, and degree of clast alteration. Cycles are
characterized as "wet" when the volcanic products indicate an increase of water during
the eruptions; "dry" cycles produce tephra that indicate decreasing water abundance
throughout the eruption. The nature of these water indicators also demonstrates
whether the erupted steam is saturated (wet) or super-heated (dry). As a general rule,
locations that show wet cycles might be better candidates for geothermal exploration
because
- 34 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.22
Relationship of eruptive phenomena, deposit type, and landform to water-to-magma int
eraction ratio.
(Adapted from Sheridan and Wohletz, 1983a.)
- 35 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.23
Correlation of deposit texture and grain size to water-to-magma ratio.
(Adapted from Frazzetta et al., 1983 and Sheridan and Wohletz, 1983a.)
- 36 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.24
Sketches of pyroclast textures resulting from hydrovolcanism. These textures include
(a) a characteristic blocky and equant glass shard, (b) a vesicular grain shard with cleav
ed vesicle
surfaces, (c) a platy shard, (d) a drop-like or fused shard, (e) a blocky crystal with conc
hoidal fracture
surfaces, and (f) a perfect crystal with layer of vesicular glass.
(Adapted from Sheridan and Wohletz, 1983a.)
- 37 -
they prove that water is sufficiently abundant in the volcanic system to quench the
magma to water-vaporization temperatures. When estimating the volume of erupted
hydroclastic products, this general rule constrains the volume of water involved in the
eruptions and thus provides a measure of water abundance in the volcanic system.
Funiciello et al . (1976) pointed out the correlation between geothermal localities
and phreatomagmatic volcanoes in Italy, especially those showing wet cycles. In
addition, these authors demonstrated how the study of phreatomagmatic products helps
locate and characterize a geothermal reservoir with respect to its lithology and fracture
permeability, topics that Heiken et al . (1988) discussed in further detail. These studies
provide an excellent background for our discussion of hydrovolcanism in Chapter 2.
[Full Size]
Fig. 1.25
Various cycles of hydrovolcanism displayed by several type of studied volcanoes. Tempo
ral
variations of water-to-magma mass ratios are shown for (1) Crater Elegante, Mexico;
(2) Kilbourne Hole, New Mexico; (3) Peridot Mesa, Arizona; (4) Taal volcano, Philippines
;
(5) Ubehebe crater, California; (6) Zuni Salt Lake, New Mexico; (7) Cerro Colorado, Mex
ico;
(8) Diamond Head, Hawaii; (9) Koko Crater, Hawaii; (10) Pavant Butte, Utah; and (11)
Surtsey,
Iceland. These cycles illustrate general trends (see Sheridan and Wohletz, 1983a, Fig. 5
), including
wet to dry (well demonstrated by Vulcano in the Aeolian Islands, Italy) and dry to wet
(activity characteristic of Vesuvius). Some volcanoes show reversals in cyclic activity
(7, 9, and 10 here are tuff cone structures), whereas repeated cycles between dry (Stro
mbolian)
and wet (Surtseyan) occur at others (5).
(Adapted from Wohletz and Sheridan, 1983a.)
Chapter 2
Pyroclastic Rocs as a !ool to "valuate #eother$al
%yste$s
[Full Size]
Our approach to exploration for geothermal systems in volcanic fields is based
primarily on an understanding that the volume and characteristics (both physical and
chemical) of pyroclastic rocks (tephra ) are fundamental indicators of the presence,
size, and location of a potential hydrothermal system. Fisher and Schmincke (1984)
distinguished two primary types of tephra: those produced by expansions of magmatic
gases-termed pyroclastic -and those caused by expansions of water from external
sources-termed hydroclastic (or hydrovolcanic ). Where we can be certain of the
difference, we will use this terminology, but where the distinction is not clear or where
both processes are involved in the formation of a tephra sequence, we use pyroclastic in
a general sense. In this chapter, we describe important relationships among pyroclastic
rocks, their parental magma body, and the potential hydrothermal reservoir in the
vicinity of the magma body. Several important issues should be considered.
The existence of pyroclastic rocks implies that explosive eruptions have occurred.
The volume of these rocks can be used to estimate the size of their parental magma
chamber. Some of this explosive energy will have had important effects on fracture
permeability surrounding the vent.
Many explosive eruptions and their pyroclastic/hydroclastic products resulted
from vaporization of groundwater (hydrovolcanism). This process can indicate both host
rock permeability and existence of water in the thermal system below the volcano.
- 40 -
For hydrovolcanic (hydroclastic ) tephra, the deposit bedforms, particle types, and
vent structures are a function of the thermodynamic state of water during eruption and
therefore are indicative of the abundance of meteoric water in the vent area.
Lithic constituents in tephra deposits can be used to reconstruct the host rock
lithology and stratigraphy beneath the volcano, the location of aquifers at depth, and-
through secondary mineral assemblages-the thermal regime of the country rock and
the composition of hydrothermal fluids at depth.
By using the information gathered from these considerations, it is possible to make
an integrated appraisal of tephra deposits and help constrain the existence, location,
size, depth, and reservoir character of a potential geothermal system in a volcanic field.
Topics involving pyroclastic rocks that were introduced in Chapter 1 will be discussed
here with emphasis on their importance to geothermal exploration.
Explosive Eruptions and Geothermal Energy "ources
Pyroclastic rocks are the products of explosive volcanism. Many different types of
volcanoes exhibit explosive behavior, as discussed by Fisher and Schmincke (1984).
Table 2.1 summarizes the major types of volcanoes and their explosive behavior.
In his review of significant explosive eruptions, Wilson (1980) discussed Plinian,
Strombolian, and Vulcanian models (for example, Self et al ., 1979), and showed the
relationships among observed kinetics, such as ash ejecta velocity, eruptive plume
over-pressure, and volatile content, by using forms of the energy equations explained in
Chapter 1 of this book [Eqs. (1-5) and (1-6)].
Figure 2.1 shows an idealized Plinian eruption in which ejecta dynamics are directly
related to the fragmenting magma dynamics in the throat of the volcano. The
isothermal form of the energy equation is appropriate for Plinian eruptions because
most

Table 2.1. Pyroclastic Geology
Volcano T!pe Magma Composition "!roclastic Acti#it!
Composite Cones Intermediate Strombolian fallout;
Vulcanian surges and lahars;
Plinian sector collapse, nues ardentes
Silicic Domes Silicic Plinian, Pelean, and Vulcanian fallout, surges,
nues ardentes, and lahars;
Initial phreatomagmatic and phreatic fallout,
surges, and lahars
Calderas Intermediate to Silicic Plinian large-volume pyroclastic flows;
Phreatomagmatic fallout, surges, and
pyroclastic flows
Tuff Rings/Cones Mafic to Silicic Phreatomagmatic fallout and surges;
Strombolian fallout;
Plinian (rare) fallout
- 41 -
pyroclasts are small enough to transmit their thermal energy to expanding gases within
the time frame of the eruption.
[Full Size]
where n = the weight percent of water in the magma, r = the average density of
the solid and gas mixture, pi and pf = the initial and final (atmospheric) gas pressures,
and uf is the ejecta velocity at height (h) in the ejecta plume. Other parameters are
those defined in Chapter 1 and summarized in Appendix C.
For Strombolian eruptions (Fig. 2.2), ejecta velocities are related to magma gas
overpressure by an adiabatic form of the energy equation.
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.1
Idealized Plinian eruption conduit and column. This diagram shows magma (cross hatch)
rising up the volcanic conduit, the growth of vesicles (circles) before complete disruption
(dashed line), and the ejection of gas and tephra mixture (stippled) from the vent.
The initial pressure (pi ) and velocity (ui ) of the gas and tephra mixture within the vent,
which are primarily functions of the gas content of the magma and the vent radius,
are related to the final pressure (pf ) and velocity (uf ) by an isothermal form of the
energy equation [Eq. (2-1)] because the gas draws heat from the entrained tephra and
maintains a nearly constant temperature during expansion.
(Adapted from Wilson, 1980.)
[Full Size]
where r a = the air density, g = the ratio of specific heats for the gas, ri = the
vesicle radius before burst, and n @ 0.2 for erupted materials (Blackburn et al ., 1976).
In the Vulcanian mechanism (Fig. 2.3), which applies to eruptions where the
expanding gas may be either or both magmatic and hydromagmatic, a motion equation
can relate pressure and velocity.
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.2
Idealized Strombolian eruption model. Individual
centimeter-to-meter size gas bubbles burst at
the surface of the magma within the vent,
propelling scoria in ballistic trajectories. An
adiabatic form of the energy equation [Eq. (2-2)]
relates ejecta velocities to the initial pressure,
temperature, and radius of the gas bubbles.
(Adapted from Wilson, 1980.)
- 42 -
[Full Size]
where Av = the vent area, Lp = the plug thickness, p = pi [xs /(xs + ym )]g, xs = the
thickness of the steam cap for which the ratio xs /Lp is related to weight fraction water
(n) by xs /Lp = [(rg RTi )/Pi ][n/(1-n)], rg = the steam density, and Cd (the drag
coefficient) @ 1, and ym is the vertical distance over which the rock mass is moved. In
Eqs. (2-1) through (2-3), our observations of ejecta velocities allow us to estimate the
explosion overpressure, which we can assume is the volatile overpressure (magmatic or
hydromagmatic). The thermal energy involved in the explosion (Et ) is related to the
bulk isentropic exponent g = [(Cp + mf Cm )/(Cv + mf Cm ] by

where r b = the bulk density of the erupting mixture of vapor and tephra
fragments, Cp and Cv = the heat capacities of the vapor at constant pressure and
volume, respectively, Cm = the magma heat capacity, and mf is the mass fraction of
fragments in the mixture of vapor and ash. On the other hand, the kinetic energy (Ek )
of the eruption is some fraction ($ c ) of Et because not all the available thermal energy
is converted to the kinetic energy of cratering and ejection of tephra. The exact value of
$c , often called the thermodynamic efficiency or conversion ratio , is generally <0.1 but
can vary over an order of magnitude depending upon eruption circumstances (Wohletz,
1986). Ek can be estimated from observed ejecta velocities (ve ) as , but
often ve is not easily measured. In those circumstances, an upper limit (usonic ) can be
estimated from a gas dynamic sound speed (cs = [g p/rb ]
1/2
) by

The above relationship between thermal energy and estimates of eruption energy
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.3
Idealized Vulcanian eruption model, in which
magma (cross hatch) is covered by a steam
pocket of thickness xs , which is in turn
capped by a plug of solidified lava of
thickness Lp in a vent of area Av . An
equation of motion [Eq. (2-3)] relates these
dimensions to the pressure and density of
the gas pocket and acceleration of the
tephra after failure of the lava plug.
(Adapted from Wilson, 1980.)
depends on observations of actual eruptions and their ejecta. In cases where
necessary ejecta masses and velocities are unknown but a crater is preserved, it is
possible to empirically estimate explosion energy by using explosive-testing analogs for
which there is data to relate crater dimensions to explosion energies. Assuming that the
cratering efficiency of high explosives is the same (within a factor of 10) as that of
volcanic explosions (Wohletz, 1986), crater dimensions scale as the cube-root of
explosive energy. Johnson (1971) plotted observed crater radius, depth, and volume
with respect to explosive yield, as is shown in Fig. 2.4.
"ubsurface #hermal Energy Estimates
The most widely applied estimates for thermal energy in magmatic systems underlying
volcanic fields are based on the volume and age of the most recent volcanism
associated with these systems. As discussed in Chapter 1, Smith and Shaw
- 43 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.4
Scaling crater dimensions and depth of burial to the explosive energy
equivalent of TNT. English units have been used for dimensions to preserve
the original logarithmic scale. For reference, TNT releases about
4.6 MJ/kg of energy, which is about four times the enthalpy released
by cooling 1 kg of magma from 1473 to 273 K. For optimum thermal
conversion efficiencies of 10% (see Fig. 1.21), a ton of erupted magma is
roughly equivalent to 0.025 tons of TNT. Comparison of the plots for
explosions in (a) dry rock and (b) soil indicates that larger craters
typically form in soils.
(Adapted from Johnson, 1971.)
- 44 -
(1975; 1979), have used this approach in estimating thermal energies of magmatic
systems. Volumes are inferred from caldera size, vent distribution, seismic shadows,
fracture patterns, topographic uplift, geophysical anomalies, and estimates of silicic
ejecta volume. If a volcano produces chemically evolved (nonbasaltic) products-
especially those spanning andesite through dacitic and rhyolitic compositions-it is very
likely that magma has formed a crustal magma chamber and has differentiated on its
path to the surface. Because differentiation is a time-dependent process, evolved
compositions can indicate prolonged residence in the crust, during which a significant
amount of heat flowed from the magma into crustal rocks. The larger the magma
chamber, the larger is the thermal resource, which is a measure of the amount of
economically useful energy.
The thermal resource (Htr ) of a magmatic heat source is proportional to the
volume of rock (Vtr ) that exceeds the minimum temperature for economic heat
extraction (qtr )
[Full Size]
Table 2.2 summarizes the parameters of Eq. (2-6), which outlines aspects of
modeling heat flow from a crustal magma body such as the silicic caldera depicted in
Fig. 2.5. The general nature of the function for Vtr in Eq. (2-6) is based on the solution
of heat flow in and around the magma body-a calculation that is discussed later in this
chapter.
Because numerous petrologic experiments have shown that magma-chamber
temperatures range from about 900 to 1200C, depending upon their composition, it is
possible to use heat content data (Bacon, 1977) and magma-chamber volume to
calculate thermal energy. Smith and Shaw (1975) based their conclusions about
magma-chamber volumes on models of magma and heat transport in the earth's crust,
observations of exhumed intrusive bodies, petrologic constraints on the production of
evolved magmas, and geophysical studies of active igneous systems. Smith et al .
(1978) and Shaw (1985) extended this approach to the study of volume-periodicity
relationships for a wide variety of volcanoes; their results, along with those of Crisp
(1984) and Wadge (1984), support the basic premise that extruded volumes as well as
caldera areas and other geophysical measurements can be related to magma-chamber
volumes. For silicic eruptions, conservative estimates of magma-

Table 2.2. Parameters for Modeling Thermal Resource
Thermal Mo$el "arameters "rincipal Source Data
rmc , hmc Magma chamber radius and thickness-from extrusive volume estimates, geophysical
surveys, and geomorphology
Db Depth of burial-from geophysical surveys and eroded analogs
te Time since eruption-from radicmetric dating techniques
zh Depth of hydrologically active zone-from stratigraphic and drilling experience
zd Drilling depth limit-determined as a function of cost where cost % z
3
kh Effective heat transfer coefficient as a function of rock thermal conductivity and permeability
-determined by geophysics and in situ measurements
qtr Minimum temperature for economic heat extraction-determined by engineering economics
- 45 -
chamber volume are ~10 times greater than those for the dense-rock equivalent (DRE)
volume of silicic products erupted. For composite cones (discussed in Chapter 7), this
ratio of intrusive to extrusive volumes may range from <2 to >10. In the case of
basaltic volcanoes, the relationship is uncertain because these volcanoes may not have
high-level crustal magma reservoirs.
&yro$lasti$ -o$. #olumes
Pyroclastic rock volumes provide the simplest method of estimating magma-chamber
volumes for eruptions of evolved magmas in many localities. Several methods can be
used to calculate the volumes of pyroclastic products. Froggatt's (1982) comparison of
three types of volume estimations is based on (1) mathematical models of aerial
dispersal, (2) field measurements of area and volume vs thickness, and (3)
measurements of crystal-to-glass ratios.
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.5
Heat flow from a magma body beneath a silicic
caldera is modeled for situations in which the
rock is unsaturated. In such areas, the thermal
resource might be exploited by using the hot
dry rock (HDR) technology described later in
this chapter (Rowley, 1982). The light shading
denotes country rock, and the dark shading
represents caldera fill and outflow rocks
(mostly volcanic).
The first of these volume estimation methods is predicated on the general
assumption that pyroclastic deposits exponentially decrease in thickness with distance
from the vent if there is no significant ponding of the deposit in topographically low
areas (Froggatt, 1982; Pyle, 1989). Measurements of maximum thickness (Li ) and
distance over which the deposit thickness halves (rh ) are sufficient to characterize the
volume of a deposit of circular isopach distribution.
[Full Size]
where ki = [ln (2)]/rh . For deposits of elliptical distribution, one may assume a
constant eccentricity (ee ) given by ee = (1-be )
1/2
, where be = ry /rx . For this case, rh is
measured along both the major and minor axes of the ellipse to give rx and ry ,
respectively, and ki = [ln (2)]/ry . The volume integral reflects this ratio:
[Full Size]
The second method requires many field measurements of thickness for logarithmic
plots of isopach area or volume vs thickness. These plots make it possible to extrapolate
volumes of deposits for which minimum thicknesses are not exposed in the field area.
For each isopach, a minimum volume is found by multiplying its thickness by its mapped
area. A sum for all isopachs gives the total volume. Froggatt (1982) found that plots of
log-volume vs log thickness were superior for extrapolations.
The third method was proposed by Walker (1980) to estimate eruptive volumes
when a significant proportion of ash (<2-mm diameter) has been carried great
distances from the vent and therefore cannot be measured in the field. This method is
based on the assumptions that all crystals, being
- 46 -
denser than glass, fall out near the vent and that large pumices show average
magmatic ratios for glass to crystals. It is possible to calculate the proportion of vitric
ash missing from the deposit by measuring the crystal abundance in both ash and
pumices and then determining the difference in enrichment. Walker (1981) suggested,
however, that this third method may overestimate the deposit volume.
By recalculating the volumes of volcanic products, including tephra and lavas, to
DRE (Vdre@ 0.6 V for tephra and Vdre@ V for lavas) and by assuming that they represent
some fraction of the magma-chamber volume (for example, 0.1 for silicic volcanic
fields), it is possible to obtain a measurement of the thermal resource described in Eq.
(2-6). For instance, Fig. 2.6 depicts a young, silicic pyroclastic deposit for which V = 1.0
km
3
. The thermal resource (Htr ) of the magma chamber (volume = 6.5 km
3
) is shown
as a function of the kinetic energy of the eruption that emplaced the deposit. Assuming
a conservative 1% recovery of the thermal resource, the potential electrical energy
resource for this system is estimated by tapping 250C fluids from the associated
hydrothermal or hot dry rock system (discussed later). About 850 kJ/kg is available
from the saturated vapor produced; if one allows for a conservative 14% turbine cycle
efficiency for saturated vapor cooled to 50C, then wells producing ~600 tons/hour
would generate ~19 MWe (see Appendix D).
+eat/Flo* 'al$ulation
There is one important limitation of the simple thermal resource estimation described
above: the volcanic products must be erupted from a crustal magma chamber that is
sufficiently young to retain much of its initial heat. This limitation has been studied in
detail by Smith and Shaw (1975; 1979) and applied to numerous volcanic fields where
the volume and age of underlying magma chambers have been estimated from both
geomorphological constraints (for example, caldera size, vent distribution, and volume
of silicic pyroclastic deposits) and geophysical anomalies. Thus, for the 1.0-km
3

pyroclastic deposit shown in Fig. 2.6, one can apply the cooling calculations of Smith
and Shaw (1975) as shown in Fig. 1.5. Assuming that (1) the pyroclastic deposit age
reflects the time over which the magma chamber has cooled from solidus temperatures,
and (2) the deposit represents about one-tenth of the magma-chamber volume, then it
follows that the deposit would have to be younger than ~10,000 yr for exploitable
temperatures to exist in and around the magma chamber. This estimate is conservative
even if the magma chamber has cooled as a result of hydrothermal convection in roof
rocks above the magma chamber. If cooling were solely conductive, the age limit could
be extended to nearly 20,000 yr.
In making a detailed estimation of thermal resource (Htr ), the thermal resource
volume function (Vtr ) of Eq. (2-6) can be modeled by heat flow calculations. A first-
order model assumes heat flow by conduction only, which requires solution of Fick's
second law of diffusion:

for which H = the heat content or enthalpy (which is directly proportional to
temperature) and !t = the rock thermal diffusion coefficient, which can be directionally
and spatially dependent. Equation (2-9) can be conveniently solved with an explicit
numerical procedure (Appendix E) for a variety of geometric, initial temperature, and
diffusivity conditions. An approximation for convective transport is included in the
numerical procedure to better estimate heat flow in areas where hydrothermal
convection is important. The procedure, given in FORTRAN in Appendix E, can be
adapted for personal computers. It solves thermal diffusion in two dimensions for a
variety of rocks, geologic structures, and effective x and y diffusion coefficients. The
problem
- 47 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.6
Thermal resource (total heat contained in a magma body) and tephra volume are relate
d to explosive
energy [1 Megaton (Mt) equivalent] by the conversion efficiency (ec ) of the magma's th
ermal
energy to explosive energy (kinetic) during an eruption. For this plot, it is assumed that
the tephra volume of an eruption represents 10% of the magma body volume (Smith, 1
979),
the magma density (r ) = 2.5 10
3
kg/m
3
, and the magma body is young enough to have a heat
content (H) = 800 kJ/kg. This example (X) depicts a volcano that recently erupted a 1.0
-km
3
pyroclastic deposit (at 0.65 km
3
DRE) with an explosive energy equivalent of about 24 Mt
(ec
= 0.077), which represents a magma chamber with a thermal resource (Htr ) of 1.3 1
0
16
kJ.
Assuming about 1% of the magma chamber's thermal resource can be exploited with ~
14%
conversion to electrical energy, a geothermal plant could produce
nearly 19 MWe for 30 yr by either hydrothermal or hot dry rock methods.
for this calculation is set up in a manner similar to that outlined in Eq. (2-6). The
results of this calculation give a two-dimensional representation of Vtr for any time after
formation of a magma chamber. One should be cautious when using this routine to
model measured geothermal gradients; the case described here is considered
mathematically ill-posed because solutions may not be unique.
Figure 2.7 shows results of the above heat flow calculation for a cooling,
subvolcanic pluton 2.5 km wide and 4 km below the surface. The results are compared
for 100 and 200 ka of cooling, with and without a convective zone above the magma
chamber. At an age of 100 ka, the two-dimensional thermal resource volume (Vtr )
within the calculated area ranges from 2 to 9 km
2
(the latter value is for the model with
convection). This result is based on a volume of rock with temperatures above 150C
within 3 km of the surface. From Fig. 2.7b, one can see from thermal gradients that Vtr
would be slightly greater after 200 ka of heat flow. Although the convection model
produces a higher near-surface thermal gradient than the nonconvective model does,
the gradient can not be reliably projected to greater depths. Such modeled or measured
geothermal gradients are an significant initial step in evaluating the geothermal
potential of an area. Figure 2.8 plots several general types of thermal gradients and
their general relationship to geothermal potential.
- 48 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.7
(a) Results of heat flow calculation for a 2.5-km-wide magma body (dark shading) at a
depth
of 4.0 km below a caldera filled and surrounded by volcanic rocks (light shading). This p
roblem is
similar to that outlined in Fig. 2.5. The top plot depicts purely conductive heat flow;
the bottom plot includes the effects of a convective region (dark shading) below one sid
e of
the caldera. The numbers in the grid show rock temperatures (C) and temperature con
tours
after 100,000 yr of cooling.
- 49 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.7
(b) Plots of calculated thermal gradients at 100 and 200 ka of
cooling compare conductive and convective gradients for locations 5 km from the calder
a
and within the caldera itself. Note the high gradient for convective heat flow in the uppe
r 1.0 km;
if projected to greater depths, this gradient would give false predictions of maximum te
mperatures.
- 50 -
+ot ry -o$. "eothermal Energy
Most of the geothermal heat associated with volcanic fields is contained in rocks some
distance from zones of formation and fracture permeability. For example, the Valles
caldera in New Mexico has an estimated resource base of 8,425 10
18
J (Smith and
Shaw, 1975); of that resource base, the hydrothermal component is ~90 10
18
J. This
component represents a great deal of energy, but it is only ~1% of the entire resource
base (Brook et al ., 1978). In most geothermal systems associated with volcanic fields,
~95% of the thermal resource is hot dry rock; exceptions are geothermal systems in
carbonate rocks where the permeability is high.
The world's very substantive hot dry rock resource can be developed if attempts to
create man-made hydrothermal circulation systems are successful. The basic concept
involves drilling a hole into a thermal anomaly, fracturing the rock by stimulation
techniques, and drilling a second hole into the fractured rock adjacent to the first well
(Smith et al ., 1975). Water is circulated down one well, percolates through the mass of
hot, fractured rock, and is extracted at high temperatures from the second well. Hot dry
rock experiments have been studied in several countries, but the most extensive
experiments are being conducted at Fenton Hill, just outside the west rim of the Valles
caldera in New Mexico. These experiments were successful with a circulation loop
through fractured rock at a depth of 3 km, where the bottomhole temperature is 197C;
present experiments are testing a similar loop at a depth of 5 km in rocks with a
temperature of ~320C. New concepts being explored will develop this source of
alternate energy, which is referred to as heat mining (Armstead and Tester, 1987).
If a conventional hydrothermal well penetrates high-temperature zones with no
fluids, an attempt should be made to open existing pathways or create new fractures by
using stimulation techniques such as pressurizing the well with pumped fluids. If this
procedure does not work, a hot dry rock system can be realistically considered: the first
well will have provided a great body of data about the geology and thermal regime that
can be used to design a manmade geothermal system.
$ater%Magma &!ydrovolcanic' (nteraction) *ield and +aboratory Aspects
Recognition and study of hydrovolcanic features in a volcanic field is an important step
in locating and characterizing a potential geothermal resource. These features indicate
not only a potential magmatic heat source but also the possible existence of
groundwater. Water is generally the dominant volatile constituent in volcanic systems.
It is also the chief geothermal "working fluid" because its volume changes, which occur
with varying temperature and pressure, produce thermodynamic work. In this context,
water is required to transfer thermal energy from the earth to the point of exploitation,
whether for direct use or production of electricity. Thus, abundant groundwater is
necessary for development of a geothermal resource except in cases of hot dry rock
resources, where water is artificially supplied to the thermal reservoir.
Carbon dioxide is another common volatile substance in volcanic systems. Like
water, it may interact with magma, but because of its phase relationships, it cannot be
considered a condensible gas in most geological environments, and thus its heat-
transfer qualities must be addressed separately. The presence of carbon dioxide can
greatly alter water/magma interaction and the heat convection to the earth's surface.
In Chapter 1, we introduced hydromagmatism and hydrovolcanism as general
terms to describe the physical and chemical
- 51 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.8
Temperature-depth diagram depicting several thermal gradients and their correspondin
g influence
on geothermal gradients at the earth's surface. This diagram shows the range of typicall
y observed
steam fields (hatched) and the near-surface perturbations of geothermal gradients that
are caused
by groundwater and aquifers.
(Adapted from Rowley, 1982.)
- 52 -
processes that develop where magma and magmatic heat interact with ground or
surface water in magmatic and volcanic environments, respectively. There are many
geologic terms that refer to specific aspects of these processes, such as hydrothermal&
phreatic& phreatomagmatic , and hydroclastic (see Glossary, Appendix G). In addition,
the text of Fisher and Schmincke (1984) explains in detail various terms that relate to
the interaction between water and magma, magmatic heat, and lava. In the following
discussions, we will review the aspects of hydrovolcanism that greatly affect
development of a geothermal reservoir. Hydrovolcanism, recognized for over a century,
has recently been more widely acknowledged in field relationships and as a theoretical
basis for interpretation of volcanic activity.
Basi$ 'on$ept
Initial ideas about the role of ground and surface water in volcanism developed during
the last century. These perceptions were formed particularly through observations of
unusually explosive periods of Hawaiian volcanism, during which ground-water entered
rifts along which normal lava fountaining had occurred (Jaggar, 1949), as well as
through examination of fragmental basalts found where lava had entered water (Fuller,
1931). Three well-documented eruptions during the late 1950s and early 1960s brought
an increased awareness of hydrovolcanism: Capelihnos, Azores (Tazieff, 1958; Servicos
Geologicos de Portugal, 1959), Surtsey, Iceland (Thorarinsson, 1964), and Taal,
Philippines (Moore et al ., 1966). Fisher and Waters (1970), Waters and Fisher (1971),
and Heiken (1971) expanded the concept of phreatomagmatic eruptions characterized
by steam-rich eruption columns, base surges, and typical landforms such as maars, tuff
rings, and tuff cones. As a result of this work, numerous 20th century phreatomagmatic
eruptions are now recognized-most of them have formed maar-like craters (for
example, Self et al ., 1980). We also now realize that after cinder cones,
phreatomagmatic vents (tuff rings, tuff cones, and maars) are the most abundant
terrestrial volcanic landform.
An interesting paradox has emerged in studies of hydrovolcanism: interaction
between magma (lava) and water can be passive, explosive, or even both in situations
where all other conditions are apparently the same. This anomaly is illustrated along the
southern coast of Hawaii, where in some cases lava flowing into the ocean quenched
passively to form pillow lavas and in other cases it was explosively fragmented during
quenching to form tephra cones along the beach (Fisher, 1968). Explanations of this
paradox have benefited enormously from information derived from analog phenomena
such as industrial accidents in which a molten substance such as iron has caused an
explosion when it was rapidly introduced to water. This type of situation is a potential
safety problem, for example at nuclear reactors (Witte and Cox, 1978). The term
commonly used for the industrial analog, fuel"coolant interaction (FCI), can be applied
to volcanic processes involving the interaction of two materials, one at a temperature
above the boiling point of the other-where the interaction varies from passive
quenching and film-boiling circumstances to explosive situations in which the two
materials mix and exchange heat at catastrophic rates.
Heiken (1971) studied a number of phreatomagmatic volcanoes in southeastern
Oregon and correlated the volcano morphology with abundance and depth of
groundwater. As summarized in Table 2.3, characteristic volcanic landforms range from
low-profiled tephra rings surrounding a wide crater to steep-sided tephra cones with
relatively smaller craters. The former type are termed tuff rings (or maars if the crater
extends below the level of the prevolcanic ground surface); the latter type are called
tuff cones (Fig. 2.9). Sheridan and Wohletz (1981; 1983a) extended this
characterization
- 53 -
of hydrovolcanic landforms by recognizing that they form parts of polygenetic
volcanoes, such as composite cones and calderas in which characteristic tephra
accumulations of tuff cones and rings may be found (see Chapter 1).
Of the various types of tephra deposits produced by hydrovolcanism, pyroclastic
surge (base surge) deposits are most distinctive (Fisher and Waters, 1970; Wohletz and
Sheridan 1979). The four hydroclastic-tephra bedforms illustrated in Fig. 2.10 include
(a) breccias formed at the vent by explosions or in distal regions by laharic
remobilization, (b) sandwaves that show a variety of dune-like bedding structures ~1
cm thick (Crowe and Fisher, 1973; Schmincke et al ., 1973), (c) massive beds that may
resemble small pyroclastic flows, and (d) planar beds. In general, these tephra
bedforms are deposited by pyroclastic surges, but fallout and pyroclastic flows also
contribute to deposition of hydroclastic tephra. Identification of the depositional
mechanisms requires careful examination of features such as those listed in Table 2.4.
Because of the variety of possible textural features found in any hydrovolcanic
deposit, it is helpful to characterize the tephra facies described in Table 2.5. Some
facies relationships depend on the type of vent structure; for example, facies
relationships for pyroclastic surge deposits surrounding monogenetic tuff rings (Wohletz
and Sheridan, 1979) include near-vent sandwave facies, massive facies at intermediate
distances from the vent, and planar facies at distal portions of the deposit. In contrast,
Frazzetta

Table 2.3. Characteristics of Tuff Rings, Tuff Cones, and Cinder Cones
a
Character Tu%% Rings Tu%% Cones Cin$er Cones
Height-Width Ratio 1:10 to 1:30 1:9 to 1:11 1:9 to 1:11
Lithology Mostly sideromelane tuff and
lapilli-tuff, with substantial
amounts of palagonitic tuff
breccia containing blocks of
lava and sediments; some
accretionary lapilli
Palagonitic and sideromelane tuff
and tuff breccia, possibly scoria
and lava within the vent,
abundant accretionary lapilli
Tachylitic cinders and scoria,
traces of sideromelane ash,
lava flows
Bedding Well-defined, relatively thin
beds, massive bedding where
base was below local water
level
Poorly defined, relative thick
beds, some thin beds at the base
and top
Massive bedding, poorly
defined
Sedimentary Structures Well-developed graded
bedding with dune, massive,
and plane-parallel structures,
impact sags around ballistic
fragments, soft sediment
deformations
Graded bedding at base and top,
bulk of cone is nongraded
massive beds, soft-sediment
deformations
Crude inverse grading in
avalanche structures
Water Source Water from aquifer or shallow
lake
Water from deep aquifer, deep
lake, or marine environment
Little or no water (magmatic)
Mechanism of
Ejecta Dispersal
Pyroclastic surge, fallout, and
slumping
Pyroclastic surge and flow, fallout,
and lahars
Ballistic fallout and
avalanching
a
From Heiken (1971).
- 54 -
et al . (1983) showed that Vulcano, a composite cone with relatively steep slopes, has
near-vent planar facies, massive facies on cone slopes, and sandwave facies at distal
portions of the deposit at and beyond the base of the cone. In most cases, the positive
designation of a tephra facies in hydrovolcanic deposits will require a detailed analysis
of bedform textures (Fig. 2.11). Recognition of these facies relationships can help locate
a buried or exhumed vent structure, as related by Crisci et al . (1981).
0et and ry Fa$ies -elationships
From field observations, we have realized a significant concept about the textural
relationships of various hydrovolcanic tephra deposits. Wohletz and Sheridan (1983)
discuss in detail the existence of two fundamentally different types of hydrovolcanic
tephra deposits: dry and wet. This designation reflects the physical state of the tephra
when it is emplaced: dry deposits show little textural evidence of the presence of
moisture, and wet deposits show sedimentary, textural, and diagenetic evidence of wet
emplacement. Table 2.6 summarizes the field observations that help characterize these
two types of deposits.
The significance of wet and dry characterization for hydrovolcanic tephra deposits
will become clear during the following discussions of field relationships, theoretical
eruption and emplacement models, and the development of hydrothermal systems in
country rocks surrounding vent areas.
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.9
Hydrovolcanic landform vs geohydrological environment. In unsaturated environments,
basaltic
volcanism commonly produces cinder (scoria) cones by eruptions of relatively low energ
y.
In areas of abundant water, eruptions vaporize the fluid, which results in explosive activ
ity and
the formation of tuff rings and cones. In deep water, extrusions of basalt are passively
quenched and form pillow lavas.
(Adapted from Wohletz and Sheridan, 1983a.)
- 55 -
Hydrovolcanic eruptions disperse tephra in clouds of steam. Where water is abundant,
the expansion of steam occurs in the steam dome (a two-phase region), and an
appreciable amount of condensed water is emplaced with the tephra. Where water is
less abundant, the steam expands in its superheated region and is more readily
separated from tephra during emplacement so the deposits remain relatively dry.
Observations of the eruptions of Surtsey volcano illustrate this expansion process
(Thorarinsson et al ., 1964). Tephra and high-pressure water vapor were erupted in
plumes called "cock's tails" or "cypressoid" jets. The water vapor was not visible until it
reached lower pressure after the jets had traveled several hundred meters from the
vent. At that point, saturated steam was visible in the jets of tephra, indicating that it
condensed in the steam dome. This steam was carried along with the tephra jets until
their emplacement on the slopes of the emerging volcano. Some of the water vapor
separated earlier from the jets as optically transparent, superheated steam. It later
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.10
Four major textural types of hydroclastic deposits
produced by explosive hydrovolcanic eruptions.
Explosion breccias are typical of near-vent
tephra deposits, whereas sandwave (dunes),
massive, and planar bedded tephra deposits are
common to pyroclastic surges and flows (Wohletz
and Sheridan, 1979). Another textural type,
the laharic breccia, forms by liquefaction of these
deposits if there is an abundance of condensed
steam or rainfall.

Table 2.4. Characteristics of Common Hydrovolcanic Tephra Bedforms
Fallout San$a#e Massi#e "lanar
Normal grading Laminar structures Weak-to-nonexistent internal
structure
Strong plane-parallel
stratification
Angular fragments Fine grain size (2f ) Medium grain size (0 to 2f ) Coarse grain size (0 to -3f )
Moderately well sorted Layers commonly millimeters
thick
Poor sorting Beds average 2 cm in
thickness
Internal structure
generally well defined
Cross laminations Festooned
bedding
Scour features at base
Beds generally >20 cm thick
Inverse grading is common
Long wavelength undulations
(>10 m)

Ripple laminations Deflation structures


Shoot-and-pool structures Pebble stringers


Antidunes


Bedding in sets

- 56 -

Table 2.5. Common Hydrovolcanic Tephra Facies
a
Facies Characteristics
Vent Explosion breccia, consisting of large blocks and bombs that are both framework and matrix
supported; matrix of coarse ash, intercalations of fallout lapilli, and surge beds
Sandwave Predominantly sandwave to massive bedding transitions; low primary dips; little alteration; fine grain
sizes
Massive Sandwave, massive, and planar bedding structures all present-massive beds predominating and
showing some alteration, up to 25 dips near vent
Planar Planar beds predominate, some massive beds; coarse grain sizes; may have high primary dips near
vent
Wet Surge Strong evidence of wet emplacement, including abundant accretionary lapilli; high primary dips with
soft-sediment deformations; poorly developed stratification; palagonitization; induration; tuff-breccia
appearance; intergranular vesiculation; bedding consists mostly of massive, planar, and laharic
textures
Dry Surge Fresh deposits poorly indurated with little palagonitization; thinly bedded, sandwave facies change to
massive then to planar facies with increasing distance from vent beds; low primary dips
Tuff Cone Explosion breccia near vent at base; overlain by small amounts of dry surge and abundant wet surge
deposits and lahars
Tuff Ring Mostly dry surge deposits overlying explosion breccia and fallout beds near vent
Composite Cone Alternating dry and wet facies; dry surges show progression from planar to massive to sandwave
facies with increasing distance from vent; wet surges change to lahars with distance from vent
Caldera Dry surges at base above Plinian fallout, becoming wetter as eruption progresses and pyroclastic flows
are deposited; pyroclastic flows can be surge-like in caldera eruptions that are hydrovolcanic
a
From Heiken and Wohletz (1983).
became visible as it cooled and condensed in the atmosphere, rising as billowing
steam clouds above the jets.
Other observations mentioned by Wohletz and Sheridan (1983) support the
hypothesis that the physical state of water/steam during eruption is determined by the
mass ratio of water to magma interacting in the vent. This hypothesis has evolved as
detailed studies of many hydrovolcanic vents around the world have documented the
dependence of eruptive energy, tephra dispersal, and the resulting vent landform on the
water:magma mass ratio (summarized earlier in Chapter 1). Figure 2.12 illustrates
typical hydrovolcanic bedforms and their deduced water:magma mass ratios.
Through the interpretation of deposits, one can show that many volcanoes
demonstrate cyclic eruptive behavior (Chapter 1), in which the water:magma mass ratio
varies with time. Sheridan and Wohletz (1983a) noted two trends at many volcanoes. A
dry trend, typically found in tuff rings, is indicated by deposits that show a decreasing
abundance of interacting water with time so that final eruptions can be entirely
magmatic. A wet trend is illustrated by tuff cones in which the initial eruption is
magmatic and the final bursts are so wet that tephra form lahars as they are emplaced.
Using the information gained from these observations, it is possible to place constraints
on both the water:magma ratio during the course of an eruption and the availability of
water for potential hydrothermal systems associated with the volcano.
- 57 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.11
Pyroclastic surge facies as designated by bedform statistics. Section S-7 represents the
sandwave
facies with abundant dune bedforms; U-4 is a massive facies example showing planar,
massive, and
dune bedforms; S-1 is an example of planar facies with mostly planar and massive bedf
orms.
Section U-8 is ambiguous; after detailed analysis of bedform transitions by Markov anal
ysis
(Wohletz and Sheridan, 1979), it is classified as sandwave facies. Bedform types are sh
own as
P (planar), M (massive), or S (sandwave), as defined in Fig. 2.10. Occurrences of these
types are
further numbered from the base of the deposit.
(Adapted from Wohletz and Sheridan, 1979.)
&olygeneti$ #ol$anoes and 'alderas
The phenomenon of hydrovolcanism is not associated solely with eruptions at small,
monogenetic volcanoes. The following descriptions illustrate the significance of
hydrovolcanic processes in (a) wide-spread tephra deposits from silicic calderas, (b) the
development of wet and dry cycles at composite cones, (c) the evolution of calderas,
and (d) pyroclastic episodes during the eruption of domes of intermediate to silicic
composition (see Chapter 5).
#aupo
The Taupo volcanic zone of New Zealand's North Island is one of the best studied
examples of silicic volcanism. An important hydrovolcanic feature of this volcanic field is
the extremely widespread, fine-grained silicic tephra deposits, especially those from the
Taupo volcanic center (Healy, 1962; 1964).
- 58 -

Table 2.6. Characteristics of Hydrovolcanic Wet and Dry Tephra
Dr! &et
Abundant sandwave structures Abundant massive, tuff-breccia beds
Well-developed, thin bedding
(1 to 5 cm thicknesses)
Poorly developed bedding; strata found in thicknesses of 10 cm
to several meters
Low (<12) initial dips High initial dips (up to 25) are common
Young deposits poorly indurated Highly indurated young deposits
Little palagonitization High degree of palagonitization
Scarce accretionary lapilli Abundant accretionary lapilli
Low thickness-to-aerial-extent ratio High thickness-to-aerial-extent ratio
Wet sediment deformations
Self (1983) presented an extensively documented account of the Wairakei eruption
(20,000 ka), which produced the Oruanui Pumice Formation (Vucetich and Pullar, 1964)
and the Wairakei Breccia, both of which are part of the Wairakei Formation. Self
addressed the exceptionally fine grain size, wide dispersal, high content of accretionary
lapilli (up to 33 wt%), and irregular thickness distribution-features that Self and Sparks
(1978) noted as indicators of silicic, phreatomagmatic ('hreatoplinian ) volcanism.
Figure 2.13 illustrates the stratigraphy of the Wairakei Formation, which consists of
interbedded, fine-grained pyroclastic fall and flow deposits as well as two main
phreatoplinian phases that were followed by ignimbritic phases. Member 1 has a median
diameter of 4.0 f (0.064 mm) even near the source and is representative of the typical
phreatomagmatic materials shown in Fig. 2.14.
Heiken and Wohletz (1985) described volcanic ash samples and their
phreatomagmatic textures from this section. Through interpretation of tephra deposits,
Self (1983) illustrated the eruption sequence and phreatomagmatic factors of the Taupo
eruption (Fig. 2.15). More detailed descriptions of geothermal studies in the Taupo
region are given in Chapter 4.
Vulcano
The Island of Vulcano in the Aeolian archipelago of Italy is a classic example of
hydrovolcanic activity. The Fossa cone of Vulcano has been historically active and poses
an ongoing hazard (Keller, 1980). Mercalli and Silvestri (1891) observed the most
recent eruptive episode and described the eruption phenomena now termed Vulcanian .
Frazzetta et al . (1983) built on the work of Sheridan et al . (1981) to interpret the
detailed stratigraphy of the cone and show how hydrovolcanism contributed to the five
most recent episodes of volcanism; their summary of the Fossa tephra stratigraphy is
illustrated in Fig. 2.16. These authors further proposed that all five episodes of
volcanism were characterized by a cyclic eruption pattern that consists of the four
stages shown in Fig. 2.17.
(1) Initial quiet, fumarolic activity was stimulated by heat transfer from (possibly)
two magmas of differing compositions that rose below the volcano.
(2) A triggering event initiated a mixing of the two magmas, which was followed by
further rise of the mixed magma to the surface where it contacted ground-water. The
resulting hydrovolcanic eruptions of pyroclastic surges
- 59 -
comprised chilled, nonvesiculated tephra that progressed from wet to dry.
(3) As the groundwater source was separated from the magma by a steam
envelope, the eruptions became magmatic, expelling vesiculated tephra interspersed
with the chilled tephra.
(4) The cycle's final stage is marked by eruption from the pumiceous cap of the
magma and, later, extrusion of an obsidian-cored lava flow. Frazzetta et al . (1983)
interpreted the products of the most recent eruptive cycle with respect to water:magma
ratios, as shown in Fig. 1.22.
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.12
An idealized hydrovolcanic deposit section
illustrating typical bedding textures and
bedforms and their inferred water:magma mass
ratios (Rm ). Initial eruptions, represented by
the basal pumice fall, involved little or no
external water; however, in later eruptions,
the stratigraphic section records bedforms
that indicate increasing water:magma ratios.
For ratios >1.0, caused by eruptions into a
standing body of water, pillow lavas/breccias
and peperites are usual, as are lahars, which
commonly occur in eruptions of high
water:magma ratios on land.
Vesuvius
The ejecta deposits of another long-active and much-studied volcano, Vesuvius, indicate
that hydrovolcanic activity is significant during its eruptive cycles (Barberi et al., 1981;
Rosi and Santacroce, 1983). The AD 79 eruptions of Vesuvius are among its best
documented in terms of actual observations (Pliny the Younger, 1763; Radice, 1972),
deposit descriptions (Sigurdsson et al ., 1985), and interpretations of eruption
mechanisms (Sheridan et al ., 1981). Figure 2.18 shows representative tephra
stratigraphic sections from archaeological excavations at three Roman sites that were
devastated by
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.13
Wairakei Formation tephra stratigraphy for
locations within 20 km of the vent in Lake
Taupo, New Zealand. Members 4 and 6 (m4,m6)
were previously named the Oruanui Pumice
Breccia and Wairakei Breccia, respectively.
(Adapted from Self, 1983.)
- 60 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.14
Grain-size characteristics of the Wairakei Formation (Self, 1983). (a)Median diameter (
Mdf ) ) vs sorting
coefficient (sf ) is shown for the various members (m1,m2,..) illustrated in Fig. 2.13; als
o noted are
textural types, including accretionary lapilli (crushed), lithic/pumice-rich ignimbrite, and
base surge.
The dashed field represents pyroclastic flows. (Adapted from Wright
et al ., 1981.) (b) Grain-size
fractions for m4 and m6: the dashed field represents pyroclastic flows; coarse variant s
hown by
symbols. (Adapted from Walker et al., 1980.) (c) Grain diameter frequency curves for fa
llout products
of m2 and m6 show gradual loss of coarse products with increasing distances from the s
ource
(curve numbers in kilometers). (d) Cumulative probability distribution of size fractions (
f ) for Plinian
and phreatoplinian deposits is compared to the distribution of a representative m3 samp
le.
(Adapted from Carey and Sigurdsson, 1982, and Walker, 1981.)
the eruptions. Fallout deposits of white and gray pumice from early magmatic
eruptions were followed by hydromagmatic products emplaced as surges, pyroclastic
flows, and lahars-all containing abundant lithic ejecta derived from carbonate aquifer
rocks that underline the Somma Vesuvius at a >2-km depth. Figure 2.19, the model
presented by Sheridan et al . (1981), interprets the stratigraphy and illustrates the
effects of hydrovolcanic activity during the devastating phases of the eruption.
Accretionary lapilli, abundant in the upper portions of the tephra stratigraphy, were
studied in detail by
- 61 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.15
Wairakei eruption model showing the sequential stages or eruption of the various
members and periods of lake water/magma interaction.
(Adapted from Self, 1983.)
Sheridan and Wohletz (1983b), who described possible mechanisms for their
formation in wet eruption plumes.
Contrasting hydrovolcanic behavior is evident in the early-stage interaction with
water at Vulcano and the late-stage interaction shown at Vesuvius. One general
explanation for this contrast is the overall hydrologic setting of these volcanoes:
Vulcano is an island edifice characterized by abundant near-surface groundwater,
whereas Vesuvius is built on a sedimentary platform with a deep aquifer system. Access
of water to the vent system at Vulcano gradually decreases during eruptive episodes as
magma congeals along vent walls where water initially infiltrates. At Vesuvius, access of
groundwater to the magma chamber and vent conduit is initially limited by thermal
metamorphic rocks that have sealed fractures. However, as the conduit and chamber
wall rocks are fractured by expansion of magmatic gases early in Plinian eruptive
episodes, groundwater gains access to the magma, especially after overpressures in the
magma body and conduit have fallen below the local thermally perturbed hydrostatic
- 62 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.16
Composite stratigraphic section illustrates
the hydrovolcanic cycles of the Fossa volcano
at Vulcano, Italy. The Pietre Nere, Palizzi,
Commenda, and Pietre Cotte cycles all show
a progression from hydrovolcanic eruptions to
emplacement of lava flows.
(Adapted from Frazzetta et al ., 1983.)
pressure. The behaviors exhibited at Vulcano and Vesuvius are generally termed
shallow and deep hydrovolcanic eruptions, respectively; the former becomes dryer and
the latter becomes wetter as eruptions progress.
Throughout the entire Latium volcanic province of Italy, hydrovolcanism has been
a vital component in the development of caldera complexes such as those of Vulsini,
Vico, Sabatini, Albani, and the Phlegraen Fields. Broad, low-profile calderas with
widespread, fine-grained silicic tephra characterize these volcanic areas. Because of
their geothermal importance, we will describe them in detail in Chapter 4.
&etrography of +ydrovol$ani$ (ephra 'onstituents
Hydrovolcanic tephra may show aspects of both magmatic and hydrovolcanic origin; in
such cases, petrographic inspection is necessary to determine the relative proportions of
the two endmember processes. Fisher and Schmincke (1984) used the terms
pyroclastic and hydroclastic to distinguish products of magmatic and hydrovolcanic
explosions, respectively. Table 2.7 reviews the salient features of hydroclastic products.
Hydroclastic tephra are generally distinguished from pyroclastic tephra by their fine
grain size. However, this distinction is not always apparent, especially in hydroclastic
tephra sampled at near-vent locations where fine fractions have not been deposited.
Figure 2.20 shows plots of sorting vs median diameter for four characteristic tephra
bedforms produced by hydrovolcanic activity. Although these statistics are often
- 63 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.17
This schematic model of typical Vulcanian eruption cycles at Vulcano is based upon inter
pretation of
stratigraphic successions shown in Fig. 2.14. Activity progresses from (a) quiet fumaroli
c emissions to
(b) magma vesiculation and surge eruptions caused by primitive magma intruding into o
lder evolved
magma and interaction with groundwater. (c) The development of a steam chimney abo
ve the magma
reduces direct contact between water and the melt; steam explosions eject comminuted
older lavas and
some pumice, producing surge and fallout deposits. (d) The final stage is marked by eru
ption of a
pumice fall and emplacement of a lava flow from the chilled zone of the magma body.
(Adapted from Frazzetta et al ., 1983.)
sufficient to characterize hydroclastic tephra, we advocate further analysis of size
distributions by the techniques described by Sheridan et al . (1987) to separate
subpopulations from the overall sample distribution. This method involves the detailed
analysis of wet and dry sieve data and sample separation procedures described in
Appendix A.
Constituents of hydroclastic tephra, including glass, crystals, and lithic fragments
in various proportions, are sensitive to the emplacement mechanism and magma
composition. Figure 2.21 illustrates the variety of tephra constituents that characterize
tuff rings and tuff cones. One of the most distinguishing features of these tephra is the
amount of glass alteration in samples of wet and dry hydrovolcanic facies. Basaltic glass
readily alters to palagonite, a complex combination of zeolites and smectites; rhyolitic
glass alters to hydrated glass, which can crystallize to fine-grained quartz, potash
feldspar, and clays. Although such alteration generally occurs in any tephra deposit
through weathering and diagenetic processes, stratigraphic
- 64 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.18
Representative stratigraphy of AD 79 pyroclastic deposits exposed in archaeological exc
avations
along the coastal side of Vesuvius; FA = pumice fallout, FL = pyroclastic flows, and S =
surges.
The basal white and gray pumice fallout was from early magmatic eruptions, and the up
per
pyroclastic flows and surges are products of later hydrovolcanic eruptions.
(Adapted from Sheridan et al ., 1981.)
- 65 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.19
Model of AD 79 Plinian eruptions at Vesuvius. This model, temporally and phenomenolo
gically
constrained by accounts of Pliny the Younger (Radice, 1972), shows (a) the initial Plinia
n column
eruption, (b) the decline to intermittent magmatic and hydromagmatic explosions, and (
c) the
terminal hydromagmatic phase that produced wet pyroclastic flows and surges. The beg
inning
of hydromagmatism, during the intermediate stage, is associated with the failure of ma
gma
chamber walls, which added a thermally metamorphosed lithic constituent to the tephra
and
allowed aquifer waters to flow into the chamber.
(Adapted from Sheridan et al ., 1981.)
- 66 -
information supports the conclusion that the alteration can also result when abundant
hot water vapor is emplaced with the deposit.
Weathering and diagenetic effects, including the posteruptive saturation of tephra
deposits by rain or groundwater, make it difficult to evaluate the timing of
palagonitization and hydration; however, pertinent stratigraphic information can be
useful (Fig. 2.22). Where fresh and altered tephra appear in alternating layers above
the groundwater table, a strong argument can be made that alteration took place at the
time of tephra emplacement. Proximity of altered tephra to a vent or fault is indicative
of postemplacement alteration by hydrothermal fluids. Diagenesis below the
groundwater table can be assessed for a region by determining the lateral extent of
altered tephra and the presence of alteration zones that cross bedding planes.
Wet deposits can be distinguished from dry ones by the degree of glass alteration.
Figure 2.23 shows that palagonitization of basaltic tephra is a function of median grain
size, but for diameters <0.1 mm, palagonitization is most prevalent in samples from
wet facies bedforms. This observation is not surprising if one considers the results of
experiments with palagonite formation that demonstrate a strong dependence on
temperature (Fig. 2.24a). Palagonitization also has a significant effect on glass
chemistry; bulk chemical analysis of partly palagonitized tephra may show that its
composition is considerably different than that of its parent (Fig. 2.24b).
Analyses of clast morphology by optical and electron microscope also provide
important data for classifying tephra as pyroclastic or hydroclastic (Heiken, 1971;
Heiken and Wohletz, 1985). Table 2.8 summarizes clast morphologies that are useful in
understanding the eruptive mechanism (grain shape), transport or emplacement
process (edge modification), and water abundance (clast alteration/palagonitization).
Wohletz (1987) described these features for several examples of hydrovolcanic
associations.

Table 2.7. Field and Petrographic Features of Hydroclastic Tephra
a

'asaltic 'asaltic ()ittoral* Rh!olitic
Volcanic features Maar volcanoes;
tuff rings and cones; explosion
pits
Littoral cones Tuff ring with central lava dome
Petrography Vitric ash; angular sideromelane
fragments, generally free of
crystals except phenocrysts;
lithic component of some ash
depends on composition of
basement rocks
Vitric to vitric-lithic ash;
sideromelane droplets;
tachylite; fragments of
aphanitic basalt
Most ash particles equant or
elongate colorless glass; traces of
rhyolite lithic fragments; glass
generally free of or contains very
few microlites
Shard shape Equant blocky glass shards with
few vesicles; smooth, flat fracture
surfaces or scalloped where
fractures intersect vesicles
Crystalline basalt;
equant lithic fragments;
blocky or crescent-shaped
sideromelane grains with few
vesicles; nonvesicular
pyramidal glass fragments
Sharply pointed elongated shards
and flat elongate pumice
fragments; conchoidal to irregular
fracture surfaces; smooth vesicle
walls
a
From Fisher and Schmincke (1984) and Heiken (1972).
- 67 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.20
Grain sizes of hydrovolcanic tephra deposits of different bedding textures are shown by
plots of
sorting coefficient (sf ) vs
median diameter (Mdf ). Whereas pyroclastic surge bedforms (sandwave,
planar, and massive) range in median diameter from 2.0 to 0.063 mm, fine-ash beds de
monstrate
the intense tephra fragmentation capability of hydrovolcanism with median
diameters of 0.063 to 0.022 mm.
(Adapted from Sheridan and Wohletz, 1983a.)
- 68 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.21
This triangular diagram of hydrovolcanic tephra
constituents shows the relative contribution of
fresh glass, altered glass, and crystal and lithic
material. Fields for tuff rings and cones reflect
the relative proportions of these constituents in
different bedforms. The greater relative
abundance of altered glass for tuff cones
attests to the greater abundance of water in
the erupting system.
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.22
Example of stratigraphic and structural settings for altered (palagonitized and hydrated)
tephra
deposits. (a) Altered tephra (cross-hatched) may exist around a vent area as a result of
hydrothermal
circulation. Such alteration is relatively insensitive to tephra bedding planes, but it does
not show
lateral continuity away from the vent. (b) Palagonitization and zeolitization below a grou
ndwater
table show lateral continuity and may cross bedding planes between tephra of different
depositional character. (c) Alteration may be structurally controlled along faults through
which
hydrothermal fluids have migrated. (d) However, when tephra alteration occurs rapidly
during
eruption and emplacement and before cooling, the altered tephra may be intercalated w
ith
relatively fresh tephra layers. This alteration is relatively insensitive to
the groundwater table and initial dips of the strata.
- 69 -
Experimental and #heoretical Aspects of !ydrovolcanism
Much of our qualitative and quantitative understanding of hydrovolcanic processes has
developed from experimental and theoretical studies of the water/magma interaction
mechanism. As a brief review, we summarize several studies that are applicable to
geothermal energy exploration.
-esults from E1periments
Water/magma interaction belongs to a broad class of physical and chemical processes
termed fuel"coolant interaction (FCI). Our research has focused on applications of FCI
theory to water/magma interactions, and we describe results of our experimental
studies that bear upon interpretation of hydrovolcanic products.
In their experiments, Wohletz and McQueen (1984) and Sheridan and Wohletz
(1983a) used thermite as a basaltic magma analog because it readily fit experimental
requirements. The thermite reaction (Fe3 O4 + 8/3Al ( 4/3Al2 O3 + 3Fe + heat) produces
a molten mixture of crystals and liquid at temperatures in excess of 1000C; the
viscosity and density are similar to that of basaltic magma. The molten thermite was
brought into contact with water within several different pressure vessels that were
constructed in such a way that variations of
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.23
Percent of glass palagonitized vs median grain size for hydroclastic tephra. Trends are s
hown for
bedforms in both tuff rings and cones. In general, there is a decrease in palagonitization
with
decreasing grain size, except in the case of massive and planar bedforms in tuff rings. T
his trend
reflects the decrease in porosity as a function of grain size; however, anomalous tuff rin
g samples
point to the likelihood that massive and planar bedforms are typical of wetter eruptions.
- 70 -
pressure, temperature, and interaction energy (Buxton and Benedict, 1989) could be
quantified (Fig. 2.25).
The pulsating ejection of fragmental debris, which ranged from passive to
explosive, was studied for a variety of water:thermite mass ratios, interaction
pressures, and contact geometry. Figure 2.26 summarizes these experiments, which
could be interpreted as analogs to volcanic activity. One interesting observation was
that the water:magma mass ratio was a dominating factor of the interaction
phenomena. By quantifying the energy of the interaction as a ratio of measured
mechanical energy to initial thermal energy (Fig. 1.21), Wohletz and McQueen (1984)
developed Fig. 2.27 to summarize the spectrum of hydrovolcanic activity.
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.24
(a) Thickness of palagonite skin on basaltic glass
samples as a function of alteration time at
different temperatures. The rapid increase in
alteration with temperature argues that at high
temperatures (several hundred degrees), glass
alteration to depths of several micrometers may
take place in minutes or less.
(Adapted from Furnes, 1975, and Moore, 1966.)
(b) Chemical variations between basaltic
glass and palagonite samples are normalized
to titanium accumulation. Dashed lines
indicate idealized chemical losses expected from
passive gain of TiO2 , which increases with
palagonite maturation. Data for glass/palagonite
pairs from submarine alteration ( ) and subaerial
conditions ( ) suggest a nearly isomolar
exchange of major element oxides
with H2 O and K2 O.
Grain sizes of fragmental debris from these experiments show a strong relationship
to explosive energy: with more efficient interaction between water and melt, finer
explosion debris (experimental tephra) is produced (Fig. 2.28). By assuming simple
conductive heat transfer between the melt and water, it is possible to make some
interesting predictions about hydrovolcanic activity. Figure 2.29 shows the quenching
time for tephra as a function of median diameter. By assuming that conductive heat
transfer in these experiments reflects the more complicated process that occurs in
nature, one may infer from hydrovolcanic bedforms some aspects of the energetics of
eruptions that produced the tephra. For example, tephra deposited as sandwave
- 71 -
beds likely resulted from more explosive interactions than those that produced other
bedforms.
Size and shape studies of experimentally produced tephra have also provided some
insight into the mechanisms by which magma and water come into close contact-a
necessary condition for the explosive exchange of thermal energy. Wohletz (1983) used
inferences from grain-shape analysis to describe some of these mechanisms, many of
which are driven by dynamic instabilities that grow at interfaces between the magma
and water. These instabilities develop from differences in density, surface tension,
viscosity, and the relative velocity of the water and magma. Growing instabilities,
caused by rapidly fluctuating steam-film jackets at the water/magma interface, mix the
two and gradually fragment the magma. This quasistable mechanism increases the
contact surface area between magma and water, and the subsequent heat transfer is
enhanced to rates that can sustain an explosion.
Some of the characteristic grain shapes of experimental tephra shown in Fig. 2.30,
including blocky shapes, irregular and convoluted fluidal shapes, spheres, ribbons, and
shell-like shards, can be used to interpret interaction and mixing mechanisms.
Because chemical alteration of tephra is a characteristic feature of hydroclastic
products, Taylor and Wohletz (1985) conducted experiments to investigate the chemical
processes in hydrovolcanism. An interesting but perhaps not surprising aspect of these
experiments concerned oxygen isotope exchanges. Like magma, thermite is relatively
rich in heavy oxygen (d
18
O @ 16
0
/00 ). During interactions between thermite and water
typical of the meteoric composition of groundwater (d
18
O @ -12
0
/00 ), Taylor and
Wohletz expected that some exchange of the oxygen isotopes would deplete the
18
O
composition of the experimental tephra (based on previously measured diffusion
constants of 10
-4
to 10
-9
cm
2
/s); however, results (shown in Fig. 2.31) revealed
considerable depletion of
18
O. These results indicated an exchange of up to 30% of the
oxygen in the thermite-a very dynamic chemical reaction considering the length of the
experiments (several seconds or less).
As discussed by Heiken and Wohletz (1987), enhanced oxygen isotope exchange
can be expected for water/magma interactions in which the surface area of the magma
is increased by many orders of magnitude. The behavior of oxygen suggests that other
ionic species may also diffuse at effectively high rates, rapidly altering the chemical
composition of finely fragmented magma during a

Table 2.8. Clast Morphologies for Hydroclastic Tephra
Grain Shape E$ge Mo$i%ication Clast Alteration
Blocky, curviplanar surfaces Grain rounding Vesicle filling
Vesicular Grooves and scratches Skin cracks
Droplike or fused skin Steplike fractures Solution and precipitation
Deformation planes Dish-shaped fractures Microcrystalline encrustations
Adhering particles Chipped edges

Platy Cracks

Mosslike Upturned plates
V-shaped depressions

- 72 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.25
Five experimental designs were used by Wohletz and McQueen (1984) to simulate hydro
volcanic
activity with a thermite (Al2 O3
+ Fe) magma analog: (a) sand burial, (b) confinement, (c) water box,
(d) central vent, and (e) bottom vent (lift-off). The basic design promoted contact of mo
lten thermite
with water within a confined vessel after the thermite melted through the aluminum par
tition that
initially separated the two. A burst valve, designed to fail when pressure exceeded a spe
cified limit,
allowed venting of the high-pressure steam and fragmented thermite. Pressure transduc
ers recorded
vapor production in the vessel, and high-speed cinematography documented
the ejection of fragmented melt through the vent.
- 73 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.26
In this summary of hydrovolcanic experiments, four basic interaction phenomena, consi
sting of melt
fountaining, unsteady blasts, steady production of steam and ejecta, and the nonexplosi
ve quenching of
melt into globular shapes (blobs), are correlated to volcanic activities and the water:mel
t mass ratio (Rm ).
(Adapted from Wohletz and McQueen, 1984.)
hydrovolcanic eruption and thereby producing altered tephra deposits. Studies by
Hildreth et al . (1984) and Lipman and Friedman (1975) documented such behavior in
large silicic systems during caldera-related eruptions. Smith (1988) found that fresh,
pumiceous samples of postcollapse rhyolite of the Long Valley caldera, California, show
d
18
O @ 0
0
/00 , in contrast to +6.7 to +7.4
0
/00 values for obsidian, which are typical of
most unaltered volcanic rocks. This result indicates about a 33% exchange of oxygen
between meteoric water and the rhyolite in the formation of pumice-a conclusion
supported by field evidence of a gas-rich and relatively low-viscosity extrusion. A
conclusive piece of evidence for the hydrovolcanic origin of tephra is their oxygen
composition if they are not affected by weathering and diagenesis.
- 74 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.27
Scaled kinetic energy relative to the initial melt thermal energy is shown as a function of
water:magma mass ratio. Ranges are indicated for Strombolian, Surtseyan (hydrovolca
nic), and
submarine activity as well as for corresponding landform and deposit bedforms.
(Adapted from Wohletz and McQueen, 1984.)
&redi$tions Based on (heory
It is evident from our experiment results that one can employ theoretical physics to
make accurate predictions for hydrovolcanic explosions (for example, Buchanan, 1974).
One prediction that is strongly supported by the energy measurements shown in Fig.
1.21 is the relationship of explosive energy to water:magma mass ratios. In Chapter 1,
we outlined a method for quantifying explosive energy that is based on
thermodynamics: the method assumes that magma and water reach thermal
equilibrium before explosive expansion of the water. By using a temperature-entropy
diagram (Fig. 2.32), one finds that-depending upon the temperature and entropy of
the initial equilibrium point-expansion of water can follow one of several
thermodynamic paths. The most complex of these paths occurs during its expansion,
when water maintains a temperature similar to that of the hot magma fragments. In
this case, the simple isentropic expansion of water is not followed; instead expansion
has a strong isothermal component that is determined by the mass ratio of magma
fragments entrained and in thermal contact with the water during expansion.
As is shown in Fig. 2.32, expansion of a high-pressure mixture of water and
magma may take place in the steam dome, the
- 75 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.28
Log efficiency (the ratio of steam mechanical energy to melt thermal energy) as a functi
on of the
median grain diameter in fragmented melt. Small-scale (several grams of melt) laborato
ry
experiments ( ) from Buxton and Benedict (1979) exhibited lower efficiency [heat flux
(Hq )]
and coarser grain sizes than large-scale (100 kg of melt) experiments (hatched) perfor
med
by Wohletz and McQueen (1984). Data fall within theoretical ranges of heat flux to stea
m from
thermite melts (bold lines). Maximum measured laboratory heat fluxes (Buchanan, 197
4) indicate
resulting grain diameters between 0.125 and 0.004 mm.
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.29
Log reciprocal cooling time vs grain diameter
and log specific surface area. The shaded area
represents times predicted by conductive cooling
models; the circular fields show ranges of median
grain diameters for common hydrovolcanic
bedforms: F = fallout, P = planar, M = massive,
and S = sandwaves. Median grain diameters for
magmatic eruptions are commonly in the lapilli
range, and the onset of vapor-explosion
decrepitation of grain size is idealized near grain
diameters of 1.0 mm.
(Adapted from Wohletz, 1983.)
- 76 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.30
Sketches of four types of grain shapes observed during experiments in hydrovolcanism.
Blocky and
plate-like grains are thought to be produced by brittle failure of the melt when it is subj
ected to
strong stress waves. Moss-like, drop-like, and spherical grains are likely produced by flu
id
instabilities at water/melt interfaces:
(Adapted from Wohletz, 1983.)
- 77 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.31
Oxygen isotopic ratio [Eq. (1-10)] vs Rm
(water:melt ratio) shows the strong depletion
of heavy oxygen (
18
O) observed in experimental
products ( ) after interaction of the melt ( )
with water ( ) in times <1 s. These results suggest
that if the oxygen isotope ratio can be confidentially
measured for hydrovolcanic materials, Rm can be
constrained. However, the effects of
weathering and the temperature at which
isotopes are exchanged in volcanic products
can complicate isotope measurements.
(Adapted from Taylor and Wohletz, 1985.)
superheated steam field, or both. Expansion within the steam dome (saturated)
results in wet-steam explosions, which are of lower energy than those in the
superheated field. Wohletz (1986) showed that for saturated expansions, the steam
fraction (x2 ) of the ejected water in the eruption (which forms eruption columns and
pyroclastic flows and surges) is calculated by

where xe = the steam fraction at initial thermal equilibrium, Te = the temperature
of that equilibrium [Te = (mw Cvw Tw + mm Cm Tm )/(mw Cvw + mm Cm )], mw and mm = the
mass of water and magma, respectively, Cpw and Cvw = water's specific heats at
constant pressure and constant volume, respectively, Cm = the magma specific heat, T2
= 373 K (assuming saturated expansion to
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.32
Temperature-entropy diagram for vapor expansion in hydrovolcanic eruptions. From
its initial state ( ), water is heated to a higher temperature and pressure (e) where
it is in thermal equilibrium with magma. With decompression, the water expands
along one of several paths, maintaining thermal equilibrium with fragmented magma,
to its final state ( ) at lower temperature and 1 bar atmospheric pressure. Water's
liquid, two-phase (2f ), and vapor fields are indicated, as are points a'[where a super-
critical water and tephra mixture expands into the two- phase (steam dome) field] and
b' [where the mixture expands out of the two-phase field into the superheated steam
(vapor) field]. The four expansion paths shown constrain the amount of magma heat
converted to steam expansion work; these paths are determined by the initial water:
magma mass ratio. (Adapted from Wohletz, 1986.)
1 bar), and Hlv = the enthalpy of water vaporization. For superheated expansions,
the final temperature (T2 ) is given by

where f = (mw Cpv + mm Cm )/mw R, R = the gas constant, and expansion occurs
from the initial pressure of thermal equilibrium (pe ) to p2 = 1 bar (atmospheric)
pressure.
In practice, one finds that expansion might proceed from the superheated field into
the saturated field-or the reverse-making the calculation more complicated. The
conversion efficiency or ratio (ec ) of the magma's thermal energy to explosive kinetic
energy (the explosive efficiency) is found by dividing
- 78 -
the change in the water/magma mixture's internal energy (D Umix ) by the magma's
initial thermal energy [mm Cm (Tm -298)], where

for superheated expansion, xe = x2 = 0.0 and Vlv = the volume change from liquid
to vapor. This calculated value gives the maximum theoretical efficiencies for the semi-
isothermal cases (Wohletz, 1986) of water expansion, in which the expanding water
maintains the same temperature as the entrained pyroclasts. Figure 2.33 shows a plot
of those efficiencies as a function of water:magma mass ratios (logarithmic) in which
maximum explosive efficiencies are reached where ratios are between 0.1 and 1.0
(about equal volumes of water and magma). Figure 2.33 also provides a comparison of
this efficiency curve in which the mass fraction of water condenses from the expanding
mixture (1-x2 ). It is apparent that for eruptions of maximum energy, all water is
converted to superheated steam, but with increasing amounts of water, energy
gradually decreases and saturated liquid content rises sharply. For mass ratios >2.0,
eruptions are very wet and most of the high-pressure vapor condenses to liquid as
pressure decreases to atmospheric levels. At that point, the erupted tephra, usually wet
and sticky, forms lahars during emplacement.
Building on the theoretical arguments of Colgate and Sigurgeirsson (1973),
Wohletz (1986) described how growth of what are termed Rayleigh-Taylor and Kelvin-
Helmholtz instabilities controls the heat transfer rates and grain sizes of magma
fragments during hydrovolcanic eruptions. The interface between water (liquid and
vapor) and magma can be unstable if the lighter fluid accelerates toward or across the
heavier one. In the case of Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities, when the interface becomes
perturbed, wavelets grow in amplitude (ht ) with time as ht = cosh(na t), where na is a
function of acceleration, wave number, fluid densities, surface tensions, and viscosities.
This instability growth occurs only when the wavelet size is greater than a critical
wavelength (lcrit ; Bellman and Pennington, 1954):

where s s = the surface tension of the magma, a = the acceleration of the water
toward the magma surface (imparted by collapse of a vapor film), and rw and rm = the
water and magma densities, respectively. If a spectrum of l larger than l crit grows and
detaches to form magma fragments, the most abundant fragment sizes are ) 3 lcrit , and
a characteristic bell-shaped size-frequency distribution results.
After an initial period of instability during which water and magma are mixed,
vapor explosion may occur by superheat vaporization (Fauske, 1973) or thermal
detonation (Fauske, 1977; Board et al ., 1975; Rabie et al ., 1979). Superheated water
may remain in a metastable state until it attains its spontaneous nucleation temperature
at ~570 K (Reid, 1976). After heat transfer raises the water temperature to that point,
homogeneous vaporization causes a spontaneous vapor explosion. In the case of
thermal detonation, a shock wave propagating through the coarsely mixed magma and
metastable water leaves a fine fragmentation of magma and sudden vapor expansion in
its wake; this sequence of events is analogous to classical Chapman-Jouguet detonation
(Courant and Friedrichs, 1948).
During thermal detonation, the shock wave differentially accelerates the water and
magma phases and fragments the magma in proportion to the relative velocity (urel )
between the two phases. For a particular combination of density, initial magma
fragment size, drag coefficient, and surface tension, the differential acceleration causes
magma fragmentation in less time than is
- 79 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.33
Theoretically calculated condensed water fraction and maximum isothermal efficiencies
vs Rm .
The fraction of initial water that condenses to liquid after magma/water interaction incre
ases with
Rm,, and at Rm = 3.0, little or no steam remains after interaction with magma and
expansion to atmospheric pressure.
required for the two phases to reach velocity equilibrium. If this situation occurs,
the detonation is sustained; however, several factors can mitigate this process,
including divergence of the shock wave, mixture inhomogeneities, and reflected waves.
Wohletz (1986) approximated final magma fragment sizes (rm ) resulting from thermal
detonation during water/magma interaction as

for which urel is predicted by Chapman-Jouguet theory (Landau and Lifshitz, 1959)
and D Rm is the absolute value of the difference between the water:magma mass ratio
and its optimum explosive ratio (~0.3). In general, both the fluid
instability/superheating and thermal detonation theories predict the fine grain sizes
observed in hydrovolcanic tephra (Fig. 2.20).
The tephra deposit textures of dry and wet surges, pyroclastic flows, and lahars
strongly depend on the wetness of erupted materials. Figure 2.34 is a plot of the water
volume fraction of hydroclastic deposits as a function of the initial mass ratio of water
interacting with magma during the eruption. The plotted curve is based on the
assumption that all condensed steam is emplaced with the tephra. Eppler (1984),
Pierson (1986), and Arguden and Rodolfo (1990) recently reviewed lahar formation with
specific attention to the tephra deposit water contents required. Where the pore water
content of deposits increases beyond 20 to 30% by volume, tephra deposits are very
cohesive and can maintain the steep bedding planes typical of wet surge deposits. If
deposit water content nears saturation (within a few percent of total pore space-50 to
60% by volume), tephra deposits behave like a Bingham fluid and move as lahars
(Eppler, 1984). This behavior is predicted for hydroclastic tephra that are produced by
eruptions whose water:magma mass ratio is >1.0. Because a great deal of steam can
separate from the tephra in the eruption plume before tephra emplacement, the Rm
values on the x-axis of
- 80 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.34
Volume fraction of liquid water in tephra deposits of hydrovolcanic origin as a function of
Rm .
Where Rm is <0.4 deposits are dry; where Rm
is >0.4 but <1.0, deposits are wet and very cohesive;
and where Rm
is >1.0, tephra deposits can contain enough liquid water to behave like lahars.
Fig. 2.34 are the minimum required for the observed tephra deposit texture.
Because the steam formed during hydrovolcanic eruptions progressively
decompresses, cools, and condenses during tephra emplacement, tephra in flows and
surges become wetter with increasing runout distance (time) from the vent. Whereas
most dry, superheated steam might separate from tephra during emplacement of
surges and flows, saturated steam gradually condenses on individual pyroclasts;
therefore, tephra emplaced with saturated steam is likely to become wet and sticky-as
field observations verify. This hypothesis suggests that some hydroclastic tephra
deposits might show facies changes with increasing distance from the vent: dry surges
near the vent, wet surges at intermediate distances, and lahars in distal parts of the
deposit. This facies distribution and the corresponding runout distance of tephra
deposits should be sensitive to the wetness of the eruption and the water:magma mass
ratio. At one extreme, dry eruptions are expected to produce surges and flows of dry
facies types over the total runout distance; at the other extreme, very wet eruptions,
such as those observed at Surtsey, might expel laharic tephra.
To evaluate this wet/dry facies hypothesis, we calculate the temporal change in
water vapor density with expansion-from an initial high-pressure, high-temperature
state (denoted by the subscript e in above calculations) to saturated or superheated
steam at atmospheric pressures. This change in water vapor density is further promoted
by the cooling that occurs as surges or flows entrain cold air. From the continuity
equation, we write:

for one dimension (r) in which rg = the water (liquid or gas) density, ve = the
ejecta
- 81 -
velocity, and t = time. The approach taken to solve Eq. (2-15) is analytical to make use
of as much field data as possible. We calculate the first term (the temporal derivative)
on the left side of this equation by using the chain rule to evaluate four related
derivatives. A solution for mass conservation is achieved when the product of these
derivatives is balanced by the value of the second term (the advective derivative) in this
equation.
A numerical procedure was written to calculate the solution for various initial mass
ratios, erupted volumes, and runout conditions. The runout is based on energy line
approximations (Sheridan, 1979; Malin and Sheridan, 1982); initial velocities are
constrained by the collapse height of the erupted column or, in the case of blast
eruptions, the multiphase sound speed of the steam/tephra mixture (Kieffer and
Sturtevant, 1984). The partial derivatives required for the temporal term of Eq. (2-15)
include
[Full Size]
In the expressions of these derivatives, rb and rp = the bulk density of the
pyroclastic flow (or surge) and particle densities, respectively; qp = the particle volume
fraction; the gas density = rg = (rb - qprp )/(1 - qp ); a and vo = the flow acceleration and
initial velocity, respectively; and rr = the radial runout of the flow (rf = the final runout
distance), which is dependent on the flow volume (V). The flow volume is, in turn,
temporally dependent upon ideal behavior of the gas, for which pVg = t = constant; g =
the isentropic exponent that varies with qp (Kieffer and Sturtevant, 1984); and p is
assumed to decrease linearly with time.
Equation (2-16) models the expansion of gas as a function of qp : the gas attains
atmospheric pressure as qp increases to a level at which grains are in continuous
contact (qp = 0.6). Equation (2-17) models the radial increase of qp , as discussed in
Wohletz and Sheridan (1979) and as numerically modeled by Valentine and Wohletz
(1989). The radial runout distance of the flow is given as a function of flow volume in
Eq. (2-18); rb cannot be greater than 1.5 Mg/m
3
. Finally, the flow volume shown in Eq.
(2-19) is an expanded differential form of the ideal gas equation.
The product of [Eqs. (2-13) through (2-16)] can be integrated with time for
solutions converging to equal -*rg ve /* r (note: *rg ve /* r = *rg /rg* r + * ve /ve* r) for
continuity. The results of such an analysis are considered only semiquantitative, but
they provide a conceptual model for water vapor condensation in a pyroclastic flow or
surge. Figure 2.35 illustrates the results for pyroclastic flow deposits of 1 and 10 km
3

volumes. This model has only been field tested qualitatively, and two important
assumptions are implicit in the above analysis: (a) the bulk density of the flow or surge
is always dependent upon the local water (liquid/vapor) density, which ignores
depositional effects, and (b) qp decreases from a minimum near the vent to a maximum
of 0.6 at the distal reaches of the deposit.
- 82 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.35
Conceptual results of condensation calculations, based upon solution of Eqs. (2-16) thro
ugh (2-19),
depict the runout distances of tephra deposits of 1- and 10-km
3
volume from respective
vents of 0.1- and 0.5-km diameter as a function of
Rm . The transitions from dry to wet to laharic
deposits occur at varying distances from the vent, depending on the amount of steam
that cools and condenses within pyroclastic flows and surges.
The preceding discussions have outlined some of the predictions theory provides
for water/magma interaction. Water: magma ratios are strongly tied to the energy of
hydrovolcanic eruptions and are manifested by volcanic landforms, the degree of tephra
dispersal, tephra grain sizes and alteration, and textural features of deposit wetness.
Quantification of these manifestations serves to constrain the thermal energy and water
abundance in a volcanic system. These factors are fundamental criteria for evaluating
the likelihood that a geothermal system has developed within and/or near a volcanic
area. The following discussions illustrate geothermal applications of hydrovolcanic
theory.
Geothermal (mportance of !ydrovolcanism
Field, experimental, and theoretical aspects of hydrovolcanism profoundly influence our
understanding of the development, location, and nature of geothermal reservoirs in
volcanic fields. Tephra stratigraphy, bedform analysis, and grain size and textures are
pertinent geological information that can be interpreted to help determine the
hydrologic conditions in a volcanic field. Detailed petrographic analyses of lithic
constituents in the ejecta can also reveal the nature of the stratigraphic and thermal
regime below a volcano; some examples of geothermal studies in Italy provide excellent
documen-
- 83 -
tation of the ways pyroclastic rocks have been employed to locate hydrothermal
reservoirs. Finally, with knowledge of basement stratigraphy and aquifer locations, the
theory of hydraulic fracture can be developed to show how a secondary permeability
developed in basement rocks allows convection to prolong the transfer of residual
magmatic heat to aquifers.
(ephra Stratigraphy! "eometry and epth of -eservoir -o$.s
The availability of groundwater and its depth have significant influence on the
stratigraphy of hydrovolcanic tephra deposits (Heiken, 1971; Barberi, 1985; Barberi et
al ., 1988). In general, where drilling information has located aquifers in volcanic fields,
the aquifer depth can be correlated to types of volcanic eruptions. Figure 2.36 shows a
hypothetical basin in which the aquifer is shallow or nonexistent at its margins and
located at great depth near the basin's center. Eruptions of basic magma through the
shallow aquifer form monogenetic structures such as single maars or tuff rings; the
aquifer is gradually depleted until eruptions are no longer explosive. The magma then
tends to congeal in the conduit, which eventually stops activity. If magma intersects a
deep aquifer, it interacts with water under greater pressures; this delays the formation
of vapor until the mixture approaches the surface, where it forms frothy ejecta that
erupts in a Plinian fashion. The deep mixing does not deplete the aquifer, so repeated
eruptions can occur before the magma solidifies. The surface expression of such
hydrovolcanism might be a caldera complex with numerous
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.36
An idealized cross section of a basin in which magma has erupted through rocks of varyi
ng
saturation. Where aquifers are shallow, monogenetic landforms such as single maar crat
ers
probably form. However, if the aquifer is deep enough to surround a magma chamber, p
rolonged
interaction between the magma and water produces polygenetic landforms such as cald
eras with
numerous tuff rings and cones. In contrast, at locations where magma erupts without in
teracting
with an aquifer, lava flows and cinder (scoria) cones are the usual volcanic landforms.
- 84 -
tuff rings and tuff cone structures (however, we emphasize the fact that not all calderas
are related to hydrovolcanism). Where erupting magma encounters no groundwater,
activity is confined to lava-flow emplacement and perhaps some Strombolian scoria
cone eruptions.
In shallow hydromagmatic eruptions (interaction within several hundred meters of
the surface), the characteristic eruption shown schematically in Fig. 2.37 develops. The
idealized stratigraphy illustrated in Fig. 2.38 reflects a gradual decrease in the amount
of water interacting with the magma. With initial abundant water supplies
(water:magma ratio >1.0 by mass), hydroclastic eruptions might begin with phreatic
bursts that produce mud slurries, lahars, and peperite deposits. As the eruption
progresses, less water feeds the rising magma (water:magma ratio @ 0.5 to 1.5), and
discrete explosions of wet steam and tephra deposit cool, wet pyroclastic surges. Later
the water:magma ratio reaches levels (water/magma < 0.5) appropriate for very
energetic eruptions of superheated steam and tephra that produce highly inflated, hot
and dry pyroclastic surges capable of depositing sandwave beds. Final eruptions deposit
fallout tephra and lava flows as the water supply is cut off from the magma conduit.
Deep hydromagmatic eruptions (interaction at depths from several hundred meters
to several kilometers) follow a different pattern; the one described here develops a
Plinian eruption sequence. Figure 2.39 depicts a Plinian eruption conduit passing at
depth through an aquifer and displaying a magma fragmentation level that is receding
down the conduit with time. Barberi (1985) hypothesized that in this eruption
water/magma interaction will not begin until the fragmentation level has receded below
the depth of the aquifer and conduit pressure falls to values less than hydrostatic.
Before this stage, overpressure in the conduit is greater than hydrostatic so aquifer
water does not flow into the conduit; however, after the fragmentation level passes
through
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.37
When magma erupts through a shallow aquifer (dots), the aquifer is quickly depleted;
consequently, the eruption becomes dryer in character and forms monogenetic,
maar-tuff ring structures.
- 85 -
the aquifer, pressure in the conduit may fall below hydrostatic and water/magma
interaction will begin. Proof of this hypothesis depends upon whether the aquifer water
is really at hydrostatic pressure and whether the erupting gas-pyroclast mixture above
the fragmentation level has a pressure gradient below hydrostatic.
Delaney (1982) demonstrated that when saturated rocks are heated by nearby
magma, pore pressures increase sufficiently to drive hydrologic flow in the direction of
least resistance (see Table 2.9). In cases where the magma is more permeable than the
aquifer, the heated pore water might be forced into the magma. This hypothesis fits
many observed tephra sequences in areas where information is available from drilling
(Barberi, 1985; Barberi et al ., 1981). Barberi (1985) illustrated his model for deep
water/magma interaction with a series of diagrams that
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.38
This idealized depositional sequence for a shallow hydromagmatic eruption shows tephr
a
deposits of decreasing water abundance; such an eruption may end in solely magmatic
eruptions of pumice, scoria, or lava.
(Adapted from Barberi, 1985.)
- 86 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.39
In deep hydromagmatic eruptions, strong magma interaction with a deep aquifer begins
after
the fragmentation surface recedes down the conduit to the depth of the aquifer. Decrea
sed
gas pressure in the conduit above the fragmentation surface allows pore pressures in th
e aquifer
to drive water into the conduit. At right, the sequence of eruption styles is correlated wit
h
the gradual migration of the fragmentation level (expansion waves) down the conduit.
(Adapted from Barberi, 1985.)

Table 2.9. Pore-Pressure As a Function of Porosity, Permeability, and Temperature at a Depth of 1.0 Km
a

"ermeabilit! (m
2
)

+,
-18
+,
-16
+,
-14
+,
-12

Temperatures (-*
"orosit! (.* /,, +,,, /,, +,,, /,, +,,, /,, +,,,
20 88 - 19 37 3.3 5.6 0.4 0.6
10 58 - 16 23 1.9 3.2 0.2 0.3
5 38 78 9 18 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.2
1 16 23 2.1 3.5 0.2 0.4 <0.1 <0.1
a
Pressures in MPa; dashes indicate pressures in excess of 100 Mpa. From Delaney (1982).
- 87 -
show the progression from a Plinian over-pressured eruption column (Kieffer, 1984a,
1984b) to a pressure-balanced eruption column to a Phreatoplinian eruption phase;
during this process, the fragmentation level in the conduit has receded to the depth of
the aquifer (Fig. 2.40).
Figure 2.41 illustrates the idealized tephra depositional sequence from a deep
hydrovolcanic eruption. Initial tephra deposits are magmatic Plinian pumice falls that
blanket topography. At the intermediate stage, the eruption enters its hydrovolcanic
phase (Phreatoplinian), which is marked by surge and blast deposits filled with lithic
fragments from the aquifer. The final stage is characterized by emplacement of
pyroclastic flows that may show many features similar to those of wet surges (such as
accretionary lapilli). It is possible for the pyroclastic flow stage to be marked by periods
of dry and wet expulsions of tephra that feed the pyroclastic flows, so some parts of the
deposit may show entirely dry products and others may show more influence of
water/magma interaction. An example of such behavior can be interpreted from the
pyroclastic flow and surge deposits of the Laacher See volcano in Germany. The
repeated phreatomagmatic depositional cycles found by Fisher et al . (1983) within the
pyroclastic ejecta at Laacher See are attributed to varying degrees of water/ magma
interaction. The degree of water/ magma interaction in our present interpretation is a
function of the fragmentation level depth in the conduit: when it fluctuates above and
below an aquifer, eruptions cycle between wet and dry.
Pyroclastic rocks can be used to interpret the geometry of aquifer rock units at
depth below a volcanic field, as is depicted in Fig. 2.42. In this hypothetical case, the
aquifer rocks are a potential geothermal reservoir. A crescent-shaped caldera wall is
exposed on one side. The caldera-forming pyroclastic flow shows two major facies: (a) a
coarse-grained tuff with pumiceous and a few lithic fragments in the northern portions
of the outflow sheet, and (b) a fine-grained lithic-rich phreatomagmatic (hydrovolcanic)
tuff in the southern portions of the outflow sheet. Tuff ring and cone vents are found
along part of the caldera wall and along fault trends that extend southeasterly out of the
caldera. In addition, lava flow vents are evident outside the caldera in the outflow
sheet. Using the distribution of hydrovolcanic products, it is possible to infer the
geometry of a saturated basement rock unit. Apparently, the caldera erupted at the
intersection of an east-west fault structure and a northwest-southeast-trending one.
Ring vent eruptions to the north of the fault were dry and dispersed magmatic products
northward; eruptions south of the fault must have involved water from the aquifer to
produce hydrovolcanic eruptions that dispersed phreatomagmatic tephra southward.
The limits of this saturated reservoir rock can be further constrained along the
northwest fault trend between the smaller hydrovolcanic vents and those that extruded
lavas. Examples of such interpretations from the Sabatini and Albani volcanic fields of
Italy are described in the following section.
Summarizing hydrovolcanic eruption sequences and aquifer depths, Fig. 2.43 is a
plot of the water:magma ratio as a function of median tephra grain size. Very fine
grained tephra deposits are an earmark of hydrovolcanic activity; theoretical arguments
supported by field observations have determined that the finest grain sizes correlate to
water:magma rations near 1.0, which are best suited for development of economically
significant hydrothermal systems. Further support for this argument is developed in the
following sections, which discuss such features as country rock fractures and thermal
regimes-information that can be derived from detailed analysis of the lithic fragments
contained in tephra deposits.
- 88 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.40
Sequences of pressure gradients around the conduit for a Plinian eruption involving a de
ep aquifer. (a) Initial
eruptions are highly overpressured at the vent, causing blast conditions that involve bot
h a
supersonic jet with a Mach disk structure (Kieffer, 1984b) and the eruption of ground su
rges.
(b) As the fragmentation level recedes down the conduit, the transition from a choked, s
onic-speed flow
(M +
1) to one at supersonic speed (M > 1) occurs at depth, allowing eruption of a jet near a
tmospheric
pressure and development of a Plinian column that produces fallout deposits. For these f
irst two eruption stages,
conduit pressure (dotted line) is greater than hydrostatic, which precludes the flow of m
uch water from
the aquifer into the conduit. Wherever the conduit pressure is greater than lithostatic, c
onduit erosion will
add lithic fragments from that stratigraphic level to the erupted mixture. (c) When cond
uit pressure falls
below hydrostatic, water from the aquifer mixes with the magma to produce deep-
seated hydrovolcanic
eruptions; abundant lithic fragments from the aquifer rock are emplaced in pyroclastic fl
ows and surges from
a now-collapsing eruption column.
(Adapted from Barberi, 1985.)
- 89 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.41
Idealized stratigraphy of deep hydromagmatic
eruption products, showing transitions from
early magmatic eruption of pumice fallout to
intermediate stages of hydromagmatic eruptions
of surge blasts to dry or wet eruptions of
pyroclastic flows (with accretionary lapilli).
(Adapted from Barberi, 1985.)
Lithi$ E2e$ta! An Important "eothermal &rospe$ting (ool
Lithic ejecta can provide information about the (a) subvolcanic stratigraphy, (b) aquifer
depth and physical properties, (c) aerial extent of the fluid reservoir in a volcanic
region, and (d) chemical and thermal regime of rocks at depth. An in-depth study (for
example, Barberi et al ., 1988) involves the collection of tephra samples, petrographic
microscopic point counts of lithic constituent abundances, comparisons of the
abundances with the stratigraphic position in both the tephra deposit and the regional
rocks, and x-ray analyses of alteration assemblages found in lithic fragments.
Figure 2.44 schematically illustrates a hydrovolcanic eruption upward through a
varied stratigraphic section that consists of three principal rock units. The interaction of
water and magma occurs in aquifer rock unit 2, and subsequent eruptions excavate rock
unit 1. Through analysis of the resulting tephra deposit, depicted in Fig. 2.45, the
basement stratigraphy can be reconstructed. In this case-an eruption sequence that
becomes wetter with time-the lowest tephra units contain mostly lithic fragments from
the upper rock unit (unit 1) because it is excavated as the crater is formed. Later
magmatic pumice-fall units might contain a small percentage of lithic fragments (< 10%
by volume); lithic fragments from the deepest unit (unit 3) are most abundant because
that unit is fractured by magma intrusion. When the hydrovolcanic dry eruption begins,
lithic abundances increase by 5 to 20 vol%; those from the aquifer unit (unit 2) nearly
equal those from the other two stratigraphic units combined. Final, wet eruptions
produce the greatest abundance of lithic fragments (10 to 50 vol%), most of which are
from the aquifer unit.
A good example of the correlation between basement stratigraphy and lithic
fragments comes from geothermal investigations on the island of Nisyros, Greece
(Barberi, 1985). Figure 2.46 shows the eruptive sequence and a correlation between its
lithic constituents and the basement lithology encountered in a geothermal well. The
hydromagmatic phases of the eruption produced dune-bedded pyroclastic surge
deposits in which lithic fragments came from deep, permeable rock units, whereas the
magmatic pumice fall units have lithic fragments from units higher in the basement
stratigraphy in which little permeability was found. In this case, the hydroclastic tephra
provide evidence of permeable rock units at depth. In addition, the lithic constituents of
the hydroclastic units show alteration mineral assemblages that indicate elevated
temperatures existed in the permeable strata.
The thermal regime of basement rocks is also reflected by lithic constituents found
in pyroclastic strata. By careful study of the paragenesis of alteration minerals in lithic
fragments, including stable isotope variations (for example,
18
O and
13
C) and fluid
inclusion analysis (such as Cl-, SO4 , B, NH4 , and SiO2 ), it is possible to surmise not
only the geochemical nature of hydrothermal fluids at depth but also their evolution
with
- 90 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.42
Hydrothermal reservoir geometry (dotted line) inferred from a geological map showing
areas underlain by dry (pumiceous) and wet (phreatomagmatic) volcanic products.
A pyroclastic flow has been erupted from a caldera; it is pumiceous in its northern
regions but lithic-rich and fine-grained in its southern portions. Tuff ring and tuff
cone vents exist within the region underlain by the hydrothermal reservoir, whereas
lava flow vents are outside that region. The caldera lies at the intersection of two fault
systems. The east-west fault system marks the northern boundary of the hydrothermal
reservoir, presumably as an aquitard, and the southeast-northwest-trending fault
apparently localizes the aquifer along its southern extent. Because the caldera straddles
the northern boundary of aquifer rocks, eruptions from its northern side are dry,
whereas those from its southern side are of a phreatomagmatic character.
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.43
Hypothetical water:magma mass ratio (Rm ) as
a function of the near-vent median grain size of
pyroclastic rocks. Where median grain sizes of
tephra are finest (between 0.1 and 1.0 mm),
the inferred water: magma mass ratio is
between 0.3 and 1.0. In this range of Rm ,
the hydrothermal potential-and therefore
the economic significance-is greatest.
- 91 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.44
Sketch of a hydromagmatic eruption through basement stratigraphy consisting of three
rock types:
1 and 3 are of arbitrary lithology, and rock 2, a limestone aquifer where the water/mag
ma interaction
occurs, is thermally metamorphosed near the volcanic conduit. The abundance of lithic f
ragments
carried within the ejecta are shown by rock type. Type 2 is most abundant, because of t
he
explosive fragmentation that occurs in the aquifer. Lithic type 1 is greater than lithic typ
e 3
because it represents near-surface rocks eroded from the conduit walls by
the pressurized mixture of steam and tephra. Lithic type 3 is least abundant
because its deep lithology is little affected by the erosive power of upward migrating ma
gma.
time and thermal regime. In the example from Nisyros (Fig. 2.46), the four zones
of secondary minerals found in the geothermal well include-with increasing depth-
argillic, argillic-phyllitic, phyllitic-propylitic, and propylitic mineral assemblages, the
lowest three of which show up in lithic fragments from the tephra deposit. Figure 2.47
reviews basic hydrothermal alteration facies and equilibrium temperatures represented
by the mineral assemblages that characterize each facies. Secondary mineral
assemblages in volcaniclastic rocks are also good indicators of burial depth (Viereck et
al ., 1982). Glass shards commonly alter during diagenesis to zeolites, feldspars, opal-
ct, and quartz as well as smectite clays and consequently can indicate temperature and
burial depth (Fig. 2.48).
Excellent examples of the use of hydrovolcanic tephra and lithic constituents in
exploration for geothermal reservoirs are provided by studies in the Latium volcanic
province of Italy. This area (shown in Fig. 2.49) includes the Vulsini (Latera) volcanic
complex, Vico volcano, the Sabatini volcanic complex, and the Albani volcanic complex,
all of which exhibit important hydrovolcanic features (De Rita et al ., 1983).
- 92 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.45
An idealized stratigraphic section produced by
the eruption illustrated in Fig. 2.44. The basement
stratigraphy is represented by lithic fragment
abundances that are sensitive to eruption
sequence. Initial, dry pumice eruptions promote
nearly equal abundances of types 1 and 3 as
a result of vent widening and the relatively
large area of contact between the magma
and type 3. Conduit pressure is too great to
allow much cavitation of rock type 2. As
eruptions become hydromagmatic, the
abundance of type 2 increases significantly.
Funiciello et al . (1976) and Funiciello and Parotto (1978) described the correlation
between sedimentary lithic ejecta in pyroclastic deposits of the Albani and Sabatini
regions. Figure 2.50 is a sketch geologic map of the Alban Hills south of Rome. The
dominant feature of this area is the Tuscolano-Artemisio caldera and the distribution of
its phreatomagmatic ejecta, which is mainly to the west of the caldera. In surrounding
areas, the sedimentary basement rock, consisting of Mesozoic to Cenozoic marine rocks,
is exposed and is also represented by lithic fragments in the tephra of the volcanic field.
The abundance of these lithic fragments and the locations of hydrovolcanic vents
allowed Funiciello and Parotto (1978) to reconstruct the substrate below the volcanic
complex (Fig. 2.51). The hydrovolcanic vents are located above a structurally high block
of water-saturated continental shelf and basin rocks. North-northwest faults crossing
this block have contributed to fracture permeability.
A second example from Italy is the Sabatini/Cesano region described by Funiciello
et al . (1976). In the eastern part of the volcanic field, the authors were able to
distinguish both shallow and deep aquifers. In shallow interactions, hydrovolcanic vents
were monogenetic maar craters with a diameter of 1 km or less, whereas deep
interactions produced poorly defined maar structures and complex caldera structures.
These caldera structures appear to represent the coalescence of several maar vents that
eventually collapsed together to form a single caldera. An example of this sequence of
events is the Baccano caldera, whose walls expose hydrovolcanic tephra from numerous
vents (see also Fig. 4.21). Fine tephra, exposed in ridges of phreatomagmatic tephra
agglomerates, have a high chloride and sulfate content that is inherited from the deep
hydrothermal reservoir fluids involved in water/magma interaction. In addition, ejecta
analysis by scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive x-ray
- 93 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.46
An example of lithic stratigraphy determined by correlations with a geothermal well in Ni
syros,
Greece. The eruptive sequence shown is a magmatic-phase pumice fallout on a paleosol
substrate that is overlain by dune- and massive-bedded hydromagmatic tephra capped
by a lava. Lithic fragments from the magmatic-phase deposits correspond to impermeab
le strata
that are logged in the geothermal well, whereas the lithic fragments in the hydromagma
tic-phase
deposits correspond to deeper, increasingly permeable strata. Hydrothermal alteration o
bserved in
the geothermal well increases downward from argillic (A) through argillic-phyllitic (AF),
phyllitic-propylitic (FP), and propylitic (P) to thermally metamorphosed rock (TM).
(Adapted from Barberi, 1985.)
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.47
Review of hydrothermal alteration facies
and characteristic mineral assemblages shown
as a function of depth and temperature.
- 94 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.48
Burial diagenesis of zeolites and clays. (a) This flow diagram shows the development of
authigenic
zeolites (shaded boxes) and silicates from silicic glass during burial diagenesis and meta
morphism.
(b) In this chart of mineral assemblages in a thick section of marine silicic volcaniclastic
rocks,
zones I to IV indicate increasing burial depth. Zone I is characterized by partial alteratio
n of silicic
glass to montmorillonite and opal-A/opal-CT. Zone II shows additions of alkali zeolites f
ormed by
reaction of silicic glass with interstitial water. The transition to Zone III (where alkali zeo
lites are
transformed into analcime, heulandite, and laumontite) occurs at temperatures of 84 to
91C.
The transition to Zone IV (analcime transformed to albite) occurs at temperatures of
120 to 124C and marks a gradation into the thermal metamorphic regime.
(Adapted from lijima, 1978.)
- 95 -
analysis allowed Funiciello et al . to classify secondary mineral paragenesis and
determine the most recent temperature and chemistry of deep reservoir fluids involved
in the hydrovolcanic eruptions. Their schematic geologic map (Fig. 2.52) was created
from lithic ejecta analyses, which show excellent agreement with geophysical studies of
regional gravity, electrical resistivity, and heat flow (Fig. 2.53).
The Funiciello et al . (1976) study constitutes a major step toward the application
of volcanology to geothermal prospecting. They stated that
"As a first approximation, we assume that the surface covered by products of recent phreatomagmatism, rich in
ejecta from the deep sedimentary basement, delimits the minimum dimensions of a potential geothermal field.
As a second approximation, the study of the sedimentary ejecta allows [us] to reconstruct the stratigraphic and
structural characters of the sector where the phreatomagmatism occurred. This [study] makes it possible to
interpret the paleogeographic and tectonic evolution of the area and to fit it within the regional geology."
With respect to thermal regimes, Funiciello et al . (1976) added:
"Furthermore, if a sequence of phreatomagmatic products in several layers is available, the comparative
investigation of the mineralizations in the different layers supplies indicators on the evolution of the
hydrothermal field in the time."
Volcanic !ydrofractures
The concept of hydraulic fracturing (hydrofracture ) was introduced to the petroleum
industry as a technique to increase the fracture permeability of oil and natural gas
reservoirs (Clark, 1949). Because of its successful application in the increasingly
important secondary petroleum recovery from tight formation rocks, Hubbert and Willis
(1957) cited the technique as a major development in petroleum engineering. Although
hydrofracture is historically an artificial means of stimulating a well, there is growing
geological evidence that essentially the same process happens naturally in certain
geologic situations where fluid over-pressures at depth are sufficient to cause either the
widening of preexisting fractures or the failure of rock in the direction of greatest
principal stress. These geologic conditions can occur near sites of magma intrusion and
extrusion. Such a volcanic hydrofracture is geothermally significant where it increases
the effective permeability of host rocks near a heat source and thus allows significant
hydrothermal circulation (Knapp and Knight, 1977; Norton, 1984).
Numerous publications have suggested that hydrofracture occurs naturally during
some magma intrusions in the earth's crust. Fehler (1983), Julian and Simpkin (1985),
Chouet and Julian (1985), and Chouet (1986, 1988) attributed long-period seismic
events and harmonic tremor to fluid-driven fracturing. Foulger and Long (1984)
observed tensile crack formation in geothermal areas of
- 96 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.49
Sketch geological map of the Latium volcanic area in central Italy. The sedimentary bas
ement rocks
consist of the Latium-Abruzzi carbonate platform rocks, the Umbria-Sabina successions
and Tuscan
Nappe, and the allochthonous Liguridi and Subliguridi complexes. The volcanic section in
cludes
acidic and K-alkalic volcanic rock units and the major caldera associations of the Alban
Hills,
Sabatini, Vico, and Vulsini areas. Widespread hydrovolcanic units are found in each of
these caldera areas.
(Adapted from De Rita et al ., 1983.)
- 97 -
Iceland, and West et al . (1978) attributed ground tilt around La Soufrire de
Guadeloupe in 1976 to hydrofracturing by pressurized phreatic fluids. Leet (1988)
modeled harmonic tremor caused by the hydrothermal boiling-a source mechanism
that does not require movement of magma. Thus, some geophysical evidence strongly
supports the concept of volcanic hydrofracture.
(heoreti$al Ba$.ground
Hubbert and Willis (1957) discussed the mechanism of hydraulic fracture and
emphasized the importance of regional stress. Failure that results in faulting occurs at a
critical relationship between the greatest and least principal stresses (s1 and s3 ,
respectively), where
[Full Size]
s is the normal stress and ts is the shear stress acting across a plane perpendicular
to the s1 and s3 planes at some angle a s to s 3 . Using a Mohr diagram, one can then
determine a combination of s and ts at which failure occurs. Mohr envelopes of rock
failure (Jaeger and Cook, 1976), given by ts /s = tan ff , where ff = the internal angle of
friction, must be experimentally determined; however, at lower pressures, brittle failure
envelopes are approximated by

where t o = the zero normal-stress shearing strength of the rock. Where rock pores
are occupied by fluids, the effective normal stress (s eff ) is decreased so that seff = s - pp
, where pp = the pore-fluid pressure. Hubbert and Willis (1957) noted that under normal
hydrostatic conditions the effective vertical stress (sz ) is slightly more than one-half the
overburden pressure (Sz = r gh). In regions experiencing normal faulting, s 1 is nearly
vertical and equal to sz ; s3 is horizontal and probably between one-half and one-third sz
(s3 = n /(1-n ), where n = Poisson's ratio for rock. On the other hand, in compressed
regions that are characterized by thrust faulting and folding, s3 is vertical and equal to sz
; s1 is horizontal and between two and three times sz . Hydraulic fractures generally
propagate in the direction of greatest principal stress. Horizontally oriented fractures will
form only where the fluid injection pressure (ppi ) is greater than the effective vertical
stress (sz ); vertical hydrofractures can form in regions of extension where ppi@ (Sz +
2pp )/3.
Zoback et al . (1977) conducted laboratory experiments on hydraulic fracturing of
rocks to find the breakdown pressure (pb ) of various rocks:

The tensile strength of rock (Ts ) should equal pb - 2s3 for nonporous rocks, but in
fact, pb must be corrected for viscous hydrodynamic losses controlled by pressurization,
flow, and leakage rates (along preexisting fractures). For example, Zoback et al .
measured pb in triaxial experiments that ranged from 27 to 54 MPa for gabbros and 20
to 34 MPa for
- 98 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.50
Sketch geologic map of the Alban Hills volcanic group and the Tuscolano-Artemisio calde
ra.
The oldest volcanic rocks are associated with a composite cone, dated at 0.5 to 0.7 Ma,
which
overlies upper Pliocene to Recent sedimentary rocks, Mesozoic and Cenozoic shelf-to-
basin
successions, and Mesozoic shelf-edge facies rocks. Of major interest to geothermal studi
es
are the phreatic craters and ejecta (peperini), which contain lithic fragments that
reveal the basement structure. The youngest volcanic rocks are lavas and
pyroclastic rocks in the caldera center, dated at 0.28 Ma.
(Adapted from Funiciello et al ., 1976.)
- 99 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.51
Alban Hills sedimentary basement geology was reconstructed from the distribution of se
dimentary
lithic fragments observed in hydroclastic tephra. This reconstruction was useful in siting
geothermal
exploration wells, which located a permeable, saturated rock strata that could contain a
hydrothermal
system. Numbers refer to volcanic centers: (1) Procula-Pomezia, (2) Ciampino, (3) Alba
no, (4) Nemi,
(5) Vivaro, (6) Doganella, (7) Valle Marciana, (8) Prata Porci, (9) Gabi, and (10) Campid
oglio.
(Adapted from Funiciello et al ., 1976.)
- 100 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.52
Schematic of Sabatini basement geology reconstructed from distribution of lithic fragme
nts in
hydroclastic ejecta. The map shows a northwest-southwest-trending horst (outlined by s
trike and
dip symbols) of Triassic flysch bounded on both sides by Miocene sedimentary rocks.
(Adapted from Funiciello et al ., 1976.)
sandstones when the pressurization rate was varied from 0.2 to 3 MPa/s,
respectively. For the sandstones, pb increased to a range of 33 to 55 MPa when the rock
was prefractured, which demonstrated the effect of fracture leaks. In all cases, fracture
initiation pressures, which were measured at the onset of rock acoustic emissions, were
less than pb (Fig. 2.54).
Howard and Fast (1970) reviewed other theories of hydraulic fracture and the
results of oil-field studies, including the effects of fluid viscosity and pressure,
pressurization time, and injection rate on the fracture width and area around well bores
(Figs. 2.55 and 2.56). Solid materials such as sand and organic materials-called
proppants -are added to fracturing fluids to increase viscosity and to hold fractures
open. By tunneling into fractured areas, Warpinski et al . (1981) observed the effects of
proppants on hydrofractures. Contrary to theory, the fractures were neither restricted
nor terminated by rock interfaces, even where Young's modulus varied by a factor of 15
for a rock contact. However, fractures did propagate away from regions of high in"situ
stress such as layers of tuff that were more highly compacted and altered. When
different colors of sand proppants were used in sequences of hydraulic fractures, some
fractures showed bedding and cross stratification. Kern et al . (1958) experimented with
the movement of sand as a proppant in fractures. They found that beds are formed as
sand accumulates by cohesion on the fracture surfaces. The nature of the bedding
depends on the changes in fluid velocity with time, in a manner similar to that of
- 101 -
sedimentation in flume studies. Bedding sets at various orientations to the fracture wall
are evidence of multiple pulses of fluid. These observations have been supported by
geological studies of intrusive fracture fillings (Heiken et al ., 1988) and pyroclastic
dikes (Curtis, 1954).
Knapp and Knight (1977) considered the effect of a temperature rise in saturated,
porous rock around a hot pluton. Pore fluids change volume with varying temperature
and pressure:

where a = the isobaric coefficient of thermal expansion and b = the isothermal
coefficient of compressibility. Because the a for fluids is much greater than the a for
rocks, these authors studied the effects of differential thermal expansion between pore
fluids and enclosing rocks. For pores of fixed volume, the derivative of fluid pressure
with respect to temperature is

a /b , termed the pressure coefficient , ranges between 1 and 3 MPa/C for water
in the earth's crust; it reaches a maximum at temperatures between 100 and 300C at
lithostatic pressures <800 MPa (Fig. 2.57). By plotting pore fluid pressure vs depth for
various geothermal gradients (Fig. 2.58), one finds that seff may fall to values less than
zero; fracturing of rock is expected if seff is less than the tensile strength of rock [from
Eq. (2-23)]. In regions near a cooling intrusion, a zero effective pressure front will
propagate away from the intrusion, which results in fracture of the host rock, increased
rock permeability, and increased convective heat transport. This zone of fracturing and
strong convection moves upward because of buoyancy forces, as was explained by
Williams (1936) and McBirney (1959; 1963) for occurrences of breccias and tuff-
breccias in and around volcanic necks and intrusions. Knapp and Knight (1977) used
this
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.53
Geophysical structure of the Sabatini area is
reflected by heat flow, gravity, and electrical
resistivity maps (Baldi et al ., 1975). These maps
demonstrate similar structural interpretations,
which support those obtained by studying
the lithic ejecta (Fig. 2.52).
(Adapted from Funiciello et al ., 1976.)
- 102 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.54
Graph of pressure vs time for sample deformation
measurements during triaxial loading experiments
in which rock specimens were hydraulically
fractured. Sample deformation and acoustic
emission activity begins when the borehole
pressure reaches pi , the initial fracture pressure;
sample breakdown occurs when the borehole
pressure reaches pb . Acoustic emissions in
fluids correspond to the seismicity typical
during hydraulic fracturing events in the earth.
(Adapted from Zoback et al ., 1977.)
model to show how thermally induced hydraulic fracturing can produce micro-
earthquakes-a characteristic feature of geothermal areas and active volcanoes.
Norton (1984), in his theory of hydrothermal systems and related rock fracturing,
showed how variations in the transport properties of water can result in apparent
discontinuities in the physical state of convection and secondary mineral deposition. For
example, in Fig. 2.59, rapid changes are visible in the water's heat capacity, kinematic
viscosity, and coefficient of thermal expansion near its critical point. Heating at this
range of temperatures might result in (a) rapid solution and precipitation of various
minerals, (b) oscillations in fluid heat and mass transport, and (c) rapid rock failure.
Where hydrofractures occur around intrusions, as described in the theory above,
convective heat transfer is augmented by the fracturing. If the fracturing front
propagates away from the intrusion with time, convective hydrothermal systems
manifested at or near the earth's surface may not indicate hotter, more active systems
at depth. As we pointed out earlier in our discussion of heat flow, it is not possible to
project to depth with confidence the thermal gradients affected by convection. Norton
(1984) pointed out that behind the fracturing front/convective zone, which migrates
away from the intrusion, thermal decline is accompanied by secondary mineral
deposition that seals fractures. As a result of these hydrothermal processes, the last
vestige of hydrothermal activity is close to the earth's surface and there is only minor
activity near the intrusion.
The above discussions about pore-water pressurization and heating around an
intrusion cover the long-term effects of rock fracture and subsequent development of a
hydrothermal system. In contrast, when Delaney (1982) modeled the short-term effects
of heat transfer to porous saturated rock, he found that pore water is not heated along
a constant-volume pressure path because water diffuses more rapidly than heat does.
He tabulated solutions for pore-pressure increases as a function of porosity and
permeability. He also considered situations in which magma intrudes into near-surface
rocks (Table 2.9); phase transitions from water to steam generally occur, the pressure
increases exceed lithostatic pressure, and host rock failure is likely. Figure 2.60 depicts
a case in which the magma is more permeable than the host rock. Where the magma
volatile overpressure is low, the pressure gradient near the intrusion is negative and
water mixes into the magma-a situation that leads to intrusion brecciation and
hydrovolcanism.
- 103 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.55
Graph of fracture area vs fluid viscosity
predicted for an assumed set of reservoir and
hydraulic fracturing conditions, where
permeability (! ) = 10 mD, porosity (fp ) = 20%,
pumping rate (Qf ) = 25 BPM, total
volume = 20,000 gal. @ 75.7 m
3
, fracture
clearance (W) = 0.2 in. (+ 5.1 mm). Two curves
show the effects of differential pressures (D p) of
1000 psi (Curve 1) and 500 psi (Curve 2). The
fracturing fluid coefficient (Cf ) is the fluid's
temporal variation in velocity divided by the
square root of time and is a function of viscosity
and relative permeability. The use of English
units is common to petroleum literature.
(Adapted from Howard and Fast, 1970.)
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.56
Effect of pumping rate and fracturing fluid coefficient (Cf ), as defined in Fig. 2.55, on fr
acture
radius. Solid curves show observed fracture radius at volume fluxes of 2.5 and 25.0 BP
M
(0.0066 m
3
/s and 0.066 m
3
/s, respectively). Dashed curves show the percentage of fluid volume
lost to the formation. Fracturing conditions are constant for total volume of 20,000 gal.
(75.7 m
3
)
and fracture clearance (W) of 0.2 in. (5.1 mm).
(Adapted from Howard and Fast, 1970.)
- 104 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.57
Plots of pressure coefficient [a /b = (dp/dt)v ]
(a) over a range of water temperatures and
pressures and (b) as a function of geothermal
gradients and depth. The in (a) denotes
the critical point of water and its attached
line going to lower temperatures is the two-
phase boundary curve. In (b) an + marks the
depths at which the critical value of a /b is
reached and where effective pressure vanishes.
(Adapted from Knapp and Knight, 1977.)
In addition to brecciation and rock fracture, surface ground tilt is a well-
documented phenomena in hydrofractured well bores. Studying the size of hydraulic
fractures, Sun (1969) showed the relationship between surface uplift and the thickness
of a grout sheet that was injected into a horizontal hydraulic fracture at depth around a
well bore (Fig. 2.61). Pollard et al . (1983) examined surface deformation above near-
surface intrusions and modeled the rock displacement. In Fig. 2.62, their model is
compared to measured data from the Kilauea rift zone in Hawaii. The topographic
expression of magma injected as dikes at depth is a surface uplift with an axial
depression. Calculated contours of maximum principal stress around a buried dike (Fig.
2.63) show that the regional stress field is perturbed in such a way that s1 is
horizontally directed near the sides of the dike. This prediction explains why
hydrofractures can extend horizontally from some intrusions even though the regional s1
is vertical.
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.58
Pore-fluid pressure vs depth for several
geothermal gradients; the lithostatic pressure
gradient for a rock density of 2.75 Mg/m
3
is
indicated by the dashed line.
(Adapted from Knapp and Knight, 1977.)
- 105 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.59
Variation of physical properties of water at (a) 30 MPa (300 Bars) and (b) 60 MPa (600
Bars) pressure
as a function of temperature; sharp inflections and discontinuities appear near critical te
mperatures.
Vertical axis is nondimensional; units of measure are shown for each curve. Cp
= heat capacity at
constant pressure, = kinematic viscosity, a = isobaric coefficient of expansion, b
= isothermal
coefficient of compressibility, and a /b = pressure coefficient [(dp/dt)v ].
(Adapted from Norton, 1984.)
Si3e of +ydrauli$ Fra$tures
Using the assumption that rocks deform as linear elastic bodies, several theories have
evolved for predicting the width and length of hydraulic fractures. Figure 2.64 is a
schematic representation of a hydrofracture propagating from a fluid reservoir such as a
well bore or a magma body. Two important aspects of fracture calculations are (a) the
pressure required to overcome rock compressive stresses and rock strength and (b) the
pressure losses resulting from viscous fluid flow in the fracture.
Geertsma and Haafkens (1979) calculated a simple relationship of fracture size
[width (W) and length (L)] from fracturing fluid pressure (ppi ), based on the theory of
England and Green (1963):

for which W is a function of distance (x), the point where the fracture narrows into
a tip at a distance L [L - x = the length of the fracture tip; a measure of fracture tip
asperity is included in the last term on the right-hand
- 106 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.60
Solutions to transient heat flow from magma to wet sediments. Top: Illustration of fluid
flow lines
(arrows) as well as thermal, pore pressure, and water density gradients for (a) a short-
term thermal
pressurization flow that occurs shortly after initiation of heat transfer (a); and (b) a long
-term
buoyancy flow that occurs when pressure gradients caused by gravitational forces are d
ominant.
Bottom: (c) pressure; and (d) normalized pressure gradients for three possible boundar
y conditions
between the magma and the host rock. p = pressure, p,
= pressure at infinite distance,
pi = initial pressure, am = magnitude of thermal expansion, Dd
= ratio of penetration depths for
thermal (!t ) to hydraulic (w ) diffusivities, h = Boltzmann variable, and x = distance.
(Adapted from Delaney, 1982.)
- 107 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.61
Map and cross section showing vertical and aerial extent of experimental hydrofracture
around well
bore. (a) Plot shows surveyed data and curve calculated by Sun (1969). = survey poi
nts along
northwest-southeast traverse, = points along west-northwest traverse, and

= northeast-
southwest traverse. (b) Plan view of surface uplift shows contours in millimeters (dashe
d lines),
the extent of grout sheet injected during hydrofracturing (solid line, survey traverse poi
nts ( ),
and core hole locations ( ).
(Adapted from Sun, 1969.)
- 108 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.62
Calculated and measured surface deformation over buried dikes on Kilauea summit and
southwest
zone. (a) Data ( ) with fitted dashed curve for rifting event of August 10, 1981 is com
pared to
results of theoretical vertical uplift. (b) Plot of theoretical horizontal stress vs distance
shows regions of compression and tension. (c) Data from Duffield et al. (1976) for intru
sive
event of May 15-16, 1970, showing measured stations (
) and contour extrapolations ( ), which
are projected on a trend of N37W (solid line). Duffield calculated that the intruded
dike is 3000 m long, 0.8 m thick, 400 m high, and 400 m below the Earth's surface.
(Adapted from Pollard et al ., 1983.)
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.63
Calculated contours of maximum principal
stress around a vertical dike that cuts a vertical
plane. The dike is 100 m high and its center is
at -75 m; it is subjected to a driving pressure
of 1 MPa under a lithostatic gradient of
0.025 MPa/m intrusion. Dashed curves are
trajectories of minimum principal stress along
which secondary fracturing might occur. At
depth, hydrofractures extending out from the
dike would propagate perpendicular to
the principal stress contours.
(Adapted from Pollard et al ., 1983.)
- 109 -
side of Eq. (2-26)]. v = Poisson's ratio; s = the shear modulus; and D p = ppi - seff .
Although this formulation is designed for vertical fractures, it also applies to horizontal
fractures where s1 is horizontally directed. However, this solution does not account for
viscous losses of fluid flow in the fracture and fluid losses to the host rock-problems
that require complex treatments and yield relatively small dimensional differences.
Sun (1969) solved for fracture dimensions by calculating ground surface uplift
caused by hydraulically induced fractures around well bores. By assuming a thin, disk-
shaped fracture and an equilibrium distribution of stresses and displacements in a semi-
infinite medium, he built on Green's (1949) analysis of fracturing in an infinite medium.
Using an image method to represent the boundary conditions at the free (ground)
surface, Sun (1969) calculated displacements-and therefore, fracture dimensions-
from general equations of equilibrium for an isotropic elastic body (Love, 1939). The
resulting solutions for the relationships among fracture dimensions, fluid pressure, and
host rock elastic properties are
[Full Size]
In these equations, E = Young's modulus; v = Poisson's ratio; and Q = the fracture
volume. In the analysis of fracture volumes, four unknowns (pf , x, L, and Q) can be
found by simultaneous solution of Eqs. (2-26) through (2-29), providing one can obtain
the host rock properties and depth at which fractures are found (h).
Spence and Turcotte (1985) provided a more rigorous solution to a fluid-driven
fracture. They considered fracture of an elastic medium, which is sensitive to the critical
stress intensity at the fracture tip, as well as viscous losses of fluid flow in the fracture
(approximated by lubrication theory), where the fluid viscosity is sufficiently large and
the flow is laminar (Schlicting, 1979). The spatial and temporal fluid pressure
distribution pf (x,t) must be such that the faces of the fracture close smoothly at its tip
(Barenblatt, 1962):
[Full Size]
where s = the shear modulus; v = Poisson's ratio; Wh = the crack half-thickness;
s = a point on the crack surface a small distance from the crack's end; and = a
measure of the crack length. Assuming the elastic theory of crack propagation, ppi
increases towards the fracture tip, where it must equal the fracture resistance of the
rock; this calculation requires specification of the stress intensity factor (Ki ) (Irwin,
1957):

Stress intensity factors have been tabulated for various rocks (for example, Clifton
et al ., 1976, and Schmidt and Huddle, 1977). Combining expressions for fluid flux and
mass conservation produces the Reynold's equation for flow in the crack:

where = the fluid viscosity. Spence and Sharp (1983) found solutions by using a
numerical similarity technique to model the combined effects of elastic behavior and
fluid flux. Spence and Turcotte (1985) found two sets of solutions, depending upon
whether a nondimensional stress intensity factor (gk ) is large or small:

where Qf (the fluid volume flux) is expressed for two dimensions rather than three.
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[Full Size]
Fig. 2.64
Schematic illustration of a hydrofracture includes dimensions important to hydrofracture
calculations:
depth in well bore (h), well-bore radius (
rw ), fracture width as function of distance and time
[W(x,t)], fracturing fluid velocity (vx ), and total length of fracture (L).
(Adapted from Geertsma and Haafkens, 1979.)
Figure 2.65 illustrates the fracture-tip asperity as required by specification of gk .
Large gk corresponds to situations in which the rock's fracture resistance is large
compared to the viscous resistance to fluid flow-as it is in the case of a wide elliptical
crack profile. Small gk is generally applicable to geologic systems in which the fracture
resistance is negligible compared to viscous resistances-as is the case if viscous fluids
are forced through a narrow crack with a sharp tip that can easily split the rock. The
solutions for this latter situation, in which Af expresses the two-dimensional, fracture-
fluid flux, are

- 111 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.65
Fracture tip asperity as a function of the
nondimensional stress intensity factor (gk )
depends on whether fracture resistance of the
host rock is large (gk >> 1) or small (gk <<1)
compared to viscous resistance of fluid flow
(Spence and Turcotte, 1985).
[Full Size]
Results obtained by using the above equation set show good agreement with those
obtained from Eqs. (2-26) through (2-29).
Field E1amples
The relationships between hydrofracture features discussed above have been used to
interpret tephra-filled fractures surrounding a buried dike that was cored near Obsidian
Dome in California (Heiken et al ., 1988). Hulen and Nielson (1988) studied
hydrothermal brecciation encountered in a well that was cored on the southern margin
of the Valles caldera in New Mexico. These examples illustrate two different approaches
to understanding volcanic/hydrothermal fracturing.
The Inyo Domes are a recent chain of rhyolitic tuff rings, phreatic pits, and domes
on the edge of Long Valley caldera in eastern California (Miller, 1985). The US
Continental Scientific Drilling Program explored the possibility that two of the domes,
Obsidian Dome and Glass Creek flow, are connected by a buried dike. In addition to
proving the dike hypothesis, the core hole intersected several sets of fractures
containing juvenile magmatic fragments at various lateral distances up to 130 m from
the dike (Figs. 2.66 and 2.67). The fractures, found in quartz monzonitic country rock,
were filled with as much as 20% poorly vesiculated, rhyolitic shards, most of which
were <1 mm in diameter. The rest of the fillings were mineral clasts and fragments of
the quartz monzonite. The fractures ranged in width from millimeters to 8 cm; 0.4 cm
was the average width. The ubiquitous cross bedding of clasts, the likelihood of
preexisting sheet fractures, and similarly filled fractures found in bedded basalt
intersected by a core hole under Obsidian Dome suggest that these fractures are
horizontally oriented (Fig. 2.68).
Heiken et al . (1988) used the analysis of a stress field around a dike (Fig. 2.63),
as presented by Pollard et al . (1983), and Eqs. (2-26) through (2-36) to calculate
hydrofracture conditions at Obsidian Dome (Fig. 2.69). The calculated overpressures of
5 to 10 MPa and fluid viscosities of 0.20 to 0.8 Pa-s correlate with either
phreatomagmatic or magmatic fragmentations that produce slurries of steam, water,
and solid-particle mixtures. The overall blocky, poorly vesicular textures of the
pyroclasts, their dominantly rhyolitic composition, and surface alteration features
strongly support the phreatomagmatic origin: late-stage phreatomagmatic eruptions
that preceded dome lava extrusion.
Hulen and Nielson (1988) found breccias at a depth of 826 to 856 m in VC-1 core
hole, which is located along the intersection of the Jemez fault zone and the ring-
fracture zone of the Valles caldera. The tectonic
- 112 -
breccias are contorted, crushed, and sheared, unlike the hydrothermal breccias, which
lack frictional textures but show matrix flow foliation and clast rounding-features
characteristic of fluidization (Wolfe, 1980; Kents, 1964)-as well as intense alteration.
Evidence of five stages of secondary mineral paragenesis to a quartz-illite-phengite-
pyrite assemblage (typical of temperatures in excess of 200C) and a fluid inclusion
homogenization temperature of 189 to 283C were used to model the hydrothermal
brecciation.
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.66
Map of Obsidian Dome scientific drilling project.
Rhyolite lava domes of Obsidian Dome and
Glass Creek Flow are shown in shaded pattern;
lava flow front scarps are designated by
hachured line. The dashed line connecting the
two lava domes is the projection of the dike
found by drilling to pass at depth between
the domes. Core samples and hydrofracture
calculations discussed in the text are for the
(1) dike core hole that is located between the
two domes and slanted down to intersect the
dike at depth, and (2) the conduit core hole
that is slanted down to intersect below
Obsidian Dome's central depression.
(Adapted from Heiken et al ., 1988.)
An extensional state of stress can be inferred for the formation of the VC-1 core
hole breccias found along the well-studied Jemez fault zone (Aldrich and Laughlin,
1984; Dey and Kranz, 1988). Hydraulic rupture in such a case is expected where pp
exceeds s3 by an amount equal to the rock's tensile strength, as was discussed earlier.
Hubbert and Willis (1957) show that this situation can be approximated by

Assuming that ph (hydrostatic pressure) approximates that of the boiling point at
depth and that pp = pb (the formation break-down pressure), Hulen and Nielson (1988)
estimated pb at 7.5 MPa, which is similar to the fluid injection pressure (ppi ) used in the
hot dry rock hydraulic fracturing experiments recently conducted at nearby Fenton Hill
(Murphy et al ., 1983). Figure 2.70 shows the results of this model in a plot of depth vs
temperature for boiling under hydrostatic and lithostatic loads; this plot also contains
the homogenization temperature of fluid inclusions. Either fluid temperature increases
or a transient confining pressure decrease during fault movement might cause fluids to
reach pb .
Summary! #ol$anologi$al Interpretation
Several different but naturally related processes might stimulate fracturing of potential
geothermal reservoir rocks: (a) magma intrusion, (b) hydrothermal circulation, (c)
magma degassing, and (d) hydrovolcanic processes. For the hydrovolcanic
(phreatomagmatic) case, the series of schematic illustrations in Fig. 2.71 depicts the
formation of a hypothetical fractured geothermal reservoir underneath a volcano.
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[Full Size]
Fig. 2.67
Cross section of dike and conduit core holes showing natural hydrofractures as wavy hor
izontal lines at depths of 300 to 500 m.
(Adapted from Heiken et al ., 1988.)
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[Full Size]
Fig. 2.68
These sketches of cores containing clastic fracture fillings were made by mapping core s
urfaces on velum wrapped around
the core.(a) Orientation of core segments taken 5 and 1 m west of the conduit that was
intersected by the conduit core hole.
The gray, cross- and convolute-bedding fillings range in thickness from 7 to 40 cm. Of t
he two possible orientations shown,
the lower of each set best fits the bedding texture. (b) Core maps showing fracture fill,
host quartz monzonite, obsidian clasts, and void space.
(Adapted from Heiken et al ., 1988.)
- 115 -
This scenario combines aspects of all four processes listed above. The initial intrusion of
a gas-rich magma moves upward along a fracture, opening the fracture with its fluid-
rich top. This slow mechanism of crack propagation (termed "stress corrosion" by
Anderson and Grew, 1977) is related to rock breakdown by the corrosive crack-tip fluids
and rapidly varying pressure brought on by nucleate boiling along the crack walls. At
some point, degassing of the magma might drive a hydrofracture into near-surface,
poorly competent aquifer strata. The initial Plinian eruptions are driven by exsolving
gases under high pressure. With increased fracturing, the aquifer rock fails
catastrophically and allows water to mix with the magma, which results in dry
phreatomagmatic eruptions. The eruptions gradually become wetter as more water is
supplied by the increasingly fractured aquifer. At some stage, the extrusion of magma
ceases-perhaps in response to chilling by the aquifer. By this time, hydrothermal
circulation is well developed, and fluid from the aquifer continues to transfer heat from
the intrusion below the volcano.
The geothermal potential of such a system has only been tested in a few areas (for
example, Funiciello et al ., 1976; Barberi, 1985), and its overall importance depends
upon a number of geologic controls:
age and size of the subvolcanic intrusion,
presence of a sufficient aquifer,
porosity and permeability of basement rocks,
fracture strength of basement rocks,
tectonic regime and location of preexisting fracture systems, and
clay content of host rocks and the degree of hydrothermal alteration.
In conclusion, we offer the simple model illustrated in Fig. 2.71 as an example of
one of several different volcanic processes that develop fracture permeability in
basement rocks and promote hydrothermal circulation.
- 116 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.69
Solutions for hydrofracture at Obsidian Dome, illustrating a model for volcanic hydraulic
fracturing.
(a) Hypothetical contours of maximum principal stress (Pollard
et al ., 1983; see Fig. 2.63) indicate
the horizontal propagation of hydrofractures from the dike as they intrude into the gran
odiorite
(quartz monzonite) host rock. (b) Calculated values of fluid overpressure required to for
m
hydrofractures as a function of depth for the upper and lower set of fractures observed i
n the dike
core hole. (c) Calculated fracture dimensions and average observed fracture widths for s
everal
different depths. (d) Calculated fluid viscosities required to form the observed fractures.
(e) Calculated fracture formation velocities. Fracturing may have occurred in spurts, cau
sing the
fractures to propagate several meters at a time.
- 117 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.70
Hydrothermal brecciation model of Hulen and Nielson (1988). This depth vs
temperature plot shows
the boiling point curves under hydrostatic (ph ) and lithostatic (pl)
pressure, as well as that
required for hydrofracture (pb ). For hydrofracturing that begins at 515 m, path AB follo
ws
pressure buildup and subsequent fracturing as a response to increased temperature; pa
th AC
represents hydraulic rock rupture in response to a rapid pressure release.
- 118 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 2.71
Schematic sequence illustrating the six-phase development of a fractured geothermal re
servoir under a phreatomagmatic volcano.
Phases 1 through 3 are hypothesized from the studies of Obsidian Dome discussed in th
e text (Heiken et al ., 1988).
Phases 4 and 5 reflect the findings of Barberi (1985) for phreatomagmatic eruptions thr
ough a deep aquifer;
the tephra deposits record increasing water interaction as the eruption progresses, pres
umably as a response to the
increased fracture permeability of aquifer rocks induced by hydrofracturing. Phase 6 illu
strates posteruptive
cooling of magma intruded below the volcano. Hydrothermal circulation in the aquifer ar
ound the intrusion,
greatly enhanced by the magma-induced hydrofracturing, may develop a geothermal re
servoir.
Chapter &
%urface 'anifestations of #eother$al %yste$s
[Full Size]
The surface manifestations of a geothermal system in a volcanic area are generally
the features that first stimulate exploration. Consequently, the recognition, mapping,
and evaluation of these features are important in the second stage or prefeasibility
study, during which the geothermal potential is evaluated. The prefeasibility stage also
involves sampling fluids and gases to be studied by hydrogeochemical techniques that
help estimate the temperatures and compositions of hydrothermal reservoir fluids.
The most obvious expression of a geothermal reservoir occurs when fluids leak to
the surface along faults and fissures or through permeable rock units. Depending on the
reservoir temperatures and discharge rates, these surface manifestations take the form
of seeps, fumaroles, hot springs, boiling springs, geysers, phreatic explosion craters,
and zones of acid alteration. In addition, there are deposits of silica sinter, travertine,
and/or the bedded breccias that surround phreatic craters. In this chapter, we describe
the most common geothermal features seen in hot-water systems and vapor-dominated
systems; Appendix A presents in detail the methods for mapping these features.
Hot springs are the most visible manifestation of hot-water geothermal systems
that transfer heat to the ground surface (White, 1973). Some spring groups directly
overlie a geothermal system and therefore may be used to locate drilling sites.
However, springs may also discharge at the surface after flowing many kilometers down
gradient from a hydrothermal reservoir; such outflow plumes can be misleading-they
have a finite thickness, perhaps 0.5 to 1.0 km, and they overlie colder groundwater.
Drillholes that penetrate these hot-water plumes show an increasing temperature
- 120 -
with depth in the upper part and then a rapid temperature decline at the bottom.
Chemical analyses of spring waters, considered along with the volcanic structure
and hydrologic regime, will provide the data needed to interpret the degree of mixing
between cold groundwater and an outflow hot water plume from a geothermal reservoir
(Ellis and Mahon, 1977; Goff and Shevenell, 1987). Hot springs can act as an excellent
guide for geothermal drilling if (a) the water analyses indicate there is minimal mixing
with cold groundwater and (b) the geologic structures (for example, a crater) imply that
the hot springs overlie a thermal source and maximum reservoir temperatures can
eventually be reached through drilling.
Reservoir temperatures for hot-water systems show a considerable range: <90C
(low temperature), 90 to 150C (intermediate temperature), and 150 to 240C (high
temperature) (White and Williams, 1975). The temperature of a hot spring will not
exceed that of the boiling temperature of water at the altitude of that spring. The
salinity of hot water systems can range from 0.1 to 3% (Renner et al ., 1975).
Vapor-dominated reservoirs-generally more than 85% steam-are ideal
geothermal resources but, unfortunately, they are less numerous than hot-water
systems (Truesdell and White, 1973; Ingebritsen and Sorey, 1988). Although such
systems have been developed in many parts of the world (for example, the Geysers
geothermal area of California), little is known about what lies under them; one known
possibility is high-chloride brine. Usually these reservoirs occur where there is very high
heat flow but low water recharge.
Near-surface gases from vapor-dominated reservoirs condense to form acids,
which leach rocks in the spring area. These areas are characterized by bleached rock,
acid-sulfate springs, and no chloride waters; acid springs may be accompanied by
mudpots, geysers, and fumaroles (Renner et al ., 1975).
!ot "prings and Geysers
Very few hot springs on this planet have not been developed in some way. As spas, hot
springs have offered comfort to mankind throughout the millennia; as an alternate
energy source, hot springs are increasingly being considered for more practical uses.
Hot springs range in size from seeps that produce barely enough hot water for bathing a
few individuals to the awesome thermal areas of Yellowstone and the North Island of
New Zealand, where hot water and steam are used for heating domestic buildings,
heating greenhouses, and generating electricity.
Employed in geothermal exploration, hot springs provide a useful glimpse of the
buried reservoir of hot water and/or steam. The thermal energy output (Et ) from a
spring or group of springs can be calculated as noted by Goff et al . (1987):

where Vf = the volume fraction of geothermal water downstream from the hot
springs (if all water issuing from a spring group is from hot springs, Vf = 1); Cpw@ 4.2
MJ/m
3
or 4.2 kJ/l; Hr = the enthalpy of reservoir fluid; Tf = temperature (C) of the hot
springs; Ha = the enthalpy of water at ambient temperature; and Ta = ambient
temperature. If cold spring water is mixed with geothermal fluids, one must know the
chemistry of those waters to estimate the percentage of geothermal fluids. [For
hydrogeochemical analysis and interpretation, see, for example, Henley et al . (1983) or
Ellis and Mahon (1977).]
Although they are geologically rare manifestations of geothermal systems, geysers
are spectacular. In his book on geysers and geothermal energy, Rinehart (1980) points
out that a geyser is essentially a hot spring that periodically becomes hydrodynamically
and thermodynamically unstable. These features have traditionally been classified as
- 121 -
either (a) fountain or pool geysers of hot water from which blobs of superheated water
suddenly rise to the surface and explosively flash or (b) column or cone geysers that
form cones or protuberances of silicic sinter above narrow subsurface tubes; these
tubes are filled with water that periodically flashes to steam and emptying the tubes,
which are later refilled.
Similar in mechanism to several types of hydrothermal eruptions, column or cone
geysers are distinct because of their cyclic behavior. Only a rare set of hydrothermal
circumstances provides the required combination of an underground water chamber
with a conduit leading to the surface, water temperature and flux, and a surface
opening of the size necessary for a geyser eruption.
Kieffer (1984a; 1989) has studied Old Faithful geyser in Yellowstone National Park,
Wyoming, to better understand geyser eruption mechanisms and the associated
microseismicity. Eruptions at Old Faithful produce a column of steam and water up to 50
m high that lasts from ~1.5 to 5.5 min. These eruptions, which occur every 40 to 100
min., emanate from a flared fissure ~1.5 by 0.6 m wide that is surrounded by a mound
of silica sinter 4 m high and 50 by 70 m wide. The water reservoir is ~22 m below the
ground surface. Hot water fills the conduit to within 6 m of the surface before an
eruption. Apparently, the hydrostatic pressure of water in the conduit subdues its
boiling, but growth and collapse of steam bubbles generates acoustic noise that
resonates in the conduit, producing microseismicity that is similar to harmonic tremor.
An eruption begins when vigorous boiling at the top of the conduit spills the water over
the vent rim. This boiling unloads underlying water and triggers its vaporization. As
steam is ejected, deeper levels in the conduit are unloaded in a feedback process until
the conduit is emptied and recharge begins again.
"iliceous "inter Deposits
Deposits of siliceous sinter are common to many high-temperature hydrothermal areas.
The mound-like or terraced deposits are associated with boiling hot springs and serve as
excellent indicators of the presence of hydrothermal reservoirs with temperatures of
>175C (Fournier and Rowe, 1966). To form siliceous sinter deposits, fluids from
alkaline hot springs must have enough silica in solution to become saturated with
amorphous silica as they cool from 100 to 50C. Rimstadt and Cole (1983) described
three steps in the formation of siliceous sinter:
(1) quartz-saturated hydrothermal fluids in the reservoir rise to the surface where
they cool and become supersaturated with amorphous silica;
(2) amorphous silica particles nucleate to produce a colloidal suspension; and
(3) amorphous silica particles are agglomerated and cemented as amorphous silica
precipitates between particles, as is illustrated in Fig. 3.1.
White et al . (1964), in a classic study of the Steamboat Springs thermal area,
Nevada, devised the classification of sinters summarized in the next two sections.
Single/Stage or &rimary Sinters
Thin-be$$e$ opaline sinters are thought to have been formed by primary deposition
of silica on broad discharge aprons (Fig. 3.2). The fluids have a high content of
dissolved silica, were discharged at near-boiling temperatures, and evaporated quickly.
Ge!serite or ban$e$ opaline sinters , most abundant on sinter cones, are
deposited either by geysers or by vigorously spouting springs. Water with a high silica
content at or above boiling temperatures is ejected; it cools and evaporates quickly,
precipitating silica at the moment the water reaches the ground surface. These deposits
are characterized by fine banding and a botryoidal or "knobby"
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[Full Size]
Fig. 3.1
Amorphous silica solubility at 25C as a function of the radius (r) of the particles.
For particles with a positive radius of <0.05 m, the solubility is noticeably greater
than the bulk solubility. If the negative radius of curvature in the embayment be-
tween two particles is <0.05 m, the silica solubility is less than the bulk solubility
and the rate of silica precipitation will be accelerated-cementing them together.
(Adapted from Rimstadt and Cole, 1983.)
habit. White et al . (1964) noted that this sinter type is particularly useful in
geothermal exploration because it is always deposited close to former spring vents and
fissures.
'e$$e$ opaline sinter ith plant casts that lie parallel to bedding indicate that
the plants were dead when incorporated into the sinter. In some situations, the casts
are perpendicular to the bedding planes, implying that there was cooler water in the
pools and plants continued to grow during silica deposition.
Cellular opaline sinter is deposited on the algae-covered discharge aprons of
active hot springs. The rounded or oval cells are formed when gas is released from
algae and other organisms. When a spring stops discharging, algal growth dries up and
the deposit disintegrates into dust, and therefore cellular opaline sinter is rarely
preserved in older deposits. Other types of cellular sinter are associated with
filamentous bacteria that survive at temperatures of 70 to 90C.
Flocculate$ silica deposits are soft and usually poorly preserved.
%ultiple/Stage Sinters
Fragmental sinter , the most common opaline sinter, breaks easily into fragments
when deposits dry out and are exposed to weathering and frost action. This fragmental
debris may remain in place or be transported by wind and water. If younger, sinter-
depositing springs flow over or through these deposits, they may become a cemented
sinter breccia.
0paline sinter is formed when opal is deposited by percolating thermal water. All
of the previously described sinter types decrease in porosity after they are buried by
younger deposits through this deposition. In some sinters, the process produces
massive, glassy opal. On a microscopic scale, the cavities are filled with banded opal,
which leaves geopetal structures.
Chalce$onic sinter is the most common within older deposits. During late-stage
solution and deposition, chalcedony and quartz are deposited and earlier opal phases
are at least partly recrystallized.
Sinter cement is an intermediate stage between clastic sediments and sinter
deposits. Because hot springs often occur along rivers, sinter-cemented alluvial gravels
are fairly common.
Form and E1tent of Sili$eous Sinter eposits
Where hot springs issue from point sources, sinter deposits are cone-like or mounded. If
water issues from a line of springs-most likely along a fault trace-nearly flat-lying,
terrace-like deposits are formed downslope, becoming thinner with distance from the
springs, as is depicted in Fig. 3.3. The terraces are topped by scattered sinter cones or
ridges; ridges mark hot spring locations and are commonly associated with open
fissures that break the terrace surface. Grey, white, or tan sinters that are bedded to
massive and friable to dense and hard make up these terraces. By mapping layered
sinters at
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[Full Size]
Fig. 3.2
Layered and knobby silica sinter terrace at San Ignacio, Honduras, deposited as overlap
ping low fans
from springs located along a fault. Springs are issuing from fractures developed in the h
ard, brittle sinter.
Beowawe, Nevada, Rimstadt and Cole (1983) found that each sinter terrace is
composed of overlapping delta-shaped deposits and that each delta begins at a spring.
These beds are nearly flat (dipping <10). As each spring becomes choked with sinter,
water begins to flow laterally through the sinter terrace to discharge at its flanks. The
flank deposits dip more steeply (10 to 20).
Siliceous sinter deposits range in magnitude from small mounds that cover a few
square meters to terraces that comprise many square kilometers; thicknesses range
from a few centimeters to tens of meters.
#ravertine
Meteoric water, heated either around magma bodies or during deep circulation along
faults, reacts with carbonate rocks and liberates CO2 . The hot waters are subsequently
cooled as they mix with cooler groundwater and reach chemical equilibrium with the
aquifer rocks at ~70C (Bargar, 1978). If the water reaches the ground surface through
fractures, CO2 escapes and the water becomes supersaturated with CaCO3 ;
precipitation of the carbonate forms travertine near or above the ground surface.
Distinctive mounded travertine deposits form around these springs, which have
temperatures ranging from ~30 to 100C.
Travertine deposits are indicators of geothermal reservoir temperatures that may
be too low to generate electricity but may have direct-use applications such as for
greenhouses or hot-water heating for nearby communities. Ellis and Mahon (1977)
described potential problems with well-scaling that these deposits may also represent.
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[Full Size]
Fig. 3.3
(a) Simplified map of the youngest opaline sinter terraces at Steamboat Springs, Nevad
a, showing
the relationship between the elongate, narrow terrace complex and the parallel Steamb
oat Springs
fault (dotted line). (b) Cross-section through Steamboat Springs geothermal area.
(Adapted from White et al ., 1964.)
- 125 -
Although the hydrothermal reservoir immediately below travertine deposits might not
have impressive temperatures, it could point toward a much hotter reservoir nearby.
For example, Goff and Shevenell (1987) found that waters of the carbonate-depositing
springs at Soda Dam, New Mexico, originate as outflow from a hotter intracaldera
hydrothermal system located 10 to 12 km northeast of the dam. The outflow plume is
diluted by groundwater, and therefore cooled, before it surfaces at Soda Dam.
Travertine ranges from a dense, banded rock, in which the banding is parallel to
the fissure/spring orifice, to a porous, layered carbonate that dips away from the orifice.
These outward-dipping layers may decrease in thickness with distance: from banded
layers several meters thick near the spring orifice to laminae less than a millimeter thick
hundreds of meters downslope from the spring. On close examination, travertines
consist of mostly fine-grained (2- to 20-m) sparry calcite, but they may also contain
micrite (muddy calcite), chert, and clays. Ooids are common. These deposits vary from
white to dirty gray but can also have a yellowish or reddish hue as a result of limonite
or hematite staining. Travertine deposits sometimes preserve records of other geologic
events in forms such as interbeds of clastic sediment or volcanic ash.
Most travertine structures fall into one of the three categories described here.
Hot-spring cones or towers are formed through deposition by a spring flowing
from a single point;
Fissure ridges are elongate deposits that occur along springs that issue from
faults or joints (as shown in Fig. 3.4). These ridges can cross drainages and act as dams
behind which flat travertine terraces may be deposited (Bargar, 1978).
Terraces build up through the accumulation of travertine and clastic sediment
behind fissure ridges or as "terracettes" where hot springs flow down steep slopes.
The size and thickness of travertine structures will depend on the length of the
spring orifice, flow volume, rate of deposition, and time that the spring has been active.
These deposits range from thin coatings to fissure ridges nearly 100 m thick; fissure
ridges can be as much as several kilometers long.
Travertine deposition is a geologically fast process. Allen and Day (1935) found
that the travertines of Mammoth Hot Springs at Yellowstone Park are deposited at an
average rate of 21 cm/yr. When Goff and Shevenall (1987) used uranium-thorium
disequilibrium age determinations to interpret the history of the travertine deposit of
Soda Dam, New Mexico, they found that the depositional rate has been variable over
the last 1 Ma; most of the deposition occurred during three pulses of increased
hydrothermal activity in the nearby Valles caldera.
Older "pring Deposits
Useful information about the history of the geothermal system is provided by the extent
of these deposits, the relationship of older sinter and travertine deposits to faults or
fissures, and the relationship between these deposits and presently active deposits. In
fact, the relationship of old spring and fumarole deposits to new ones at Steamboat
Springs, Nevada, has provided much of the background for our understanding of the
evolution of hydrothermal systems (White, 1968).
!ydrothermal &,hreatic' raters and Deposits
Steam eruptions that involve little or no juvenile tephra are termed hydrothermal
eruptions (Muffler et al ., 1971), phreatic eruptions , or mud volcanoes (White, 1955);
they are characteristic of the periodic behavior of many fumarolic areas. These
eruptions form small craters, usually less than several hundred meters in diameter,
which are
- 126 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 3.4
(a) End-on view of 20- to 25-m-high travertine fissure ridge at Monon Hill, Creede calde
ra, Colorado.
The Creede travertine deposits are located along faults that intersect caldera margins an
d along
fractures located at the base of a resurgent dome. (b) Algal mounds in a travertine fissu
re ridge,
Creede caldera, Colorado. (c) Diagram of a travertine fissure ridge, showing the relation
ship
between springs that rose along faults and fractures and the layered travertine deposite
d there.
Where the travertine fissure ridge dammed a drainage, carbonate beds extend out as th
in
wedges from the fissure ridge and are interbedded with clastic sediments.
- 127 -
surrounded by breccia, surge, and fallout deposits composed of lithic debris.
Hydrothermal eruptions occur in areas where the vapor pressure of geothermal
fluids exceeds the hydrostatic boiling pressure for a given temperature. These eruptions
take place at a point where the convective rise of geothermal fluids is impeded by a
relatively impermeable layer termed caproc! (Facca and Tonani, 1967). Caprocks are
commonly formed when rock permeability is sealed by the precipitation of solids from
geothermal fluids. Where a hydrothermal reservoir has a significant vapor-dominated
region, additional over-pressure might be transmitted from the deep, cold-water
hydrostatic head (Nelson and Giles, 1985). The vapor pressure of a geothermal fluid
receives significant partial contributions from CO2 and H2 S, as well as H2 O. Because the
former two gases have lower sublimation temperatures than water does, they can
increase the vapor pressure by up to several tens of bars more than that of pure water
for any given temperature (Kieffer, 1982; Nelson and Giles, 1985). When expansion of
the overpressured fluid is initiated by a trigger such as the chemical breakdown and
failure of the caprock or seismic or hydraulic fracturing, the eruption proceeds as a
vaporization wave propagates down through the fluid and accelerates the vapor and
fluid out through the conduit in a manner similar to that proposed for geyser eruptions
(Kieffer, 1982; 1984a; 1989).
Two examples of hydrothermal eruption models, developed by Hedenquist and
Henley (1985), are illustrated in Fig. 3.5. The first model is for a shallow hydrothermal
reservoir with a temperature of 195C and a depth of 200 m. The second is for a
reservoir with a temperature of 230C and a depth of 400 m. In both models, a sealed
caprock has developed at 100-m depth through deposition of silica-and possibly
carbonate where lower temperatures have allowed exsolution of CO2 . Because the
overlying rock is sealed, fluid flow may be diverted at some greater depth and may
follow another pathway to the surface. As vapor continues to accumulate below the
sealed rock, the liquid water surface falls, and vapor pressure from the greater reservoir
depths is transmitted to the seal (especially if significant noncondensible vapors are
present).
In the case of eruption from the shallow hydrothermal reservoir, the transmitted
vapor pressure is just above the lithostatic pressure. When the eruption occurs,
hydrodynamic flow through the fracture conduit becomes hydrodynamically choked [u =
usonic , as in Eq. (2-5)], and a pressure-balanced eruption occurs. Kieffer (1977) found
that water-steam systems have greatly reduced sound speeds, ranging from 1 m to
several hundred meters per second. In such an eruption, ejecta will follow ballistic
trajectories to form fallout deposits.
For eruption from the deep hydrothermal reservoir, vapor pressure transmitted to
the caprock can greatly exceed that required to lift the overburden. Overpressure builds
because of the strength of the caprock. When the caprock fails, choked flow in the
conduit is at a pressure above the lithostatic pressure and vent erosion occurs. The
eruption is overpressured and supersonic at the surface; this circumstance produces
blast conditions that form a crater and pyroclastic surges dominate ejecta dispersal.
In both shallow and deep reservoirs-but especially in shallow ones-a triggering
mechanism is required to initiate caprock failure. The gradual breakdown of caprock
strength through rate-limited chemical dissolution, sudden jarring by a seismic event,
rapid heating by magma intrusion, the sudden influx of noncondensible gas, or
unloading of overlying material through an avalanche or draining of a lake might trigger
failure. An additional mechanism, hydraulic fracturing (discussed in Chapter 2),
contributes to the failure of caprocks (Norton, 1984).
- 128 -
Hydrothermal eruption phenomena are strong indicators of active hydrothermal
reservoirs. Phreatic craters and their deposits range from pits 1 m across to lake-filled
depressions up to 1 km in diameter, as is seen in the example of the Eastern Kawerau
Geothermal Field in New Zealand (Fig. 3.6). Ejecta deposits from these eruptions can
extend >1 km from the crater center. Studies of lithic clasts within phreatic explosion
breccias indicate that the foci for hydrothermal eruptions occur at many depths and
have been observed as deep as 350 m (Bixley and Browne, 1988).
Most phreatic breccia deposits are massive, but they may also be bedded and may
include graded bedding and pyroclastic surge dunes-features that are indicative of
multiple steam blasts (Table 3.1). The massive deposits consist of poorly sorted angular
tephra from sub-millimeter size to blocks several meters in diameter in a muddy matrix
(Fig. 3.7). Nearly all the lapilli and blocks are hydrothermally altered and/or silicified;
the glass has been altered to clay or hydrothermal quartz, and lithic and crystal
components are replaced by clays, pyrite, chlorite, and other hydrothermal minerals.
Many of the lithic clasts retain their relict textures and may contain several generations
of fractures, filled with hydrothermal minerals, that formed in"situ during earlier
hydrothermal
[Full Size]
Fig. 3.5
Models of hydrothermal eruptions, showing (a) pressure vs depth and (b) a schematic c
ross section.
Pressure variations with depth of rock overburden (lithostatic), cold, vapor-unsaturated
water
(hydrostatic), and hot, vaporsaturated water (saturated liquid) are indicated. The satura
ted liquid
curve depicts the effect of vapor pressure transmitted from a hot, underlying reservoir.
For the
first model, involving a shallow reservoir at a temperature of 195C, the pressurization
history is
shown by a dashed line (A-A'). A gradual buildup of vapor pressure under the silica-
cemented
cap continues until its failure, at which time steam erupts through a conduit with choked
flow
and emerges at the surface at atmospheric pressure (dotted line). For the second model
(B-B'),
which involves a deep reservoir, the transmitted vapor pressure greatly exceeds the lith
ostatic
overburden at the silicified cap. Ensuing eruptions are greatly overpressured as they em
erge
from the vent conduit (dotted line), so that vent erosion promotes
the entrainment of lithic ejecta in expanding fluids.
- 129 -
explosions (Nairn and Solia, 1980). Bedding-plane sags are common; they resulted
when blocks ejected during steam blasts impacted the muddy, fine-grained beds
deposited earlier.
An analysis of the volume and variety of lithic clasts within a phreatic breccia
provides a rough indication of both the stratigraphy under a geothermal area and the
reservoir depth. One example of phreatic breccia, described by Espanola (1974), is from
a minor hydrothermal eruption in early July 1966 within the Tikitere and Taheke
hydrothermal fields of New Zealand:
"The eruption debris reached a maximum thickness of 0.3 m and consisted mainly of finely comminuted
mudstone and sandstone with occasional large blocks up to 0.3 m diameter. The remaining debris was mostly
pumice breccia and some rhyolite fragments from the Rotoiti Breccia Formation. The debris was found to have
flattened the nearby surrounding scrub and damaged the tourist tracks. The old path, which partly encircled the
amphitheater containing spring 6, was rendered impassable due to gravity slumping of the amphitheater banks
towards the spring. The absence of Mamaku Ignimbrite in the ejecta indicates that the source of the eruption
lay within the Rotoiti Breccia, i.e. within 90 m from the surface."
Phreatic craters and their deposits are undisputed indicators of the presence of a
high-temperature hydrothermal system and therefore are excellent prospecting tools. If
there is a sequence of phreatic breccia deposits, dating each deposit may provide
information on thermal pulses that occurred during the history of the geothermal field.
Because phreatic eruptions can be initiated accidentally by drilling or failure of a casing
in a geothermal well (Bixley and Browne, 1988), these events must be considered
potential hazards during the drilling and production processes.
[Full Size]
Fig. 3.6
Simplified geological map of the eastern Kawerau
Geothermal Field, New Zealand, showing the
location of phreatic explosion craters, the
Rotoiti phreatic explosion breccia, and normal
faults that traverse the area
(bar and ball on downthrown side).
Thicknesses are shown in meters.
(Adapted from Nairn and Solia, 1980.)
!ydrothermal Alteration
-ydrothermal alteration is a general term embracing the mineralogical, textural, and
chemical response of rocks to a changing thermal and chemical environment in the
presence of hot water, steam, or gas (Henley and Ellis, 1983). By mapping alteration
mineral assemblages at the surface (but more commonly within drillholes), it is possible
to locate the zones with highest temperatures, pressures, or permeabilities-all of which
are important in geothermal exploration. The same techniques are used to map fossil
hydrothermal systems associated with epithermal ore bodies. Epithermal is a
- 130 -

Table 3.1. General Description of Hydrothermal Eruption Deposits
Geologic Expression Phreatic craters and explosion breccias; craters are surrounded by a low tuff ring
a
Tephra Deposits Explosion breccia and phreatic ash; angular, matrix-supported blocks that show sealed
fractures, secondary mineralization, and breccia dikes
b

Ash may be fine-grained; usually poorly sorted and poorly bedded
c

Mud coatings on blocks; phreatic ejecta blanket topography surrounding the crater; wet-
surge facies are common
)ocation Associated with fumaroles and boiling springs
Geothermal Signi%icance If datable material can be found in the deposits (for example, carbon), the age of active,
shallow hydrothermal activity can be determined

Rocks in the tuff ring provide information on both the stratigraphy of the hydrothermal
reservoir and the type of hydrothermal alteration

Analysis of ejecta dispersal can reveal the explosion energy and reservoir temperature
a
From Muffler et al . (1971), Nairn and Wiradiradja (1980), and Hedenquist and Henley (1985).
b
From Nelson and Giles (1985).
c
From Heiken and Wohletz (1985).
mining term that refers to a hydrothermal mineral deposit (fossil hydrothermal system)
formed within 1 km of the Earth's surface in the temperature range of 50 to 200C
(Park and MacDiarmid, 1970).
Figure 3.8 shows the cycle of solution for rocks during water/rock interaction and
the deposition of hydrothermal minerals in pore space, both of which greatly affect the
physical properties of reservoir rocks and make up the hydrothermal cycle (Elders,
1981). Leaching and fracturing reduce the bulk density and increase porosity and
permeability, whereas the deposition of hydrothermal minerals increases the bulk
density and decreases porosity.
'hara$teri3ation and Interpretation
The two basic types of alteration associated with volcanic geothermal systems, acid"
sulfate and adularia"sericite are modeled in Fig. 3.9. .cid"sulfate alteration occurs
within the uppermost parts of a volcano or along caldera ring fractures where there is
abundant, cool groundwater; acid-sulfate water is formed where the groundwater mixes
with rising magmatic gases. .dularia"sericite alteration occurs within a flow regime high
above or adjacent to a deep heat source and is characterized by neutral pH and
alkalichloride waters (Heald et al ., 1987). .lteration ran! , used as an empirical
indication of temperature and permeability within a volcanic field, is determined through
studies of secondary minerals; for example, epidote is an indicator of high temperature
and adularia is characteristic of high temperature and high permeability within a
hydrothermal system (Browne, 1977).
Many terms used to describe alteration assemblages have evolved in the literature
of both geothermal and ore-deposit exploration. Heald et al . (1987) evaluated and
correlated these terms and their uses in the two fields to generate the material
presented in Table 3.2.
- 131 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 3.7
Phreatic explosion breccia on the east wall of
South Crater, Inyo Craters, California. South
Crater is a 100-m-diameter phreatic (and
possibly partly phreatomagmatic) crater that
overlies both rhyolitic and basaltic dikes.
Deposits here are 25 m thick and consist of a
poorly bedded, cross-bedded lithic ash that
contains blocks up to 0.5 m in diameter (lower
half of the deposit) and massive, block-
bearing coarse ash (upper half of the deposit).
Browne (1977) described 51 hydrothermal minerals found in active geothermal
systems; some of these minerals also occur in low-grade metamorphic rocks. The
water/rock interactions in the system result in alteration of, first, volcanic glass and
then a sequence of mineral phases-replacing them, leaching them, or depositing new
minerals in available pore space (Browne, 1982). Typical alteration replacement
products are listed in Table 3.3. The mineral assemblage depends on temperature,
pressure, fluid composition, and permeability,
[Full Size]
Fig. 3.8
The hydrothermal cycle. This diagram
demonstrates the interplay of water/rock
interaction, deposition of hydrothermal
minerals, and fracturing in a constantly
evolving hydrothermal reservoir.
(Adapted from Elders, 1981.)
and the sequence of mineral alteration and replacement varies from system to
system, as is shown in Table 3.4 for several hydrothermal systems.
There is a general relationship between temperature and mineralogy for
aluminosilicate alteration minerals (see Fig. 2.47), and mineral suites can be used to
interpret temperatures within a geothermal system (Fig. 3.10; Henley and Ellis, 1983).
For example, the minerals epidote and wairakite do not appear until 200C.
During his examination of the geothermal field at Broadlands, New Zealand,
Browne (1970) determined that many hydrothermal minerals are of little use in
estimating subsurface temperatures and permeability; among these are chlorite, pyrite,
calcite, and quartz, which are stable over a wide temperature range. Calcite is strongly
affected by underground CO2 pressure. Mordenite, siderite, and cristobalite, which form
at low temperatures, and epidote, which forms at high temperatures, are not greatly
affected by permeability. Clays, which are excellent indicators of temperature, are not
good
- 132 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 3.9
Models of two types of fossil hydrothermal systems that are responsible for epithermal o
re deposits.
(a) In the system characterized by acid-sulfate alteration, wiggly arrows represent risin
g sulfur-rich
magmatic gases; these gases condense and oxidize to form the acid fluids responsible f
or leaching
and argillic alteration of rocks within the volcano and at the surface. (b) In the system c
haracterized
by adularia-sericite alteration, alkali-chloride waters have a neutral pH.
(Adapted from Henley and Ellis, 1983, and Heald et al ., 1987.)
- 133 -

Table 3.2. Terminology for Alteration Assemblages
a
Terminolog!
Alteration
Characteristics
Common
S!non!ms 1otes
Silicic Characterized by introduced silica Silicification Wallrock is silicified; amethyst
or chalcedony is present in
veins
Potassium
(K)-Feldspar
Introduced K-feldspar present as
veins
Adularia, potassic selvages Typically adularia
Potassium (K)-Feldspar-
Sericitic
K-feldspar and white mica-type
minerals pyrite
Sericitic, potassic, K-silicate Structurally controlled;
disseminated near veins
Sericitic Mica-type mineral (for example, illite
+ quartz + pyrite; includes mixed-
layer illite in which illite layers are
dominant
Phyllic quartz-sericite, illitic

Sericitic-Argillic Both white mica-type and kaolin-
smectite-group minerals
Argillic, intermediate argillic,
sericitic, phyllic

Argillic Kaolin- and smectite-group minerals
(for example, montmorillonite); does
not typically include mica-type
minerals
Intermediate argillic Often zoned, with kaolinite
nearer veins and
montmorillonite farther from
veins.
Advanced Argillic Minerals representing extreme base
leaching (for example, kaolinite) and
sulfate or halogen fixation (for
example, alunite, zunyite)
Argillic, alunitic,
quartz + alunite

Chloritic Introduction of a chlorite component
(usually Fe-rich) into the vein; may
occur alone or with hematite, quartz,
and pyrite or other sulfides; occurs
sparsely as a replacement of
phenocrysts or pumice fragments in
wallrock
Chloritic Vein mineral or selvage; rarely
disseminated in wall rock
Propylitic Characterized by chlorite, albite,
epidote, carbonate pyrite, Fe-
oxides, and minor sericite
Quartz-chlorite-pyrite Typically a regional alteration
Potassium
Metasomatism
Introduced potassium, resulting in
recrystallization of wall rocks to K-
feldspar- and biotite-rich assemblages
Potassium silicate Regional alteration
a
From Heald et al . (1987).
- 134 -

Table 3.3. Typical Hydrothermal Alteration Replacement Products
a
0riginal Mineral or "hase Replacement "ro$ucts
Volcanic Glass Zeolites (for example, mordenite, laumontite), cristobalite, quartz, calcite, clays
(for example, montmorillonite)
Magnetite
Ilmenite
Titanomagnetite
Pyrite, leucoxene, sphene, pyrrhotite, hematite
Pyroxene
Amphibole
Olivine
Biotite
Chlorite, illite, quartz, pyrite, calcite, anhydrite
Calcic plagioclase Calcite, albite, adularia, wairakite, quartz, anhydrite, chlorite, illite, kaolin,
montmorillonite, epidote
Anorthoclase
Sanidine
Orthoclase
Adularia
a
From Browne (1982).
[Full Size]
Fig. 3.10
Summary of temperature ranges for common
aluminosilicate minerals. Solid lines indicate the
most common temperature ranges for these
occurrences. The three ranges shown for chlorite
are related to the transition, with rising
temperature, from swelling chlorite through
mixed swelling and nonswelling
chlorite to nonswelling chlorite.
(Adapted from Henley and Ellis, 1983.)
- 135 -

Table 3.4. The Relative Order of Replacement During Alteration for Primary Minerals in Several Hydrothermal Systems
a
"rimar!
Mineral
1e 2ealan$ Fiel$s (Taupo
Volcanic 2one*
1gaha 0l3aria "hilippines an$
4n$onesia
Volcanic glass First Absent First First
Magnetite
Titanomagnetite
Ilmenite
Second Second Fifth Second
Pyroxene
Amphibole
Olivine
Third Absent Second Third
Biotite Fourth-fifth Second Absent Rare?
Calcic-plagioclase Fourth-fifth Albite present Third Absent
Microcline
Sanidine
Orthoclase
Absent Third Fourth Absent
Quartz Not affected Not affected Not affected Absent
a
From Browne (1982).
guides to permeability. Browne (1970) found that the most important minerals in
hydrothermal surveys are the feldspars, which are sensitive to temperature and
permeability. Andesine (the most common feldspar at Broadlands) is altered at
temperatures between 70 and 290C, depending on permeability, to quartz, clay,
calcite, albite, or adularia. Albite replaces andesine above 230C. Adularia may replace
andesine completely or may be mixed with albite. Good production zones contain
abundant secondary quartz, adularia, and calcite (Table 3.5). At Broadlands, there is a
correlation between high steam and water production and the presence of adularia as
the dominant feldspar in the reservoir rocks. Browne and Ellis (1970) noted that
pyrrhotite occurs above 180C but is limited to impermeable zones.
In near-surface steam-heated zones of acidsulfate geothermal systems,
underground boiling adds dissolved magmatic gases to the steam phase, and oxidation
creates an acid condensate above the boiling zone (Henley and Ellis, 1983). The mineral
assemblages that are characteristic of acid alteration include kaolinite, alunite, gypsum,
opal, and hydrated iron oxides (Steiner, 1977); this assemblage is referred to as
advanced argillic alteration.
Temperatures decrease and pH increases outward from the central portion of an
acid hydrothermal system, producing a systematic variation in stable mineral
assemblages that can be mapped horizontally-or vertically if there are coreholes.
These trends are shown in Table 3.6 (Hayashi (1973) and in Fig. 3.11 (Heald et al .,
1987).
%apping Alteration %ineralogy
The Geological Survey of Japan considers mapping hydrothermal alteration zones an
extremely important element in geothermal exploration. Although springs and fumaroles
are the most obvious surface manifestations of the hydrothermal system,
- 136 -

Table 3.5. Some Subsurface Geologic Units at the Broadlands Geothermal Area that Exhibit Typical Alteration Mineralogy and
Hydrological Function
a
Formation
Geologic 5nit
(m* Thic3ness
A$ularia
(5suall! "resent in
6igh-0utput &ells*
Function o%
Subsur%ace
Geologic 5nit
Huka Falls Lacustrine sediments,
tuffs, sandstones
30-335 No Caprock
Ohaki Rhyolite
b
Pumiceous and
spherulitic
rhyolite lava
0-426 Occasional Partial caprock
Waiora Pumiceous
tuff-breccia
0-200 Yes Aquifer
Broadlands Rhyolite
b
Dense, plagioclasebearing
rhyolite and dacite lavas
0-470 No Caprock
Rautawiri Breccia Vitric-crystallithic tuff and
tuff-breccia
150-460 Yes Aquifer
Rangitaiki Locally densely welded lithic-
vitric crystal ignimbrite
30-370 No Caprock
a
From Browne (1970).
b
Includes underlying mudstone (0 to 60 m thick).
alteration zones supply additional information that points out the areas of greatest
temperature and permeability. Alteration zones can also guide exploration geologists to
hidden systems or to ancient spring activity. The mapping process involves systematic
sampling across the study area and analysis of mineral phases by x-ray diffraction and
petrography. Study areas can range from a general map of altered areas over hundreds
of square kilometers-which will often show the relationship of hydrothermal systems to
large features such as calderas-to small areas of less than 1 km-where detailed
variations in alteration can be documented.
An example of this type of exploration technique is the eastern Hachimantai
Geothermal Area, Honshu, where there are many geothermal areas scattered
throughout an 800-km
2
volcanic field (Geological Survey of Japan, 1986; Nakamura et
al ., 1981). Within the field, Nakamura et al ., have established three alteration
subzones.
Silicic subzones are characterized by porous, white or brown siliceous rocks that
contain small amounts of alunite and sulphur. These subzones are usually found in the
center of the system and can be evidence of strong hydrothermal activity in the past.
Silicification subzones consist of hard, white, silicified rocks within a band around
the silicic zone. This subzone can occur as blocks 0.5 by 0.7 km or as 10- to 50-m-wide
veins. The minerals include saponite, chlorite, hydromica, mixed-layer clays, sericite-
montmorillonite, alunite, anhydrite, gypsum, calcite, rutile, diaspore, and andalusite.
- 137 -

Table 3.6. Conditions For Formation of Hydrothermal Alteration Products
a
Minerals
Flui$ T!pe
Temperature
(7C*
" fluid
(bars)
b
Cristobalite Strong acid <100 <15
Quartz Acid 100-230 30-50
Alunite + cristobalite Strong acid <100 <15
Alunite + quartz Strong acid 100-230 15-50
Kaolinite + cristobalite Acid <100 <15
Kaolinite + quartz Acid 100-200 <30
Dickite + pyrophyllite + quartz Acid 150-250 <60
Pyrophyllite + quartz Acid >230 >50
Montmorillonite + cristobalite Weak acid <100 <15
Montmorillonite, sericite-montmorillonite + quartz Weak acid 100-200 <30
Chlorite + sericite-montmorillonite + quartz Weak acid 150-250 <60
Sericite + quartz Neutral >230 <50
Heulandite + cristobalite Neutral <100 <15
Laumontite + wairakite + quartz Neutral 100-200 <30
Albite + quartz Weak alkaline 150-250 <60
Adularia + quartz Weak alkaline >230 >50
a
Data are from the Otake geothermal area; from Browne (1977) after Hayashi (1973).
b
1 bar = 10
5
Pa.
Argillization subzones are the outer-most zones of alteration; they consist of
blue-black clays (the color is mostly related to finely disseminated pyrite). The dominant
minerals are montmorillonite, kaolin, and alunite, in order of distance from the outer
edge of the zone.
In addition to these alteration zones, a pyrophyllite zone, which may overlap the
argillized rocks, has formed at higher temperatures and may be an indicator of higher
permeabilities. Pyrophyllite is most likely formed within the system if temperatures are
>300C and if the geothermal fluids are acidic at depths of ~1 km.
Figures 3.12a and 3.12b show the distribution of alteration zones, which are
identified by the dominant mineral phase, as well as the distribution of fluorine
concentrations (another exploration tool). The schematic cross-section of B-B' in Fig.
3.12c was based on wells that were drilled into the vapor-dominated part of the
Matsukawa geothermal field; this illustration shows a relationship between the reservoir
and surface pyrophyllitic to kaolinitic alteration zones. Wells for the Kakkonda
(Takinoue) geothermal field penetrated a water-dominated reservoir in a zone where
rocks are mostly altered to montmorillonite (on a regional scale) but are locally altered
to kaolinite, alunite, or pyrophyllite.
The examples from Nakamura et al . (1981), cited earlier, are sited in intermediate
to silicic calc-alkaline rocks. However, different
- 138 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 3.11
Diagram showing the alteration minerals in vein assemblages and the sequence of wall-
rock
alteration for acid-sulfate and adularia-sericite-type deposits that occur in fossil hydroth
ermal
systems. No scale is given because the widths of alteration zones range from
centimeters to tens of meters outward from the vein.
(Adapted from Heald et al ., 1987.)
mineral zonation occurs in basaltic rocks. For instance, Tmasson and
Kristmannsdttir (1972) described three vertical zones in the Reykjanes geothermal
area of Iceland, which are listed here in order of increasing temperature:
(1) a montmorillonite-zeolite-calcite zone,
(2) a mixed-layer clays-prehnite zone, and
(3) a chlorite-epidote zone.
The zones are not always clearly defined as a result of cooling and reheating after
the invasion of sea water. Subsurface temperatures at a depth of 1 km exceed 200C.
The date and length of hydrothermal activity in a geothermal system can be
determined through potassium-argon dates for clays (Woldegabriel and Goff, 1989).
These data can provide interesting and sometimes crucial information on the longevity
(and perhaps future) of hydrothermal activity in an area to be drilled and developed.
Woldegabriel and Goff (1989) have shown that hydrothermal systems within the Valles
caldera of New Mexico became active soon after caldera collapse at 1 Ma and have been
active from that time to the present.
The most desirable targets-permeable zones with hot water and steam-are
narrow ones and, in some cases, may make up as little as 5% of the entire geothermal
system. The size of this target can vary substantially. Figure 3.13 compares 16
epithermal ore bodies (fossil hydrothermal systems; Heald et al ., 1987) and 25
geothermal fields (Rowley, 1982). The areas of geothermal fields, from 0.15 to >100
km
2
, are very similar to the areas of epithermal deposits, which range from 1 to >120
km
2
. The projected surface areas of production zones within the 16 geothermal fields
range from <0.5 to 60 km
2
, which is 5 to 15% of the total area defined by
hydrothermal activity, rock alteration, and elevated geothermal gradients. These areas
- 139 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 3.12
Maps of alteration zones from the eastern Hachimantai geothermal area in Japan. (a) M
ap of
alteration zones indicates the predominant marker minerals. (b) Distribution of fluorine i
n
hydrothermally altered rocks. (c) Schematic cross-section of
the eastern Hachimantai geothermal area.
(Adapted from Geological Survey of Japan, 1986.)
- 140 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 3.13
Dimensions and volumes of hydrothermal systems
are used to compare ore zones (fossil hydrothermal
systems) and developed hydrothermal reservoirs.
These graphs provide a general idea of the range
of areas and volumes for hydrothermal reservoirs.
(a) Length and width of ore zones. (b) Surface areas
of ore zones and volumes of fossil hydrothermal
systems. (c) Estimated areas of geothermal fields
and actual areas with production wells.
(Adapted from Heald et al ., 1987,
and Rowley, 1982.)
of production are the permeable pathways for hot fluids at the time of drilling. By
analogy, epithermal ore deposits encompass the entire area affected by alteration
throughout the history of the hydrothermal system; large ore-bearing veins were the
main conduits for geothermal fluids and gases. By studying the analogy between active
hydrothermal systems and epithermal ore bodies, it is possible to create three-
dimensional models of volcanic geothermal systems. The depth of hydrothermal
reservoirs ranges from <1 km to perhaps as much as 4 or 5 km. The depths of some of
these reservoirs have not been determined. Mining epithermal ore deposits has
provided us with the vertical extent and time-cumulative volume of many such ore
deposits; they are from 400 to 1,000 m vertically and have volumes of 1 to 132 km
3

(Heald et al ., 1987). The largest geothermal systems and epithermal ore bodies are
associated with the Earth's largest volcanoes-calderas-which are discussed in the next
chapter.
Chapter (
Calderas and !heir #eother$al %yste$s
[Full Size]
Large eruptions of pumice and ash can cause the collapse of rock that overlies
shallow magma chambers, thus forming craters called calderas (from the Spanish for
"cauldron" or "kettle"). Calderas range from a few kilometers to 60 km in diameter and
are associated with eruptions of several cubic kilometers to several thousand cubic
kilometers of pyroclastic material. Caldera-forming eruptions are infrequent-occurring
perhaps only once every few thousand years.
The very magnitude of the largest calderas has, on occasion, prevented geologists
from recognizing them in the field. However, as early as 1885, Verbeek proposed that
the crater left after the 1883 eruption of Krakatau was formed by a collapse
accompanying the eruption of large volumes of ash and pumice. Other studies,
particularly of older, eroded volcanic fields in the British Isles, led to the conclusion that
subsidence followed this type of volcanic eruption. The significant study that brought the
collapse mechanism for crater formation into mainstream geology was a review of
known calderas by Williams (1941). Williams' review was published concurrently with
his study of the Crater Lake Caldera in Oregon (Williams, 1942), in which he linked
caldera collapse to the eruption of Mt. Mazama ~7,000 yr ago. In other, related work,
Ross and Smith (1961) reviewed the available data for tuff deposits found around
calderas and Smith and Bailey (1968) developed a model for caldera formation and
structural caldera resurgence, concentrating on the Valles caldera of New Mexico (Fig.
4.1). Since that time, the research on calderas and their deposits has accelerated;
today, much more is known about eruption phenomena, caldera-collapse processes,
magma-chamber evolution, and the evolution and history of caldera hydrothermal
- 142 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.1
Block diagram of the Valles/Toledo caldera complex in New Mexico. The topographic
depression is 22 km in diameter. The actual collapse crater is 15 km in diameter; its loc
ation was
inferred from locations of rhyolite domes erupted after the caldera collapse. The bulbous
mountain
near the caldera center is a structural resurgent dome caused by
the buoyant rise of magma after the caldera collapsed.
(Block diagram by Harlan Foote, Pacific Northwest Laboratories).
systems. A particularly useful collection of papers on calderas was published as a
special volume of the Journal of Geophysical Research edited by Lipman et al . (1984).
In this book chapter, we will briefly review the processes leading to caldera formation,
eruption and collapse, and postcaldera activity, including the development of
hydrothermal systems.
(ntrusion
Silicic calderas are associated with crustal magma bodies, the tops of which are at
inferred depths of 4 to 10 km. Geothermal resource evaluation requires information
about the depth, shape, size, and age of such bodies that supply heat to geothermal
systems. Although most thermal models of these magma bodies are based on cube-,
slab-, and cylinder shapes, geological and geophysical evidence indicates that silicic
plutons have inverted, tear-drop shapes and are no more than 10 km thick (Bott and
Smithson, 1967; Cobbing and Pitcher, 1972). Smith and Shaw (1975) proposed that the
pluton diameter is equal to or somewhat greater than that of the caldera ring faults.
- 143 -
Excellent examples of plutonic-volcanic associations, particularly plutonic complexes
believed to have underlain calderas, are visible within the Peruvian batholith (Cobbing
and Pitcher, 1972; Myers, 1975); these are steep-sided plutons with domical roofs that
have intruded into caldera fill and sub-caldera rocks. Collectively, the many various
types of plutons emplaced over millions of years make up what is termed a batholith .
Thermal metamorphic effects suggest that plutons of the Peruvian batholith were once
within 3 km of the surface (Meyers, 1975).
The Uyaijah ring structure of Saudi Arabia consists of a 15- by 20-km oval ring
dike, 2 km thick, which surrounds a granite stock and is believed to have underlain a
caldera (Dodge, 1979). The pluton appears to have an inverted tear-drop shape similar
to those of the Peruvian batholith (Fig. 4.2).
Of the 40 high-level plutons that make up the granitic ring-dike complexes of the
Jos Plateau of northern Nigeria, many are believed to have underlain calderas (Jacobson
et al ., 1958). Figure 4.3 provides a comparison between this complex and those of the
Valles/Toledo complex of New Mexico and the Lake City complex in Colorado. Various
periods of pre- and post-collapse intrusion and volcanism that are characteristic of
caldera clusters created the Nigerian plutonic complexes. The polygonal shapes of many
of these plutons and associated dike systems were controlled by fault and fracture
patterns that existed before the plutons were emplaced and before caldera-forming
eruptions occurred. Associated with these plutons are glassy, brecciated rhyolitic dikes
and uniform rhyolitic rocks that have been interpreted as caldera-fill deposits.
There is increasing evidence, based on geological research and thermal models,
that most-or even all-large silicic plutons are underlain, surrounded by, or mixed with
basaltic intrusions. Without the heat supplied by hotter mafic magmas, the large, silicic
magma bodies cannot rise as crustal diapirs (Lachenbruch et al ., 1976;
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.2
Schematic cross-section of the composite,
subcaldera pluton that makes up the Uyaijah
ring structure in Saudi Arabia. "A" marks the
present-day ground surface. Dodge (1979)
postulated that this pluton once lay
beneath a caldera complex.
(Adapted from Dodge, 1979)
Eichelberger and Gooley, 1977; Hildreth, 1981). The viscosity of a cooling magma
body can increase to the point where it stops rising and never reaches the shallow crust
to erupt. Many caldera complexes are located in volcanic fields that exhibit bimodal
volcanism: the more silicic rocks are in the center of the field overlying a silicic magma
body and the basaltic lava fields are located around the flanks. Basaltic magmas
trapped beneath a silicic pluton cannot pass through it because they are more dense
and thus buoyant rise is suppressed; however, these magmas can rise to the surface
along fractures in the brittle crust adjacent to a silicic pluton.
- 144 -
- 145 -
[Full Size]
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.3
These composite block diagrams schematically represent different levels below a caldera
complex and
illustrate an igneous system within the upper 6 km of crust. These examples are from th
ree different areas
where rocks are exposed or have been sampled by drilling. (a) Geologic map and cross-
sections of the
north-northeast quarter of the Valles and Toledo calderas of the Jemez Mountains in Ne
w Mexico.
The geology is based on data and maps from Smith
et al . (1970), Dondanville (1971;1978),
Slodowski (1977) and Hartz (1976).
(Adapted from Heiken and Goff, 1983.)
(b) The Lake City caldera in Colorado is similar to the Valles/Toledo calderas in size
and composition, and its interior has been well exposed by erosion. The upper
surface of the diagram is at a level that was originally ~2 km below the ground
surface present at the time of eruption, 22.5 million years ago.
Tuffs and interbedded breccias of the caldera fill are intruded by a silicic pluton.
(Adapted from Lipman, 1976.)
(c) This diagram is based upon maps of the Sha-Kaleri intrusive complex in northern Nig
eria
by Jacobson et al . (1958). Interpreted as a cluster of plutons that were emplaced belo
w a large caldera,
it may be analogous to the plutonic complex that underlies the Jemez volcanic field. The
diagram
illustrates the potential complexity of a composite plutonic body below a caldera.
- 146 -
Mount Mazama Volcano, which erupted ~50 km
3
of magma 7000 years ago, is a well-
documented example of the basalt/rhyolite association required for the rise of a large
silicic magma body. Rhyodacitic pumice was erupted first, followed by a mixture of the
rhyodacite, crystal-rich andesitic pumice, and mafic-cumulate scoria (Bacon, 1989).
When the caldera collapsed during the eruption, Crater Lake caldera was formed.
Preeruptive magma temperatures ranged from 880C for the rhyodacite and early
andesite phase to >940C for the late-erupted scoria phase. Analysis of H2 O in melt
inclusions suggests that depth to the magma chamber was 6 km. Using
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios
for the eruption products as evidence, Bacon suggested that the magma chamber grew
during injection of multiple parent liquids, forming a hot lens between plagioclase-rich
cumulates and the overlying rhyodacitic magma. A buoyant, differentiated melt mixed
into the overlying rhyodacite and crystal mush to form a new cumulate layer. Basaltic
fluids then penetrated the base of the cumulate pile. Had the caldera-forming eruption
not occurred, crystallization would have formed a granodiorite pluton overlying a dioritic
to gabbroic cumulate.
Large-volume, caldera-forming eruptions usually occur late in the history of a
volcanic field. Most of these eruptions have been preceded by smaller scale eruptions of
mafic to intermediate magmas-sometimes over periods of millions of years, as was
described by Lipman (1984) and depicted in Fig. 4.4. This type of volcanic field may
consist of dozens of vents, including those of composite cones, scoria cones, lava
domes, and small calderas. Rarely, if ever, has a large, single composite cone collapsed
to form a caldera. There are many examples of a complex volcanic field being developed
before a caldera is formed, including Crater Lake in Oregon, where Howel Williams
developed his caldera models (Bacon, 1983; Druitt and Bacon, 1986), Thira (Santorini)
in Greece (Fouqu, 1879; Heiken and McCoy, 1984), and the Valles caldera in New
Mexico (Smith et al ., 1970; Gardner et al ., 1986).
Eruption ,rocesses #hat +ead to aldera ollapse
Caldera-forming eruptions begin when pressure within the volatile-rich cap of the
magma chamber can no longer be contained by the overlying rock. Conduits to the
surface may follow faults and fracture systems [see (a) of Fig. 4.5]. In some instances,
the main eruption is preceded by phreatic (steam) explosions and by relatively mild
explosive eruptions and lava flows. Bacon (1983) described such precursor activity at
Crater Lake, Oregon, where a still partly molten lava flow was erupted before the
collapse and flowed back into the new crater. Phreatic and phreatomagmatic activity
(explained in Chapter 2) may also have been precursors to the main Minoan eruption at
Thira, Greece (Heiken and McCoy, 1984), and at Krakatau in Indonesia (Simkin and
Fiske, 1983), where there were small ash eruptions for days before the main eruption.
From observation and inferences from field relations, it appears that caldera-
forming eruptions last only a few hours or days (for example, at Krakatau in 1883;
Simkin and Fiske, 1983), if one does not include smaller ash eruptions or the lava flows
that may follow caldera formation. The first and most explosive phase begins with an
eruption of volatile-rich magma as pumice and ash, which forms a high eruption
column. This phase generally produces fallout or a 'linian pumice"fall deposit (see
definitions in Appendix G). Massive or graded pumice beds (with coarser fragments at
the base of the bed) drape the countryside. This first phase may erupt from a single
conduit or closely spaced conduits, as depicted in part (c) of Fig. 4.5. Plinian eruption
phases from a single conduit have been widely documented in isopach and isopleth
maps as well as maps of lithic clast distributions (for instance, Hildreth and Mahood,
1986; Heiken and McCoy, 1984; Self et al ., 1986). Volumes of pumice fallout deposits
depend upon the overall size of the magma body,
- 147 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.4
The evolution of a large silicic caldera. (a) Volcanism before caldera collapse. Clusters of
composite
cones develop over isolated, small plutons that eventually coalesce to form a large silicic
magma
body or heat the shallow crust sufficiently to allow the buoyant rise of a large pluton. Th
e site of
subsequent caldera collapse is marked by dotted lines. (b) Caldera structure immediatel
y after
the eruption of ignimbrites and concurrent caldera collapse. Calderas contain thick tuff d
eposits
that are interbedded with megabreccias. Dashed lines approximate the compositional zo
nes
developed within the pluton. (c) Caldera resurgence. Welded tuffs and other caldera dep
osits are
uplifted as a structural dome over the magma body. Postcaldera collapse volcanism and
sedimentation occur mostly along an annulus between the resurgent dome and caldera
walls.
Hydrothermal systems develop within the caldera deposits and floor rocks, as well as al
ong
extensional faults that cross the resurgent dome.
(Adapted from Lipman, 1984.)
but when ~20% of the total eruptive volume has been ejected, caldera collapse
may be initiated (Smith, 1979). Druitt and Sparks (1984) proposed that when a small
fraction of material has been erupted, the pressure within the magma chamber
decreases rapidly to values less than that of the lithostatic pressure and the chamber
roof begins to collapse catastrophically [parts (c) and (d) of Fig. 4.5].
- 148 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.5
Inferred stages of eruption and collapse of a large silicic magma chamber and caldera.
(After a drawing by T. McGetchin, 1976)
- 149 -
The rocks overlying a magma chamber roof collapse into the partly evacuated chamber
and form new fracture systems, which approximately outline the magma body.
Complete or piecemeal subsidence may occur along the fractures, creating ring faults
with a concentric pattern. During this stage, eruptions may occur continuously or
intermittently along the newly formed ring faults [(Fig. 4.5 (d)]. As blocks that make up
the caldera roof begin to collapse, the ring faults may open widely and allow large
quantities of pyroclastic material to erupt; these same roof blocks can rotate back into
place, closing off the fractures and opening other fracture vents. Roof subsidence not
only allows eruptions to occur over long sections of ring faults, but also may displace
magma and drive it to the surface (Druitt and Sparks, 1984). It is usually during this
stage of the eruption that the hotter but more volatile-poor ash and pumice are
deposited around the caldera as pyroclastic flow deposits or ignimbrites, as shown in
Fig. 4.6 (Self et al ., 1986; Hildreth and Mahood, 1986). Ignimbrite deposits, located
around the periphery of a caldera, form plateaus that slope away from the source.
These tuff deposits are usually thickest within and along the edges of the caldera,
thinnest at the distal plateau margins, and generally absent on steep slopes. Details of
facies changes within ignimbrites are discussed in Chapter 2 and by Fisher and
Schmincke (1984).
Caldera collapse occurs during and not after an eruption-an important concept to
keep in mind when examining caldera structure and seeking caldera-hosted geothermal
resources. Perhaps as much as 50% of the erupted pyroclastic material collects within
the caldera crater, especially in the largest calderas where many of the pyroclastic flows
never surmount the crater wall; these tuff deposits are usually 1 to 3 km thick and can
be as much as 5 km thick (Lipman, 1984, and personal communication). Because their
depositional temperatures are 500 to 600C, the rapidly deposited pumice and ash may
be compacted, welded, and altered by remnant gases and heated groundwater. For
every ignimbrite exposed around caldera margins, there is a texturally different
(welded, devitrified, and perhaps hydrothermally altered)-but correlative-thick tuff
sequence within the caldera. Table 4.1 presents the lithologic sequences commonly
found in such caldera-fill deposits and correlative outflow deposits.
Figure 4.7 provides an example of intra-caldera ignimbrite deposits interbedded
with breccias that formed when unstable caldera walls avalanched into the collapsing
Lake City caldera (Lipman, 1975; 1984). Mesobreccias consist of concentrations of small
lithic clasts interlayered with the middle and upper parts of the caldera-filling tuffs.
Megabreccias are made up of clasts that are generally larger than an individual outcrop;
they actually are intact slump blocks located near the bottom of the caldera filling
(Lipman, 1975). The slumping that forms megabreccias may leave scalloped
topographic caldera walls that extend outward from the ring faults for hundreds of
meters or several kilometers. Megabreccia blocks occur at different stratigraphic
horizons in a caldera fill, which suggests a piecemeal failure of steep caldera walls
during collapse (Meyer, 1989). The slumping of large megabreccia blocks may make it
difficult to map the actual caldera wall, as defined by ring faults; in many cases, the
topographic caldera wall is located well outside the actual structural caldera. The
lenslike deposits of caldera-collapse breccia act as heat sinks within the caldera-filling
tuffs: they rapidly cool the adjacent hot ash deposits and locally limit the compaction
and welding of glassy pyroclasts.
Near the caldera rim, outflow ignimbrites contain concentrations of lithic clasts
called lag breccias (Druitt and Sparks, 1982; Druitt and Bacon, 1986). These lithic clast
concentrations (shown in Fig. 4.8) may indicate episodes of caldera-wall collapse or
vent widening during explosive eruptions. The ability to recognize caldera-collapse
breccias and associated nonwelded tuffs within
- 150 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.6
Photograph of a pumice fall and ignimbrite deposit in the Bishop Tuff, Long Valley Calde
ra,
California. Interstratified surge and pumice fallout deposits are
overlain by a massive ignimbrite.
drillholes and in surface outcrops is important for identifying hydrothermal
reservoirs within the calderas because these deposits may be more permeable than the
densely welded tuffs that enclose them.
Volcanism, "tructural Deformation, and "edimentation *ollo-ing aldera
ollapse
Immediately after caldera-forming eruptions, the craters become closed sedimentary
basins. Crater lakes may form and the process of fluvial and lacustrine sedimentation
begins. If it is adjacent to the sea, the crater is flooded and may eventually be filled
with marine sediments. If a caldera wall is breached, the lake drains and a new
drainage system is established. Well-bedded lacustrine mudstones and siltstones may
eventually fill smaller calderas, but structural resurgence within larger calderas will limit
the crater lakes to an annulus between the central structural dome and the caldera wall,
like that of the Creede caldera of Colorado, depicted in Fig. 4.9 (Smith and Bailey,
1968; Heiken and Krier, 1987).
Interbedded with the laminated lacustrine mudstones are reversely graded
breccias (turbidites from caldera walls), coarse sandstones (fluviatile rocks and small
deltas), volcanic ash beds (both ash-fall and pyroclastic-flow deposits), and lavas from
postcaldera eruptions.
Mapping and age-dating of caldera-lake sedimentary rocks can provide information
- 151 -

Table 4.1. Lithologic Sequence Found in Caldera-Fill Deposits and Correlative Outflow Tuff Deposits

Cal$era Fill 0ut%lo Tu%%s
Facies Related to Eruption
Processes and Caldera Collapse
Plinian pumice-fall deposits
Pyroclastic surge deposits?
Very thick ignimbrites
Megabreccias and mesobreccias
Plinian pumice-fall deposits
Pyroclastic surge deposits
Ignimbrites; very thick near source and thin
farthest from source; exceptions include
phreatomagmatic ignimbrites
Lithic clast concentrations interbedded with
ignimbrites (lag falls)
Physical Properties Related to
Postdepositional Processes
Variations in compaction and welding of
tuffs
Vapor-phase alteration
Low-temperature diagenesis
Hydrothermal alteration
Variation in the degree of compaction and
welding along the ignimbrites, radial to the
caldera
Vapor-phase alteration and degassing
Low-temperature diagenesis
Postcaldera Eruption Products and
Epiclastic Sedimentation
Intracaldera lavas (domes and flows) and
pyroclastic rocks (ashfalls, ignimbrites,
and surge deposits)
Caldera sedimentation (closed basin);
mostly fanglomerates and lacustrine
Ashfall deposits
Postcaldera Faulting;
Zones of Fracture Permeability
Faulting associated with resurgent
doming
Later movement along ring faults
Tectonic faults that cross the caldera and
extend outside the volcanic field
Tectonic faults that cross the caldera;
possible rejuvenation of precaldera faults
to be used in determining the time and rate of structural resurgence. By employing lake
beds as markers, it is possible to measure the amount of deformation during
resurgence; for example, Mahood (1980) measured the degree of resurgence of La
Primavera caldera in Jalisco, Mexico, by mapping the elevation of caldera lake
sedimentary rocks and interbedded tuffs (Fig. 4.10).
The buoyant rise of magma or injection of new magma following a caldera's
collapse can be inferred from structural deformation of the caldera floor and
postcollapse volcanic activity. Structural resurgence is common in calderas with
diameters of 10 km or greater (Smith and Bailey, 1968). Deformation may result in a
simple symmetrical dome within the caldera fill, and radial dips within these deposits
may
- 152 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.7
Geologic map and schematic cross-section of the Lake City Caldera of Colorado, showin
g the
distribution of meso-and megabreccias that are intercalated within thick caldera-fill tuff
deposits.
(Adapted from Lipman, 1976.)
- 153 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.8
The concentration of boulders and cobbles in the cliff shown here are lava lithic clasts th
at
make up a lag breccia interbedded with ignimbrites surrounding the Crater Lake caldera
in
Oregon. These breccias may have been formed by gravity segregation of the dense lithi
c
clasts near the crater rim during the caldera-forming eruption of rhyolitic ash. Lag brecci
as
may be used as markers that indicate periods of caldera collapse during the eruption.
range from a few tens of degrees to 45, as is shown in Fig. 4.7 (b). However,
many resurgent domes are more complex and reflect the precaldera structural control
of the caldera's shape. For example, within an asymmetric "trapdoor" caldera (hinged
on one side with substantial collapse on the other side), resurgence that takes place
adjacent to the bounding faults forms an oval dome parallel to those faults (Nielson and
Hulen, 1984). The dome heights relative to the original crater floor range from a few
hundred meters to more than a kilometer. Summits of most resurgent domes are
broken by "keystone" grabens. The fault orientations of these grabens may be
influenced by older structures; for example, they may follow the trend of precaldera
faults in rocks underlying the volcanic field, as Nielson and Hulen (1984) noted for the
Valles caldera of New Mexico (Fig. 4.11).
The probable resurgent intrusions identified in the deeply eroded calderas of
Questa, New Mexico; Turkey Creek, Arizona; and Mt. Aetna, Colorado, rise above the
basement rocks and intrude intracaldera tuff deposits (Hon and Fridrich, 1989). Areas of
maximum uplift within these calderas are directly above the resurgent plutons. The
interface between the fractured caldera floor and the block of densely welded
intracaldera tuff allows rising magma to spread out. Hon and Fridrich (1989) inferred
- 154 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.9
Simplified geologic map of the Creede caldera in
Colorado, showing distribution of the Creede
Formation-tuffaceous sedimentary rocks that
partly filled the annulus (moat) between the
resurgent dome and caldera walls. The same
zone is partly filled by lava domes and flows
erupted after caldera collapse. The Creede
Formation consists of several facies from the
fanglomerate breccias of the caldera walls and
slopes of the resurgent dome, intermediate fluvial
sandstones and gravels, and lacustrine siltstones
of the annulus between caldera walls
and a resurgent dome.
(Adapted from Steven and Eaton, 1975.)
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.10
Structural contour map of tuff deposits (known
as the "gaint pumice horizon") interbedded with
caldera lake sediments of the La Primavera
caldera in Jalisco, Mexico; elevation in meters
(from Mahood, 1980). Resurgence was
asymmetrical, with maximum uplift in the
southeastern corner of the caldera.
that initially the resurgent plutons had a laccolithic form but that this form was
eventually modified when stoping during subsequent phases produced more or less
cylindrical intrusions similar to the central plutons of ring complexes. Those authors also
proposed that the resurgence here was more likely related to continued magmatic input
(10
-2
to 10
-3
km
3
/year rather than to renewed magmatic pressure caused by
vesiculation, as was suggested by Marsh (1984).
Structural resurgence can be a rapid process. At Long Valley caldera of California,
Rabaul caldera in Papua-New Guinea, and the Phlegrean Fields of Italy, active
deformation of centimeters or meters have occurred over only decades (Newhall and
Dzurisin, 1988).
- 155 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.11
Map of the Valles caldera in New Mexico, showing faults that cross
the caldera complex and faults within the 1-km-high resurgent dome.
(Adapted from Nielson and Hulen, 1984.)
Resurgence can also be an intermittent process in which uplift is followed by
alternating subsidence and uplift. Bailey et al . (1976) stated that inferred times for
resurgence of older calderas range from <10,000 to ~100,000 years. Although the time
required for resurgence obviously varies greatly, for the best-documented modern
example, at the largely submarine Iwo-Jima caldera of Japan, the average rate of uplift
has been 15 to 20 cm/year since the caldera floor rose above sea level 500 to 700 years
ago (Kaizuka et al ., 1989).
Such structural resurgence has a significant effect on the thermal history of a
caldera. Thermal gradients within resurgent calderas are higher than in calderas with no
resurgence (Zyvoloski, 1987). In addition, hydrothermal systems can develop along
faults associated with the keystone grabens that are typical of resurgent domes because
fracture permeability is necessary for the meteoric water circulation within densely
welded caldera-fill tuffs.
After caldera collapse, small, less explosive eruptions may begin along ring faults
or along faults that bisect the caldera. The lavas and pyroclastic rocks erupted are less
volatile-rich than the pyroclastic materials of caldera-forming eruptions (Hildreth et al .,
1984). Within most calderas, dacitic or rhyodacitic dome lavas are erupted along the
ring faults over periods ranging from a few decades to >1 myr after the initial caldera-
forming eruption (Fig. 4.12). Heiken and Wohletz (1987) reported that a variety of
pyroclastic rocks are associated with these domes, including hyaloclastic deposits of tuff
rings, ash fall beds, and small pyroclastic flow deposits. Postcaldera volcanic activity
ranges from eruptions of a few isolated vents to eruptions of postcaldera domes,
- 156 -
cones, and flows that can fill the caldera. Calderas located along volcanic arcs at the
plate margins may be partly buried by composite cones that consist of lavas and
pyroclastic rocks of intermediate composition; such cones are well-documented
throughout Central and South America, in the volcanic fields of Kamchatka in the Kurile
islands, and along the Japanese island chain. The magmas supplying postcaldera
volcanoes are far less voluminous than the caldera magma body, but they form shallow
magma bodies and cause magma-induced fractures that are needed for hydrothermal
systems.
aldera "tructure and "hape
The "ideal" caldera, formed during an eruption through homogeneous, unstressed rock
units, is circular in plan view and plug or broadly funnel shaped in cross section
(Anderson, 1936). However, the upper crust of the Earth is neither physically
homogeneous nor unstressed. Caldera structure and shape are affected by prior
structural trends, the depth to which the magma body has intruded, the physiographic
expression of the precaldera volcanic field, and the energy of the eruption itself. Caldera
complexes formed by multiple, overlapping calderas are common.
Figure 4.13 provides a cross-section view for a variety of caldera shapes. The most
common caldera type is that of a subsided, semicylindrical block that is marked at the
surface by concentric normal faults. In cross-section-shown in (a)-the subsiding block
drops along concentric faults piece-meal, resulting in a structure that looks like the
step-like seats of a stadium. In most of these calderas, the ring fault marks the actual
caldera wall, but the en echelon faults of slump blocks extend out to the topographic
rim. Rarely, if ever, are these calderas circular; most are oval or polygonal. The Aira
and Ishizuchi calderas of Japan (Aramaki, 1984; Yoshida, 1984) and the Minoan caldera
of Greece (Heiken and McCoy, 1984) are polygonal; the caldera walls follow trends of
regional faults and fractures present long before those eruptions occurred (Fig. 4.14).
Long Valley caldera in California, an east-west-trending oval, is almost polygonal; it is
located at the intersection of major north-northwest-trending fault zones that mark the
eastern boundary of the Sierra Nevada and an east-west offset in those fault zones. The
giant Cerro Galan caldera of Argentina, a north-south-trending elongate oval, is
adjacent and parallel to a north-south-trending rift in the Andean altiplano (Francis et al
., 1978). Most calderas exposed by either erosion or drilling fit this general model of a
down-dropped block. However, there are variations on the geometry of the down-
dropped block or "plug," including those with vertical faults and reverse faults that dip
outward rather than inward, as depicted in Fig. 4.13 (c) and (d).
Trapdoor calderas, in plan view, are similar to the plug-like calderas and show the
same variation in shape. In cross section, however, they are very different: collapse is
asymmetric and one side is much lower than the other [Figs. 4.13(b) and 4.15]. Faults
may mark both sides, but one side is more of a flexure or "hinge" than a fault-thus the
term "trapdoor."
Nielson and Hulen (1984) and Heiken et al . (1986) interpreted the Valles caldera
of New Mexico as a trapdoor caldera. It overlaps the margin of the Rio Grande Rift,
where depth to the Precambrian basement is 700 m below the western caldera margin
and perhaps as much as 3 km below the eastern caldera margin. In this case, the
asymmetric collapse appears to be related to the distribution of underlying rocks and rift
margin faults; the competent basement rocks at shallow depths act as the hinge. Many
of the intermediate-size calderas in Japan (~10-km diameter), interpreted as funnel
shaped, were formed not by the sinking of a cylindrical block but by the piecemeal
collapse of roof rock, as is
- 157 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.12
Sketch map of the Valles/Toledo caldera complex, showing postcaldera rhyolite domes.
The stippled pattern represents Toledo-age domes (1.0 to 1.4 myr); the light brown sha
ding indicates
Valles domes that range in age from slightly less than 1 million years to ~100,000 years
.
Triangles mark the vents of intracaldera volcanoes.
illustrated in Fig. 4.13(e). An example of this type of caldera is the Shishimuta
caldera of the Hohi volcanic zone in Kyushu, Japan (Kamata, 1989). This structure
formed during the eruption of the Yabakei pyroclastic flow 1.0 million years ago, during
which 110 km
3
of tephra were erupted. The Shishimuta caldera is 8 km wide and >3 km
deep. Much of the caldera fill is an andesitic breccia made up of fragments and slabs of
precaldera rocks, which is overlain by 500-m-thick lacustrine deposits. There is no
evidence of structural resurgence at the Shishimuta caldera. Kamata (1989) proposed
that the caldera fill is primarily composed of explosively disrupted roof rock and that
there is little collapse.
Small calderas, often associated with cones or tuff rings, may form when vent
walls collapse into a vent that has widened during an explosive eruption [Fig. 4.13(e)].
Vent wall collapse is common in diatremes, which are the vents for small, explosive
eruptions (usually phreatomagmatic) of basaltic, alkalic, or kimberlitic magmas. Such
craters, however, are formed by explosive activity and the disruption of vent walls
rather than by collapse over shallow magma bodies and therefore rarely have
geothermal potential. By strict definition, they should not be termed calderas.
Walker (1984) has proposed that the simplest and most poorly developed
- 158 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.13
Sketches of possible caldera shapes in cross-
section; both observed and inferred shapes
are presented here. (a) Normally faulted down-
dropped block, observed in most continental
calderas. (b) Trapdoor caldera, in which most of
the collapse occurs along one margin and the
other margin acts as a "hinge." (c) Collapse
along outward-dipping faults, as seen in some
eroded calderas in Great Britain (Anderson, 1937).
(d) Caldera subsidence along piston-like
vertical faults (inferred). (e) Collapse into a small
vent eroded during explosive eruptions, as
exhibited by some maar volcanoes and
kimberlitic diatremes; many volcanologists
would not call these calderas. (f) Simple
downsag, or flexure, without faulting; this
caldera type was proposed by Walker (1984).
(Adapted from Walker, 1984.)
calderas are "downsagged" and have little or no development of ring faults [Fig.
4.13(f)]. Walker's chief example is Lake Taupo in New Zealand, where an enormous
eruption, 1800 yr BP, formed a broad, shallow depression 30 km in diameter and 300 to
500m deep. This interpretation must be considered inconclusive because the only
evidence is a saucer-shaped surface expression; little is known about the extent or
thickness of any possible caldera fill within the Taupo caldera.
Many of the Earth's large calderas are not single features, but caldera complexes,
which are composed of adjacent or overlapping craters formed during multiple
eruptions. For instance, the Yellowstone region in the United States comprises three
overlapping calderas that were formed during three major eruptions that occurred at
intervals of ~600,000 years. Calderas of the San Juan Mountains in Colorado, shown in
Fig. 4.16, often form clusters with considerable overlap. In many cases, caldera
complexes have been mapped earlier as single calderas. One can determine if a crater is
composed of one or several calderas by identifying the number and ages of ignimbrites
surrounding the crater. If there is only one ignimbrite, it was most likely erupted during
formation of a single caldera. If there are multiple ignimbrites with considerable time
gaps between eruptions, there is a very high probability of multiple, overlapping
calderas. For many years, geologists believed that Toba caldera in Sumatra was formed
during one eruption. However, recent work on Toba demonstrated that it is a composite
caldera that formed during three major eruptions of silicic ash (Knight et al ., 1986;
Chesner, 1988).
Some caldera complexes have formed not as overlapping craters, but through
multiple collapses of the same crater. The Valles and Toledo calderas of New Mexico
were formed during two major eruptions 400,000 years apart; the eruptions were of
similar
- 159 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.14
(a) Structural map of the Ishizuchi caldera in Japan. The polygonal shape created during
caldera collapse follows the general structural grain of precaldera rocks. Faults and
fractures present before the caldera-forming eruption often control the caldera shape.
(b) Block diagrams showing stages of development of the Ishizuchi caldera.
(Adapted from Yoshida, 1984.)
magnitude and each deposited pumice falls and pyroclastic flows. These eruptions
may have buried several older but smaller calderas. Drilling within the Valles/Toledo
caldera complex revealed two main sequences of caldera tuff deposits and several
smaller deposits-a pattern that usually correlates with tuff sequences surrounding the
calderas. The younger caldera (the Valles) appears to have collapsed along the same
faults as the older caldera, so that one lies on top of the other.
Geothermal "ystems in alderas
Large, young calderas and associated volcanic rocks are indicators of potentially
immense geothermal resources. Smith and Shaw (1975) estimated that for every cubic
kilometer of material erupted, between 3 and 9 km
3
of partly molten rock resides below
the volcanic field but within the upper 10 km of crust. The geothermal resource beneath
a caldera exists as long as eruptive activity continues; in addition, if large silicic crustal
magma bodies are
- 160 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.15
Schematic cross section of the Valles/Toledo calderas of New Mexico. The caldera compl
ex, which
appears to have a trapdoor shape, has a "hinge" on the northwest side where it overlies
Paleozoic
sedimentary rocks and Precambrian metamorphic and igneous basement. Most collapse
has
occurred along the eastern caldera margin where the caldera overlies the Rio Grande Rif
t
and a thick sequence of poorly consolidated rift sedimentary rocks.
formed, the resource has a lifetime of several million years after the final volcanic
activity (Kolstad and McGetchin, 1978). As will be seen in the case histories discussed
here, the magnitude of the accessible hydrothermal system depends entirely on the
extent of permeable zones below the caldera or within the caldera deposits. In most
calderas containing thick, densely welded tuff deposits, the hydrothermal systems are
limited to caldera ring fractures and caldera-crossing faults, which form zones of
fracture permeability. Evidence of hydrothermal activity is often seen in the acid-sulfate
alteration that occurs at the surface. Acid fluids are formed when H2 S and CO2 escape
from the underlying hot water reservoir and are oxidized at shallow depths. Water
within these reservoirs is usually heated groundwater from recharge areas within the
caldera.
Thermal models of calderas indicate that much of the elevated heat flow is
conductive and that convective heat transfer is mostly limited to fault zones. Magma
bodies below the larger calderas (>10-km diameter) cool slowly and may be heat
sources for up to 2 million years. An example of such a system is the 15-km-diameter
Valles caldera of New Mexico, where the most recent major eruption took place 1 million
years ago and the most recent intracaldera eruption was 150,000 years ago. Along the
keystone graben of the resurgent dome, the temperature is still 341C at a depth of 3
km (ambient temperatures at a depth of 3 km in this region are ~110C). Smith and
Shaw (1975) estimated that within the uppermost 10 km below the Valles caldera the
thermal energy is equivalent to 8425 10
18
J. For the same caldera, Brook et al .
(1975) estimated that the thermal energy of the hydrothermal systems is 81 10
18

Joule, which is ~1% of the total heat in the system. The remaining heat is present in
rock of low permeability (termed hot dry roc! ) and in residual magma. For caldera
systems, estimates of the amount of heat present as hydrothermal fluid range from 1 to
10%.
Nearly all hot-water circulation within known hydrothermal systems is located
along active faults where there is fracture permeability. A comparison of the young
Valles caldera and older, well-exposed Lake City and Platoro calderas in Colorado
- 161 -
indicates that hydrothermal alteration within those caldera deposits occurred chiefly
along faults and over shallow intrusions (Figs. 4.11 and 4.17). However, in calderas
formed during phreatomagmatic eruptions, where the underlying rocks have been
highly fractured by hydraulic overpressures and the tuff deposits are nonwelded or only
partly welded, there may be considerable formation permeability.
+atium Volcanoes of (taly
The Latium Volcanoes of central-western Italy are a 340-km-long, northwest-trending
line of volcanic fields that extends from the Alban Hills near Rome to Bolsena Lake 180
km northeast of Rome (see Fig. 2.49). These fields consist of multiple small vents,
including cinder cones, tuff rings, and calderas (De Rita et al ., 1983). Lavas and tuffs
are alkalic and consist of trachytes, phonolites, and leucitites that are usually <1 million
years old. The Latium volcanic chain is parallel to grabens that were active until mid-
Pliocene time (Barberi et al ., 1984). The volcanic fields overlie Triassic and Eocene
carbonate rocks, Lower Cretaceous to Eocene flysch deposits, and Miocene to mid-
Pliocene clastic rocks. The carbonate rocks have high permeabilities; they served as
excellent aquifers that supplied water for large phreatomagmatic eruptions, and now, in
several fields, these rocks act as hydrothermal reservoirs. Calderas of the Latium
Province were mostly phreatomagmatic; many have low, broad profiles in which the
outer slopes are 1 to 1.5. The thin, extensive ignimbrites surrounding the calderas are
made up of fine-grained, nonwelded tuffs. Numerous surge deposits are interbedded
with the ignimbrites. Phreatomagmatic eruptions during caldera formation and
postcaldera activity within these young calderas is a good indication of the presence of
hydrothermal systems.
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.16
Calderas of the San Juan volcanic field in
Colorado, showing overlap and clustering of
calderas. For every caldera, there is a large-
volume sequence of ignimbrites within
and surrounding it.
(Adapted from Steven et al ., 1974.)
Latera #ol$ani$ 'omple1
The Latera complex, consisting of a 10- by 8-km caldera that is oriented north-
northeast to south-southwest, lies adjacent to the much larger Bolsena Lake, which may
also be a caldera. The complex's oldest volcanic rocks are between 0.9 and 0.4 Ma
(Barberi et al ., 1984). Sparks (1975) felt that both Latera and Bolsena are calderas
because of their shapes and their association with nine major and six smaller
ignimbrites.
At Latera, the most voluminous pyroclastic flows were erupted 0.4 million years
ago. It is possible there were multiple collapses of the caldera; this theory is consistent
with the presence of multiple ignimbrite units that range from 0.3 to 0.15 Ma. Figure
4.18 shows
- 162 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.17
Comparison of a young caldera (Valles/Toledo), its active hydrothermal systems, and its
surface acid
alteration zones with two older, eroded calderas (Platoro and Lake City in Colorado), the
ir intrusions,
and zones of hydrothermal alteration. In all three calderas, most of the hydrothermal ac
tivity has
taken place along faults within caldera-fill deposits and above lobes of an intrusion.
(Adapted from Smith et al . 1970, Dondanville, 1978, and Lipman 1975; 1976b.)
- 163 -
the pyroclastic rock sequences exposed on the flanks of Latera; the sequences consist
of interbedded surge deposits and massive pyroclastic flow deposits that include lag
breccias. These tuffs are composed of very fine grained ash, which is now altered to
clays, zeolites, and iron oxides. The vesiculated tuffs and abundant accretionary lapilli
present are all indicators of phreatomagmatic activity. Lithic clasts within the tuffs
include metamorphosed mudstones (flysch), trachyte, marble, and tephrite.
Strombolian and Vulcanian eruptions followed caldera collapse within and along the
caldera margins. D. De Rita (personal communication, 1985) indicated that Latium
volcanoes with a history of phreatomagmatic volcanism during caldera formation
followed by magmatic volcanism (in this case, Strombolian activity that formed cinder
cones) eventually develop hydrothermal systems of the greatest geothermal resource
potential. Intensive hydraulic fracturing may accompany phreatomagmatic eruptions
when the main source of fluid is groundwater (see discussions in Chapter 2). This
activity creates a large-volume system of fractures that, when associated with a thermal
source, can become a hydrothermal system.
To test the observations described above, 14 geothermal wells had been drilled
into Latera caldera, one of the Latium volcanoes, by 1985. Latera caldera deposits,
which range from 250 to 1500 m thick, consist of coarse tuff-breccias and interbedded
pyroclastic rocks and lavas (perhaps megabreccias). The caldera is filled with mostly
pyroclastic material erupted during the first caldera-forming activity, as is depicted in
Fig. 4.19. The caldera tuffs contain up to 50% basement lithic clasts (flysch). Several
geothermal wells have been drilled into the carbonate sequence along a structural high
located on the eastern caldera margin. Barberi et al . (1984) reported that they
encountered a syenite intrusion-potassium-argon data indicate that it is ~0.86 Ma-
close to the caldera center, at depths of between 2000 and 2700 m. This intrusion into
carbonates underlying the caldera is marked by a thermometamorphic aureole that
contains garnet, idocrase, diopside, and phologopite. The thermally metamorphosed
rocks are strongly fractured, and the fractures are partly filled with anhydrite, calcite,
epidote, and hydrogarnet.
Of the 14 wells drilled in the Latera caldera, 9 are producing hot water and steam
from limestone reservoirs and fractures in the overlying flysch units. The temperature is
150C at a depth of 1 km, and 210 to 240C at depths of 2 to 3 km. The production
wells are located primarily within the area of youngest caldera collapse where basement
rocks are highly fractured.
Ba$$ano 'aldera
Baccano caldera is one of several calderas, cones, and maar volcanoes of the Sabitini
volcanic complex, which has developed within a graben. Figure 4.20 shows the
concentric normal faults that bound a low depression 4 km in diameter. Baccano may be
located within the older Sacrofano caldera. The eruption and accompanying collapse of
the Baccano caldera occurred, perhaps in stages, during multiple hydromagmatic events
between 0.36 and 0.08 Ma. Most of this activity was phreatomagmatic; the water was
probably supplied from aquifers in limestones underlying the caldera or from nearby
Lake Bracciano.
Ignimbrites and surge deposits are exposed on the caldera rim and outer slopes,
where they overlie an 85,000-year-old travertine deposit. The ignimbrites consist of
small pumice clasts with accretionary coats of fine ash in a matrix of very fine ash. The
surge deposits are rich in mineral clasts and subrounded lithic clasts (phonolitic lava,
mudstone, and limestone). All of the pyroclastic deposits are partly altered to clays.
- 164 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.18
Photograph of the pyroclastic sequence along the flanks of Latera Volcano in Italy, whic
h consists of
interbedded scoria fall, surge, and ignimbrite deposits. The outcrop, along Poggio della
Valicella,
follows the western shore of Bolsena Lake.
- 165 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.19
Interpretative cross sections of the Latera and Bolsena calderas in Italy. The caldera-
forming
eruptions of these calderas had a large phreatomagmatic component as a result of mag
mas
interacting with groundwater within permeable limestone units underlying the volcanic fi
eld. The main
hydrothermal reservoirs are located within the sedimentary rocks (mostly limestones) b
eneath
Latera caldera and along one margin within a horst. Cross sections are based upon geol
ogic mapping,
geophysical surveys, and drilling samples. The magma body that provides heat to the h
ydrothermal
system was intersected by drilling below the center of Latera caldera.
(Adapted from Barberi et al ., 1984.)
Four geothermal wells (C-1 to C-4), with depths of 1400 to 3000 m, have been
drilled within the Baccano caldera (Funiciello et al ., 1979). Temperatures of 300C were
measured in drillholes at depths of 3 km. Underlying the caldera are shales, marls,
sandstones, and limestones of Middle Cretaceous age; Miocene flysch deposits; Upper
Triassic to Oligocene carbonates, including marls, limestones and interbedded chert;
and Triassic black limestone. The main hydrothermal reservoir is located in fractured
carbonate rocks under a cap of the shaly rocks of the argille scagliose (a thick sheet of
chaotic, slickensided clays that was displaced along low angle faults). The reservoir
- 166 -
consists of mixed hydrothermal fluids and shallower groundwater within the caldera
deposits (Calamai et al ., 1976).
#he ,hlegrean *ields in (taly
One of the Earth's more famous volcanic fields is the Phlegrean Fields (Campi Flegrei),
which lies adjacent to the city of Naples and forms not only much of the margin of the
Bay of Naples but also part of the Campanian Plain. Nearly all the volcanism there has
occurred during the past 50,000 years and most of it has been phreatomagmatic.
Trachytic magmas rose to the surface to mix with groundwater and/or sea and lake
water; this interaction produced volcanic forms that range from small tuff rings to the
Phlegrean caldera complex. The information for the following discussion was condensed
from papers and reports by Barberi et al . (1978), Cameli et al . (1976), Rosi et al .
(1983), Lirer et al . (1987), and Rosi and Sbrana (1987) as well as unpublished work by
G. Orsi.
One of the major events in this area was the eruption of the Campanian Ignimbrite
32,500 years ago (Paterne et al ., 1988). This widespread ignimbrite, chemically zoned
from phonolite to trachyte, is believed to have had a volume of ~80 km
3
(dense rock
equivalent). Barberi et al . (1978) and Rosi et al . (1983) proposed that caldera collapse
during this eruption left a crater 13 km in diameter that covered what is now the
Phlegrean Fields and a portion of the Bay of Naples (Fig. 4.21). Authors have referred to
this caldera complex as the "Campanian Ignimbrite caldera" and the "Phlegrean
caldera," which we use here. Caldera-fill deposits range from 500 to >3000 m thick and
consist of tuffs, tuff-breccias, and nonwelded pyroclastic rocks; these deposits may be
partly the Campanian Ignimbrite and partly tuffs from younger explosive eruptions that
are interbedded with conglomerates and sandstones (Bruni et al ., 1983).
More recent geophysical research by R. Scandone (personal communication, 1990)
interprets a negative gravity anomaly located on the Campanian Plain northeast of
Naples near Mount Vesuvius as the source of the Campanian Ignimbrite.
The Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (NYT) and Gauro Yellow tuff (GYT), dated at ~12,000
years BP, are exposed over a large area surrounding the Phlegrean Fields and are also
encountered in geothermal drillholes within the caldera complex. Lirer et al . (1987)
proposed that the NYT eruption formed a smaller caldera, ~6 km in diameter, that is
centered on the town of Pozzuoli and the Gulf of Pozzuoli. These tuff units resulted from
the largest multiple, significant phreatomagmatic eruptions since that of the Campanian
Ignimbrite. The caldera complex of the Phlegrean Fields is also most likely a composite
structure that was formed during several eruptions.
Some of the younger rocks of the Phlegrean fields make up tuff rings, tuff cones,
and scoria cones, for which crater diameters range from a few hundred meters to 2 km.
The youngest eruption formed Monte Nuovo in 1568 AD, and structural resurgence of
the caldera has continued intermittently throughout historical time. The latest activity-
between 1970 and 1985 AD-affected much of the Phlegrean Fields. The maximum
uplift (240 cm) was centered in the town of Pozzuoli; resurgence is believed to be the
result of magma injection at shallow depths. Recent movements along active faults are
common throughout the volcanic field. There are numerous surface manifestations of
geothermal systems, including the fumaroles and acid alteration found at Solfatara
Crater and numerous hot springs.
Drilling within the Phlegrean Fields has revealed a high-temperature hydrothermal
system that developed within the siltstones and sandstones of prevolcanic rocks and the
tuffs and lavas of the caldera deposits. Temperatures range from 335C at a depth of
2.5 km to 420C at a depth of 3.04 km, and the average thermal gradient is 150C/km.
- 167 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.20
Baccano caldera in Italy. (a) Structural sketch map showing the concentric ring faults ar
ound this
small caldera, flow directions of surge deposits and volcanic mudflows (lahars), caldera l
ake
deposits, and spring and well locations. (b) Cross section through the Baccano caldera (l
eft) into the
larger Sacrafano caldera (right). The caldera is underlain by Mesozoic- and Cenozoic-
age limestones
and marls (1 = volcanic rocks; 2 = Neogene-Pleistocene sedimentary rocks; 3 = Argille
Scaglisose; and
4 = Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks. a = marl and limestone; b = limestone;
c = limestone
and dolomite; d = anhydritic dolomite). Abundant groundwater and permeability within
these
units probably provided the water needed for phreatomagmatic activity at Baccano.
(Adapted from Funiciello et al ., 1979.)
- 168 -
Fig. 4.21
The Phlegrean Fields of Campania, Italy. These maps are composites of those by Rosi a
nd Sbrana (1987)
and Lirer et al . (1987). (a) Outlines of the Phlegrean and Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (NYT)
calderas within
and around the Bay of Naples and the cities of Pozzuoli and Naples. Submarine topograp
hic contours
are indicated in meters. (b) Volcanic-tectonic sketch map of the Phlegrean and NYT cald
eras
(the Phlegrean Fields), showing the location of all postcaldera craters and lava domes.
Within the
Phlegrean Fields, most of the volcanic activity has been phreatomagmatic; the rising ma
gma
has interacted with groundwater and sea water. The cross section in (c) is based mostly
on
data from the deep geothermal wells noted on this map.
- 169 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.21
(c) Cross section of the Mofete
geothermal area of the western Phlegrean caldera. The "chaotic tuff-breccias" and
"subaerial tuffs" could be caldera-fill materials that were
deposited during the eruption of the Campanian Ignimbrite.
(Adapted from Rosi and Sbrana, 1987.)
- 170 -
Hydrothermal fluids have risen along the faults bounding caldera structures and those
that cross the volcanic field [Fig. 4.21(c)]. With the exception of fluids that rise along
these faults, hydrothermal activity has been restricted to deep caldera fill, as is evident
from the observation that the upper 500 m of pyroclastic deposits are not altered.
These deposits overlie thick zones composed of argillic and illitechlorite alteration
products. Hydrothermal fluids circulate within intensely fractured rocks near the caldera
center, whereas low vertical permeability is characteristic of the outer caldera margins.
Nearly all hydrothermal circulation within the caldera takes place within areas that have
fracture permeability. There is no formation permeability except within near-surface
aquifers. Thermally metamorphosed tuffs, sandstones, and lavas were found in the
deepest wells, where rocks have been replaced by amphibolite-biotite and diopside,
scapolite, garnet, and epidote. Similarly metamorphosed rocks have been found as lithic
clasts within tuff units of the Phlegrean Fields.
In the Mofete geothermal field located near the western edge of the Phlegrean
caldera, Carella and Guglielminetti, (1983) identified three water-dominated reservoirs
in which water is the continuous, pressure-controlling system and there is little vapor
[Fig. 4.21(c)]. The deepest reservoir, at a depth of 2700 m, contains hypersaline fluids
at a temperature of 360C; the intermediate reservoir, at a depth of 1900 m, contains
low-salinity fluids at a reservoir temperature of 340C; and the shallowest reservoir,
between 500 and 1500 m deep, contains low-salinity water at temperatures of 230 to
308C. The two deep reservoirs are located within thermally metamorphosed pyroclastic
and epiclastic deposits; whereas the thick, shallow reservoir is sited within fractured
volcanic rocks-mostly lavas-and is capped by tuffs that have been altered to clays.
#aupo Volcanic .one in /e- .ealand
"eologi$ Setting
The Taupo volcanic zone (TVZ) of the North Island of New Zealand is a 250- by 60-km
zone of young silicic and andesitic volcanoes that occupies a north-northeast-trending
structural depression. The TVZ consists of offshore andesitic composite cones to the
northeast, a central section containing at least six caldera complexes, and a southern
center consisting of andesitic composite cones. The central part of the TVZ, which is
~125 by 60 km, is mostly made up of silicic calderas and has a geothermal resource of
~2000 MWe Donaldson and Grant, 1978). An assessment of the geothermal resource
potential for individual fields in the TVZ is presented in Table 4.2.
The central section of the TVZ reaches elevations of 300 to 600 m and the depth to
basement within the graben is 500 to 1000 m below sea level (Healy, 1982). The
basement is even lower below the calderas themselves. Rogan (1982) found steep
gravity gradients at the TVZ margins and conservatively estimated that the volume of
tuffs, lavas, and associated sedimentary rocks within the central TVZ is ~12,000 km
3
.
Much of the activity responsible for this erupted material occurred during the past 1
million years.
The calderas of the TVZ have been favorable targets for geothermal drilling and
development for many decades, but comprehensive volcanological studies of the
calderas are more recent (for an excellent summary paper, see Wilson et al ., 1984).
We chose to discuss here the well-known Wairakei geothermal field, which is the site of
one of New Zealand's largest geothermal generating plants.
- 171 -

Table 4.2. Assessment of New Zealand High-Grade Hydrothermal Geothermal Resources
a

Estimate$ Electrical "oer "otential (M&e )
b
Fiel$
c
Area (3m
2
) Maximum Temperature
(7C*
"ro#en
d
4n%erre$
d
Speculati#e
e
Wairakei 15 270 150 - -
Tauhara 14-16 280 100 80 -
Broadlands 11 300 120 30 -
Kaweru 6-10 290 100 - 30
Waiotapu-Reporoa 8-12 295 - 150 100
Orakei Korako 6-10 260 - 50 50
Rotokawa 8-12 300 - 50 100
Ngawha 30-50 300 (?) - 400 500
Tikitere-Taheke 12 270 (?) - 75 75
Waimangu 12 270 (?) - 50 100
Te Kopia 5 240 - 20 20
Tokaanu-Waihi 4 steam field - - 100
Ketetahi ? - - 25 -
!otal 1()
e

(*) +&) 1)*,
a
Adapted from Rowley (1982).
b
Installed capacity, accounting for reservoir recovery factor and conversion efficiency.
c
Lack of sufficient information has precluded the inclusion of areas like Atiamuri, Mokai, and Ngatamariki, which are
under consideration.
d
'roven = That part of the accessible resource base, resource, or reserve whose size can be computed from
geochemical, geological, and geophysical data, drillhole data and reservoir engineering measurements. /nferred = That
part of a geothermal resource base, resource or reserve whose size can be inferred on the basis of geochemical,
geophysical, or geological evidence, but for which there is little if any corroborating drillhole data. Speculative =
Regions where useful geothermal heat is likely to exist, but has not yet been positively identified.
e
Projected 110,000-MWelectrical for 140 km
2
of high-grade, liquid-dominated reservoirs.
%aroa #ol$ani$ 'enter and 0aira.ei "eothermal Field
The Wairakei geothermal field is located along the common boundary of the Maroa and
Taupo volcanic centers, following north-northeast-trending faults that cross both centers
(Fig. 4.22). Maroa has a negative gravity anomaly that Rogan (1982) modeled as a 15-
by 10-km basement depression with a volume of 250 km
3
below the local base level (-
1000 m). Wilson et al . (1984) used magnetic data to interpret the presence of thick
caldera deposits in the area.
The Maroa center has developed during the last 250,000 years. Its oldest rocks,
the rhyolitic domes of the Western dome belt, appear to have erupted along a basement
graben during the same time period in which the central dome complex was erupted.
The basin is filled mostly with interbedded rhyolite lavas and poorly to nonwelded
ignimbrites. Domes exposed at the surface form north-northeast-trending clusters that
are parallel to the normal faults of the area [Figs. 4.22 (a) and (b)] and overlap domes
of the Taupo volcanic center. The youngest eruption, (14 to 15 ka) was a small, partly
- 172 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.22
(see also pages 173 and 174) Maroa volcanic center and Wairakei Geothermal field in N
ew Zealand.
(a) Simplified geologic map showing the location of the two basins (calderas?). Depth to
basement
along contour line is ~1500 m. The Wairakei geothermal field and rhyolite domes of Mar
oa are shown.
(Adapted from Wilson et al ., 1984.)
- 173 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.22
(b)Structural map of the Wairakei geothermal field shows location of the cross-section d
epicted in (c).
(Adapted from Grindley, 1965)
phreatomagmatic eruption; this explosive activity was followed by a dome
eruption. The summary of eruption activity presented in Table 4.3 was compiled by
Wilson et al . (1984).
Within the Wairakei geothermal area, ignimbrites and associated rocks thicken
from west to east and into a depression bounded by fault scarps. The area now defined
as the Wairakei Basin is part of the Maroa volcanic center. The Wairakei Ignimbrites
described by Grindley (1965) are more than 520 m thick and consist of several sheets
separated by "pumiceous sediments" (perhaps pumice fallout or surge deposits).
Grindley also reported that the younger Huka Group, which Wilson et al . (1984) called
the Maroa-derived ignimbrites, includes sequences of "pumice breccia," ignimbrites,
phreatomagmatic tuffs, and tuffaceous lacustrine sedimentary rocks. This group
thickens from 713 m-over the Wairakei fault-bounded horst-to >1.2 km in the
Wairakei Basin [Fig. 4.22 (c)]. Overlying the Huka Group is the "Wairakei Breccia"
(Grindley, 1965), which was renamed the "Wairakei Formation" by Self and Healy
(1987); these deposits, erupted 20,000 years ago, consist of pumice falls, fine-grained
ashfalls, and nonwelded ignimbrites.
The rhyolite domes of the Central Dome Complex and the Maroa-derived
ignimbrites have been intersected by drillholes along a northeast-trending line from the
western perimeter of the Wairakei geothermal field toward the Central Dome complex
visible at the surface. The domes are interbedded with tuffs of the Maroa-derived
pyroclastic rocks, and the entire section is overlain by thin deposits of the youngest
Taupo ignimbrites.
- 174 -
The greatest hydrothermal activity is located along a 3.2- by 3.2-km northeast-trending
horst, which is close to the boundary between the Taupo and Maroa volcanic centers.
Grindley (1965) found that much of the geothermal fluid movement is along deep-
seated faults running parallel to major horsts and grabens (Fig. 4.22b). Some phreatic
craters are also located along fault traces. The greatest permeability is found along fault
zones, although there may be some formation permeability within non-welded
ignimbrites. Drilling along these faults has intersected hydrothermally altered fault
breccias that are cemented by hydrothermal minerals. At Wairakei, the most productive
wells are sited on the downthrown side of surface fault traces, whereas wells sited on
the upthrown side were less productive (Grindley, 1965). Wells drilled away from faults
encountered impermeable, cemented pyroclastic rocks and did not produce geothermal
fluids.
There is some difference of opinion about the origin of the Maroa and Wairakei
basins. Grindley (1965) interpreted them as volcano-tectonic, with emphasis on the
tectonic aspects. On the other hand, Wilson et al . (1984) interpreted the center as a
caldera that underlies the central rhyolitic dome complex; these authors comment,
however,
[Full Size]
Fig. 4.22
(c) Cross-section through the Wairakei geothermal field, showing increasing thickness of
the
Maroa-derived ignimbrites into the Wairakei basin.
(Adapted from Grindley, 1965.)
- 175 -
that there is little surface evidence for such a caldera complex. By examining the data
presented by both sets of authors, it is possible to come up with at least one additional
interpretation that is based on several points.
Depths to basement presented by Wilson et al . [Fig. 4.22 (b)] indicate the
presence of two overlapping basins: the Wairakei, with a depth to basement graywacke
of 2000 m, and the unnamed basin below the central dome complex, with a depth to
basement of 2500 m.
The variety of ignimbrites and associated rocks (the Maroa-derived ignimbrites
described by Wilson et al . and the Huka Group and Wairakei Ignimbrite referenced by
Grindley) that thicken into the Wairakei basin could be evidence for multiple ignimbrite
eruptions and associated caldera collapse.
There are multiple overlapping calderas in the Maroa volcanic center and two of
them correspond to the basins defined by depth to basement.
Whichever the interpretation of the history and makeup of the Maroa volcanic
center one accepts, all the indicators for the presence of a geothermal system are here:
surface manifestations (including phreatic craters, hot springs, and fumaroles),
numerous normal faults, multiple young ignimbrite units, and young silicic domes and
flows.

Table 4.3 Summary of Volcanic Activity at the Maroa Center
a
Feature
Age
(in +,,, !r*
0utcrop
Area (3m
2
)
Volume
(3m
3
)
E8ui#alent
Magma
Volume
(3m
3
) 1otes
Puketarata Eruption 14-15 - <1 <1 Partly phreatomagmatic
activity, followed by formation
of a small dome
Central Dome Complex ~200-~40 - ~20 20 Flows and domes; some
explosive activity
Maroa-Derived Ignimbrites, Including
Atiamuri, Haparangi, Huka, Orakunui,
and Ohakuri Ignimbrites and Pumice
Breccias
230-?50
?
~1000 <250 100 Poorly welded to nonwelded
ignimbrite surround the Maroa
center; internal stratigraphy is
uncertain
Ongaroto Basalt ~90 - <<1 - Scoria plus small lava flow
Western Dome Belt >230? - ~20 20 Lava flows and domes
Caldera Fill ?230-?50 - 250 150 Approximate volumes
!otal -2,).present ,,) 2+)

a
Compiled from Grindley (1960), Healy et al . (1964), Thompson (1966), Stipp (1968), and unpublished field work by B.F.
Houghton. (From Wilson et al ., 1984.)
Chapter ,
%ilicic /o$es0
1eat 2lo3 around %$all4 "volved 'ag$a 5odies
[Full Size]
Silicic domes are distinct volcanic structures associated with nearly all types of
volcanic landforms; they are perhaps the most common surface expression of evolved
magma bodies. Domes and dome complexes are generally found in both early and late
stages of silicic caldera evolution. These domes and dome complexes, sometimes the
only volcanic feature found in a volcanic field, characterize late stages of composite
cone evolution and often form along major tectonic lineaments.
Distinct hydrothermal systems develop below and within silicic domes. The heat
source provided by dome lavas is usually short-lived and of little hydrothermal
significance, but persistent hydrothermal systems manifested in and around domes are
a good indicator of a much larger thermal source at depth below the field. Such thermal
sources are commonly moderate-sized, differentiated magma bodies. These
hydrothermal systems generally develop in pyroclastic strata and fractured country
rocks below the dome that were formed during the initial stages of dome eruption. The
systems manifest themselves as fumarolic areas and exhibit extensive hydrothermal
alteration in and around the dome. Ishikawa (1970) noted that most geothermal areas
in Japan are located in Quaternary volcanic zones, where andesitic and dacitic domes or
spines plug crater vents, and in Tertiary volcanic districts that are closely related to
intrusions of viscous, acidic magmas.
The following discussions review volcanological characteristics and models of
domes as well as their lavas and tephras, the
- 178 -
geothermal systems below that are manifested by these domes, and the relationships
among the tectonic setting, magma composition, country rock, and the hydrothermal
system. Case histories are drawn from geothermal studies at Coso volcanic field of
California, the Usu area of Japan, and the Terre Blanche-Belfond dome complex in the
Qualibou caldera of St. Lucia.
"ilicic Domes and Extrusion of Viscous +ava
Extrusions of viscous lava form domes in many different volcanic settings during the
evolutionary stages of volcanic fields. Because viscosity depends on thermal,
compositional, and textural factors, lava compositions from andesite to rhyolite can
display relatively high viscosities (10
5
to 10
12
Pa/s; Murase and McBirney, 1973);
therefore, the rheology of such viscous fluids is the dominant feature in controlling
extrusion mechanisms.
'ommon "eologi$ Settings
Table 5.1 lists some common occurrences of domes in various volcanic settings. The
most common are lava domes of dacite and rhyolite that form before and after caldera
collapse. These extrusions, which generally appear in groups of at least several vents
along major structural features such as ring faults and resurgent cores in calderas, are
manifestations of larger bodies of differentiated magma at depth. Silicic domes are
frequently associated with composite cones in late evolutionary stages (see the
discussion in Chapter 7). In these cases, domes form either plugs in the central vent
region of the cone or parasitic vents around the flanks of a composite cone. Silicic
domes may also occur as isolated extrusions along major tectonic lineaments such as
grabens near plate boundaries and rifts. In addition, domes appear in or near explosion
craters that are created by gaseous bursts preceding the extrusion of viscous lava.
Evolution and Internal Stru$ture
Figure 5.1 illustrates a common evolutionary scheme for silicic domes. Preceding
activity is usually marked by the passive or explosive release of gases at depth above a
rising mass of viscous lava. Such a release might be characterized by only fumarolic
activity and bulging ground. On the other hand, the gases can be released in violent
explosions when high-pressure gases from either vaporized groundwater or the gas-rich
top of the magma body burst through the ground surface in crater-producing eruptions.
Because of the high viscosity of dome lavas, the extrusion process may continue over
periods of months to years. Figure 5.2 depicts types of domes, including both
endogenous and exogenous forms. The lava structures formed at domes are distinctive
because of the complex rheology as a result of lavas ranging from viscous to

Table 5.1. Common Occurrences of Silicic Domes
0ccurrence Composition Structural Relationships
Calderas Dacitic-Rhyolitic Precaldera tumescence; Ring fracture volcanism;
Resurgent volcanism
Composite Cones Andesitic-Rhyolitic Vent plug; Flank intrusion/extrusion; Parasitic structures
Rifts and Grabens Dacitic-Rhyolitic Rift-filling dome complex; Rift-margin lineaments;
Horst extrusions
- 179 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.1
Idealized diagram showing the eruptive evolution of silicic domes. (a) Magma with volati
le-rich
pumiceous top approaches surface. (b) Initial pyroclastic eruption in which volatiles and
pumice
erupt to form tuff ring. (c) Cessation of explosive eruptions and emplacement of coarsel
y pumiceous
rhyolite lava. (d) Extrusion of obsidian over coarse pumice. (e) Development of a mantl
e of finely
pumiceous lava. (f) Final extrusion of crystalline rhyolite.
(Adapted from Fink, 1983.)
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.2
Forms of endogenous and exogenous domes, showing various fracture foliations. (a) Up
heaved,
exogenous dome similar to that illustrated in Fig. 5.1. (b) Pelean dome showing vent s
pines,
blocky fracture, and development of talus aprons. (c) Detail of vent spine of Mont Pele
(from Lacroix, 1904).
(d) Exogenous dome that discharges viscous flow lobes from a summit vent. (e) Intrusi
ve
dome in which viscous magma body is emplaced just below the earth's
surface and maintains a carapace of upwarped strata.
(Adapted from Williams and McBirney, 1979.)
- 180 -
partly solidified. These lava flows exhibit behavior varying from that of a Bingham fluid
to that of a brittle, plastic rock (Shaw, 1972; Hulme, 1974; Fink, 1980a).
The surfaces of silicic lava domes are characterized by a wide variety of textures
that produce variations of color, flow layering, crystallinity, and vesicularity. Fractures
and foliations in the lava are useful for mapping the surface of domes-and especially
for locating the vent area (Fink, 1983; Fink and Pollard, 1983). Figure 5.3 illustrates the
development of foliations in lava domes, and Fig. 5.4 shows surface distributions of flow
features at an obsidian flow.
Silicic dome lavas generally develop a textural stratigraphy related to their cooling,
vesiculation, and crystallization during extrusion (Fig. 5.5; Figs. 5 and 7 in Fink and
Manley, 1987). However, such textural features can easily be mistaken for those that
develop during the welding of pyroclastic flows. Basal tephra layers are often found
because dome extrusions are commonly initiated by pyroclastic eruptions of the gasrich
tops of silicic bodies; but a flow breccia, if found above the tephra layer, can distinguish
dome/lava-flow stratigraphy from that of welded ash flows. Obsidian layers near the
base and top of the flow stratigraphy are similar to the quench vitrophyres that develop
in similar positions in welded ash flows. The central portion of dome/lava-flow
stratigraphy consists of crystalline lava, which frequently contains lithophysae. This
textural type grades upwards into glassy and pumiceous zones that can be mixed into
the crystalline part of the flow; in such a complex textural case, it is again difficult to
distinguish the lava textures from those of welded pyroclastic deposits. However,
scanning electron microscope analysis may differentiate the origin of the complex
textural character. For example, vestiges of shard and pumice textures, revealed by
electron microscopy, are very flattened and elongated in welded tephra. This distinction
is very difficult to observe in rheomorphologically deformed tuffs, and field relationships
are used to determine the dome origin of silicic volcanic rocks (Bonnichsen and
Kauffman, 1987). Fink and Manley (1987) noted that small domes display little textural
variation and usually display structural evidence of their vent geometry. This is not the
case for larger silicic lava extrusions because they can exhibit all the textural features
discussed above.
Fink and Manley (1987) discuss three principal steps in the development of
textures in silicic lava flows and domes.
(1) Crystallization and the accompanying release of magmatic volatiles is strongly
related to cooling rate and flow stresses.
(2) Microcracks, formed during the lava's advance, allow gases to escape upward.
(3) Quenching of the upper surface creates a crust of high yield strength that
resists flow deformations.
These three processes result in the formation of a gas-rich, low-density layer below
the crust that can rise buoyantly. This layer eventually may break through the surface
crust, producing the banded appearance of silicic lava flow surfaces. Bonnichsen and
Kauffman's (1987) summary for the development of rhyolite lava flow textures is shown
in Table 5.2.
#ephra Deposits Associated -ith "ilicic Domes
Pyroclastic activity accompanies most phases of dome growth and is manifested as
explosive activity. Newhall and Melson (1987) analyzed explosive activity during
volcanic dome growth with respect to history, rate of growth and petrologic controls.
Heiken and Wohletz (1987) reviewed dome-related tephra deposits and proposed four
main types of eruptions (Fig. 5.6):
(1) Plinian and phreatomagmatic eruptions preceding dome growth,
- 181 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.3
Schematic diagram of lava foliation development. Successive block diagrams show the g
radual rise of
coarse pumice diapirs while fractures propagate into the flow along the axes of flow and
diapir
anticlines. Fink (1980b) reported that the diapirs form in response to a density inversion
between
the relatively dense obsidian overlying the coarse pumice at the base of the flow.
(Adapted from Fink, 1983.)
- 182 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.4
Illustration of the surface geology of a rhyolite flow. This map depicts the northwestern l
obe of
the Little Glass Mountain flow in northern California; the cross-sectional profile is from n
orth to
south along the line . Obsidian is designated as "ob,"
and the coarse pumice diapirs are denoted "cp."
(Adapted from Fink, 1983.)
(2) periodic Vulcanian explosions during dome growth,
(3) Pelean and Merapian activity resulting in dome destruction, and
(4) phreatic explosions during hydrothermal and fumarolic activity.
Table 5.3 summarizes the characteristics of tephra produced by these types of
eruptions, and they are discussed in more detail here.
Initial &linian and &hreatomagmati$ Eruptions
Magmatic and hydromagmatic eruptions, which commonly herald new extrusions of
dome lavas, create tuff rings and cones around vent craters. These eruptions follow
depressurization of the gas-rich rising magma and its interaction with ground and
surface water.
- 183 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.5
Textural stratigraphy of dome lava. The cross section shows rhyolite lava-flow stratigrap
hy resulting
from the eruption scenario outlined in Fig. 5.1. The profile of density, based upon actual
measurements, shows an important density inversion at the top of the coarse pumice th
at
promotes coarse pumice diapirism. The temperature profile is calculated by conductive c
ooling,
assuming a constant internal temperature, and it shows a steep surface gradient that ca
uses
fracturing. The viscosity profile is based on the laboratory measurements of Friedman
et al . (1963).
(Adapted from Fink, 1983, and Fink and Manley, 1987.)
Figure 5.7 schematically illustrates tephra production that precedes dome
formation. Magmatic eruptions produce pumice and ash deposits of a Plinian type,
whereas phreatomagmatic (hydrovolcanic ) explosions result in fine-ash dispersal during
pyroclastic surges and flows, which creates a tuff ring. Such eruptions usually produce
most of the tephra associated with domes, but Heiken (1978b) found that their volume
generally is relatively small (<0.1 km
3
) to moderate (1.0 km
3
). Near the vent, these
tephra are well bedded and capped by lavas from the dome. Where the tephra extend
several to tens of kilometers away from the vent, fallout layers are the most common
expression.
#ul$anian Eruptive 'y$les
Occurring during both growth and destructive phases of dome activity, Vulcanian
eruptions tend to be periodic-especially where dome growth is prolonged by new
magma
- 184 -

Table 5.2. Textural Features of Silicic Domes and Lava Flows During Major Eruptive Phases
a
[Full Size]

a From Bonnichsen and Kauffman (1987).
rising into previously constructed domes and plugs. Well-documented examples of such
activity come from Soufriere of St. Vincent in the West Indies (Shepherd and
Sigurdsson, 1982), and the type locality of the Fossa Cone on the Island of Vulcano,
Italy (Frazzetta et al ., 1983). Typical tephra deposits consist of ash and lapilli falls,
thinly bedded coarse and fine ash, dry and wet surge beds, and lahars. Distinctive of
Vulcanian tephra are coarse ash deposits that contain blocky fragments of obsidian,
older lavas, and poorly vesicular glass. Pumice fragments tend to be deposited during
later stages of the eruptions when new magma reaches the surface and becomes highly
vesicular. Most tephra erupted during Vulcanian dome destruction are those typical of
hydrovolcanism (Fig. 5.8).
The cyclic activity of Vulcanian tephra production at domes is closely related to
both the periodicity of magma rise within the volcano and vent-clearing explosions that
provide a pathway for the new magma through older dome lavas. Such cycles are
typical of composite cones in late stages of evolution (see Fig. 2.16) when sequences of
wet, and then dry, hydrovolcanism are followed by magmatic pumice eruptions and
finally by silicic lava emplacement. In areas of coalescing domes, such as ring fracture
areas, the cycle may only occur once, leaving a blanket of tephra over older dome
lavas.
- 185 -

Table 5.3. Dome Tephra Characteristics
a
Eruption T!pe Deposits Grain Size Tephra Composition Texture
Initial Venting

Magmatic Plinian pumice
fall and flow
Coarse fall
(near vent)
(0 to 3f )
Magma composition Vesicular, angular
Phreatomagmatic Dry surge Fine ash (0 to 3f ) Slight to moderate
surface alteration
Nonvesicular; slablike
and abraded;
accretionary lapilli
Vulcanian Wet and dry surge; coarse
and fine fallout
Coarse to fine ash
(-2 to 4f )
Fresh magma and lithic
clasts
Poorly vesicular
and blocky
Pelean and Merapian Poorly bedded avalanche
and flow; bedded ash
cloud surge
Blocks and ash
(-5 to 1f )
Lithic clasts;
some juvenile
component
Poorly vesicular
and blocky
Phreatic Poorly bedded thin ash
and lapilli mantle
Fine ash and minor
lapilli (-1 to 3f )
Altered lithic clasts Aggregated;
complex shapes;
"muddy"
a
From Heiken and Wohletz (1987).
&el4ean and %erapian ome estru$tion
Tephra deposits found on the flanks of silicic domes developed from disintegration of
the extruded lava either closely following or years after its extrusion (Pelean and
Merapian, respectively). Such deposits consist of poorly vesicular lithic pyroclasts that
were derived from partly to completely solidified lavas emplaced as block and ash flows.
Some examples of these products are provided by the 1902 eruption of Mont Pele,
Martinique (Fisher and Heiken, 1982) and the block and ash flows of the 1930 dome
collapse at Merapi, Java (Neumann van Padang, 1931). Figure 5.9 illustrates two types
of dome destruction, both of which began with the brittle failure of lava. At Mont Pele,
the recently extruded lava spine was apparently highly charged with gas trapped in
vesicles; when the lava crumbled, the vesicles violently discharged gas-and thus drove
the comminution of the lava. At Santiaguito dome in Guatemala, the front of a silicic
lava flow collapsed and disintegrated into a pyroclastic flow because of trapped gases
(Rose et al ., 1976). The mechanical strength of the lava can degrade, which produces
explosions; this situation is often connected to fumarolic activity. Hydrothermally
altered lithic fragments are common in tephra of Pelean and Merapian activity.
&hreati$ Eruptions
Phreatic explosions usually produce craters in the vent and fumarolic areas of silicic
domes and lava flows. They also produce mantling layers of fine-grained tephra,
explosion breccias, and small tuff rings and cones. Although phreatic tephra do not
generally contain juvenile components, it is understood that phreatic activity can be a
precursor to magmatic eruptions, as is shown in Fig. 5.10. The tephra most frequently
associated with favorable geothermal prospects in domes are accidental lithic fragments
that are strongly
- 186 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.6
Stratigraphic relations of dome tephra. Four principal occurrences are schematically illus
trated:
(a) Plinian and phreatomagmatic eruptions of tuff rings and cones (shown with overflowi
ng lava
plug), (b) coalescing domes with phreatic and phreatomagmatic carapaces, (c) Plinian, f
ar-field
pumice falls and flows, and (d) Pelean avalanches and Vulcanian intercalated tephra (fl
ank
deposits) at polygenetic domes and composite cones.
(Adapted from Heiken and Wohletz, 1987.)
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.7
Schematic illustration of initial Plinian
and phreatomagmatic eruptions
(a) in an initial Plinian stage and
(b) followed by phreatomagmatic explosions.
(Adapted from Heiken and Wohletz, 1987.)
altered and coated with clays. In many cases, phreatic tephra deposits are limited
to areas where strong hydrothermal activity has led to a build-up of high-pressure
steam below or within a sealed caprock. Failure of the caprock results in steam
explosions and the formation of phreatic pits and ejecta layers.
Hydrothermal systems associated with silicic domes take on configurations that are
controlled by dome stratigraphy and structure as well as the structural setting of the
region. Even though the heat contained in dome lavas may be relatively insignificant,
that provided by an underlying differentiated intrusion can drive hydrothermal
convection if sufficient water is present. Because water is a fundamental component of
eruptions of silicic domes, in this chapter we will reiterate its function and expression in
eruption phenomena and then illustrate its subsequent hydrothermal behavior through
hypothetical models.
- 187 -
!ydrothermal "ystems Associated -ith Domes
-ole of 0ater in ome Eruptions
In the above descriptions of dome-related tephra, water from either meteoric or
magmatic sources is the primary volatile phase that leads to pyroclast formation.
Magmatic water is widely recognized as a primary phase that contributes to the
formation of pumice and promotes Plinian tephra emissions. The same water has a
profound effect on the development of dome lava textures such as flow foliation,
crystallization, vesiculation, and fumarolic (vapor-phase) alteration. The latter effect is
especially important in weakening the dome and making it vulnerable to future phreatic
or Merapian bursts that produce tephra. On the other hand, meteoric waters also
contribute to fumarolic and phreatic activity, and it may be difficult to distinguish its
effects from those of magmatic water.
Because water is of such consequence in hydrothermal systems, it is important to
identify any evidence of its presence in the dome. The best evidence is hydrovolcanic
activity, which is common in the pyroclastic activity that precedes dome extrusion.
However, meteoric water is also vital for Vulcanian activity during dome growth. The
presence of lahars on dome flanks is most reliable in identifying the presence of
meteoric water, whether from rainfall or from saturated conditions of fractured, porous
lavas beneath the dome. In the case of either magmatic or hydrovolcanic explosive
activity, tephra layers provide avenues for water circulation in hydrothermal systems
that are driven by residual magma heat below the dome.
Heiken and Wohletz (1987) discussed the migration of magmatic and meteoric
water in dome magma systems as a diffusion process and emphasized that this process
can proceed at many different rates, often
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.8
Schematic illustration of Vulcanian tephra
associated with dome destruction in
(a) preeruptive and (b) eruptive stages.
(Adapted from Heiken and Wohletz, 1987.)
well above those established by laboratory measurements (Shaw, 1972). High
effective diffusion rates are expected for hydrovolcanic situations in which meteoric
water diffuses from host rocks into the rising magma to cause magma/water
interactions such as explosive phenomena and the pervasive chemical alteration of
tephra. The development of lithophysae and vaporphase alteration and crystallization,
which are generally attributed to magmatic water diffusion in extruded lava, can
proceed at rates higher than those expected for slow molecular diffusion because of
fracture flow of vapors produced by degassing and devitrification of glass to nonhydrous
phases. We mention these processes to emphasize the importance of recognition of the
presence of water in silicic dome systems.
- 188 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.9
Schematic illustration of Pelean and Merapian
dome destruction. (a) An initial failure of the
dome leads to a landslide followed by
decompression of trapped vapors, which
produces a rapidly moving pyroclastic avalanche
and surge. (b) This scenario, described by
Fisher and Heiken (1982), can be promoted by
intrusion of volatile-rich magma, which may vent
after dome failure (c). (d) Destruction of lava
flow fronts that are weakened by fumarolic
activity also produces block and ash flows,
as proposed by Rose et al . (1976).
(Adapted from Heiken and Wohletz, 1987.)
"eothermal System %odels
The following discussion of geothermal systems associated with domes presents some
possible models for hydrothermal circulation that reflect conditions observed in the field,
some of which have contributed to exploitable geothermal systems. These models
include systems associated with
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.10
Schematic illustration of phreatic tephra
associated with silicic domes. (a) A passive
fumarolic stage might be enhanced by a rapid
change in hydrothermal flux so that (b) vigorous
vapor emission opens a vent and discharges
lithic ash and lahars (Heiken et al ., 1980)
(Adapted from Heiken and Wohletz, 1987.)
tephra aprons surrounding domes,
cratered domes,
faulted domes,
dome complexes,
caldera ring fault domes, and
caldera resurgent extrusive domes.
The models highlight the importance of pyroclastic materials in locating
hydrothermal systems. Each of these dome types may be modeled by the heat flow
program discussed in Chapter 2.
A review of pyroclastic rock physical properties indicates that pumiceous materials
range in bulk density from 200 to 1200 kg/m
3
, and
- 189 -
bedded ash-often less vesicular because of its hydrovolcanic origin-may range from
1000 to 1500 kg/m
3
. If a particle density of 2300 kg/m
3
is assumed, pumice has a void
space between 50 and 90%; bedded ash varies from 35 to 60% void space. The
primary permeability of pyroclastic rocks is provided by both vesicles and intergranular
spaces. Whitham and Sparks (1986) showed that at temperatures >150C, the pumice
vesicles are effectively interconnected and readily allow absorption and movement of
water. However, the primary permeability of pyroclastic materials can rapidly decay
during hydrothermal circulation because circulation promotes the solution of glass and
the redeposition of silica and secondary minerals that effectively seal the tephra.
#ephra Aprons
Figure 5.11 depicts a hypothetical dome extruded over a tephra collar that resulted
from initial explosive eruptions. The collar extends down into the vent area and defines
the crater and tuff ring apron onto which lava was extruded. Porous tephra allows
hydrothermal fluids to rise convectively. The heat source is a magma conduit below the
dome; water in the country rock below the dome promotes heat convection upward into
the tephra. In this situation, fumarolic activity at the base of the dome demonstrates
the existence of the hydrothermal system, which is locally capped by dome lavas. The
dome lavas have a lower permeability and do not permit much heat transfer.
ratered Domes
Figure 5.12 depicts a second hypothetical case: a dome with a crater formed by either
Vulcanian or phreatic activity that was driven by intrusion of magma below the dome.
Below the crater, a region of strongly fractured lava and breccia provides a pathway for
the convective rise of hydrothermal fluids from the cooling magma at depth. Here again,
the water supply is from country
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.11
Schematic illustration of geothermal system in
which a vapor-dominated zone is concentrated
in the porous tephra apron. This very
hypothetical system is based on heat
transported convectively from a magma
chamber at depth below the dome upwards
along the vent conduit.
rock into which the magma has intruded. In such a situation, the dome will have a
mantle of Vulcanian or phreatic tephra that provides evidence of the explosive origin of
the crater. By examining the isotopic and chemical nature of fumarolic gases and rock
alteration in the crater, it is possible to determine the origin of the vapors, whether
solely magmatic (and hence limited) or meteoric and of potential economic significance.
*aulted Domes
Figure 5.13 presents a dome cut by a fault that has triggered collapse of the dome-
perhaps in a Merapian fashion. The fault has fractured lavas and basement rock
sufficiently to allow strong convection of hydrothermal fluids into the dome. The
fumarolic alteration of fault breccias and related pyroclastic breccias is evidence of the
convective heat source. In this case, the tectonic activity has altered heat flow from
depth and, where residual magmatic heat exists below the dome, the faulting provides a
new circulation pathway.
- 190 -
Dome omplexes
Where numerous dome extrusions have occurred in a volcanic field (for example, along
the ring fault system of a caldera or within a graben), lavas and dome-related tephra
layers overlap. The lavas act as caprocks and the pyroclastic layers serve as geothermal
reservoirs. Figure 5.14 illustrates such a situation in which heat from the youngest
eruptive activity drives hydrothermal circulation below: steam reservoirs exist at some
depth below the dome and in older tephra layers. In areas consisting of many
overlapping dome extrusions, high conductive heat flow at the surface may indicate a
convective system at depth.
aldera Domes
Two cases of caldera-related dome extrusions are depicted in Fig. 5.15. In one case,
domes along the ring faults manifest magma intrusions at depth that control the
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.12
A cratered dome may have a prolonged
fumarolic stage during which a convective
system develops within the crater conduit in
response to a new magma body
intruded at depth.
overall heat flow toward the margins of the caldera. In the other case, resurgence
of the caldera creates a structural or extrusive dome that may produce hydrothermal
convection towards the center of the caldera. In the first instance, recharge of the
hydrothermal system is strongly controlled by the hydrology of the down-thrown region
of the caldera, which acts as a ground-water concentrator or trap. In the instance of the
resurgent caldera, the hydrothermal system is recharged from higher topographic
regions surrounding the caldera. Both of these models are simplified, but they
demonstrate the way convective heat flow in calderas can develop in diverse manners.
There is no simple rule-of-thumb that is adequate for determining where to explore in a
caldera. The existence and locations of young silicic domes are helpful in predicting
recharge and outflow areas of possible hydrothermal systems.
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.13
Tectonic activity at a relatively young dome
produces fracture pathways along newly
activated faults; this activity allows deep
circulation of meteoric water downwards to a
still-hot magma body at depth. Such a faulted
dome may develop vigorous fumarolic activity
as a surface manifestation of a subsurface
hydrothermal system, but gradual sealing of
the fractures by alteration minerals and silica
will eventually slow the fluid convection.
- 191 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.14
Dome complexes form when lavas overlap their related pyroclastic sheets. The stratigra
phy of a dome
field is characterized by various potential hydrothermal reservoirs in porous and formati
on-permeable
pyroclastic strata that are capped by one or more impervious lavas. Most recent dome e
ruptions
result from renewed thermal infusion from related magma bodies at depth. Vapor-
dominated reservoirs
characterize upper pyroclastic horizons, whereas deeper ones may be brine-filled.
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.15
Caldera domes form both (a) along ring fracture zones of calderas and (b) within the re
surgent cores.
The character of caldera-fill materials and their formation permeability works in conjunc
tion with
caldera faults to allow deep circulation of meteoric water. The magma conduits below su
ch zones
probably occur directly above the caldera magma chamber, where it is closest to the sur
face.
Because silicic caldera magma bodies are relatively large, hydrothermal systems develo
ping below
related dome structures may have prolonged activity and high heat flux.
- 192 -
Stru$tural Influen$es
In addition to the localized stratigraphic and volcanic structure that influences the
development of geothermal systems associated with domes, regional structure and
tectonics can also strongly affect these hydrothermal systems. Six structural settings for
domes and their effect on the development of hydrothermal circulation are (1) caldera
faults; (2) extensional block faulting; (3) tectonic plate convergence; (4) basin fill; (5)
intrusive deformation, sector grabens, and radial faults around volcanoes; and (6)
volcanic fracture systems. These features, four of which we briefly discuss here, are of
more regional significance than the models discussed above.
aldera *aults
Figure 5.16 shows the pattern created by the intersection of regional linear faults with
the ring faults of a caldera. In this example drawn from the Qualibou caldera on the
island of St. Lucia in the West Indies (Wohletz et al ., 1986), the youngest domes are
expressions of caldera resurgence. The regional and still active fault system controls the
location of fumarolic activity
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.16
Structural control of domes associated with
calderas is generally related to regional fault
trends and caldera ring fractures. Because
regional faults may remain active long after
caldera tectonics have declined, the most
recent dome activity will be found
along such faults.
near the young extrusions. Young faults are important because they maintain a
fracture permeability in rocks that otherwise are sealed by secondary minerals and
silica. Where regional faults intersect caldera ring faults, greater fracture permeability
can also be expected. Although the presence of young dome lavas and pyroclastic
materials is useful for determining a potential geothermal area, it is the structural
elements that are the most significant when actually locating a hydrothermal system.
0loc1 *aulting and Grabens
Strongly developed block faults can localize extrusive features such as domes. Figure
5.17 depicts a hypothetical dome that is emplaced along the margins of a graben deeply
filled with several kilometers of sediments. The hydrology of the graben is influenced by
both the topographically high recharge areas in surrounding horst blocks and the deep,
permeable graben fill. Such a situation promotes not only deep circulation of meteoric
waters but also the development of extensive hydrothermal convection along margins of
the intrusive body below the dome. In such cases, it is difficult to characterize the
geothermal potential as either volcanic or tectonic. Block faulting in extensional areas
may result in a thinner crust and greater heat flow so that deep circulation of meteoric
water alone can develop a geothermal system. However, the same tectonic regime is
typical of volcanic systems that develop in rifts.
(ntrusive Deformation
Silicic domes indicate the existence of intrusive bodies at depth. Figure 5.18 illustrates a
situation in which a laccolith is associated with a dome in a compressed tectonic region.
The laccolithic intrusion has domed and created concentric and radial faults in the
country rocks above it. An intrusion such as a laccolith or a buried
- 193 -
dike can produce small phreatic craters (Miller, 1985; Fink, 1985) of structural features
of localized extensional surface deformation (Mastin and Pollard, 1990).
Henry and Price (1990) described laccolithic doming associated with caldera
formation in the Christmas Mountains of Trans-Pecos, Texas. Most of the magmatism in
this area is expressed as small (1- to 4-km-diameter) laccolithic intrusions that
commonly involve high-silica, peralkaline rhyolites and quartz trachyte. These intrusions
have formed structural domes of steeply tilted sedimentary strata. Field relations show
that these domes were emplaced along ring fractures during the evolution of larger
caldera structures. Numerous sills occurring around the flanks of the laccolithic domes
are cut by radial faults that probably formed in response to the deformation associated
with dome intrusion.
0asin *ill
A basin filled with lahars shed from a dome on the basin margin is shown in Fig. 5.19.
Lahars can be impervious to fluid flow because of the cementation mechanisms
promoted by ash carried in lahars. In the model shown, the lahars have capped
pyroclastic materials erupted earlier from the dome. Hydrothermal circulation below the
dome is confined within the pyroclastic strata, and hot water flows from the dome into
the basin below the laharic apron. In such cases, lahars mask the geothermal system at
depth and geophysical or geochemical methods are needed to confirm the existence of
the system in the basin.
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.17
The block faults that bound basins in extensional terranes frequently have long histories
and deep
extensions. This structure may be accompanied by sufficient crustal heat flow to cause c
rustal
melting (for example, by basalt intrusion) and silicic dome emplacement. Deep circulatio
n of meteoric
water from the horst highlands through the graben-filling sediments can promote hydrot
hermal
activity within graben-bounding fault breccias and along intrusions (hachured) below do
mes
(v pattern) that were extruded along these faults.
- 194 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.18
Intrusive deformation associated with domes is
manifested by uparching and fracturing of rocks
above a laccolith. Hydrothermal circulation
can then develop around and above
the laccolith as it cools.
oso alifornia Geothermal *ield
The Coso volcanic field is in eastern California on the western edge of the basin and
range province of the western United States. About 35 km
3
of volcanic rocks have
erupted and overlie principally Mesozoic plutons associated with the Sierra Nevada
batholith; The Coso volcanics range in age from ~4 to 0.04 Ma and vary in composition
from basalt to rhyolite. Pleistocene rhyolitic domes are the major volcanic features, and
these are cut by numerous normal faults that may reflect late Cenozoic extension. Along
some of these faults within the dome field, fumaroles and hot springs provide evidence
of a high geothermal gradient. Recent geothermal development by the California Energy
Company, Inc., resulted in nearly 90 wells. The first production well, drilled to a depth
near 2000 m, had a bottomhole temperature of ~340C and produced dry steam. At
this time, with drilling operations still under way, nine power plants have been
completed and are online with a net capacity of 230 MWe. The Coso volcanic field
exploration is considered one of the best documented investigations of a silicic dome
system in the world. We summarize here the work of Bacon and Duffield (1980) at Coso
as an example of a geothermal system developed in Mesozoic basement rocks below
silicic domes.
"eologi$ Setting
The Coso range is a horst block immediately east of the Sierra Nevada range in eastern
California. It is covered by a veneer of ~400 km
2
of mostly lava flows and domes of late
Cenozoic age. Early geologic exploration (Ross and Yates, 1943; Dupuy, 1948)
identified mercury, which has been mined in fumarolically altered rocks near rhyolite
domes; numerous subsequent studies have described pyroclastic and volcaniclastic
deposits, the general stratigraphy, potassium-argon ages, and geothermal phenomena.
Duffield et al . (1980) documented both the relationship of the volcanic rocks to an
underlying granitic basement (Fig. 5.20), which is exposed within the volcanic field and
along its margins, and the nature of a late Cenozoic extension, which is marked by
north-northeast-trending normal faults that have produced considerable uplift of horst
block under the range.
The geothermal system has developed in a Mesozoic basement of dominantly
granitic plutons and subordinate mafic plutons and metamorphic rocks associated with
the Sierra Nevada composite batholith. Late Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic rocks
drape over the basement. Duffield et al . (1980) used potassium-argon and obsidian-
rind techniques to determine that ~35 km
3
were erupted between 4.0 and 0.04 Ma (Fig.
5.21). These volcanic rocks include 38 separate domes and flows of phenocryst-poor,
high-silica rhyolite, most of which are likely younger than 0.3 Ma.
The oldest lavas, alkalic basalt flows, are the most voluminous and widespread of
Pliocene volcanic rocks (Fig. 5.22) and were erupted from cinder cones onto a relatively
subdued terrain. They occur as notable stepfaulted flows in the eastern portion of the
field. These lavas are overlain by Pliocene andesite, dacite, rhyodacite, and rhyolite
flows and tuff. Andesite and dacite occur as parts of polygenetic volcanoes in which
dacite flows, shallow intrusive masses, and pumice are interlayered with andesite flows
and
- 195 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.19
Basin-filling clastic rocks shed from a growing
silicic dome can provide a permeable formation
for a hydrothermal reservoir-especially when
continued down-warping of the basin allows
it to be filled with impervious sediments such
as lahars. These lahars efficiently hide the
geothermal reservoir, which develops at
some distance from the volcano.
cinders. Rhyodacite is found in widespread pumice fall and lava flows, and Pliocene
rhyolite forms a nonwelded pumiceous ash flow that is intercalated with sedimentary
volcaniclastic rocks of the Coso Formation.
The youngest volcanic rocks are Pleistocene in age and consist of
contemporaneous alkalic basalt and high-silica rhyolite (Bacon et al ., 1980). Most
basalt vents are marked by partly eroded cinder cones that fed one or more lava flows
on the east, south, and west sides of the rhyolite field. Pleistocene rhyolites compose
the 38 steep-sided domes as well as some short, thick flows whose surfaces are notably
perlitic and pumiceous. Bacon et al . (1981; 1984) inferred that the rhyolite magma
(total extruded volume @ 1.6 km
3
) erupted from a chemically stratified magma
chamber, which formed when mantle-derived basalts partially melted crustal rocks.
Most domes have extrusive volumes of <0.3 km
3
and are located within and/or above
tephra rings that were formed by the initial explosive phases of dome eruption. The
tephra from these dome eruptions have a total volume of ~0.3 km
3
and consist of well-
bedded obsidian, pumice, and rhyolite clasts and minor amounts of lithic fragments
from basement rocks. Accretionary lapilli and impact sags provide evidence that the
tephra are in part hydrovolcanic. Tuff rings average about 600 m in diameter, and rim
deposits range from several meters to 30 m thick. Most of the rhyolite field is mantled
by tephra similar in character to those in the tuff rings. The first production well
completed by California Energy is collared within the tuff ring of dome 53 near the
Devil's Kitchen fumarolic area (Fig. 5.23). Intensely fractured Mesozoic basement rock
encountered by the well can be attributed to several processes, including hydraulic
fracturing associated with hydrovolcanic explosions that occurred during the initial
eruptions of this dome, thermal stresses exerted by elevated heat flow, and ongoing
tectonic movement. Other geothermal wells are being bored in the area around dome
53.
Using the distribution of silicic vents, the volume of extruded magma, gravity and
seismic surveys, and heat flow measurements, Bacon et al . (1980) predicted that a
silicic magma body ~5 km in diameter and >1 km thick (a total volume of at least 20 to
30 km
3
) underlies the Coso volcanic field at a depth of at least 8 km. It is possible that
the silicic magma body may still be partially molten, if one applies the reasoning that
the most recent basaltic eruption occurred as late as a few thousand years ago and that
such extrusions are evidence that heat was supplied to the magma body from an
underlying mafic reservoir. Bacon (1982) indicated that the ages of extrusive rocks
(Friedman, 1976), plotted in Fig. 5.21 with respect to cumulative volumes, show a trend
that suggests these eruptions will continue in the future.
Figure 5.24 illustrates three sets of faults in the Coso Range (Duffield and Bacon,
1979; Roquemore, 1980) that indicate principally late Cenozoic crustal extension;
outward dips of the Coso Formation demonstrate considerable uplift of the range during
Pliocene time. A west-northwest-trending set of apparently vertical faults are well
developed in the southern and western parts of the range. This fault set is an
expression of
- 196 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.20
Geologic map of the Coso volcanic field of California, showing distribution of major rock
units and
faults. Abbreviated locations: CP = Coso Peak, LCF = Lower Cactus Flat, UCF = Upper C
actus Flat,
SP = Silver Peak, CHS = Coso Hot Springs, SM = Sugarloaf Mountain, VB = Volcano But
te,
VP = Volcano Peak, AL = Airport Lake, and LL = Little Lake.
(Adapted from Duffield et al ., 1980.)
- 197 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.21
Rock volumes and compositions vs radiometric age for the Coso volcanic field. Volumes
were
calculated by using the geological map area and cross-sectional exposures and allowing
for
material removed by erosion. Volumes of pyroclastic rocks were converted to dense roc
k
equivalence by multiplying by 0.5. Exponential thickness decreases with distance were
applied to pyroclastic deposits. In the last 4 Ma, ~35 km
3
of lava has been erupted, of
which 31 km
3
erupted before 2.5 Ma ago.
(Adapted from Duffield et al ., 1980.)
- 198 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.22
Distribution of eruptive vents in the Coso volcanic field of California. The locations of ve
nts are
shown by letters designating the composition of materials erupted: B = basalt, A = and
esite,
D = dacite, and Rd = rhyodacite. Asterisks denote the location of
Late Pliocene and early Pleistocene vents.
(Adapted from Duffield et al ., 1980.)
regional structure and, although these faults do not offset Pleistocene rhyolite,
some of the silicic domes are aligned along their strike. The basin and range
morphology of the Coso range is developed along north-to northeast-trending normal
faults. These faults cut the horst onto which the rhyolites have been erupted and form
en echelon sets that are consistent with north-northwest right lateral shear. In Fig.
5.25, information from Bacon et al . (1980) shows that the Quaternary maximum
horizontal compression follows this northeast trend. This interpretation arose from
consideration of the distribution of domes and application of the stress analysis
suggested by Nakamura (1977). Arcuate faults present in the northern and
northeastern parts of the field are approximately
- 199 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.23
Generalized geological map of the principal geothermal area in the Coso geothermal are
a. Coso Hot
Springs emanate along major graben-bounding faults, whereas geothermal drilling has f
ocused on
the region around Sugarloaf Mountain rhyolite dome and the Devil's Kitchen fumarolic ar
ea. Hulen
(personal communication) reports that drilling in regions around these
vents has encountered intensely fractured basement rock.
(Adapted from Bacon et al ., 1980.)
concentric around the geographic center of the field and dip inward toward this
center. This set of faults was originally interpreted as part of a caldera structure (Austin
et al ., 1971; Koenig et al ., 1972), and more recently, Roquemore (1980) has
attributed their origin to strike-slip movement; however, Duffield (personal
communication, 1990) is not convinced by either of these interpretations. The step-
faulted terrane in the eastern part of the volcanic field near Airport Lake (see Fig. 5.23)
is attributed to downwarping and down-faulting in response to late Cenozoic crustal
extension that caused an effective decoupling of that terrane from a block-faulted
terrane to the west and south. Figure 5.26 depicts the step-faulted terrane that forms a
graben structure and its relationship to the horst on its west side onto which the rhyolite
domes have been extruded. An ongoing study by California Energy indicates that new
interpretations of structural relationships will be required to fully understand Coso's
geothermal system.
- 200 -
+ydrogeo$hemistry
Most present-day surface thermal activity is concentrated within and immediately east
of the Pleistocene rhyolite field, apparently along an east-northeast-trending zone
between Sugarloaf Mountain and Coso Hot Springs-a zone mapped as a fault by Hulen
(1978). Coso Hot Springs consists of fumaroles and intermittently active, acid-sulfate
springs and mud lakes that emanate from a north-northeast-trending fault along the
east side of the main horst block. Surface flow is related to local precipitation, but water
samples from a 125-m-deep well are alkaline and chloride rich (~3,000 ppm of
chloride); the bottomhole temperature was 142C (Austin and Pringle, 1970). South of
this area are laminated siliceous sinter and travertine exposures that are evidence of
older, widespread thermal springs. Fumaroles of Devil's Kitchen, occurring in the tuff
ring of dome 53, are noted for their present-day deposition of sulfates, sulfur, and
cinnabar. Although these surface expressions are not chloriderich and are typical of a
high-level, vapordominated system, the chloride-rich waters from wells in this
immediate vicinity indicate that at depth there is a hot-water-dominated hydrothermal
reservoir (White et al ., 1971).
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.24
Detailed structural map of the Coso Range and adjacent area, showing distribution of fa
ults.
Location abbreviations are those used in Fig. 5.20; shaded patterns denote rhyolite dom
es.
(Adapted from Roquemore, 1980.)
- 201 -
The hydrothermal system at Coso is apparently controlled by fractures in the Mesozoic
granitic and older metamorphic basement rocks. Water samples from two wells of this
system were analyzed by Fournier et al . (1980), and their chemistry is summarized in
Table 5.4. Although the chemical analyses show variability that can be attributed to
evaporative concentration, water/rock reactions at different temperatures, and different
sample preservation and laboratory procedures, the samples exhibit essentially the
same chloride content, and water of relatively uniform composition is found throughout
the permeable rock underlying the Coso area sampled. The chloride content also
indicates a hot-water-dominated rather than a vapor-dominated system.
"eophysi$al 'hara$ter
Numerous geophysical techniques have been applied to the geothermal exploration of
the Coso area: heat flow measurements, microseismicity and teleseismicity, gravity,
magnetics, and electrical resistivity. Taken together, these methods have provided
mutually supportive data that promote the development of a subsurface model to locate
and define the nature of the magma
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.25
Idealized axis of maximum horizontal tectonic compression of the Coso area is determin
ed from
(a) the orientation of normal faults, location of rhyolite domes, and sense of strike-slip d
isplacement
(inset) in zones of seismic epicenters (Walter and Weaver, 1980). This relationship is co
mpared to
(b) the idealized horizontal cross section of a large volcano (Nakamura, 1977), which sh
ows
the effect of a differential horizontal stress on dike propagation (curves) from a region o
f magma
storage and ascent (shaded) underlying the Sugarloaf Mountain area. Dikes fed the outl
ying domes
around the Sugarloaf Mountain area (shown by heavier lines).
(Adapted from Bacon et al ., 1980.)
- 202 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.26
Generalized block diagram illustrating the step-faulted terrane (dark lines and wedges)
and block
faulting in the Coso Basin near Airport Lake (see Fig. 5.20). Pleistocene rhyolite domes
have
erupted on the horst; the step faulting has developed in response to Cenozoic crustal ex
tension
(arrows). The cenozoic basement is shown by light stipple and Pliocene volcanic rocks ar
e dark
stippled. Coso Hot Springs emanate along the northeastern extension of the western gra
ben-
bounding fault, and geothermal drilling is mostly on the crystalline horst
(Adapted from Duffield et al ., 1980.)
heat source as well as determine the structural and lithological control of heat flow.
Combs (1980) reported the results of thermal gradients measured in 25 shallow-
depth and 1 intermediate-depth boreholes in addition to thermal conductivity
measurements on 312 core and cutting samples from the igneous and metamorphic
basement rocks. Figure 5.27 shows equilibrated thermal gradients for shallow boreholes
where temperatures ranged from 25.3 to 906C/km. The high gradients are a product
of thermal convection by hot water, and the low gradi-
- 203 -

Table 5.4. Composition of Geothermal Waters from Coso, California
a

Coso Geothermal
Exploration 6ole + Coso &ell +
Sample Temperature (7C* 9+:; 9+<= 9+:/ ++= +>;
Constituent (mg?3g*

SiO2 41 201 149 50 154
Ca 114 70 51 72.8 74.4
Mg 2.3 1.7 0.57 0.5 1.0
Na 1500 1420 1480 1764 1632
K 139 154 132 154 244
Li 9.6 10.2 14 - -
NH4 - - 4.2 - -
HCO3 62 168 136 134 0
CO3 0 0 0 84 77.4
SO4 150 89 79 38 52.8
Cl 2550 2300 2360 2790 3042
F - - 4.2 3.7 2.2
B 66 65 55 48 71.6
TDS
b
4644 4479 - 5744 5228
p
H
5.2 5.6

Na/K/Ca
Temperatures (C) 201 214 206 205 238
a
From Fournier et al . (1980). Coso Geothermal Exploration Hole 1 was drilled ~3.2 km west of Coso Hot Springs and 1.9 km north
of Devil's Kitchen to a depth of 1477 m in granitic and metamorphic rocks (Goranson and Schroeder, 1978); it was sampled at a
depth of 835 m. Coso Well 1 was drilled at Coso Hot Springs to a depth of 114.3 m in altered alluvium and granitic rock (Austin
and Pringle, 1970); it was sampled at the surface.
b
TDS = total dissolved solids.
ents are caused by conduction of heat away from dikes that fed domes and lava flows.
Figure 5.28 shows isotherms at 5- and 10-m depths. These data correspond to terrain-
corrected heat flows that range from 1.6 to 23 heat-flow units (HFU; 1 HFU = 41.84
mW/m
2
). Background measurements for the region are between 1.6 and 2.4 HFU.
Heat-flow contours enclose the area being developed for geothermal energy near dome
53 and Devil's Kitchen (Fig. 5.29). Heat flows near 4 HFU divide the convective regimes
of high heat flow from conductive regimes; the 3- and 5-HFU contours in Fig. 5.29
generally parallel regional structure, which suggests that convective heat flow is
controlled by the circulation of hot water along fault and fracture systems in the rhyolite
dome fields.
As is shown by Fig. 5.30, microearthquakes are common in the Coso Range
(Walter and Weaver, 1980); a magnitude 1.0 or greater earthquake occurs almost
every day in the region. Zones of seismicity strike radially outward from the rhyolite
field, and earthquake swarms show a general northwest trend across the field. Fault-
plane solutions show a regional north-south compression. Earthquake depth varies little
across the field: most quakes are around 5 to 6 km deep. This trend suggests that the
brittle-to-ductile transition does not rise under the field as would be the case if near-
liquidus temperatures occurred at a shallow level. However, Young and Ward (1980) did
find a shallow zone of high teleseismic P-wave attenuation within the upper 5 km in a
region under Coso Hot Springs, Devil's
- 204 -
Kitchen, and Sugarloaf Mountain-probably corresponding to vapor and liquid in near-
surface lithologies. Furthermore, Reasenberg et al . (1980) found significant
teleseismic-wave delays that were likely caused by a low-velocity body of partially
molten rock concentrated from 8 to 17.5 km directly below the region of highest heat
flow.
Although gravity data from Plouff and Isherwood (1980) reveal the regional
tectonic patterns, they do not predict a mass deficit for a magma reservoir underlying
the Coso Range. A magnetic-low area that corresponds to the area of high heat flow
near Coso Hot Springs can be explained by a poorly magnetized silicic pluton that crops
out inthe area; much of its magnetite may have been destroyed by hydrothermal fluids.
Jackson and O'Donnell (1980) reported telluric current and 7.5-Hz audio-
magnetotelluric data that reveal major resistivity lows associated with conductive
basinfill materials (such as those underlying the region directly east of Coso Hot
Springs) and a secondary low trough that extends across the geothermal area (Fig.
5.31).
#ol$anologi$al Interpretations
Although none of the data sets is conclusive in itself, taken together, the geological,
hydrogeochemical, and geophysical evidence pinpoints the area now being developed as
a geothermal resource. However, most of the geophysical conclusions-and
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.27
Idealized equilibrium thermal gradient profiles for 24 shallow boreholes at the Coso geot
hermal area.
Profile numbers refer to boreholes shown in Fig. 5.28. In general, boreholes with high th
ermal gradients
are located in the immediate vicinity of the Devil's Kitchen and
Sugarloaf Mountain thermal manifestations.
(Adapted from Combs, 1980.)
- 205 -
some of the geochemical ones-are based upon geological field observations. As Duffield
et al . (1980) showed in a schematic east-west cross section of the Coso Range (Fig.
5.32), the concentration of young, rhyolitic volcanism on a horst block, the prevalence
of phreatic and phreatomagmatic tephra in tuff rings below the silicic domes, and
through-going regional faults all point to a region that should be characterized by high
heat flow, convective water circulation, and fractured rock. Such is the case for the Coso
geothermal field.
2su Volcano, 3apan
Most geothermal fields in Japan are developed around young volcanoes or intrusives.
Very few of these fields are associated with basaltic volcanoes. As was mentioned
earlier, Ishikawa (1970) states that geothermal areas commonly develop around lava
domes of viscous, silicic compositions and that these extrusions plug a crater vent and
then prevent gases and heat from freely escaping into the atmosphere. Figure 5.33
indicates the locations of volcanoes on Hokkaido island; Usu volcano is in the
southwestern part of the island. The Toya hot springs are of particular geothermal
interest because their development at the foot of Usu volcano was well documented
during the emergence of the Meiji-Shinzan cryptodome in 1910.
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.28
Temperatures at depths of (a) 5 m and (b) 10 m for shallow heat flow boreholes in the
Coso geothermal
area. The colored numbers and symbols refer to boreholes referenced in Fig. 5.27, and t
he numbers
below the symbols are measured temperatures (C). Note that isotherms shown by soli
d lines are
concentric to the Sugarloaf Mountain and Devil's Kitchen thermal areas.
(Adapted from Combs, 1980.)
- 206 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.29
Heat flow contour map for depths <65 m in boreholes and generalized geology of the Co
so
geothermal area (taken from Duffield et al., 1980). Borehole heat flow values are shown
beside each
borehole ( ). Heat flow contours are dashed lines, and rhyolite localities are numbere
d according
to Duffield et al. (1980). Fumarole areas are stippled; heavy solid lines are faults (bar w
ith ball on
downthrown side); and hachures outline areas of internal drainage (Moyle, 1977).
(Adapted from Combs, 1980.)
- 207 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.30
Number of earthquakes vs depth for Coso volcanic field. The and refer to
geothermal-related earthquakes in the geothermal area shown in Fig. 5.29.
Most earthquakes are at depths between 5 and 6 km.
(Adapted from Walter and Weaver, 1980.)
"eology
Usu volcano is a truncated composite cone (Katsui et al ., 1981) located on the southern
margin of Toya caldera (Fig. 5.34). During historic times, three dacite domes and seven
cryptodomes formed on Usu. The 1910 activity included phreatic explosions that
produced a zone of 45 craters on the northern foot of the volcano, and a number of hot
springs formed along this zone just after the eruptions (Fig. 5.35). The 1910 activity
was apparently initiated when magma intruded into a shallow region of abundant
groundwater. Subsequent eruptions at Usu from 1943 to 1945 (Showa-Shinzan dome)
and from 1977 to 1978 (Usu-Shinzan cryptodome) were well documented. Repeated
hydrovolcanic activity during these eruptions resulted in numerous vulcanian explosions
as well as new fumarolic areas, and magmatic bursts produced widely dispersed
- 208 -
pumice falls (Fig. 5.36). The 1977 to 1978 activity consisted of two major stages: (1)
paroxysmal magmatic pumice eruptions in August 1977 and (2) phreatic and
phreatomagmatic bursts beginning in November 1977 and continuing intermittently for
nearly a year.
All of the historic eruptions involved calcalkalic rhyolite that, in general, gradually
decreased in silica content to dacitic compositions. Katsui et al . (1978) has interpreted
this change in composition as evidence of progressive downdraw of a compositionally
zoned magma chamber.
"eophysi$al &roperties
Regional gravity studies (Yokoyama, 1964) mainly show the anomaly of the Toya
caldera (Fig. 5.37), but seismic observations such as those related to the Showa-
Shinzan eruption (Minakami et al ., 1951) revealed shallow hypocenters beneath Usu
(Fig. 5.38). Minakami et al . (1951) distinguished three types of volcanic tremors-all of
low frequency. "A-type" tremors have a predominant period of ~0.3 s, clear S waves,
nearly constant amplitudes at various epicentral distances, and hypocenters deeper
than 0.5 km. "B-type" tremors are recorded for shallow hypocenters; they have
predominant periods from 0.2 to 0.6 s and unclear S waves. "C-type" tremors, which
occur during extrusion of lava, are also called harmonic tremors .
+ydrogeo$hemistry
The first hot spring produced at Usu after the 1910 activity had a temperature of 42C,
but wells drilled later show higher water temperatures, which increase from near the
lake to the explosion crater zone where water temperature is 85C and the Cl- content
is 4.261 g/l (Ishikawa, 1970). Fukutomi (1960) recognized two types of hot springs:
Type I, found near Meji-Shinzan, has Cl > SO4 > HCO3 and Type II, at greater distance
from the young cryptodome, has SO4 > HCO3 > Cl. The major cationic components of
each are very similar; that is, Na >> Ca > Mg. Because the water level in the explosion
craters is nearly the same as that of Lake Toya, Nakamura (1962) suggested that the
hot-springs water originated from the lake and was heated by the cryptodome Meiji-
Shinzan. Definite changes in the temperature and chemistry of hot springs were
documented before the most recent activity at Usu, and these changes apparently
coincide with the monthly frequency of volcanic earthquakes (Fig. 5.39).
Differences in tephra chemistries noted in the eruptions from 1977 to 1978 are
also geochemically significant and useful (Kondo et al ., 1979). Pumices from the first-
stage magmatic eruptions are grayish-brown in color (SiO2 = 53.91 to 57.55 wt%),
weakly alkaline, and rich in water-soluble Ca
2+
and Na
+
, but poor in water-soluble Cl-
and . In contrast, the second-stage hydrovolcanic eruptions are grayish-white
(SiO2 = 68.00 wt%), strongly acidic, and rich in water-soluble Cl- and .
- 209 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.31
East-west electrical cross sections from Rose Valley across Devil's Kitchen, Coso Hot Spr
ings,
and Coso Basin (see Fig. 5.20). (a) Audiomagnetotelluric (AMT) at 7.5 MHz (heavy line)
and Telluric J
(dashed line). (b) Pseudosection skin depths and apparent resistivities from AMT soundi
ngs, whose
locations are shown by numbered arrows. (c) Interpreted depths and true resistivities fr
om
Schlumberger vertical electrical soundings, whose locations are shown as HR (Furgeson,
1973)
and USGS (Jackson and O'Donnell, 1980). A section of conductive alluvial deposits occur
s in
Rose Valley (west side) and Coso Basin. A secondary resistivity low, occurring in the geo
thermal
area between Devil's Kitchen and Coso Hot Springs, is caused by a shallow conductive z
one that is
interpreted as hydrothermally altered basement rocks containing saline geothermal wat
er.
(Adapted from Jackson and O'Donnell, 1980.)
- 210 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.32
Schematic east-west cross section of the Coso Range through Sugarloaf Mountain. The
horizontal
scale is equal to the vertical scale, and there is some surface topography exaggeration.
This section
summarizes the geological and geophysical interpretations for the origin of high heat flo
w from a
rhyolite magma chamber under a horst of crystalline basement rocks on which rhyolite
domes have
been extruded. This interpretation emphasizes the fact that the geothermal heat emana
tes not from
the young domes themselves, but from the postulated underlying magma chamber.
(Adapted from Duffield et al ., 1980.)
- 211 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.33
Volcanoes of Hokkaido, showing the Toya caldera and Usu volcano in the southcentral
portion of the island just west of the volcanic front.
(Adapted from Katsui et al ., 1981.)
- 212 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.34
Geologic map of Usu, located on the southern margin of the Toya caldera, which is occu
pied by Lake
Toya. Usu is a collapsed composite volcano with a small summit caldera that is filled by
several dacitic
domes and flanked by the Showa-Shinzan dome and cryptodome. The dome eruptions o
f Ko-Usu,
O-Usu, and Showa-Shinzan, as well as 7 other cryptodomes of Usu, occurred in historic
times.
(Adapted from Katsui et al ., 1981.)
- 213 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.35
Map of phreatic explosion craters formed during the 1910 activity at the base of Usu vol
cano.
The Toya hot springs, formed in 1962, became major geothermal direct-use features. T
his map was
drawn before the eruption of Showa-Shinzan volcano just south of Nishi-Kohan.
(Adapted from Ishikawa, 1970.)
#erre 0lanche40elfond in "t5 +ucia
The dacitic domes of Terre Blanche and Belfond grew in response to resurgent volcanic
activity that occurred in the middle of the Qualibou Caldera on the island of St. Lucia,
20,000 to 40,000 years ago (Tomblin, 1964; Wohletz et al ., 1986). The geothermal
potential of Sulphur Springs at the base of Terre Blanche was recognized early by
Bodvarsson (1951) and Robson and Willmore (1955). An initial exploration project at
Sulphur Springs began with seven wells that were drilled to depths up to 726 m (Merz
and McLellan, 1976). Temperatures in these wells exceeded 200C, and steam and
geothermal brine were encountered in four of the wells. This exploration project was
terminated because of a lack of fracture permeability in some wells, high CO2 content in
the steam, and economic difficulties. Recent drilling performed for the St. Lucia
government by a consortium of supporters has added two deep wells, one of which is
located at the base of Terre Blanche dome and has a projected capacity of ~8 MWe.
"eology
Volcanism has occurred over the last 8 Ma in southern St. Lucia. In the area of the
Qualibou caldera, 5- to 6-Ma-old basaltic lava flows are overlain by 0.75- to 1.0-Ma-old
andesitic and dacitic composite cones, upon which lie caldera-related rocks: andesitic to
dacitic tephra falls and pyroclastic flows of ~0.04 Ma as well as intracaldera dacitic lava
domes and tephras of ~0.02 to 0.32 Ma (Fig. 5.40). Figure 5.41 is a map of the caldera
showing the locations of geothermal wells between the dacitic domes of Terre
- 214 -
Blanche to the north and Belfond to the south. Sulphur Springs, the main area of
geothermal manifestation, consists of boiling acid springs and fumaroles. The springs
extend along a zone of strongly altered rocks that are located on the trace of northwest-
southeast-trending regional fault between its intersections; there is an arcuate caldera-
collapse fault along Rabot Ridge on the west and an approximately north-south fault
splay that cuts the western side of Terre Blanche.
Figure 5.42 shows a cross section along line B-B' of Fig. 5.41. This section
illustrates the substructure of the caldera and the caldera infilling of lavas and tuffs
associated with Terre Blanche and Belfond. The most recent, well-dated volcanism
(20,900 to 34,000 yrs; Wright et al ., 1984) caused the partial phreatomagmatic
destruction and cratering of the Belfond dome; it also produced a southerly directed
pyroclastic surge and flow deposit that formed a tuff-ring deposit over the southern
margin of the dome (Wohletz et al ., 1986). Because fallout from this eruption does not
drape Terre Blanche (although the fallout dispersal axis trends north-northeast and is
up to 30 m thick in the caldera), it appears that the extrusion of Terre Blanche may
postdate Belfond. The numerous phreatic explosion craters between Terre Blanche and
Belfond apparently are aligned along caldera and regional faults. Detailed mapping of
faults in
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.36
Map of the distribution of tephra from Usu Volcano during the August 1977 eruptions ind
icates
the extent of measured ash falls from several major episodes of
activity called the Big I, Big II, Big IV, DT, and SB.
(Adapted from Katsui et al ., 1978.)
- 215 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.37
Regional Bouguer gravity near Usu, showing the anomaly associated with the Toya cald
era. Gravity
contours and measured gravities are given in milligals.
(Adapted from Yokoyama, 1964.)
- 216 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.38
Distribution of seismic hypocenters of A-type
(circled dots) and C-type (small dots) earthquakes
in plan view and along cross sections A-A'
and B-B'. Minakami et al . (1951) related the
clusters of shallow C-type hypocenters just
under the summit of Usu (at the intersection of
the cross sections) and on its eastern flank
to magma movement in a
conduit below growing domes.
(Adapted from Minakami et al ., 1951.)
the caldera is limited by the thick cover of pyroclastic debris from these late stage
eruptions. Steam found in well 7 (see Fig. 5.41) was encountered at depths and in
lithology that coincide with those of the tuff ring under Terre Blanche, which is exposed
on its northeastern side. The steam field underlying Sulphur Springs is thought to have
developed in the fractured lavas and breccias of precaldera andesites.
"eophysi$al &roperties
Electrical surveys of the Qualibou caldera have been successful in identifying major
faults and general structural features at depth that were predicted by geological cross
sections. Greenwood and Lee (1976) completed dipole-dipole resistivity profiles with
penetration to 700 m that indicated surface anomalies of conductive rock along linear
features corresponding to faults. Ander (1984) extended these data to nearly 2.5 km
below Sulphur Springs. Apparent resistivities plotted as a pseudosection in Fig. 5.43
show a resistivity high that corresponds to dacite lavas below the Belfond dome and
resistivity lows that are thought to represent conductive geothermal brines along the
northern and southern caldera rim faults as well as a deep brine reservoir beneath
Sulphur Springs. The higher resistivity zone at an intermediate depth below Sulphur
Springs corresponds to depths where wells intersected steam-producing strata; this
anomaly is likely produced by dry steam, which is poorly conductive. Gandino et al .
(1985) also present gravity data that apparently delineate a positive gravity anomaly in
the caldera structure-the result of a relatively dense caldera fill; their audio-
magnetotelluric data indicate deep electrical discontinuities related to major faults.
+ydrogeo$hemistry
Geochemical studies of this area have been performed by Bath (1976; 1977), Aquater
(1982), and Goff and Vuataz (1984). Consideration of new data and previous studies led
- 217 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.39
Plot of seismic frequency, hot-spring temperature, and bicarbonate content for the
period 1975 through 1977 at Usu volcano. These three indicators rose
sharply in months preceding the 1977 eruptions.
(Adapted from Katsui et al ., 1981.)
Goff and Vuataz to conclude that a geothermal reservoir underling the Sulphur
Springs area consists of an upper-steam condensate zone, an intermediate depth, two-
phase zone, and a lower brine zone. Sulphur Springs display chemical compositions
(Table 5.5) very characteristic of acid-sulfate systems in which mixtures of steam and
other gases condense in the near-surface environment and oxidation of H2 S and H2 SO4
leads to acidic conditions. The springs have relatively low pH, high SO4 , and a low Cl
content; divalent and trivalent cations (Ca, Mg, Al, and Fe) dominate Na + K, and most
trace elements other than B are relatively scarce. Bath's (1977) brine analyses of well 4
(see Fig. 5.41) show considerable variability because of wet and dry cycling of the flow
from the well, which indicates variable steam loss from the brines sampled. Goff and
Vuataz (1984) noted that this brine is extremely unusual because the Ca content is
twice that of Na by weight and it is very rich in B.
Although drilling encountered temperatures >220C at depths of 700 m
(Williamson, 1979), oxygen isotope composition, gas geothermometry, steam enthalpy,
and B abundances indicate brine reservoir temperatures are near 280C. Figure 5.44
(Goff and Vuataz, 1984) shows a model of the geothermal system beneath the Sulphur
Springs area in which geothermal upflow could occur beneath Sulphur Springs and
possibly below Belfond-the areas of most recent silicic dome eruptions. Lateral outflow
occurs near the surface in the condensation zone, but there is also a strong possibility
that it occurs below the vapor zone, where deep brines flow northward and pool against
the north caldera-wall
- 218 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.40
Generalized stratigraphy of Qualibou caldera near
the Terre Blanche dacite dome on St. Lucia. The
stratigraphic section represents a thickness of
~2 km and reflects a general trend from
precaldera mafic andesites and basalts through
intermediate products of caldera-related
eruptions to postcaldera eruptions associated
with silicic dome rock. A vapor-dominated
hydrothermal system is thought to exist in
pumice sections just below the intracaldera
dome lavas, and there is probably a brine
reservoir in the fractured caldera-
fill and precaldera rocks below.
faults. The brine composition indicates it originated from sea water that reacted
with basaltic rocks in the subsurface and was subsequently replaced by meteoric water.
#ol$anologi$al Interpretations
Young volcanism that filled the Qualibou caldera took the form of dacitic lava out-
pourings, which built the Terre Blanche and Belfond domes. This volcanism indicates a
magmatic heat source of sufficient size and youth to retain magmatic temperatures at
depths of several kilometers or more. Extensive evidence of phreatomagmatic eruptions
that postdate the domes is recorded by numerous explosion craters and tephra
blankets. Because fragments of the deep basaltic strata exist in the phreatomagmatic
tephra and the geochemistry of the brine points to seawater/basalt chemical
interactions, it appears possible that a geothermal reservoir formed after dacitic magma
intruded into the lower part of the volcanic stratigraphy below the Qualibou caldera (Fig.
5.45). Intersections of caldera ring faults and through-going regional faults have
provided fracture permeability along which deep brines have risen. The steam reservoir
may exist in still porous and permeable tephra layers and in the caldera fill and
precaldera breccias.
- 219 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.41
Geologic map of the Qualibou caldera on St. Lucia, showing the major silicic dome comp
lexes of Terre
Blanche and Belfond that were erupted after caldera collapse. Exploratory geothermal dr
illing (Wells 1
through 7) has concentrated on a regional northwest-southeast-trending fault zone that
runs between
these two domes. Note the alignment of two large phreatic craters along this fault zone
and those along
the ring fracture that extends through the Belfond dome. The depth to precaldera basalt
ic rocks in
well 2 is at least several hundred meters less than in nearby well 1, which suggests the l
ocation of
a western caldera ring fault that exposes precaldera Piton-type dacites.
(Adapted from Wohletz et al ., 1986.)
- 220 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.42
Cross sections along B-B' (see Fig. 5.41) under Terre Blanche dome. Stratifications illu
strated at the base of the Terre Blanche
dome denote the pumice-rich tuff ring strata that was erupted before the extrusion of d
acite lava. Formation permeability in
these tuffs has allowed a vapor-dominated reservoir to develop. This reservoir is connec
ted by fractures to a deeper brine
zone in the Choiseul Pumice and precaldera andesites below. Geothermal wells 7 and 4
(see Fig. 5.41) intersected these units.
(Adapted from Wohletz et al ., 1986.)
- 221 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.43
Geophysical resistivity pseudosection along cross section A-A' (see Fig. 5.41) running w
est of
Terre Blanche and under the Belfond dome. The apparent resistivity high (W-m) under t
he Belfond
dome represents relatively unfractured dacite lavas, whereas the closed contours of resi
stivity
lows beneath the north and south caldera margins and below Sulphur Springs are thoug
ht to reflect
brine reservoirs. Intermediate resistivity contours below Sulphur Springs at a depth of H
1 km probably
indicate the poor conductivity of dry steam. Three exploratory wells were proposed on t
he basis of
the location of resistivity lows, the geology, and geochemical indicators.
Proposed well 2 produced steam (~300C) at a depth of ~1400 m.
(Adapted from Wohletz et al ., 1986.)
- 222 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.44
The hydrogeochemical model of the Terre Blanche-Sulphur Springs area shows a vapor
zone over a brine zone as well as upflow under Sulphur Springs and Belfond. The
condensation of steam and mixing with surface aquifers produce later flow toward
the northern caldera margin, which feeds Diamond Spring.
(Adapted from Wohletz et al ., 1986.)
- 223 -

Table 5.5. Composition of Geothermal Waters from Qualibou Caldera, St. Lucia
a

&ell @> Thermal Springs Sulphur Springs
Constituent (mg/l)

Li
+
0.04 0.09 0.05 - - 0.22 0.67
Na
+
49 54 6 500 5900 129 257
K
+
6.8 13.7 6.7 50 290 11.0 16.5
Mg
++
10.3 9.3 72.0 17 100 42.3 56.5
Ca
++
61.5 72.3 220 1850 11600 69.2 163
Sr
++
0.27 0.66 0.04 - - 0.47 1.41
Mn
++
0.54 0.81 6.53 - - 0.29 0.35
Fe
++
0.02 16.4 68.6 - - 0.20 1.71
HCO
-
3 309 0 0 - - 686 1215
SO
-
4 35.6 1085 6750 174 1195 21.8 0.77
Cl
-
39.7 32.9 5 6120 37000 40.0 153
F- 0.11 0.05 0.02 - - 0.15 2.60
SiO2 197 186 360 88 212 171 110
B 10.9 15.1 22.9 870 3500 11.1 15.0
Temperature (C) 92.7 64.8 96.0 203 203 43.1 55.7
pH 6.2 2.50 1.55 5.85 5.07 6.45 6.55
TDS 721 1486 7518 - - 1183 1994
a
Analyses of Well 4 geothermal brine from Bath (1977); others from Goff and Vuataz (1984).
[Full Size]
Fig. 5.45
A schematic geological model cross section of the Qualibou caldera from west to east sh
ows (with
some vertical exaggeration) how the dacitic domes have filled in the caldera above the
Choiseul
Pumice, which was erupted during caldera collapse. Strong evidence for the caldera stru
cture is
provided by the precaldera basalt that is exposed at the surface near the Piton as well a
s at many
other locations in southern St. Lucia but is found at depths >1 km in geothermal wells i
nside
the caldera. The magma chamber is shown as two bodies; the outer one is andesitic and
the source of the precaldera and caldera intermediate rocks, whereas the inner body is
dacitic and represents magmatic resurgence that caused eruption of the dacite domes.
The hypothetical depth of these chambers (~4 km) is drawn from measured geothermal
gradients.
Chapter 6
#eother$al %yste$s Associated 3ith 5asaltic
Volcanoes
[Full Size]
The most common type of volcanism on Earth is the eruption of basaltic lavas and
associated pyroclastic ejecta. The annual rate of magma production for the Earth is
~33.5 km
3
; this estimate by Schmincke (1982) includes both magma intruded into the
crust and erupted magma. Basaltic magmas make up ~80%-or 28 km
3
of the total
volume.
Basaltic magmas originate deep in the mantle and rise quickly to the surface,
sometimes carrying solid bits of the mantle along in the form of xenoliths. The lower
SiO2 content and higher temperatures of these low-viscosity magmas (most are near
1200C) allow them to rise buoyantly through narrow dikes in the crust. Unless the
magmas have pooled in the shallow crust, as is the case below calderas of most basaltic
shield volcanoes, they quickly lose their heat after eruption. Delaney (1987) pointed out
that if they are isolated and have fed only a monogenetic cone, basaltic dikes do not
provide sufficient long-term crustal heat to drive a geothermal system.
The utility of a basaltic system as a geothermal heat source depends on the rate
and volume of intrusion and eruption, which in turn is dependent on the tectonic
setting. Basalts erupted along continental rifts can provide a significant heat source if
extension rates along those rifts are high and the crust is thin. In many continental rifts,
extension rates are low; consequently, eruptive (and intrusive) rates are low and vents
are widely spaced in time and space. The narrow dikes feeding these vents cool quickly;
however, many such areas of extension may contain geothermal systems that result
from the deep circulation of meteoric waters in zones of elevated heat flow.
- 226 -
Vast basalt plateaus present on most of the Earth's continents were formed during
periods when lava flows that were tens of meters thick and hundreds of kilometers long
filled large basins. Most of these plateaus are old; the most recent major event formed
the Columbia River Plateau of the United States during an eruption of 2 10
5
km
3
of
basaltic lavas between 17 and 6 m.y. ago (Waters, 1961). Plateau basalts like those
covering large areas of the north-western United States exhibit no high-temperature
geothermal potential.
Basaltic volcanoes within regions of active extension may contain promising
geothermal systems. Such regions include the mid-oceanic ridge spreading centers and
associated very high temperature hydrothermal systems that cover large areas but are
mostly submerged. Where these systems emerge from the sea, as they do in Iceland,
numerous high-temperature geothermal systems are accessible. Other basaltic volcanic
fields that have excellent potential for geothermal development are the mid-plate
oceanic islands like Hawaii, where eruptions occur along rifts associated with large
slump blocks that are adjacent to the unbuttressed volcano flanks (Fig. 6.1; Fornari and
Campbell, 1987). Continued intrusion and eruption is required to maintain these
thermal sources. For example, the upper east rift of Kilauea Volcano on Hawaii has been
erupting steadily since observations began in the early 18th century AD Decker (1987)
reported that this rift has widened by ~4 m over a 19-year period as a result of 20
intrusions into the summit and the east rift. Christiansen (1987) determined that for
every 1 m
3
erupted at Kilauea, 2 m
3
is intruded. At this rate of extension and intrusion,
there is a dependable source of heat to drive hydrothermal systems for some time to
come.
The success of geothermal development in basaltic volcanic fields is dependent on
an understanding of aquifer locations and regional groundwater movement. Many basalt
units in the upper 1 or 2 km of crust are fractured and jointed; they serve as excellent
aquifers if they have not been sealed by secondary mineralization. Ash beds, fine-
grained sedimentary rocks, and soils interbedded with lava flows often form aquitards
for these volcanic aquifers or reservoirs.
"coria ones and #uff 6ings
One of the most common subaerial volcanic landforms on Earth is the scoria or cinder
cone. Scoria cones are usually formed during single eruptions of basaltic or basaltic-
andesitic magmas. Construction of a scoria cone commonly follows the opening of a
narrow fissure, a short period of lava fountaining, and (sometimes) a lava flow (Foshag
and Gonzalez, 1955; Budnikov et al ., 1975). Soon after the eruption begins, effusive
activity is concentrated at one or more points along the fissure. Strombolian or
Vulcanian eruptions, consisting of the explosive ejection of bombs, blocks, and ash,
continue intermittently for weeks to years. During this period, one or more cones
develop through a process of ballistic
- 227 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.1
(a). Schematic cross-section of the lithosphere beneath kilauea Volcano. The magma as
cent
funnel is shown as a region of extensional fractures and magma batches migrating from
the
asthenosphere. Variations in stress orientation from the lithosphere and volcanic edifice
are shown.
(Adapted from Ryan, 1987a, b.)
(b) Simplified block diagram of the east rift zone of Kilauea Volcano. In one interpretatio
n,
stresses that cause rifting are related to a gravitational collapse of the island's flanks, w
hich allows
intrusion and further widening by dike complexes (A). Other interpretations (B) show th
e rise of
magma toward the summit of the shield; this movement, cutting across the listric faults
, may have
only a minor effect on dike distribution.
(Adapted from Decker, 1987.)
- 228 -
deposition and subsequent slumping when scoria deposits that form the cone exceed
the angle of repose, as is shown in Fig. 6.2(a) (McGetchin et al ., 1974). The cone
consists of unconsolidated and sometimes welded scoria, blocks, and bombs that make
up thick beds dipping outward from the vent at the angle of repose [Fig. 6.2 (b)].
Craters in scoria cones are occasionally modified after they are filled with lavas; in some
cases, when leaks develop in the crater walls, dikes and sills penetrate the surrounding
scoria deposits (Gutmann, 1979). Lava flows can also erupt from the cone flanks or
overflow the crater rim.
Considerable heat is released during the eruptions that produce a cinder cone and
its associated lavas. Scandone (1979) estimated that during the 8-year-long eruption of
Parcutin in Mexico, 1309 10
6
m
3
of tephra and 700 10
6
m
3
of lava were erupted;
the associated thermal energy was 2.75 10
18
J (0.66 10
18
calories). This is a
substantial amount of heat, but it was deposited above the ground surface and
therefore was lost through radiation and convection of heated rain water in the cone.
If rising magma intersects an aquifer or shallow surface water, the resulting
volcanic structure will be a tuff cone or tuff ring rather than a cinder cone (Heiken,
1971). Tuff rings are broad, low rings composed of well-bedded, fine-grained tuffs in
plane beds and cross-bedded surge deposits [Fig. 6.2 (c)]; poorly exposed tuff ring
deposits are often mistaken for fine-grained sedimentary rocks (Fisher and Schmincke,
1984). During the formation of tuff rings by phreatomagmatic or hydrovolcanic
eruptions, pyroclastic debris are deposited at relatively cool (~30C) temperatures
because most of the heat is lost in the steam that drives these explosive eruptions.
Most cinder cone fields were constructed by many small-volume eruptions from
widely spaced vents, and they do not provide the thermal mass required for a high-
temperature geothermal resource. In such areas,
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.2
(a). In this diagram of the four major stages in the development of a scoria cone, the n
umbers refer to
deposits from corresponding eruption stages; only one-half of the cone is shown. During
stage 1,
a low-rimmed pyroclastic ring is composed of scoria-fall beds and ballistically emplaced
blocks and
bombs. During stage 2, the ring reaches the angle of repose for unconsolidated clastic
material;
slumping and avalanching of scoria begins; and the outer slopes of the cone are covere
d with talus.
In stage 3, the original rim of the cone is destroyed by inward migration of the talus pile
. During
stage 4, the talus apron reaches the ballistic limit of the ejecta. The many sizes and sha
pes of scoria
cones depend on the stage reached as the eruption ended. It is also possible for the cra
ter to fill with
a lava lake and for lava to then spill out of the crater and stabilize the cone slopes.
(Adapted from McGetchin et al ., 1974.)
- 229 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.2
(b) Cross section of the Rothenberg scoria cone in Germany. Scoria cones are the Earth'
s
most common volcanic landform above sea level. (Adapted from Houghton and Schminc
ke, 1989.)
(c) Cross section of a tuff ring formed by the phreatomagmatic eruption of a basaltic ma
gma.
1 = country rock; 2 = explosion breccia; and 3 = bedded tuffs of the tuff ring. Tm
= maximum
thickness of the tuff ring at crater rim; Wr = rim-to-rim diameter; We
= crater diameter
(excavation width); qm = maximum outward dip of tuff beds; Lr
= tephra runout distance; and
De
= excavation depth. Tuffs characteristic of tuff rings and tuff cones are generally fine
grained; most of the ash and lapilli were deposited by pyroclastic (base) surges and not
by
fallout. Magma volumes and compositions for scoria cones and tuff rings can be identica
l.
The differences are caused by the interaction of magma and water, which results in the
much
more violent phreatomagmatic eruptions that form tuff rings.
(Adapted from Wohletz and Sheridan, 1983.)
- 230 -
the magmas have risen to the surface from the mantle without forming shallow crustal
magma bodies. Crater Flat, in south-central Nevada, has 15 small basaltic centers that
were erupted during three phases over a period of 3.7 m.y. (Vaniman and Crowe,
1981). The volumes are small (0.3 to 1.5 km
3
for each center), as is the cone density
(spacing)-10
-3
to 10
-4
/km
2
. The San Francisco volcanic field is larger: 5000 km
2
is
covered by a few silicic volcanoes and hundreds of scoria cones. The magma sources for
the scoria cones and associated lavas there are deep (15 to 40 km), and volumes of
individual eruptions are small (Moore et al ., 1976).
"hield Volcanoes
The giant shields that make up many mid-oceanic-plate volcanic islands may contain
geothermal resources. In Hawaii, the shield volcanoes are fed from a central conduit
below the summit caldera and from active rifts on the flanks (see the case study of
Kilauea Volcano presented in this chapter). Shield volcanoes are constructed of
thousands of lava flows (from the sea floor to the summit), which are fed by lateral flow
from a summit caldera into dikes along flanking rift zones. Magma erupted from rift
vents does not move straight upward from the mantle, but laterally along rifts from
reservoirs located below the summit calderas. These lava flows are thin, unless they
pond in a caldera, a pit crater, or a valley. When groundwater flowing toward sea level
is blocked by dike swarms within active rifts, these "perched" aquifers can supply fluids
necessary for a hydrothermal system. Figure 6.3 illustrates the interbedded pyroclastic
rocks, paleosols, zones cemented with secondary minerals, and rift dike swarms that
form the aquitards confining aquifers within the flanks of shield volcanoes (Stearns and
MacDonald, 1946).
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.3
Simplified hydrology of a mid-oceanic shield volcano
(Adapted from Stearns and Macdonald, 1946.)
- 231 -
Later in this chapter, we describe hydrothermal systems that have been tapped in shield
volcano rift zones. These case studies include geothermal systems currently operating in
Iceland and a field being developed along Kilauea Volcano's east rift.
+ava +a1es and Magma Energy76esources for the *uture
Eruptions on basaltic shield volcanoes are often followed by the collapse of summit
calderas or pit craters located along the rifts. These craters may be filled with lava from
either the eruption that formed them or lava flows that spilled into them during later
eruptions. At Kilauea Volcano between 1959 and 1972, eight lava lakes were formed;
their thicknesses range from 6 to 180 m and initial temperatures were 1100 to 1200C.
Although these lakes are short-lived (they solidify within a few decades) and potentially
hazardous, Colp (1982) has proposed that they be used to develop high-temperature,
manmade geothermal systems.
Makaopuhi, Alae, and Kilauea Iki lava lakes in Hawaii have been studied by means
of drillholes, geophysical surveys, and thermal models. Kilauea Iki, a pit crater adjacent
to Kilauea Caldera, was partly filled with 38 10
6
m
3
of lava that formed a lake 110 m
deep and 750 m in diameter (Richter et al ., 1970). Data from the 11 holes drilled into
the lake over a 16-year-period have indicated that the depth to molten rock has
progressed from 4.8 m in 1960 to 45 m in 1976 (Fig. 6.4). The crust has been
solidifying at an average rate of 6.7 10
-8
m/s (Hardee, 1980). Heat is being released
through two zones in the solid crust: a lower, one-phase advective zone and an upper,
two-phase convection-advection zone (Fig. 6.5). Temperature measurements indicate a
constant temperature of 100C to a depth of 40 m, below which it increases abruptly to
1070C at 52 m.
Although many geologists and engineers believe that lava lakes are a potential,
short-term thermal resource, the drilling and extraction techniques that would make
production wells within these lakes practical have yet to be developed. The difficulties of
transferring heat from a lava lake to the surface still must be overcome. For instance,
present routine geothermal drilling is limited to temperatures of <250C. If indeed the
technology can be developed, the surface facilities obviously must be portable. At
Kilauea Iki, for example, the crater has been partly filled three times since 1832, and it
is probable that there will be more eruptive episodes in the near future.
8ilauea Volcano and 8apoho Geothermal Area of !a-aii
The Hawaiian-Emperor Island chain consists of ~107 volcanoes that range in age from
80 Ma at the northwestern end to currently active volcanoes at the southwestern end
(Decker et al ., 1987). The islands are remnants of these volcanoes, which rise between
5,000 and 10,000 m above the floor of the Pacific Ocean. The chain was formed as the
Pacific plate moved over the Hawaiian hot spot at 9.2 cm/yr (Hawaiian Chain) and 8.6
cm/yr (Emperor Chain) (Clague and Dalrymple, 1987). Subaerial portions of these
islands consist of thousands of thin basaltic lava flows and minor deposits of pyroclastic
rocks and differentiated lavas. Hawaii, the youngest island in the chain, is made up of
five overlapping shield volcanoes, two of which remain active (Fig. 6.6).
The still-active shield volcanoes of Kilauea and Mauna Loa are believed to be made
up of a below-sea-level mass of submarine pillow basalt that is interbedded with and
overlain by hyaloclastite deposits and subaerial basalt flows. Hill and Zucca (1987)
report that under the Kilauea and Mauna Loa shields, the Mohorovicic
- 232 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.4
Map and cross-section of Kilauea Iki Crater before and after the 1959 eruption. The dee
p lava lake
has been drilled many times for research purposes and has been the testbed for the U.S
.
Department of Energy's magma energy concepts.
(Adapted from Richter and Moore, 1966.)
- 233 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.5
Models and observations of the thermal history of the Kilauea Iki lava lake. (a) Model of
cooling
above a downward-moving thermal front at 2000, 4000, and 6000 days. (b) An early m
odel proposed
to explain the drastic temperature change in the one-phase advective (dry-out) zone. (c
) This
summary of the major physical characteristics of the lava lake in 1980 (20 years after t
he eruption)
shows depth to melt, changes in resistivity, temperature, percent of glass,
and depth (120 m) to the preflow surface (lake bottom).
(Adapted from Hermance and Colp, 1980.)
- 234 -
discontinuity increases from ~10 km (for normal oceanic crust) to 13 and 18 km,
respectively. Fast P-wave travel times through rift zones and summit calderas as well as
positive gravity anomalies over them indicate that intrusive cores form a significant
fraction of these volcanic edifices (Fig. 6.6).
Eight of the youngest and largest islands in the chain make up the State of Hawaii,
which is an area of intense urban and agricultural development. A comprehensive
evaluation of Hawaii's geothermal resources, conducted by university and federal
scientists (Thomas et al ., 1979, 1983), concentrated on calderas and associated rift
zones. Much of the work focused on the Island of Hawaii and drew upon the vast
research base built by the State of Hawaii, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, research
drilling programs, and commercial geothermal drilling projects. The report cites an
output of 3MWe at the one operating hydrothermal electrical generating plant, which is
located at the Kapoho geothermal site on Kilauea Volcano's east rift zone. At this time,
a well field is being drilled and a 25-MWe (net) power plant is being constructed in the
Kapoho area (Clark and Stewart, 1991).
%igration of %agma and Evaluation of (hermal Sour$es
As is the case for all hydrothermal systems, geothermal system development in Hawaii
depends on an understanding of volcanic heat sources and groundwater. In this area,
where there is little surface water and a constant volcanic hazard, geoscientists have
achieved a good understanding of both of these crucial aspects. Most of the geothermal
exploration on the Island of Hawaii is concentrated on Kilauea Volcano, where the
storage, migration, and eruption of basaltic magmas is monitored by the Hawaiian
Volcano Observatory's geophysical network.
In this area, magma rises buoyantly along a very irregular network of vertical,
roughly cylindrical conduits that are marked at the surface by a caldera. Kilauea
Caldera, located at the summit of the volcano, consists of concentric collapse craters,
the widest of which is 4.5 by 3 km. Helz (1987) has determined that the picritic (~20%
olivine phenocrysts) basalt of the 1959 Kilauea eruption originated at depths of 45 to 60
km and rose to the surface at velocities of 0.58 to 0.77 cm/s; which is fast enough to
carry along olivine xenocrysts and aggregates.
Eruptions in calderas and along rifts are spectacular-with lava fountains, fast-
moving lava flows, and occasional phreatomagmatic activity-however, most of the
magma never reaches the surface but comes to rest in a shallow crustal environment.
These magma bodies, located within the uppermost 7 km of the crust, are responsible
for the heat that drives geothermal systems on Kilauea. Ryan (1987a,b) addressed the
reason most magma comes to rest at shallow levels in the crust in his elegant study on
the regions of neutral buoyancy. Ryan integrated seismic and surface deformation data
with measurements of the physical properties of rock and magmas under pressure to
provide information on the variation of crustal rock densities with depth. Below 9 km, all
macrofractures, microfractures, vesicles, and joints are eliminated by bulk compression
[Fig. 6.7(a)]. Below 7 km, magma is transported buoyantly within the central conduit
and the intensity of hydraulic fracturing is high. Between 7 and 2 km, the in"situ
densities of the fractured crustal rock and the magma are similar, and a magma
- 235 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.6
(a) Map of the island of Hawaii shows the major rift-zones of the five overlapping shield
volcanoes.
Elevation and depth contours are in 500-m intervals on land and 1,000-m intervals offs
hore.
(b) This schematic cross-section of the central and western Mauna Loa shield is based o
n the
P-wave velocity and density models of Hill and Zucca (1987).
- 236 -
body is formed at a point where buoyant rise is no longer possible; the fact that this is
an increasingly aseismic region indicates a higher fluid/rock ratio (Fig. 6.7). The center
of neutral buoyancy is located at depths of 2.5 to 4.5 km, suggesting a correspondence
between the depths at which magma is in mechanical equilibrium with the surrounding
rock and the depth of Kilauea's subcaldera magma reservoir. From depths of 0 to 2 km,
the deformed and fractured crust allows vesiculating magmas to pass through dikes. As
the volcano grows, the summit (subcaldera) magma reservoir and associated rift
system is elevated and achieves mechanical equilibrium within the lava shield (Ryan,
1987a,b). The entire igneous system rises with both time and a continuing supply of
magma, but it retains the same depths below the volcano's surface. This is an important
concept to keep in mind when evaluating thermal sources within shield volcanoes
similar to those at Kilauea and Mauna Loa.
Ryan (1987a,b) determined that most magma movement into rift zones from the
summit reservoir is at a depth of 3 km-a level of neutral buoyancy. Magma moves
rapidly along the rift until the fluid pressure falls below that of the tensile strength of
the host rock. Ryan (1987a,b) cites three types of dike formation.
(1) Slow movement of magma, with a gradually enlarging fracture front. The dike
top rises toward the surface and the bottom descends at a similar rate.
(2) Rapid movement of magma, during which the dike top rises rapidly and,
simultaneously, the base sinks. Subsequent pressure reduction narrows the dike and
restricts it to the neutral buoyancy zone.
(3) Pressure differentials within the growing dike form an intrusion shaped like a
doubly serrated knife. The "serrations" have amplitudes of 2 to 6 km. Where a rising
dike intersects the surface, cracks open and a rift eruption begins, as is depicted in Fig.
6.8.
These models have been developed from data collected over the last 20 or 30
years, when activity at Kilauea volcano has been mostly along the rifts.
A well-exposed analog to Kilauea volcano is the Koolau volcano on Oahu, for which
Walker (1986; 1987) described the internal structure. The shield of Koolau was
constructed by small but frequent eruptions of basaltic magma. Erosion has eroded the
57-km-long volcano to a depth of ~1 km and exposed the plumbing within its shield.
Kailua caldera, located at the southeast end of the Koolau volcano, is analogous to
Kilauea Caldera and consists of mainly thick, massive lava flows. It lacks the thin
pahoehoe lava flows that characterize the Kilauea shield volcano. Breccias within the 4-
km-diameter Kailua caldera may represent either periods of collapse or phreatic blasts.
A rift extending northwest from the caldera is composed of ~5100 dikes over its 3.3-km
width, as is illustrated in Fig. 6.9. The rift
- 237 -
Fig. 6.7
Earthquake abundance and in-situ density with depth beneath Kilauea volcano.
(a) Distribution of earthquakes beneath Kilauea's summit region, to a depth of 20 km.
The dark pattern refers to the volume beneath the whole Kilauea caldera and the light
pattern refers to the volume beneath only Halemaumau crater. The aseismic
region from 2 to 7 km is believed to have high magma:rock ratios.
(Adapted from Ryan, 1987a.)
(b) /n"situ
densities of olivine tholeiitic basalt near its liquidus, volcanic shields, and the upper
mantle below Hawaii. The depth region of density crossover coincides with the subcalder
a region of
magma storage below Kilauea; based on data from Salisbury and Christensen, 1976; Fu
ji and
Kushiro, 1976; and Zucca, Hill, and Kovach, 1982.
(Adapted from Ryan, 1987a.)
- 238 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.7
(c) Schematic diagrams show the evolution of oceanic shield volcanoes such as Hawaii,
progressing
from Mokuaweoweo caldera of Mauna Loa volcano (oldest) to the Loihi seamount (youn
gest).
Low r = low density; Vp = P-wave velocity; and Vs = shear-
wave velocity. As the volcano grows,
it carries with it its contractancy profile and regions of fracturing; the region of neutral b
uoyancy
rises from below sea level to well above sea level.
(Adapted from Ryan, 1987b.)
- 239 -
follows listric faults that dip outward on either side of the Koolau shield. Dikes range in
width from <5 to 670 cm, with a median of 53 cm, and typically have glassy, chilled
margins and sheetlike cooling joints that are perpendicular to dike margins. These dikes
sometimes occur in clusters (or swarms) as wide as 20 m, in which successive members
were injected either along the margins or inside preceding dikes. Within such clusters,
dikes may make up 100% of the rock.
Most of Hawaii's recent exploration and drilling for hydrothermal development has
been along the east rift zone of Kilauea Volcano. The subaerial part of Kilauea is 80 km
long and 20 km wide and still growing. [For the most recent compilation of geologic
maps, refer to Holcomb (1987)]. Kilauea rises to an elevation of 1240 m above sea level
and serves as a topographic barricade to the trade winds and rainfall; as a
consequence, the eastern slopes of the volcano are covered with dense vegetation and
the southwestern slopes are a desert- an important observation to consider in planning
geothermal development. Kilauea is young and very active: 90% of the surface is
younger than 1000 years (Holcomb, 1987). Approximately 50% of the volcano surface
is covered with lavas that overflowed the summit caldera, but such an event has not
occurred for 200 years; 81% of the lava flows are pahoehoe , and aa flows make up a
smaller volume. During the last 500 years, periods of sustained summit activity have
included only minimal flank (rift) activity. However, when there is little activity at the
summit, other than caldera collapse, the flanks are more active.
Kilauea's caldera is actually a collection of nested (but not concentric) calderas, in
which the outermost visible caldera is 7.5 by 5.1 km and the innermost (Halemaumau
Crater) is 0.9 km in diameter. The subaerial portion of Kilauea's east rift zone is 50 km
long and 2 to 3 km wide; the actual rift extends about 50 km further below sea level.
Figure 6.10 illustrates the surface manifestations of rift tectonic and volcanic activity:
normal faults, open fissures, and pit craters; cinder cones, spatter ramparts, tuff cones,
and steaming ground are associated with these features, but are not shown on this
map.
+ydrothermal Systems at 5ilauea 'aldera and Along Its East -ift 6one
A 1.2-km-deep research drillhole, located on the southwest margin of Kilauea caldera,
was drilled to a depth just below sea level to test hypotheses concerning the thermal
state and groundwater movement near a magma body (Keller et al ., 1979). The drilling
operation encountered lava flows as well as a few sills and ash layers. Porosity
decreases with depth, which is commonly the result of pore spaces filling with
secondary minerals. Permeabilities above the water table are 100 mD to 1 D; below the
water table they are <100D (Zablocki et al ., 1974).
Within the Kilauea well, temperatures of 20 to 30C are maintained with increasing
depth until, at 480 m, the water table is reached. At that depth, temperatures rise
rapidly in lavas, which are saturated with brackish water below the water table; the
temperatures begin to decrease at a depth of 725 m (Fig. 6.11). Below 725 m, the
thermal gradient is conductive and reaches a temperature of 137C at the bottom of the
drill-hole. Zablocki et al . (1974) concluded that if this gradient persists, magmatic
temperatures should be found at a depth of 4 km.
Figure 6.12 shows the locations of five deep (>2000 m) and four shallow
exploration wells drilled in the Puna District along Kilauea's east rift zone in the 1960s,
1970s, and early 1980s. The first two wells were drilled adjacent to vents of the 1955
eruption, where there is steaming ground. These wells, drilled to depths of 54 and 167
m where the maximum temperatures were 54 and 102C, respectively, were sited in
the unsaturated zone and no geothermal resource was found (Thomas et al ., 1983).
- 240 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.8
Three-dimensional model of the internal structure of Kilauea volcano. The medium stippl
ed pattern
denotes the structure of the southwest and eastern rift zones that extend outward from
the summit
magma reservoir, as well as the main conduit that rises from a depth of 40 km. The res
ervoir is a lightly
shaded region at a depth of 2 to 7 km. Periodic high-level injection of magma into the ri
ft zones occurs
along the horizon of neutral buoyancy (arrowed pathways) and is associated with the lat
eral
formation of dikes at 3 km below the volcano's surface.
(Adapted from Ryan, 1987b.)
- 241 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.9
Dike swarms of the ancient Koolau dike complex and Kailua caldera. (the inset shows di
ke intensity
as well as the number of dikes per cluster and site). This ancient shield caldera and rift
zone is
analogous to the modern Kilauea volcano and is used to
interpret the younger volcano's structural framework.
(Adapted from Walker, 1987.)
- 242 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.10
Geology of Kilauea volcano. (a) Structural map depicting Kilauea caldera, pit craters, no
rmal faults,
fissures and eruption fissures. HGP-A is the location of the Hawaii Geothermal Project w
ell in
the Puna District. The Kilauea research drill hole is denoted GW. (b) Map of Kilauea volc
ano
showing lava flows classified by eruption type.
(Adapted from Holcomb, 1987.)
- 243 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.11
(a) Cross-section of Kilauea caldera including the Kilauea Research drill hole (GW). (b) T
emperature
logs from the Kilauea drill hole. There is no increase in temperature until the water table
is reached
at a depth of 480 m. Below 725 m, the gradient is conductive
it reaches a maximum of 137C at a depth of 1250 m.
(Adapted from Zablocki et al ., 1974.)
- 244 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.12
(a) The lower east rift of Kilauea volcano indicating the limits of the surface expression
of the rift
and the location of groundwater and geothermal wells. Contour intervals are 200 ft. The
inset shows
topography, the apparent water table, and self-potential for profile A-A'.
(Adapted from Thomas, 1987.)
In 1976, a government-sponsored well (HGP-A) was drilled near the center of the
east rift zone at an elevation of 200 m and ~300 m east of a spatter rampart formed
during the 1955 eruption. This well is located near the intersection of the north-east-
trending rift and a northwest-trending, right lateral fault mapped by Holcomb (1987).
The drillhole is also 28 km west of and 1043 m lower than Kilauea's summit caldera. It
was drilled to a depth of 1968 m and has a bottom-hole temperature of 358C (Fig.
6.13). The reservoir is located in lava flows and dikes, where Stone and Fan (1978)
reported three zones of hydrothermal alteration: (a) 675 to 1894 m-montmorillonite,
(b) 1350 to 1894 m-chlorite, and (c) 1894 to 1962 m-actinolite and calcite. These
authors concluded that the present-day thermal regime is related to recent
- 245 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.13
Temperature profiles measured in the Hawaii Geothermal Project well HGP-A. The inset i
s a
conceptual cross section of the lower east rift of Kilauea that depicts fluid circulation acr
oss
the rift zone. Thermal waters leaving the rift to the southeast (downslope) form a plume
overlying
the colder fluids below. Drilling on the downslope side of the rift would initially encounte
r hot
fluids but at greater depths would enter cool aquifers.
magma injection. The fluids are slightly saline but have high concentrations of
silica and sulfide (Kroopnick et al ., 1978). Thomas et al ., (1983) calculated that the
flowing well produces 50,000 kg/hr: 50% liquid (mixed seawater and meteoric water)
and 50% steam. An electricity generating plant has been producing 3 MWe . Because
the possibility of an eruption close to the plant was considered in its design, most of the
equipment is on skids and can be removed if necessary.
At the time of this writing (1991), five production wells have been drilled near
HGP-A. Most of these wells are located within the northern edge of the rift, in line
- 246 -
with fractures and a spatter rampart formed during the 1955 eruption and on the slopes
of Puu Honuaula, a cinder cone believed to be between 1500 and 10,000 years old.
These were drilled to depths of over 2000 m and have bottom-hole-temperatures of 312
to 334C. The reservoir begins at a depth of ~1200 m and extends to a depth of at
least 2250 m; it consists of a basaltic dike complex composed of near-vertical dike
swarms, each separated from the other by brecciated wall rock (Clark and Stewart,
1991). The reservoir is overlain by ~750 m of submarine basalt flows with low
permeability and by 450 m of subaerial basalt flows, which are permeable and contain
an unconfined aquifer (Clark and Stewart, 1991).
The dikes and fractures of the east rift act as guides for fluid flow, allowing hot
fluids to rise parallel to the dikes. The rift also dams water from upslope; the apparent
water table rises to the near-surface on the north-west side and plunges to a depth of
400 m on the southeast side (Jackson and Kauahikaua, 1987; Thomas, 1987). Much of
the potential sea water inflow is also blocked by rift dikes. Within the rift, where there is
adequate fracture permeability and depth (~2000 m), the hydrothermal plume can be
drilled and developed. Beyond the southern edge of the rift, one well penetrated
thermal fluids at shallow depths but reentered cold sea water below the outflow plume
from the rift, as is shown in Fig. 6.13 (Thomas, 1987).
Exploration and production drilling has taken place only along the east rift of
Kilauea Volcano; this area is accessible and is located on private land (except for the
research well that is sited in the National Park). The southwest rift zone of Kilauea and
all rift zones of Mauna Loa, Mauna Kea, and Hualalai have not yet been drilled. These
resources have been examined only at the surface during the Thomas et al . (1979,
1983) evaluation of the geothermal resources of Hawaii.
#hree Geothermal "ystems in (celand) 8rafla, "urtsey, and !eimaey
Volcanoes
Iceland is located over the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is an active spreading center.
Regions of active extension and volcanism in Iceland are called the neovolcanic 0ones
and cross the island generally from south-west to northeast. Most volcanic activity
occurs along the eastern and western volcanic zones, where plate motion currently
averages 1.6 cm/year in either direction and lavas and pyroclastic deposits are erupted
at a rate of 0.04 km
3
/yr. The largest single historic eruption of basaltic lavas (12 km
3
)
occurred in 1783 from the 25-km-long Laki fissure (Sigvaldason, 1974). The active
state of this island and the extent of its geothermal resources are reflected in the
thermal gradients, which vary from ~160C/km (heat flow = 300 mW/m
2
) in the
fissure swarms to 40C/km (heat flow = 80 mW/m
2
) in the oldest rocks along the
island margins (Plmason, 1973). Fissure swarms in the neovolcanic zones range from 5
to 10 km wide and are 30 to 100 km long. Each zone consists of nested grabens, where
near-vertical normal faults are exposed at the surface. Figure 6.14 illustrates the active
faulting, volcanism, and geothermal systems that occur along these fissure swarms.
The economy of Iceland is closely linked to geothermal energy. Half of the
population lives and works in buildings heated by geothermal waters. Greenhouses, an
important component of the island's agricultural effort, are also heated by hot springs
and water from geothermal wells. Many hot water wells have been drilled for direct-use
applications, especially around the capitol city of Reykjavik. These waters are pumped
from reservoirs located in Tertiary-age interbedded flood basalts and hyaloclastite
deposits at depths of 1 to 2 km and temperatures of 86 to 128C. Hot water is
conducted horizontally along the basal contacts
- 247 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.14
(a) Simplified geologic map of Iceland shows the distribution of
geothermal manifestations and their relation to active volcanic zones.
(Adapted from Fridleifsson, 1979.)
(b) Fissure swarms and central volcanoes of the Northeast volcanic zone of Iceland
(Adapted from Stefnsson, 1981.)
(c) Structural map of Krafla caldera and its active fissure swarms
(Adapted from Stefnsson, 1981.)
- 248 -
of lava flows and vertically along dikes and faults; Bodvarsson (1961) presents
hydrologic and chemical evidence that these waters can flow laterally for as far as 50
km.
High-temperature geothermal systems are associated with the young volcanic
fields along the active tectonic rifts. Most have temperatures of 200 to 300C at depths
of 1 to 2 km. Bodvarsson (1976) estimated that nearly 400 km
2
of Iceland, along the
neovolcanic zones, is underlain by high-temperature geothermal systems. The Krafla
field, which is representative of these hydrothermal systems, has been developed in and
around Krafla caldera in northeastern Iceland, as described in the next section.
%igration of %agma and i.e Formation
Information on the movement, shape, and size of magma bodies below fissure swarms
is based on both geophysical measurements during recent eruptions and
structural/volcanologic studies of historic eruptions. Magma overpressures result in the
beginnings of extension, which in turn lead to magma rise and eruption. Sigvaldason
(1987) inferred that during the 1975-1981 Krafla eruptions, magma moved through
"holding chambers" at depths of 30, 25, 8, and 4 km. After the eruptions, refilling of
these intermediate chambers took ~3 weeks. From the high-level chambers-at depths
of 3 to 7 km-repeated lateral magma injections into fissure swarms north and south of
the Krafla central volcano initiated a rifting event. [This rifting episode was activated by
the subsequent release of tensional stress that accumulated over the plate boundary
during the previous 250 years (Tryggvason, 1984)]. The fissure swarm was extended by
an 80- to 90-km-long section during this period; the average widening for a fissure
during the accumulated 20 discrete events was 5 to 6 m (Tryggvason, 1984). Each
extensional event was accompanied by subsidence near the center of the Krafla caldera,
which demonstrates the link between the fissure swarms and the high-level chamber
below the central volcano.
Tryggvason (1984) determined that the accumulated area of fissure widening
during the 1975-1981 Krafla event was ~377,000 m
2
. Based on observed ground
deformation, he suggested that most of the magma was injected into vertical fissures
rather than into sills. Using gravity and elevation measurements, he determined that
the volume of magma leaving the reservoir was ~1.75 times that of caldera subsidence.
The dike volume (V) is equated with that of magma leaving the reservoir, minus the
volume of material erupted. The estimated dike height (h) = ~1.75 V/A, where A =
area of horizontal extension by the dike. For the best recorded events at Krafla,
calculated dike heights are 2.4 to 2.8 km. The total volume of magma that flowed out of
the reservoir into fissure swarms during this episode at Krafla is estimated at 1.08 km
3
,
of which 1.03 km
3
remains in the dikes to become a renewed heat source for the
associated geothermal fields. The measured volume of lavas erupted is 0.2 km
3
, which
is four times greater than the volume predicted. Tryggvason concludes that perhaps the
volume estimates of magma leaving the caldera are too low.
Gudmundsson (1986) used his work on the Reykjanes Peninsula of Iceland to
develop a method for estimating the volume of magma reservoirs below fissure swarms,
as is depicted in Fig. 6.15; his method requires the measurements and assumptions
listed here.
The maximum length for a magma reservoir is taken to be equal to the length of
vents in the fissure swarm.
The width of the reservoir is estimated to be 1.72 times the width of the vents in
the fissure swarm; this ratio is based on observations of older dike swarms that are
exposed in outcrop.
A reservoir is taken as an ellipsoid, the volume of which is calculated as V = 4/3
p ah bh ch and the area of which is calculated as A = p ah bh ,
- 249 -
where ah , bh , and ch = the half-width, half-length, and half-thickness, respectively, of
the ellipsoid. The half-thickness of the reservoir is calculated by ch = 0.75 V/A, where V
= total volume of the magma (both erupted and in dikes).
The average volume of individual fissure lava flows on the peninsula is 0.11 km
3
.
Walker (1959) estimated the average volume of a corresponding feeder dike by using
the average length of the volcanic fissures (2.2 km), a crustal thickness of 8 km, and an
average dike width of 4 m. The estimated volume of a feeder dike here is 0.07 km
3
and
an average value for ch is 1.5 km (2ch = 3 km). It is likely that only the uppermost 3 km
of the reservoir participates in an eruption.
The volume of feeder dikes (~0.07 km
3
) is small, but as a result of intrusions and
eruptions every 10 years, the active fissure swarms contain excellent heat sources.
Bodvarsson (1976) calculated that in Iceland, heat reaches the surface by conduction
(~50%), as erupted magma (~30%), and as thermal waters (~20%).
South of Krafla caldera is Askja-skuvatn caldera; Sigurdsson and Sparks' (1978)
documentation of the 1874-1875 eruption provides another view of fissuring and dike
injection along the fissure swarms. The Askja central volcano straddles a 75-km-long
fissure swarm. Magnitude 6 or 7 earthquakes in 1872 marked a new phase of rifting,
and by the fall of 1874 the fissure swarm was rifted along a 70-km segment. A graben 1
to 2 km wide was formed, bounded by normal faults with throws of 40 to 60 m south of
the central volcano and 10 m north of it. In early January 1975, a major injection of
magma into a high-level reservoir was followed by phreatomagmatic eruptions of
rhyolitic ash. Caldera inflation was relieved by periodic injections of magma out into the
fissure swarms. At the surface, the central fissure is flanked by en echelon spatter
ramparts. The Sveinagja lava field covers 30 km
2
; it is
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.15
(a) Fractures measured in the western part of the
Thingvellir swarm in Iceland. (b) The width and
throw of three fractures from the Thingvellir
swarm were measured along
the strike of the fissures.
(Adapted from Gudmundsson, 1987.)
- 250 -
located 40 to 70 km north of the Askja-skjuvatn caldera and consists of 0.3 km
3
of
mostly tholeiitic aa and pahoehoe lavas. The estimated volume of intruded magma was
1.5 km
3
, which could be accounted for by a single 100-km-long, 5-km-deep, 3-m-wide
dike. Fissure widths range from 2.5 to 4 m. In the northern part of the lava field,
activity was centralized at an offset in the rift and formed a line of cinder cones.
Brown et al . (1987) used gravity surveys to document the presence of a 20-mGal,
north-south-trending anomaly that may correspond with a dense dike swarm below the
skuvatn-Askja caldera. They also noted that caldera fill is most likely thin and that the
caldera's collapse was primarily related to eruptions out along the fissure swarms.
+ydrothermal -eservoirs
Hydrothermal reservoirs in Iceland are usually bounded by lava flow contacts or clay-
rich hyaloclastite deposits. Water in aquifers can also pond when dikes act as barriers.
By measuring the deuterium content of thermal waters, Arnoson (1976) has shown that
the waters are of meteoric origin, although a few systems are charged with seawater. In
most cases, water from the highlands percolates into bedrock and flows laterally for
distances of as much as 150 km but more usually several tens of km. The water then
rises to the surface along dikes or faults. Tables 6.1 and 6.2 summarize potential
reservoir rocks and the flow rates through these rocks as sampled by drilling
(Friedleiffson, 1975; Tmasson et al ., 1975).
Pillow lavas have a higher effective permeability than any other rock type
encountered by drilling in Icelandic geothermal areas (Friedliefsson, 1978/79).
Subglacial fissure eruptions produce elongate ridges (mobergs), as shown in Fig. 6.16,
that are 1 to 5 km wide, tens of kilometers long, and a few hundred meters thick. The
cores of these ridges consist of permeable pillow lavas, but the flanking hyaloclastite
deposits can serve as aquitards. Subglacial eruptions are remarkable in that they are
able to create both the reservoir and the caprock in one volcano.
Krafla volcano has three high-temperature geothermal fields, which are located
within the 8- by 10-km Krafla caldera, where the thermal area is outlined by
explosion craters, surface manifestations, and altered ground (Fig. 6.17). [Further
exploration to define the reservoir included Schlumberger resistivity soundings and
analyses of fumarolic gases. In this 35-km
2
thermal area, the temperature in a 2-km-
deep drillhole reached 345C (Stefnsson, 1981)];
6.2 km south of the caldera along the fissure swarm at Nmafjall, where the
geothermal area covers 4 km
2
; and
5 km north of the caldera, also along the fissure swarm at Gjstykki; surface
manifestations encompass an area 1 by 4.5 km parallel to the swarm.

Table 6.1. Potential Geothermal Reservoir Rocks in Iceland
a
Tertiar!

Group 1 Stratiform horizons of pyroclastic rocks,
including ignimbrites, sediments, and
olivine tholeiite compound lava shields
Group 2 Local accumulations in central volcanoes
of highly porous lavas, tuffs,
agglomerates, and hyaloclastites
b
(in
caldera lakes)
Auaternar!

Group 3 As in Group 1, plus primary and reworked
subglacial hyaloclastites; hyaloclastite
horizons reach maximum thickness over
the eruptive sites
Group 4 Local accumulations in central volcanoes
of hyaloclastites and subaerial eruptives,
as in Group 2
a
From Fridleifsson (1975).
b
The term hyaloclastite is used here in a collective sense for all
subaquatic volcanic products and thus comprises pillow lavas, pillow
breccias, and tuffs.
- 251 -

Table 6.2. Occurrence of Aquifers in Rock Types for Drill Holes (800- to 2045-m Deep) in the Reykir Thermal Area
a

A8ui%ers (Flo (4?s*
Roc3 T!pes 1 ; B; to ;, B;, Total 1umber o% A8ui%ers
Lavas 44 27 2 73
Hyaloclastites 29 12 4 45
Dolerites - 1 1 2
Lavas and Hyaloclastites 53 38 20 111
Hyaloclastites and Dolerites 5 2 1 8
a
From Tmasson et al . (1975).
Drilling within the low-resistivity zone revealed three main rock units: hyaloclastite
deposits, lava flows, and dikes, as shown in Fig. 6.17. Below a depth of 800 m, lava
flows are dominant, but from a depth of 400 m to the bottoms of the deepest wells,
dikes are more common. The transition depth from zeolite to greenschist facies
metamorphism is at ~800 m (Stefnsson, 1981).
In his model of the Krafla field, Stefnsson (1981) identified two hydrothermal
zones. The shallowest, extending to 1100-m depth, is water-dominated and has a
maximum temperature of 205C; the basal contact of this zone coincides with the base
of a sequence of lava flows. Within the deeper zone-from 1100 to 2200 m (total depth
for the deepest well)-the reservoir contains a mixture of
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.16
Table mountain, or moberg, formed during eruption of basalt along a fissure under a gla
cier.
(Adapted from Jones, 1969.)
- 252 -
steam, water, and CO2 . The rocks, consisting of mostly lavas, a granophyre unit, and a
dolerite sill, are intruded by multiple dikes. The two reservoirs are connected by a fault
and/or a dike. Permeability in the upper zone is 10
-11
m
2
; such permeabilities are
reflected in the pressure increases and rises in water level during dike injection and
eruption (Fig. 6.18). Pressure transients are not observed in the lower zone because the
change is absorbed in the two-phase hydrothermal system.
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.17
Schematic cross-section of the Krafla geothermal
field and the underlying magma body
(Adapted from Stefnsson, 1981.)
Stefnsson (1981) noted that a severe mistake was made in constructing a power
plant before the drilling was completed and the field was tested. As a result, the
proposed maximum capacity of 35 MWe was not achieved. An eruption within the
caldera also slowed construction work on the facility.
In Iceland, exploration techniques begin with detailed geologic mapping and dating
of potential reservoir rocks. Determination of the eruption type is crucial; for example,
by locating the vents and mapping facies within rocks erupted from a subglacial
volcano, it is possible to evaluate not only the potential heat source, but also the
location and extent of reservoir and caprocks. As noted earlier, pillow lavas are
excellent reservoir rocks and the associated hyaloclastic carapaces are effective
caprocks. All dikes and faults must be mapped for identification (or interpretation) of
both thermal sources and potential aquicludes. After potential reservoir rocks have been
evaluated at the surface, interpretative cross-sections can be prepared and evaluated
by both geologist and hydrologist. An exploration drillhole can then be sited for further
evaluation and temperature measurements. The primary targets in Iceland for direct-
use purposes are highly permeable rocks that contain fluids with temperatures of >
100C (Fridleifsson, 1978/79).
"eothermal &otential of Several Small Basalti$ Islands
"urtsey
Much of what has been learned during the last 20 years concerning phreatomagmatic
volcanism began with the mid-1960s submarine eruptions south of Iceland that
eventually formed Surtsey, one of the Westmann Islands (Thorarinsson, 1965; 1966;
1967). The eruption, first noted on November 14, 1963, lasted more than 4 years and
ended on June 5, 1967; this eruption formed an island of 2.8 km
2
and an elevation of
174 m, which
- 253 -
is shown in Fig. 6.19. The early phases of activity were phreatomagmatic; much of the
heat was lost in magma/sea water interactions that generated very energetic steam
eruptions. The tephra deposited by these eruptions was barely warm to touch when was
deposited as fallout and surges.
In later phases of activity, after a growing tuff ring denied the sea access to the
vent, the main activity was lava fountaining, and lava flows that moved across the
edges of the cone toward the sea. After activity ceased entirely, Stefnsson et al .
(1985) drilled a 181-m-deep borehole on the cone at an elevation of 58 m. The tuff
above sea level has a permeability of 1.2 10
-10
m
2
and the system within it is vapor-
dominated. Below sea level, the estimated permeability of the basaltic tuffs is 4.1 10
-
13
m
2
, and the tuffs are altered to palagonite (a mixture of smectite clays, zeolites, and
iron oxides). No pillow lavas were encountered in this borehole, and the maximum
temperature was 140C at a depth of 104 m. Below this depth, near the contact
between the sea floor and the base of the Surtsey cone, temperatures dropped to 40C
within altered tuffs that were cooled by sea water.
During the drilling operation, the borehole crossed a 13-m-thick dike at a depth of
80 m (Stefnsson et al ., 1985; Fig. 6.20). Most likely emplaced during the lava
fountaining episodes late in the history of the cone, the dike can account for high heat
flow within the cone. Fluids and heat from a tuff ring such as this one could be used for
heating water but not for producing electricity; therefore, it is a limited, short-term
resource unless the heat source were to be replenished by a new eruption.
!eimaey
Within sight of the new island of Surtsey is the small, populated island of Heimaey,
which is an important Icelandic fishing community. On January 23, 1973, a north-north-
east-trending fissure, located only 1 km east
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.18
Interaction of the Krafla hydrothermal system with rising magma. Changes in the CO2
concentration and pH within wells KG-3 and KG-4 correspond to renewed eruptive activi
ty.
(Adapted from Stefnsson, 1981.)
- 254 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.19
Map of Surtsey volcano indicates the location of the 181-m-deep borehole.
(Adapted from Jakobsson and Moore, 1982.)
- 255 -
of the town center, opened over a length of 1200 m. Lava fountains occurred along the
length of the fissure but were soon concentrated at one point (Williams and Moore,
1983). Within 2 days the lava fountaining had covered the island with ash and had
constructed a 120-m-high scoria and spatter cone. Over the subsequent 2 weeks, lava
fountaining decreased in intensity and a thick lava flow moved toward the edge of town.
The 43- to 120-m-thick basaltic lava flow, at temperatures of 1030 to 1055C, moved
into the town and also threatened the harbor entrance.
To save the town and harbor, Icelandic officials were determined to stop the lava
flow. Their method was to increase the lava's viscosity by spraying it with cold seawater
and to construct a barrier along the flow margin. Seawater was sprayed onto the flow
front and distributed across the flow surface at a rate of 1.7 m
3
/s, cooling the flow to
well below its solidus temperature. Barriers within the flow, which were formed by
cooling, caused the flow to thicken. Over a 6-month period, the ~10 10
6
m
3
of water
sprayed onto the lava flows converted ~6.5 10
6
m
3
of molten lava into hot, but solid
rock (Jonsson and Matthiasson, 1974; Williams and Moore, 1983).
The eruption ceased June 23, 1973, leaving a lava flow ~1.5 by 1.5 km and ~100
m thick that was overlain by ~5 m of scoria. The residents of Heimaey immediately
began to examine ways to take advantage of this heat source. A district heating system
was created and after a successful prototype system was tested, construction of a
geothermal heating system began. Four 100- by 100-m areas were developed, each
consisting of steamwells in the unconsolidated scoria overlying the lava flow and an
overlying network of pipes that spray water onto the ground surface. The water seeps
into the scoria and the lava flow, is converted to steam, and rises to the steamwell
collectors (Fig. 6.21). Each well produces 2.5 MWthermal during normal operations
(Bjrnsson, 1980; Williams and Moore, 1983). By 1982, the entire town was heated by
steam from the lava flow.
69union (sland in the (ndian Ocean
The geothermal drilling project on the Island of Runion in the western Indian Ocean
provides an example of where one might not expect to find a hydrothermal system.
Piton de la Fournaise, an active basaltic shield volcano on Runion, was constructed on
the southeast flank of an older shield volcano, Piton de Neiges. Fournaise has erupted
about every 2 years during the last 250 years (Stieltjes, 1985). Broadly curving faults
define a series of large blocks stepping down to the sea (Fig. 6.22); these features were
interpreted by Stieltjes (1985) as a caldera and by Duffield et al . (1982) as large
gravitational slumps. The faults flank a
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.20
Temperature profiles and simplified lithologic
descriptions for the Surtsey borehole. Excess
heat encountered at ~80-m depth is probably
related to a 13-m-thick dike
complex in the core of the cone.
(Adapted from Jakobsson and Moore, 1982.)
- 256 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.21
Diagram of the emplacement of shallow collectors (steamwells) in scoria deposits overly
ing a thick
basaltic lava flow from the 1973 eruption of Heimaey, Iceland. Water from surface pipes
supplies
the recharge to the solidified, fractured lava flow, where steam is generated and collect
ed in
a steamwell. This geothermal energy source is
successfully operating as a district-heating system.
(Adapted from Bjrnsson, 1980, and Williams and Moore, 1983.)
- 257 -
broad trough that slopes from the summit elevation of 2600 m to sea level. Kieffer et
al . (1977), Duffield et al . (1982), and Stieltjes (1985) propose that the rift zones trend
northeast, southeast, and northwest. Historic eruptions have occurred at vents in the
summit caldera and along the flanking rifts. The Cratre Bory and Cratre Brlant form
a 1.2- by 0.7-km summit crater complex.
Two geothermal wells have been drilled on Runion Island. One was sited on the
east coast, in the outflow area of Piton de la Fournaise and the other on the older Piton
des Neiges volcano. The Fournaise well, drilled on the shield flanks-inexplicably away
from the active rifts-reached bottom in a dense gabbro intrusion and was cold. The
second well reached rock at temperatures of 200C but did not produce any fluids.
Geothermal heat sources in basaltic volcanoes rely on frequent but small
eruptions. In contrast, along convergent plate boundaries and on the continents,
eruptions are less frequent, but heat sources are shallow and large. Chapter 7 discusses
the most common volcano type found at these convergent margins-composite cones.
- 258 -
Fig. 6.22
Piton de la Fournaise on Runion Island in the Indian Ocean.
(a) Map of Piton de La Fournaise volcano Shaded areas indicate rift zones.
(Adapted from Duffield et al., 1982).
- 259 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 6.22
(b) Diagrammatic cross-section C'-C. Features noted 1, 2, 3 refer to major periods of
eruptive
activity. Gravity slump blocks from earlier stages are believed to be bounded by formerl
y active pairs
of northeast and southeast rift zones. A possible future slump block, shown with dashed
line,
is located below fracture systems of the presently active rifts.
The position of the magma reservoir is speculative
(Adapted from Duffield et al., 1982).
Chapter *
#eother$al %yste$s in 'aturing Co$posite Cones
[Full Size]
The most obvious volcanoes above sea level are the tall composite cones that
occur in chains parallel to descending plate margins. Some of the more famous of these
volcanoes are Mount Fuji, Mount St. Helens, Krakatau, and Vesuvius. Composite cones
are large volcanoes that consist of multiple volcanic landforms such as interlayered
pyroclastic rocks, lava flows, domes, and volcanic sediments. Composite cones are also
known as stratovolcanoes or stratocones . Hundreds of composite cones overlie the
Earth's subduction zones and may mark segmented arcs; they form island arcs and-on
land where the crust is thicker-volcanic chains. Magmas are formed in the
asthenosphere by the melting of descending plates as well as bits of the mantle and
sediments overlying the plate at depths of 80 to 100 km; these magmas then rise
buoyantly toward the Earth's surface.
Magmas reach the surface by fracture propagation and subsequent flow through
dikes or by diapiric rise of blobs of viscous magma (Marsh, 1978), as is shown in Figs.
7.1 to 7.3. During the early history of a magmatic system, not many of these magma
bodies will reach the surface to erupt or even to be emplaced at shallow depths.
Magmas lose heat through conduction to adjacent crustal rocks; they become highly
viscous and their rise toward the surface is halted. Either multiple periods of dike
intrusion or the emplacement of diapiric magma bodies is required to create a zone or
chain of heated pathways that enables succeeding magmas to reach the shallow crust
(Fig. 7.1). Such a heating process allows larger, more viscous, slower moving magmas
to aggregate and form bodies that reach the surface and erupt. However, shallower
magma bodies associated with eruptions are ultimately the heat sources for geothermal
systems.
- 262 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.1
Schematic cross-section for the system of
magma reservoirs below a medium-size composite
cone that is 8 km in diameter and has a volume
of 25 km
3
. This cross-section is drawn to scale
except for the reservoir volumes, which are
exaggerated. The 70-km-thick lithosphere is
based on examples from the Aleutian Islands.
This model assumes 25% fusion followed by
80% extraction from a zone of magma genesis
with a volume of 250 km
3
. OPX = orthopyroxene;
HB = hornblende; PX = pyroxene;
and OL = olivine.
(Adapted from Gill, 1981.)
Composite cones in volcanic arcs usually evolve with time. The volcanoes grow
from individual simple cones into multiple cones, domes, and craters. Magmas become
more silicic and explosive, and the volume of individual eruption sequences increases
significantly. Networks of dikes, sills, and plutons are more pervasive and provide the
structural framework that props up cones and shallow thermal sources. Surface
manifestations above these intrusions become more evident, including fumaroles, the
acid alteration of rocks in or near the summit crater, and hot springs located along the
lower flanks of the cone. The recharge of meteoric water within a cone is important, not
only because it contributes to the development of a hydrothermal system, but also
because it can mask the thermal anomaly by an outward, rapid, near-surface
movement of cold water.
This chapter discusses examples of composite cones and their activity and defines
the surface indicators that can serve as guides to the geothermal systems within or
below these volcanoes.
Distributions, Volumes, and ompositions
istribution of 'omposite 'ones in #ol$ani$ Ar$s
Volcanic arcs may break into segments, each of which is parallel to the arc trend and
contains between two and a dozen volcanic centers (Stoiber and Carr, 1973; Marsh,
1979a; Carr et al ., 1982). Arc segments have been identified by mapping offsets in
lines of volcanoes, contrasting volcano shapes and eruption styles, clusters of small
basaltic volcanoes located behind the volcanic front near breaks, transverse fault zones,
and clusters of large, shallow earthquakes at the segment boundaries (Carr et al .,
1982). Segmentation has been well-documented in Central America (Carr et al ., 1982),
the Aleutians
- 263 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.2
Simplified two-dimensional diagram of a magma supply vs
percolation rate model of lithospheric
magmatism. Axes are schematic and depict only the relative magnitudes of supply and t
he
modification of primitive magma in the systems shown. Asterisks indicate systems thou
ght to be
characterized by the rapid transient injection of basalt at restricted crustal levels, which
results in the
generation of rhyolite but little intermediate magma. In contrast, most continental and
orogenic systems
may involve a diffuse injection throughout much of the lithosphere as well as subsequen
t mixing and
crustal mobilization, which in turn produce chiefly magmas of intermediate composition.
The degree of potential magma modification increases with increasing crustal thickness,
compositional contrast, and magma residence time.
(Adapted from Hildreth, 1981.)
(Marsh, 1979b), and the Mariana-Volcano Islands (Meijer, 1982).
Figure 7.4 shows a volcanic arc in Central America where zones interpreted as
segments range in length from 55 to 260 km. Table 7.1 presents a comparison of
segment length and volume for Central American volcanic arc segments. Stoiber and
Carr (1973) reported that the volume of erupted lavas and pyroclastic rocks per
kilometer increases with increasing segment length, from 1 km
3
/km for the shortest
(55 km) to 5.2 km
3
/km for the longest (260 km). It has been proposed that arc
segments reflect breaks and uneven surfaces within the descending plates (Carr et al .,
1982; Marsh, 1979a, b). Segment boundaries commonly
- 264 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.3
Schematic cross-sections that depict two possible stages in the development of igneous
systems in which tectonic
extension is subordinate and shallow. This model applies to (a) early and (b) intermedia
te stages of island arcs,
continental margin arcs, and mid-continental igneous systems.
Nearly all the heat for this system is supplied by basalt injection.
(Adapted from Hildreth, 1981.)
- 265 -
coincide with grabens that are oriented perpendicular to the plate boundary. Burkhart
and Self (1985) interpreted these grabens as expressions of tectonic extension-rather
than segmentation-of the plate.
The distance between composite cones located within adjacent arc segments is
fairly uniform, and the volume of material erupted from each center is approximately
proportional to that distance (Marsh, 1979a, b). For the Aleutian Island arc, this spacing
is ~70 km (Marsh and Carmichael, 1974). Meijer (1982) noted that along the Mariana
volcanic chain of the western Pacific, the spacing between volcanic centers ranges from
20 to ~80 km; this spacing is correlative with volcano size: the small volcanoes are the
most closely spaced. Within segmented arcs, small, usually monogenetic cones may
form at a distance of ~50 km behind and parallel to the volcanic front. These less
voluminous cone clusters may develop 3 to 4 m.y. after the beginnings of arc volcanism
(Marsh, 1979a).
#ol$ani$ Eruption -ates and -elative #olumes for %agma (ypes in
'omposite 'ones of #ol$ani$ Ar$s
Volcanic arcs and their composite cones contain a full spectrum of magma compositions
-from basalt to rhyolite. Temporal variations in these compositions provide clues about
the depth and size of the intrusive rocks that were their thermal sources. Compositional
variations are affected by the rate of plate movement, the angle of plate descent,
irregularities in the descending plate, crustal thickness, and the depth and residence
time of the magma reservoirs.
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.4
The segmented volcanic front of Central America, in which active volcanic fields are sho
wn as
shaded areas. Stippled vertical bars mark the transverse breaks in the arc. The thin, par
allel lines
mark depths to the inclined seismic zones (contour interval is 50 km); offshore 1000-m
contours are depths below sea level.
(Adapted from Carr et al ., 1982.)
- 266 -

Table 7.1. Volcanic Arc Segments in Central America
a
Segment
)ength
(3m*
Volume
(3m
3
/km) Stri3e o% Chain
Western Guatemala 55 1.0 N63W
Central Guatemala 145 2.7 N65W
Eastern Guatemala 85 1.7 N65W
El Salvador 220 4.3 N70W
Western Nicaragua 175 1.5 N56W
Eastern Nicaragua 120 5.2 N49W
Costa Rica 260 5.2 N60W
a
From Stoiber and Carr (1973).
Another factor affecting the longevity of thermal sources is the extrusion rate for
individual volcanoes and volcanic chains. This factor is difficult to evaluate because of
the buried eruption sequences, erosion, and widespread distribution of pyroclastic
products, but a number of studies have provided enough data to allow general
estimates. Nakamura (1974) and Crisp (1984) reviewed data for volcanic output on a
global scale and found that subduction-zone-related volcanoes produce from 0.4 to 0.75
10
6
km
3
/m.y. Working with individual arcs, McBirney et al . (1974) and Sugimura and
Uyeda (1973) concluded that the volume of material erupted for the Cascade Range and
Japan, respectively, was ~5 km
3
/m.y./km of arc. These general estimates were
confirmed in a more detailed work by Sherrod and Smith (1990), who found that the
extrusion rates in arc segments of the Quaternary Cascades volcanic arc range from
0.21 to 6 km
3
/m.y./km of arc. Variations in the volume of material erupted from
volcanoes of the Lesser Antilles and Central America may be related to both crustal
thickness and rates of plate convergence; over the last 100,000 years, production rates
have been 3.1 km
3
/m.y./km of arc in Central America and 4 km
3
/m.y./km of arc in the
Lesser Antilles (Wadge, 1984). This relationship between convergence rate, crustal
thickness, and magma types is shown in Table 7.2.
If an intermediate or silicic magma body-either small or large-is to rise buoyantly
to crustal depths, it must be heated from below by basaltic magmas from the
asthenosphere. Without this thermal boost, silicic magma chambers cool and solidify;
they may never reach the upper crust (Lachenbruch et al ., 1976; Eichelberger, 1978).
Fractionation and mixing of basaltic and silicic melts can produce the spectrum of
magma types seen in composite cones. These compositional variations are controlled by
the rate of magma supply, crustal thickness, rate of magma percolation through the
crust, and extrusion to intrusion ratio (Figs. 7.2 and 7.3; Hildreth, 1981).
To calculate the number of shallow crustal magma bodies that might provide heat
to geothermal systems, it is necessary to determine the relative volumes of magma
types and their ages for each composite volcano and, if possible, for an entire arc.
Central Cascade Range volcanism in North America began in the earliest Pleistocene
with the eruption of widespread basaltic cones and flows and the construction of
overlapping shield volcanoes (McBirney and White, 1982). Activity became more
localized at centers from which more andesitic lavas and tephra were erupted. This
activity formed the base upon which the large composite cones were constructed during
the past million years. The volume measurements of
- 267 -

Table 7.2. Classification of Volcanic Arcs by Convergence Rate, Crustal Thickness, and Calc-Alkalinity of Magmas
a
4 . Con#ergence rates BC cm?!r an$ crust D;, 3m thic3E <,. o% the #olcanoes are compose$ o%
tholeiitic roc3s

E$amples2


Kermadec Marianas

South Sandwich Tonga

lzu

44 . Con#ergence rates BC cm?!r an$ crust F, to >, 3m thic3G FF to C,. o% the #olcanoes are
compose$ o% tholeiitic roc3s

E$amples2


New Britain East Japan

Central America Vanuatu

Kuriles Chile (33 to 47S)

Java Kamchatka
444 . Con#ergence rates DC cm?!r or crust B>, 3m thic3G D/,. o% the #olcanoes are compose$ o%
tholeiitic roc3s

E$amples2


New Zealand Cascades

Chile (>47S) Sumatra

Alaska Ryukus

Lesser Antilles Ecuador

Aegean Peru (Northern)

Turkey-Iran Colombia

Mexico Chile
a
From Gill (1981).
McBirney et al . (1974) indicated that most of the province consists of basaltic scoria
cones and lava flows and that andesitic composite cones make up only 15% of the
erupted material. Studies of Mount Jefferson indicate that the early basaltic activity
produced >100 km
3
, but that the cone-building stages involved only 25 km
3
of
andesitic magma (Fig. 7.5).
Clark (1983) found that the Three Sisters volcanic complex of the southern
Cascade Range was erupted onto a broad base of basaltic lavas (57 km
3
), which
included a much larger relative volume of andesite (30 km
3
) and rhyodacite-rhyolite
(3.5 km
3
). Rhyodacitic domes erupted during the past 2300 years from aligned vents
that cross the summit regions of the complex. These eruptions may have tapped only a
small volume of a compositionally zoned, shallow magma chamber of much greater
volume (Scott (1987).
By plotting volumes of erupted material vs SiO2 compositions for the Quaternary
volcanic rocks of Japan, Aramaki and Ui (1982) demonstrated that changes along the
arc may be related to both plate movement and crustal thickness. Arc segments that
consist of composite cones, domes, and calderas are mostly andesite-dacite-rhyolite-all
of which are indicative of shallow crustal magma bodies. Most of the rhyolitic materials
are associated with large calderas. The basaltic segments are made up of pre-
dominantly simple cones and lava flows (Fig. 7.6).
- 268 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.5
Relative volumes of rock types associated with
Quaternary composite cones in the Cascade
Range of North America. (a) Mount Jefferson was
constructed during four main periods of activity;
rock volumes vs SiO2 content for each stage are
shown in the graph. (b) Three Sisters complex,
which is characterized by more siliceous rocks
than Mount Jefferson. Of the two, the Three
Sisters complex has more potential as a
geothermal resource.
(Adapted from McBirney and White, 1982.)
Inferred Intrusive #olumes and (heir epths belo* 'omposite 'ones
Using a model originally developed for evaluating large-volume eruptions of silicic
magmas and subsequent caldera collapse, Smith and Shaw (1975) determined that the
volume ratio of magma chambers to erupted material is ~10:1. This conclusion was
based on models of magma transport into the Earth's crust, exhumed intrusive-volcanic
complexes, petrologic indicators, and geo-physical studies of active igneous systems.
The authors later applied this model to the evaluation of all the high-grade geothermal
systems in the U.S. Shaw (1985) took this model even further when he calculated
volume-periodicity relations for explosive eruption activity in a variety of volcanoes-
from composite cones located along plate boundaries to large mid-continental calderas.
Most of the magma chambers below andesitic-dacitic cones examined in this study are
located within the upper 4 km, and several are within 2 km of the crust.
Crisp (1984) and Wadge (1984) approximated intrusive-to-extrusive ratios for all
volcano types, including composite cones and the associated domes and calderas along
subduction zones (Table 7.3).
Eruption ,henomena and Deposits at omposite ones
A composite cone consists of a stack of overlapping volcanic landforms deposited during
a wide variety of eruptions that range from mild steam explosions to large Plinian
eruptions accompanied by caldera collapse. The type of activity that produces any
particular volcanic landform depends upon many factors, such as magma composition,
volatile content, volume, and depth to underlying magma bodies, as well as the size and
gravitational stability of the cone and its access to ground or surface water.
- 269 -
Composite cones usually evolve through time, as is displayed in Fig. 7.7; each
successive eruption involves increased silica content in the magmas, shallower crustal
magma bodies, and more energy. This process may last over several hundred thousand
years but certainly less than a million years. Thus, many of the Earth's active composite
cones are less than 200,000 years old. Mount Shasta in California, with a summit
elevation of 3050 m, was constructed by four cone-building episodes during the last
250,000 years (Christiansen, 1985). The evolutionary model described in this section
applies to most-but not all-composite cones; volcanoes are far too individual to allow
absolute predictions of activity and products. For more detailed views of eruption
processes, refer to Williams and McBirney (1979), Fisher and Schmincke (1984), and
Heiken and Wohletz (1985).
Immature Stage
+ava *ountaining
Low-viscosity basaltic magmas erupt as lava fountains and basaltic lava flows. The
fountains range from a few meters to >600 m in height (Fig. 7.8). They deposit welded
spatter (bombs and ash) in either a circular or oval apron around a central vent or as
ridges parallel to a fissure. The spray of low-viscosity (<10
3
-poise) basaltic liquid is
driven by expansion of magmatic gases. Basaltic glass pyroclasts from lava fountains
range from vesicular bombs a meter or more across to spheres of a few micrometers.
The coarser pyroclasts are deposited within a few hundred meters of the vent; finer ash,
including filamentous Pele's hair, is swept downwind and deposited as ashfall.
The structures associated with lava fountains are <100-m-high spatter ramparts
and scoria cones composed of mixed welded spatter and basaltic ash. Pahoehoe and aa
basaltic lava flows overflow from cinder cones and spatter ramparts or from fissures
outside
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.6
Volume and weight percent of SiO2 from
Quaternary Japanese volcanic rocks. Patterned
portions represent lavas and pyroclastic rocks of
composite cones, lava domes, and pyroclastic
cones. Open portions indicate pyroclastic rocks
associated with large calderas.
(Adapted from Aramaki and Ui, 1982.)

Table 7.3. Examples of Ratios of Intrusive to Extrusive Rocks Along
Subduction Zones
a
Andes ~6:1
Peru <13:1
Kurile Islands <13:1
Kaimondake, Japan 0.8:1
Fuego, Guatemala 2.1:1
"Typical" composite cone 1.5:1
Alaskan and Cascade volcanoes
b
10:1
a
From Crisp (1984) and Wadge (1984).
b
From Smith and Shaw (1975).
- 270 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.7
The evolution and geothermal potential of composite cones.
these structures, as can be seen at Kilauea (Fig. 7.9). These structures are often
over-whelmed by lava flows, buried by small lava shields, or cut by pit craters. The
volume of the lava flows in these eruptions greatly exceeds that of the pyroclastic rocks.
At this early stage of composite cone development, there are only simple,
monogenetic cones composed of basaltic lavas. These may occur singly or in chains
along prevolcanic fracture or fault systems. Of course, there are exceptions to this
simple categorization; for example, Fedotov (1987) reported that 4750-m-high
Kliuchevskoi Volcano in the Kurile-Kamchatka arc of the USSR is a basaltic cone with an
annual magma output of 60 10
6
m
3
.
"trombolian Eruptions
Explosive bursts of solidified and partly solidified bombs, blocks, and ash are termed
Strombolian , from activity at Stromboli Volcano, which is located along the chain of
volcanoes that make up Italy's Aeolian Islands. Well-documented Strombolian eruptions
consist of "weak to violent ejection[s] of partly-fluid blobs" (MacDonald, 1972;
- 271 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.8
This 300-m-high lava fountain occurred during the 1959-1960 eruption of Kilauea lki
in Hawaii. High flux, accompanied by a rapid release of magmatic gases, caused the
low-viscosity basaltic lava to fountain. This spray consisted of gases and droplets and
clots of lava. Similar lava fountains can occur during the early history of a composite co
ne.
(Photograph by the U.S. Geological Survey; Richter et al ., 1970.)
- 272 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.9
Spatter rampart adjacent to a fissure vent at Kilauea Volcano in Hawaii. Partly molten b
ombs,
ranging from a few centimeters to several meters in diameter, fall out within a few tens
or
hundreds of meters of the vent and form a resistant ridge or ring of welded scoria.
- 273 -
Self et al ., 1974; McGetchin et al ., 1974). Most of the pyroclasts fall ballistically
around the vent and build up a scoria cone (Fig. 7.10); finer grained tephra is deposited
on the cone and some is carried downwind. Fallout beds accumulate until they exceed
their angle of repose, after which avalanches cascade down the flanks and into the
crater (McGetchin et al ., 1974). Of the tephra erupted, ~50% is deposited in the cinder
cone and 50% is deposited in fallout layers downwind from the cone (Heiken, 1978a).
Activity at scoria cones can rapidly alternate between lava fountaining, Strombolian
bursts, and Vulcanian eruptions (discussed in the section on the submature stage of
cone growth). Interbedded with the loose scoria fall and avalanche beds of many scoria
cones are layers of welded scoria and finer grained phreatomagmatic tephra (for
example, at Stromboli).
Pyroclasts in Strombolian deposits range from irregular, smooth-skinned, vesicular
sideromelane droplets (basaltic glass) to blocky, crystalline, poorly vesicular tachylite
pyroclasts. This spectrum of textural types is found in all size categories-from large
bombs to scoria to fine ash.
Magma compositions represented in scoria cones vary from basaltic to basaltic
andesite. Lava flows associated with Strombolian activity may be caused by overflows
from crater lava lakes or eruptions from the cone flanks, which can even carry away
part of the cone. Pahohoe, aa, and block lavas are all associated with scoria cones.
Submature Stage
This stage of growth includes the development of individual vents along lineaments.
Magmas are mostly of intermediate compositions that comprise basaltic andesites,
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.10
Cinder Cone at Lassen National Park in California. This scoria cone is typical of cones tha
t are
peripheral to the more silicic volcanoes of the Lassen area. Built during several periods
of
eruptive activity during the last 400 years, this cone was last active in 1851 A.D. Cinder
Cone
consists of outwardly dipping layers of several types of scoriaceous bombs and ash
that were deposited ballistically and by slumping of oversteepened slopes.
- 274 -
andesitic basalts, and andesites. As the volcano grows in elevation, it may affect local
weather patterns; heavier precipitation occurring near the summit may saturate rocks
or form snowfields and glaciers. With the presence of increased surface and
groundwater on the volcano, the potential for hydrothermal activity and phreatic
eruptions will also increase. The factors responsible for the trend toward Vulcanian
activity are increasingly viscous magma and increasing amounts of groundwater.
Vulcanian Eruptions
A Vulcanian eruption is characterized by the moderate to violent ejection of solid or very
viscous lava fragments in short, cannon-like bursts. Ash, fine ash, and gases are
emitted and ascend to form a cauliflower-like eruption cloud. The eruption mechanism is
not clear, but it appears to consist of alternating magmatic and phreatomagmatic
processes. Occasionally, eruptions will shift back and forth between Vulcanian and
Strombolian activity. They can produce eruption clouds that rise several kilometers
above the vent as well as small pyroclastic flows and surges that flow down the cone
flanks. These pyroclastic flow deposits may grade into laharic breccias on the lower
flanks of the volcano-possibly as a result of condensation of the steam-particulate
mixture. Vulcanian eruptions form scoria cones, craters in composite cones, and lava
domes.
Vulcanian deposits consist of large blocks and bombs in a matrix of juvenile and
non-juvenile ash. Heiken and Wohletz (1985) determined that the juvenile components
may be vesicular (mostly magmatic) or blocky and nonvesicular (mostly
phreatomagmatic). Nonjuvenile components are interpreted as fragments of a lava plug
in the conduit, bits of dome lava, or fragments from the conduit and crater walls.
Nairn and Self (1978) reported that at Ngauruhoe volcano in New Zealand,
cannon-like explosions and subsequent pyroclastic falls and flows resulted when a lava
plug was pulverized in the conduit by a combination of magma degassing and
vaporization of groundwater.
Volcanic Mudflo-s &+ahars'
A volcanic mudflow is a mixture of juvenile and nonjuvenile pyroclasts, lithic clasts
picked up on the volcano surface, and a silt or mud matrix. Lithic blocks can range from
pebble size to slabs that are tens of meters in diameter. Within the fine-grained matrix
may be vesicles formed by trapped air or steam. Fisher and Schmincke (1984) and
Crandell (1971) provide excellent detailed descriptions of volcanic mudflows.
Volcanic debris flows are nearly always associated with composite cones in
submature or mature stages of growth. These flows can be initiated in several ways: (1)
condensation of water vapor in cooling pyroclastic flows or surges (Wohletz, 1986), (2)
phreatic eruptions of muddy tephra, (3) expulsion of water from crater lakes, and/or (4)
snow and ice melt following emplacement of small pyroclastic flows. 3ahar is a
commonly used Indonesian term for a coarse, poorly sorted volcanic debris flow (van
Bemmelen, 1949). Lahar deposits may coat the flanks of a cone, but they are generally
confined to the canyons and valleys of the watershed. They may travel for distances of
> 100 km if the volume is great enough and the stream gradient steep enough. Where
there is a change of gradient-for example at the head of a plain below the volcano-
lahars spread out to form fan-like sheets. Because they are generally confined to
drainages, volcanic mudflows are interbedded with reworked pyroclastic deposits and
eroded lava flows. Surfaces of debris flow breccias of any type can be smooth, but they
can also be hummocky when they contain >1-m diameter blocks that have been carried
along with the flow, as shown in Fig. 7.11. In most field situations it is difficult to
distinguish between laharic deposits and debris avalanche deposits from volcanoes.
- 275 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.11
A laharic breccia and a small, valley-filling ignimbrite exposed along the east coast of th
e
island of St. Lucia in the West Indies. Most of the outcrop consists of a matrix-supported
boulder-rich breccia deposited by a volcanic mudflow (lahar). The steep-walled, flat-
floored
ravine cut into the breccia has been filled by a massive ignimbrite (the Qualibou Tuff).
Laharic breccias are massive and consist of boulders in a fine-grained, muddy
matrix. Most are reversely graded, but some are normally graded; this feature depends
on the bulk density of the fluid as well as the velocity and strength of the mudflow. All
such breccias are very poorly sorted and thick-bedded deposits. Trees, shrubs, and
grass, frequently ripped up by the mudflows in the upper reaches of a drainage, are
carried along with the flow. The plants may or may not be charred, depending upon the
volume of hot juvenile pyroclasts in the deposit; if the plants are charred, it might be
possible to use carbon-dating techniques on the mudflow.
%ature Stage
At this stage of composite cone development, several new factors are evident.
Magmas are more silicic, more volatile-rich, and thus more explosive.
Magma bodies are more viscous, are larger, and are emplaced at shallow depths.
Shallow hydrothermal systems have developed and there is acid alteration of the
cone's core.
The emplacement of shallow magma bodies and subsequent surface deformation,
the great height of the cone, and hydrothermal alteration of interior portions of the cone
cause instabilities that may lead to sector collapse. (a sector is a cone section that may
fail structurally from summit to base.)
In the mature stages of composite cone development, the balance of construction
and destruction is similar to the processes
- 276 -
exhibited during the eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington: sector collapse,
explosive eruptions, and subsequent slow dome growth, which may eventually fill the
crater formed by collapse.
,linian and ,el9ean Eruptions
Plinian and Pelean eruptions are associated with volatile-rich rhyolitic or dacitic
magmas. The eruptions range in magnitude from pumice falls of <0.1 km
3
to tens of
cubic kilometers. These eruptions produce not only widespread pumice and ash falls but
also extensive pyroclastic flows. Most of these eruptions are considered magmatic and
are driven by the release of magmatic gases; however, many are also
phreatomagmatic. (The best examples of the latter are associated with calderas in Italy
and New Zealand.)
Plinian pumice fall and ashfall deposits systematically decrease in thickness with
distance from the vent. Elliptical fallout patterns are possible unless there is no wind
during the eruption-in which case the pattern is circular. Fallout plane-parallel beds
drape the topography and are normally or reversely graded, depending upon the
eruption energy, the winds, or both. Figure 7.12 shows a pumice fallout deposit at
Tecuamburro Volcano in Guatemala. For a detailed description of all types of ashfall
deposits, see Fisher and Schmincke (1984).
Fallout tephra is moderately to well sorted; its median grain size decreases
downwind from the vent. Such a deposit is mostly composed of angular, vesicular
pumice pyroclasts. The volume of vesicles and phenocrysts and the vesicles' shapes
vary greatly between eruptions and even during a single eruption. A characterization of
the vesicles and an analysis of phenocrysts can be used to interpret details of magma
movement and eruption phenomena (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984; Heiken and Wohletz,
1985).
Pyroclastic flow and surge deposits from Plinian eruptions can be either small-
volume deposits-limited mostly to drainages on the volcano slopes-or large volumes-
tens of cubic kilometers or more-that form aprons radial to calderas. (Chapter 2
provides detailed descriptions of facies within pyroclastic flow deposits.)
"ilicic +ava Domes and *lo-s
Rhyolitic, rhyodacitic, and dacitic lavas are erupted slowly and form bulbous, steep-
sided domes and lava flows close to the vent area (Fink, 1987). Rose (1987) reports
that Santiaguito in Guatemala has been erupting dacitic lava flows continuously for >60
years. The flow surfaces are marked by highly fractured, contorted lobes; however,
within the flows, the lavas are flow banded, pumiceous and nonpumiceous, and glassy
to crystalline (Fink and Manley, 1987). These domes are associated with craters but can
also erupt from fissures.
Silicic domes make up an integral part of many composite cones, especially during
the mature stages of cone growth. At the Three Sisters volcano in Oregon, for instance,
silicic domes and flows and associated pyroclastic rocks erupted from 20 vents and have
formed a 10-km-long chain across the summit of South Sister (Scott, 1987).
Domes within the summit craters of composite cones may be purely surficial,
spreading out laterally from a rhyolite dike, or may be part of a plug that fills a large
conduit to a depth of a kilometer or more. Volcn Santa Maria in Guatemala was cut in
half during an explosive eruption in 1902. Twenty years later, a dome began to grow in
the crater and has erupted 1 km
3
of dacitic lava in 22 distinct flow lobes to date (Rose,
1987). This activity has not restored the ~5 km
3
of material lost in the 1902 eruption,
but the volcano continues to grow and maintains the cycle of destruction and
construction characteristic of composite cones (Fig. 7.13).
The process of destruction was clearly demonstrated by collapse of the northern
flank of Mount St. Helens during the eruption
- 277 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.12
This pumice fallout deposit is overlain by a massive ignimbrite from the same eruption.
An unnamed pyroxene pumice deposit in the Tecuamburro Volcano area of southeastern
Guatemala at this location consists of both a 10-cm-thick pumice fallout deposit, which
drapes underlying topography, and massive ignimbrites, which are thick within valleys
and canyons and thin or absent on ridges and hills.
- 278 -
of 1980. The collapse removed 2.3 km
3
of rock as a rockslide and avalanche from the
summit and core and left a large open amphitheater-like crater (Voight et al ., 1981).
This space is now partly filled by a dacitic dome that continues to grow. This process is
slowed only by intermittent periods of destruction or partial destruction by magmatic
and phreatic explosions. In the three-year period after the crater was formed, 0.04 km
3

of dacitic lava was erupted. Swanson et al4 (1987) estimated that if the new magma is
erupted slowly and continuously, ~0.01 km
3
of dacite will be added each year to the
dome (Fig. 7.14).
Kienle and Forbes (1976) noted that during the initial 1976 explosive activity at
Augustine Volcano in Alaska, ash falls and pyroclastic flows swept the slopes, removing
~0.1 km
3
of dome material. The cylindrical crater was refilled within a few hours by
fresh dacitic lava.
*umarolic Activity and Acid Alteration
Mature composite cones with summits high above the surrounding terrain are the sites
for increased precipitation and infiltration of meteoric waters that feed vapor-dominated
hydrothermal systems (Healy, 1976). Usually, fumaroles located near the summit form
zones of acid alteration in the crater or along faults that cut the crater. Hot springs
commonly issue from fractures, faults, or permeable beds near the base of the volcano.
This type of hydrothermal system implies the presence of shallow young magma bodies
within or below the base of the composite cone.
Explosive ,hreatic Activity
If a hydrothermal system is perturbed by the injection of new magma at depth, the
result may be explosive steam eruptions without the eruption of juvenile tephra. This
type of activity is possible at many types of volcanoes and even in geothermal areas
where there is no volcanic activity; however, it is
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.13
Cross-sections of composite cones that
contain sector collapse craters.
(Adapted from Siebert, 1984).
most common in mature composite cones. Phreatic eruptions may occur without
subsequent activity (such as at Soufrire de Guadeloupe in 1976-1977), or they may be
precursors of a significant magmatic eruption (as at Mount St. Helens in 1980). Phreatic
eruptions consist of intermittent or continuous explosive steam bursts and can form
large craters.
The phreatic ashfalls observed at Soufrire de Guadeloupe are thin, fine-grained
deposits with large blocks near the vent as well as small volcanic mudflow deposits
composed of hydrothermally altered or weathered lithic clasts and mud (Wohletz and
Crowe, 1978; Heiken and Wohletz, 1985). Intermittent explosive phreatic
- 279 -
activity is an important indicator of geothermal potential and is described in greater
detail in Chapters 2 and 3.
Models of omposite ones
To find and develop a hydrothermal system associated with a composite cone, it is
necessary to understand the cone's structural framework, intrusive "plumbing," and
thermal state. This information must be inferred from clues at the surface such as
surface manifestations of hydrothermal activity, the age and composition of the volcano,
and its fractures, faults, and hydrology (Sibbett, 1988). The ability to relate surface
features to interior structure and thermal state depends on models that have been
developed from geophysical models or through the examination of eroded composite
cones. A variety of these models are discussed here; each is based on a different
approach or tectonic setting.
%odels Based on %apping and %ining of &orphyry 'opper eposits in
eeply Eroded 'omposite 'ones
Branch (1976) studied many composite cones in Papua New Guinea to determine if they
contained volcanogenic ore bodies. Branch published a model of composite cones
(shown in Fig. 7.15) that was based on his field observations of basaltic to andesitic
volcanoes in various evolutionary stages. The composite cones developed over an island
arc subduction zone in a region with a relatively thin crust. They were composed of
interbedded lava flows, laharic breccias, and other pyroclastic deposits. Eruptive cycles
were as short as 1 year or as long as 10,000 years; during the latest growth stages, the
cones were permeated with shallow magma chambers, sills, and dikes. Hydrothermal
systems developed during later stages extend into the core of the cone and through
underlying basement
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.14
North-south cross sections of Mount St. Helens
in Washington illustrate changes resulting from
the sector collapse and eruption of May 18, 1980,
and subsequent dome growth. (a) A pre-eruption
cross section shows: (1) the older volcanic center, consisting of nested dacite domes,
pyroclastic
flows, and mudflow breccias, which is cut by dikes; (2) andesitic and basaltic
lava flows interbedded
with volcanic breccias and scoria; and (3) several dacitic domes: the
summit dome, erupted 370 years
BP and the north slope dome erupted between 180 and
138 years ago). (b) A posteruption cross
section through the crater caused by sector
collapse and the avalanche that preceded the most
explosive phase of the eruption. Present-day development of the growing dacite dome
within the
crater is indicated. (Adapted from Voight et al ., 1981.)
rocks to form 1- to 2-km-diameter aureoles of hydro-thermal alteration around
intrusions. Surface indicators of the hydrothermal system include andesitic, dacitic, or
rhyolitic vents; fumaroles and sulfur deposits at the summit; collapse craters;
hydrothermal explosion breccias; and a long cone history (>100,000 years).
- 280 -
Sillitoe's (1973) general model for composite cones and associated intrusive rocks was
based on his observations of copper-porphyry deposits in the Andes of Chile and
northern Argentina-a region where volcanoes overlie thick crust. The hydrothermal
systems responsible for deposition of the porphyry copper deposits were established
late in the history of the composite cones; subsequently, only dacitic or rhyolitic
magmas were intruded and erupted. Observations of these systems at various levels
exposed by erosion (or in mine shafts) indicate that large granodiorite plutons are
present at shallow depths (~4 km below the summits) during late-stage activity (Fig.
7.16). The chief distinction between these volcanoes and those in island arcs is the
difference in crustal thicknesses beneath them; processes within the thick crust of the
Andean altiplano ultimately produce large silicic magma bodies that are emplaced at
shallow depths.
Giggenbach (1989) developed a similar model for an Andean composite cone, the
young, active volcano of Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia. His model was based upon the
analysis of gases and waters from Ruiz' fumaroles and hot springs. According to
Giggenbach's interpretation, there is a broad mass of crystallizing, degassing magma
and rock from ~3 km to >15 km below the summit (the volcano's elevation is 5389 m).
Intrusions below Ruiz may be surrounded by aureoles of vapor, a mixture of brine and
vapor, and brine. The vapor and vapor-plus-brine aureoles are of the same shape and
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.15
Simplified cross section through a "nearly extinct" mature composite cone. This model w
as developed
by Branch (1976), who studied many composite cones in Papua New Guinea to determi
ne their
potential for volcanogenic ore bodies. The model is based upon studies of
volcanoes in various evolutionary stages.
- 281 -
areal extent as the zone of hydrothermal alteration within a mature andean composite
cone, which was proposed by Sillitoe (1973). The model for Nevado del Ruiz has not yet
been tested by drilling.
0ell/%apped E1amples of Eroded 'omposite 'ones
Composite cones formed during Tertiary time usually have been deeply eroded and their
interior structures are exposed. However, these cones are still sufficiently preserved to
allow interpretation of the relationship between rock types and the structural
framework. The cones we discuss here were chosen because their carefully executed
three-dimensional maps with cross sections provide excellent examples of older
composite cones.
0ro1en #op Volcano
At Broken Top volcano, in the southern Cascade Range of Oregon in the U.S., dissection
by glaciation has provided a clear view of its interior workings (Crowe and Nolf, 1977).
The cone consists of interbedded lava flows, laharic breccias, and other pyroclastic
deposits illustrated in Fig. 7.17. The tall cone could not have remained standing without
its complex internal framework, which is composed of dikes, sills, and small plutons.
Early phases of cone construction were followed by collapse and the formation of a
small summit caldera. After further cone construction, the edifice was intruded by plugs,
radial and concentric dikes, and sills. Intrusions at Broken Top volcano constitute 5 to
20% of the cone volume.
#ieton Volcano
The Miocene-age Tieton Volcano of Washington has been deeply eroded, exposing radial
dike swarms and plugs (Swanson, 1966). Originally, Tieton volcano had a basal
diameter of ~11 km and a height of 2.4 km. The composite cone, made up of
interbedded breccias, pyroclastic deposits, and block lava flows, overlies a shield
composed of andesitic lavas. Within the southern, exposed half of the volcano, 200
dikes form a radial swarm; individual dikes are 2 to 6 m thick, are steeply dipping (70
to 90), and are mostly andesitic. These dikes would have provided a substantial heat
source if they were intruded over a fairly short period of time, but not if they were
intruded piecemeal over tens of thousands of years. Such dikes
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.16
This idealized cross section of a composite
cone and associated intrusive rocks is based
on observations of copper-porphyry
deposits in the Andes of Chile and northern
Argentina. Hydrothermal systems
responsible for the porphyry copper
deposits were established late in the history
of the composite cone; the intrusion and
eruption of rhyolitic magmas followed. In
this model, which is based on a region
with thick crust, the vertical and
horizontal scales are the same.
(After Sillitoe, 1973.)
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[Full Size]
Fig. 7.17
A cross section of Broken Top volcano in the southern Cascade Range of Oregon,
in the U.S. The cone consists of interbedded lava flows, laharic breccias, and other pyro
clastic
deposits. The cone could not have supported itself without the complex internal framew
ork of
dikes, sills, and small plutons-all of which give tall composite cones their stability.
(Adapted from Crowe and Nolf, 1977.)
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.18
Diagram showing typical dike patterns radial
to the central conduit of a composite cone
and the parasitic cones on the volcano
flanks. The dike swarms follow the trend
of maximum horizontal compression.
(Adapted from Nakamura et al., 1977.)
also act as barriers to groundwater flow and thus can "compartmentalize" aquifers
or parts of a hydrothermal system.
Volcanoes of the Aleutian Arc and Alas1an ,eninsula
In their study of arc volcanoes of the Aleutian Islands and Alaskan Peninsula, Nakamura
et al . (1977) mapped radial dike patterns and parasitic cones on volcano flanks. They
concluded that dikes and flank vents on composite cones form elongate swarms in
regions under compression and that the swarms follow the trend of the maximum
horizontal compression (Fig. 7.18). Inference of the location and dimensions of such
dike swarms must be made when siting exploration wells because although they provide
the heat source, they also may act as barriers to groundwater flow (see Chapter 6).
Nakamura's observations can be applied to many composite cones that exhibit
sector collapse. This type of collapse may occur parallel to the dilational stress within
the volcano when the volcano's flanks are forced outward (Siebert, 1984). However, it
is more likely that the collapse process is related to the shape of the dike-sill complex
within the cone. Composite cones devel-
- 283 -
oped in regions with homogeneous stress are supported by a radial framework of dikes
and sills, whereas cones developed in regions strongly influenced by the regional stress
regime have dikes that are located mostly along a line parallel to the maximum
horizontal compression. Parallel dike systems support only the part of the volcano below
a line of parasitic vents; unsupported flanks, with only rare dikes or sills, are subject to
sector collapse.
"ummer oon Volcano
The mid-Tertiary-age Summer Coon composite cone in Colorado, mapped by Lipman
(1968), is a deeply dissected cone in which the nearly circular complex of stocks is
exposed, as are the radial dikes shown in Fig. 7.19. These silicic dikes are as much as
4.8 km long and 60 m wide. Remnants of the cone consist of interbedded tuff-breccias
and lava flows of mafic to intermediate
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.19
Geologic map and cross section of the mid-Tertiary-age Summer Coon
composite cone in Colorado. This is a deeply dissected cone in which both the
nearly circular complex of stocks and the radial dikes are exposed.
(Adapted from Lipman, 1968.)
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compositions. The symmetry of the dike complex reflects fracturing and dike
emplacement controlled by stress around the central pluton or plutons and little
superimposed tectonic control. The volcano's location on thick continental crust makes
the Summer Coon volcano model more similar to volcanoes of the Andean altiplano than
to the island arc volcanoes.
Mount "t5 !elens
Major structural changes to Mount St. Helens in Washington were caused by the sector
collapse and eruption on May 18, 1980, in addition to subsequent dome growth. Before
the eruption, Mt. Saint Helens consisted of (1) an older volcanic center with nested
dacite domes, pyroclastic flows, and mudflow breccias, which was cut by dikes (Fig.
7.13); (2) andesitic and basaltic lava flows interbedded with volcanic breccias and
scoria; and (3) dacitic domes (the 370-year BP summit dome and the 180- to 138-year
BP domes of the north slope).
After the sector collapse and an avalanche that preceded the most explosive phase
of the eruption at Mount St. Helens, an ampitheater-shaped crater remained. The dacite
dome within the crater continues to grow (Voight et al ., 1981).
A Fa$ies %odel
6uapehu
Ruapehu volcano in New Zealand, elevation 2797 m, was constructed by four major
cone-building phases over the last 250,000 years. The 110-km
3
composite cone is
characterized by many abrupt lateral and vertical facies changes (Hackett and
Houghton, 1989).
The central and flank vents, aligned along a north-northeast-trending lineament,
consist of plug- and dome-like intrusions, thin lava flows, welded pyroclastic fall
deposits, and vent breccias. Most of the vent areas have been hydrothermally altered.
Proximal (near-vent) facies are made up of mostly block lava flows and lesser ashfall
and laharic breccia deposits. The near-vent cones were intruded by numerous thin (0.5-
to 5-m wide) dikes that are compositionally identical to adjacent lavas.
Hackett and Houghton concluded that the distal (ring plain) facies consists of
interbedded epiclastic volcanic deposits that are interbedded with ashfall deposits and
fluvially reworked avalanche or volcanic mudflows. This plain forms a 6- to 15-km-wide
girdle around the composite cone, which is formed by overlapping alluvial fans.
Hummocky mounds on the plain are part of a sector collapse avalanche deposit.
Hackett and Houghton also determined that the cones at Ruapehu are mostly
constructed of lavas and domes and that pyroclastic and epiclastic materials are found
mostly on the ring plain.
A %odel Based on +eat Flo* %easurements
!a1one Volcano
Iriyama and Oki (1978) measured temperature profiles in Hakone Volcano, Japan.
However, the model was for a composite cone that grew within a small caldera.
Hydrothermal activity is most intense in the eastern half of the caldera-probably
because recharged groundwater from the lake in the western half of the caldera flows
toward sea level in the east (Fig. 7.20). The thermal regime is most likely related to the
caldera and not to the overlying composite cone.
omposite one Geothermal "ystems
As discussed earlier in this chapter, many of the geothermal systems that were believed
to be part of composite cones are actually located below the mature cones or are linked
to other structures such as calderas and recent extensional faulting. Within the
- 285 -
Cascade Range of the U.S., there are few surface manifestations of hydrothermal
activity at young composite cones (Duffield, 1983). Basaltic and andesitic volcanoes are
generally not underlain by large, shallow crustal magma reservoirs. Only the most
mature of these cones contain known geothermal reservoirs: for example, Crater Lake
and Newberry volcanoes in Oregon, where there are young, voluminous, silicic magmas
and small calderas.
For many composite cones, the traditional exploration methods such as measuring
shallow heat flow, examining surface manifestations (hot springs, fumaroles, acid
alteration, etc.), and evaluating electrical geophysical data are not successful (LaFleur,
1983; Wright and Ward, 1983). In most cases, high infiltration rates for rainfall and
snowmelt near volcano summits can hydrologically mask any geothermal systems
because the summit and slopes are saturated with cold water to depths of 500 m to 1
km. Within the Cascade Range of the western U.S., this phenomenon is known as the
"rain curtain" (Swanberg et al ., 1988). Groundwater heated by plutons below
Quaternary-age volcanoes of the Oregon Cascades flows laterally into the upper zones
of older volcanic rocks on the flanks of the volcanic chain. The result is an area of near-
zero shallow conductive heat flow around the young volcano as well as shallow high
thermal gradients in the older rocks (Ingebritsen et al ., 1989). In this environment, the
only effective exploration/evaluation methods are (a) a search for indirect clues such as
youthful silicic tuffs and lavas and phreatic craters, (b) the qualitative maturity index
(Fig. 7.6), and (c) intermediate to deep thermal gradient holes.
&roven 7rilled8 "eothermal Fields
Meager Mountain
Meager Mountain in British Columbia, Canada, with a volume of 70 km
3
and a cone
height of 1500 m, comprises nine overlapping andesitic and dacitic volcanic
assemblages that range from late Pliocene to 2440 years BP (Souther, 1985). Its
multiple vents are aligned along a north-south trend. The volcano overlies a high-relief
surface of older plutonic and metamorphic rocks (late Mesozoic to early Tertiary Coast
Plutonic complex and late Miocene epizonal plutons). The older rocks consist of andesitic
flows and volcanic breccias, and the younger rocks are dacitic flows and domes, ashfall
deposits, and ignimbrites.
Warm springs of ~60C issue from faults within the basement rocks at the base of
the volcano. Much of the anomaly is masked by near-surface meteoritic water. Fifteen
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.20
This computed temperature profile of
Hakone volcano in Japan was created for a
composite cone located within a small caldera.
(Adapted from Iriyama and Oki, 1978.)
- 286 -
coreholes were drilled on the northern and southern flanks of the volcano (Adams et
al ., 1985). Argillic alteration of the basement rocks was detected on the northern slope,
but no hydrothermal fluids were found. Below the southern slopes, a plume of hot water
(~200C) rises along north-south-trending faults and along fractures within basement
rocks; 233 to 264C fluids were encountered at depths of 3 to 3.5 km in fractured
plutonic rocks.
The hydrothermal resource is fracture-dominated and follows the Meager Creek
fault zone, where the host rocks have low permeability and porosity. It is likely that the
fluids are heated by subvolcanic intrusive rocks, but the amount of thermal energy
contributed by cooling dikes and plugs is not known. The system may be related to deep
circulation of fluids along the Meager Creek fault zone. Souther (1985) reported on two
drilled reservoirs; the shallow, low-temperature (<140C) reservoir has been clogged
with authigenic minerals and forms a barrier for deeper, hotter fluids; the deeper
reservoir, in fractured basement rocks, has temperatures >200C.
Momotombo
The Nicaraguan Depression in Central America, which lies parallel to a northwest-
southeast-trending plate boundary, encompasses most of the Quaternary-to-historical
volcanic fields of Nicaragua. Momotombo Volcano, located on the northwestern shore of
Lago de Managua, is a 1258-m-high symmetrical cone, with a volume of 12 km
3
(Fig.
7.21 and cover photo). Momotombo is a submature composite cone within a northwest-
southeast-trending graben and adjacent to a 4-km-diameter caldera. The somma ridge
of an undated but older cone is located ~900 m above the base of Momotombo. The
youngest rocks here are andesitic lavas that were erupted in 1905 AD (Mooser et al .,
1958).
Surface geothermal manifestations include active fumaroles in the summit crater
and hydrothermally altered ground over a 4 km
2
area along the southern slope of the
volcano. This altered ground follows hydrothermally active, northwest-trending fractures
(Figs. 7.21 and 7.22). Drillholes up to several kilometers deep were sited in interbedded
andesitic lavas, welded tuffs and ashes, basaltic lavas and ashes, and dacitic lava; the
most common rock type is andesitic lithic tuff (Moore et al ., 1982). Some of the rocks
have been interpreted as phreatomagmatic-which is certainly possible because
Momotombo sits on the shore of Lake Managua.
Maps of the alteration aureoles suggest structural control and fracture permeability
within the reservoir and have provided an excellent basis for siting both exploration and
production drillholes. Most of the wells with high permeability are within 100 m of a
high-angle reverse fault and a right-lateral strike-slip fault. Some of the fractures show
signs of secondary brecciation and may have formed by hydraulic fracturing (Moore et
al ., 1982). Drilling has determined that there is good correspondence between surface
and subsurface structure. The highest temperatures (225C) are within a lens-shaped
reservoir at depths of 244 to 366 m. In 1979, six production wells supported a 30-MWe
plant; Rowley (1982) estimated field capacity is 800 MWe , although that is an optimistic
estimate.
Ahuachap:n
The Ahuachapn geothermal field in El Salvador Central America is associated with the
Laguna Verde volcanic complex, which consists of north-northeast-trending lines of
craters and small cones. The 500- to 600-m-diameter craters at the summit of these
composite cones may be phreatomagmatic. These volcanoes are composed of
interbedded andesitic tuffs, lavas, and agglomerates that range from Pliocene to
Holocene (a very general estimate by Romagnoli et al ., 1976).
Also associated with the Laguna Verde volcanic complex and north-northwest-
trending
- 287 -
normal faults are two major hot spring areas and three fumarolic fields with
temperatures as high as 123C. The geothermal wells located in this area are producing
fluids from interbedded pyroclastic rocks and lavas with temperatures of 228C at a
depth of 900 m. Production wells have been drilled to average depths of ~800 m. The
fumaroles, hot springs, and most of the drillholes are located near intersections between
north-northwest-trending faults and east-northeast-trending faults. Two 30-MWe - and
one 35-MWe -capacity electrical generating plants were completed by 1987.
Ohnuma
The Ohnuma geothermal field of Japan is located on the flank of Hachimantai Volcano,
an 800-m-high, flat-topped lava shield composed of mafic andesitic lava flows (Kuno,
1962). This immature composite cone, where lavas range from 0.5 to 1.0 Ma, has a
volume of ~13 km
3
.
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.21
Map of Momotombo Volcano in Nicaragua shows the main faults and
areas of alteration, which are marked with a stippled pattern.
(Adapted from Mooser et al ., 1958; Moore et al ., 1982.)
- 288 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.22
The Momotombo geothermal field is located on the southern slopes of
Momotombo volcano and on the edge of Lake Managua.
(Adapted from Moore et al., 1982.)
Thermal areas marked by geysers, mudpots, fumaroles, and hot springs cover 5
km2 . The hydrothermal system may not be directly related to the composite cone, but
rather to an older caldera and a north-south-trending graben. The reservoir is located
within highly fractured dacitic and andesitic lavas and interbedded pyroclastic rocks
(Nakamura et al ., 1981; Kimbara, 1986). Production wells have been drilled to depths
of 1.3 to 1.7 km.
Matsu1a-a
The Matsukawa geothermal area of Japan is located between the Maru Mori and Iwate
volcanoes. The area's largest cone is 800 m high and the volcanic complex has an
approximate volume of 45 km
3
. This complex includes composite cones, a dome, and a
1.8- by 3.0-km-diameter summit caldera. Kuno (1962) reported that its lava flows and
volcanic breccias consist of augite-hypersthene andesite (in the older part of the cone)
and olivine andesite (in the main cone). The summit crater contains fumaroles and
small areas of acid alteration. This complex is believed to be of Pleistocene and
Holocene age.
The geothermal area is marked by a 0.5- to 1- by 7.0-km east-northeast-trending
zone of argillization, silicification, and hot springs. The zone overlies a geothermal
reservoir at a depth of 1.0 to 1.2 km in fractured welded tuff and shale; there is a
caprock of welded tuff (Nakamura et al ., 1981; Kimbara, 1986).
- 289 -
Because the geothermal system is located on the rim of a caldera, it may be only partly
related to the cone.
#amaga-a "pa
The Tamagawa Spa of Japan is a group of acidic hot springs located at the western foot
of Mount Yake (Yakeyama). Mount Yake is a 750-m-high mature composite cone with a
volume of 10 km
3
(Kuno, 1962); the cone's 600-m-diameter summit crater contains a
small dome and four small explosion craters. There is also a parasitic dome on the
southern flank of the main cone. Mount Yake is composed of mostly hypersthene-olivine
andesitic lava flows and pyroclastic rocks, and the domes are andesitic. The most recent
eruption products are Holocene. This cone may overlie the rim of an older caldera and
the hydrothermal system could be associated with that caldera.
The geothermal area (spa) comprises lines of fumaroles, hot springs, and deposits
of silica sinter, all of which are oriented east-west and north-south. The springs have
temperatures up to 98C and pHs of <1.2. The main geothermal area is located in a
depression that has been interpreted as both a phreatic crater and a landslide. The
reservoir is located within fractured Tertiary-age tuff, shale, and andesitic lava
(Nakamura et al ., 1981).
0ouillante
The volcanoes of Guadeloupe, in the Lesser Antilles, include composite cones and
domes and are located along the north-south-trending spine of Basse-Terre (the high,
volcanic portion of the island). Soufrire de Guadeloupe is a dacitic dome with a summit
1467 m above sea level and is the site of historic eruptions that included explosive
phreatic activity 1976 to 1977 AD. Eruptions of Soufrire de Guadeloupe have produced
phreatic deposits, pyroclastic fall deposits, ignimbrites (mostly nonwelded), andesitic
lavas, laharic breccias, and dacite domes. Vatin-Perignon et al . (1984) documented
ages from 0.3 Ma to the present.
The summit region of Soufrire, site of the youngest cones and domes, is cut by
northwest- and northeast-trending faults, along which there are surface manifestations
of the geothermal system such as summit fumaroles and large areas of acid alteration.
Hot springs are located around the base of the most recent dacite dome, which was
recently modified by phreatic eruptions (Heiken et al ., 1980).
A commercially developed hydrothermal system is located on the island's west
coast along a northwest-trending fault and a line of small cones that extends from
Soufrire de Guadeloupe down to the coastline (Fig. 7.23). At Bouillante, there are
areas of hydrothermal alteration and silicification as well as a 98C spring. The
geothermal reservoir, located within Tertiary tuffs and andesitic lava flows, has both
fault (fracture) and formation permeability. Temperatures at a depth of 500 m are
>240C (Demians et al ., 1972; Vatin-Perignon et al ., 1984). Epidote appears in rocks
below 100 to 300 m.
8a-ah 8amod;ang
The fumarole field of Kawah Kamodjang in Indonesia is located in western Java, where
its specific association with a composite cone or cones is not clear. The nearby
volcanoes of Rakutak, Chihara, Danou, Pangkaban, Gandapura, Masagit, and Guntur are
part of a 15-km-long, 4- to 5-km-wide volcanic chain, which is parallel to a graben that
trends west-southwest and east-northeast; most faults strike N60E. The highest cones
have elevations of ~1500 m and are composed of well-bedded, massive pyroclastic
rocks that are interbedded with thick andesitic flows (Neuman van Padang, 1951;
Robert et al ., 1983). Robert et al . (1983) postulated that the geothermal area may be
located within a small (2-km-diameter, 500-m-deep), poorly defined caldera.
- 290 -
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.23
Sketch geologic map of the western part of the
island of Guadeloupe (Basse-Terre) in the
Lesser Antilles. The Bouillante geothermal
area is located along northwest-trending
faults that extend downslope from the active
volcanic chain of Madeleine-Soufrire.
(Adapted from Grard et al. 1981.)
Within the 2-km-wide depression is a 1200-m-long, 100- to 700-m-wide zone of
fumaroles, mudpots, phreatic craters, and hot springs with temperatures of 80 to
105C. Six production wells supplying a 30-MWe generator were drilled in small grabens
within the larger graben. The drilled reservoir is located within hydrothermally altered,
fractured tuffs and lavas, where temperatures reach 200 to 230C, at a depth of 900 m
(Robert et al ., 1983). The main caprocks are hydrothermally altered pyroclastic
deposits.
'omposite 'ones *ith &ossible "eothermal &otentialAs 9et :nproven by
eep rilling
Mount "hasta
Mount Shasta, one of the southernmost of the Cascade volcanoes, is located in northern
California. With a volume of 350 km
3
and an elevation of 3050 m, this mature
composite cone is also the largest Cascade volcano. The summit crater, two older
central vents, and a line of flank vents are located along north-south trends
(Christiansen et al ., 1977). Large dacitic cones and flows have erupted from both
summit and flank vents. A 450-km
2
area northwest of the volcano is covered by a
hummocky debris avalanche deposit, which Crandell et al . (1984) interpreted as a
sector collapse of the main cone ~300,000 years BP.
The cone is made up of equal portions of lava flows and blocky pyroclastic debris,
including pyroclastic flow deposits and volcanic mudflows (Christiansen et al ., 1977),
most of which are composed of pyroxene-andesite and hornblende-bearing andesite.
Basalt is found only below an altitude of 2100 m in cinder cones and small lava flows.
Mount Shasta formed during the last 500,000 years, and four periods of cone-building
activity have occurred during the last 250,000 years (Christiansen, 1985).
There are summit fumaroles and areas of intense local hydrothermal alteration on
each of Mount Shasta's four main cones, but nowhere else. Theoretically, there should
be a small hydrothermal system within or below this large composite cone; however,
there is no evidence for such a system because of the effective shield established by
high flux of cold water from rain and
- 291 -
snow on the mountain. To date, there has been no drilling on Mount Shasta to test for a
geothermal system.
Mount !ood
Mount Hood, also in Oregon, is located within a broad graben that follows the summit of
the north-south-trending topographic high, which is the backbone of the high Cascades
of the Pacific Northwest. Mount Hood was an obvious target for geothermal exploration
and research, and a cooperative effort was begun in 1976 by a consortium of federal
and state agencies (Williams et al ., 1982).
Mount Hood is a 2200-m-high mature composite cone with an approximate volume
of 188 km
3
. Eruptions have occurred there over the past 700,000 years; the most
recent was less than 200 years ago (Wise, 1969; Crandell and Meyer, 1977). Mount
Hood is composed of interbedded thin lava flows and pyroclastic debris (ashfall deposits,
ignimbrites, and laharic breccias). Little is known or has been inferred about intrusive
rocks in Mount Hood (shown in cross section in Fig. 7.24) except for the "plug" dome
that comprises andesitic and hornblende andesitic lava; peripheral cones are composed
of basalt.
The only surface manifestations of a hydrothermal system on Mount Hood are
summit fumaroles, at temperatures of 50 to 85C, and areas of hydrothermal alteration
surrounding the plug dome. Although 25 shallow wells have been drilled on the flanks of
Mount Hood, no shallow magma chamber or large hydrothermal systems were detected;
the shallow wells did not penetrate the near-surface outflow zone of cold groundwater.
The deepest geothermal gradient hole drilled at Mount Hood is located on the lower
flanks of the volcano near faults in basalt flows that predate Mount Hood; the
bottomhole temperature of this well is 120C at a depth of 1.8 km (Priest, 1982). The
thermal gradient of ~60C/km in this corehole could be related to magmas in the cone,
but it also can be explained solely by the high heat flow in this tectonically active area.
Because of the enormous terrain corrections required for analysis, and the
presence of a cold groundwater shield below the slopes of Mount Hood, most traditional
geophysical
[Full Size]
Fig. 7.24
Composite cross section of Mount Hood in Oregon.
(Based on work by Wise, 1968; Williams et al4 , 1982; Priest, 1982.)
- 292 -
exploration methods did not reveal the presence or absence of a hydrothermal system.
Shallow drilling penetrated some zones of warm water, but most drillholes never
reached beyond the cold, near-surface groundwater. There may be a hydrothermal
system below this large, young composite cone, but it has not yet been observed.
Mount Adams
Located east of the main Cascade trend, Mount Adams in Washington is a large (~200-
km
3
) composite cone with an elevation of 3743 m. The composite cone is near the
center of a basalt-to-rhyodacite volcanic field with more than 60 vents of Quaternary
age. Flank vents, which occur at elevations of 2000 to 2500 m, are composed of mafic
andesitic to dacitic lava flows and block-and-ash flows (Hildreth and Fierstein, 1985).
Peripheral basaltic cinder cones and lava flows erupted on the lower flanks have a
volume of 70 km
3
. Volcanic activity began about 500,000 years ago, and the youngest
eruptions took place 3500 years ago; most of the composite cone was constructed
between 20,000 and 10,000 years ago.
There are summit fumaroles and warm springs near the base of the volcano. The
breccia and scoria core of this cone has been severely altered by acid waters. The 4-km
2
area of altered core is a source of avalanches and debris flows because of the
gravitational instability of the clay alteration products (Hildreth and Fierstein, 1985).
On the basis of the petrology of erupted materials, Hildreth and Fierstein concluded
that it is unlikely there is any significant magma reservoir within Mount Adams. High
precipitation (3500 mm/year) makes the mountain an important recharge site and the
extremely permeable carapace is saturated with cold water that does not remain long
enough to be heated.
Mount *u;i
One of the Earth's most famous composite cones, Japan's Mount Fuji is composed of a
group of 3 overlapping cones and 100 peripheral cones. Most of these vents are located
along a north-northwest-south-southeast-trending line that is parallel to regional
structures (Kuno, 1962; Tsuya et al ., 1981). The 1.5- 0.7-km summit crater is 750
m deep. Older lavas at Fuji are olivine basalts, whereas the younger cones are
composed of andesite and peripheral cones of olivine basalt. The cones comprise
interbedded ashfall deposits, lahar deposits, ignimbrites, and lava flows. The complex is
~80,000 years old, and the most recent activity occurred in 1707 AD (Kuno, 1962).
All thermal anomalies on Fuji are masked by movement of shallow groundwater.
Yuhara (1974) reported that each year 77% of the precipitation flows out at the foot of
the cone and another ~20% is lost by evaporation. Tritium analyses have revealed that
water emerging near the base is not old. Shallow aquifers follow scoria-lapilli beds and
fractures in lava flows. Impermeable units are mudflow deposits and older basement
rocks. Very little of the recharge water enters the volcano's interior to be heated. Mount
Fuji has not been drilled for geothermal resource evaluation.
From Yuhara's (1974) observations at Fuji and Mount Yotei (also in Japan), it was
determined that recharge into the hydrothermal system of a composite cone may not be
adequate to maintain a hydrothermal system. Conditions necessary for adequate
recharge will most likely depend upon the structural framework of the individual
volcano, its maturity, fault patterns, and the degree of intrusion and hydraulic fracturing
associated with dike-sill systems and small plutons. As described earlier, eroded,
mature volcanoes in areas with thick continental crust expose large volumes of
hydrothermally altered lava and pyroclastic rock.
is$ussion
Techniques for the exploration and development of geothermal resources associated
with composite cones are still in their
- 293 -
infancy. With the exception of ancient hydrothermal systems within composite cones,
which have been studied chiefly in relation to their porphyry copper deposits, we have
yet to determine if there are useful geothermal resources associated with most mature
composite cones. In the earlier parts of this chapter, we proposed a general concept of
composite cone maturity and its application to geothermal exploration and resource
evaluation. To determine if reservoirs are present, intermediate to deep drilling will be
required for a mature composite cone. Cold groundwater outflow within these cones
often mask surface geothermal manifestations as well as the heat flow measurements in
shallow drill-holes.
With good reason, successful geothermal sites have been drilled on the lower
slopes of (or adjacent to) composite cones at sites where there are surface
manifestations of a hydrothermal system. Healy (1976) points out that hot springs
occur where heated meteoric water intersects the basal contact between the cone and
older rocks. This phenomenon implies the presence of a convective plume within the
cone-an inference confirmed by examination of hydrothermal alteration aureoles within
eroded composite cones (for instance, see Sillitoe, 1973).
For many the examples cited here, it is not clear if the hydrothermal systems
described are related to the nearby older volcanoes or to the overlying composite cones.
In each of these instances there are still other interpretations. Several of the cones are
sited along caldera rims, where they were formed by postcaldera eruptions, and nearly
all of the cones are located along active faults. It is most likely that magma feeding the
cones is contributing to the elevated heat flow in the area and that the high cones serve
as major recharge areas. It is not clear if the plumbing (intrusions) within these cones is
the major heat source for their hydrothermal systems.
In any case, all the tested geothermal systems associated with composite cones
that were cited here have the following common features:
all are located near or below the base or the lower slopes of the cone;
all have ample surface manifestations of the hydrothermal system, including
argillic and acid alteration, silica sinter deposits, hot springs, fumaroles, mudpots and/or
geysers; and
all have reservoirs in highly fractured basement rocks along active normal,
reverse, and strike-slip faults.
In addition, some of the cones are located along the rims of underlying calderas
and some have phreatic craters or phreatic breccia deposits (Fig. 7.25).
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[Full Size]
Fig. 7.25
Flow chart for exploration and evaluation of the geothermal potential of composite cone
s.
Appendi7 A
2ield 'ethods in Volcanic Regions
[Full Size]
In this book we have focused on the ways field observations of volcanic terrain can
be used to locate and evaluate geothermal resources. Keeping in mind that for some
geologists, these observations will be their only data sets, we included this appendix to
guide the student or geologist who has not yet had a great deal of field experience. This
appendix is specifically oriented toward work in volcanic areas and does not include
basic instruction such as how to use a compass and clinometer; the reader should
consult a handbook on field geology for this type of information (for example, Compton,
1962).
The experienced field geologist may simply ignore this appendix and use the core
of this book as a reference.
,reparation for *ield $or1
efinition of the &roblem
The first and perhaps the most painful part of a project is to define the purpose of the
field work; this process will guide the planning stages. Geothermal exploration within
volcanic fields has two main goals: (a) identifying and evaluating the heat source and
(b) locating permeable zones and the hydrothermal system. All vents and their deposits
must be mapped and the extent and thicknesses determined. These maps will also
serve as a basis for stratigraphic studies-an aspect that will also require samples for
petrologic analysis and age dating. The data obtained from this step will reveal the
volumes, ages, genesis, and compositions of the rocks, which in turn can be used to
interpret the depth and size of magma bodies-the heat source. It is also necessary to
map
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all structures, including fracture systems, flexures, and faults, and to evaluate their
relationship to the volcanoes and areas of hydrothermal alteration. Most hydrothermal
systems are associated with zones of fracture permeability; the careful definition of
these zones is crucial in locating sites for exploration core drilling. It is wise to work with
hydrogeochemists when preparing detailed maps of hydrothermal manifestations such
as fumaroles, hot springs, sinter and travertine deposits, and hydrothermally altered
ground.
Library -esear$h
Prior geological, geophysical, and geochemical work will be useful in evaluating the area
to be mapped and in planning the field study. Spending time in a good technical library
will save a great deal of effort and money. Field geologists can gain a substantial
headstart by reading all published work, summarizing the portions that might be needed
later, and copying the maps. Maps copied from published material can be useful for
reviewing previous work when in the field. It is prudent to keep in mind multiple
interpretations for the published data; for example, a down-dropped block can be
interpreted by one author as a caldera and by another as a graben.
Commercial data bases, usually accessible through libraries for a small fee, provide
listings of most publications and reports unless they are truly obscure. By furnishing key
words, including the subject and geographic area, one can obtain a comprehensive
guide to the literature about a specific area.
If the area to be mapped has already been studied by geologists from mining or oil
companies, they may share unpublished reports and data, or these same reports may
be on file with the government. (However, it may be that these maps and data are
proprietary and not available to you.) There also may be unpublished data available
from government agencies and university geologists.
'olle$ting "eographi$ %aterials
#opographic Maps
It is useful to have copies of every available topographic map and at all scales. If none
are available at an appropriate working scale, a good printer can enlarge or reduce the
map onto a mylar (plastic) base. If paper copies of the map are to be used in the field,
it is a good idea have them waterproofed.
Some countries have digitized topographic maps; if a mainframe computer, a
geographic information system, and a large budget are available, it may be possible to
obtain the maps on magnetic tape. These can be useful later for preparing final
published maps, constructing three-dimensional diagrams of the area, or as a base for
all of the field measurements.
"atellite (mages and Aerial ,hotographs
Satellite images, now available for most of the Earth's surface, are essential for
mapping large structural features, especially in heavily vegetated regions. (Examples of
Earth Resources Technology and Landsat Thematic Mapper images are shown in Figs.
A.1 and A.2.) If the region is arid, preliminary geologic maps can be prepared with the
help of magnetic tapes of the satellite image and image processing programs. Processed
images are sometimes for sale from commercial sources, government agencies, or
university research groups. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery, either aircraft or
spacecraft mounted, is useful for mapping structural features and volcanic landforms,
particularly in vegetated regions or areas with continuous cloud cover (Fig. A.3).
Aerial photographs, in black-and-white or color, are frequently attainable from
government agencies or companies specializing in aerial photography. However, in
some countries, the use of aerial photography is restricted for security reasons.
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[Full Size]
Fig. A.1
Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) image of the Guadalajara-Lake
Chapala-Volcn Colima region of central Mexico (Band 6). Width of the image is 115 km
.
The most prominent feature is the Colima graben, which is oriented north-south and
is visible from Volcn Colima (bottom-center) to its intersection with the east-west
trend of volcanoes and faults. Volcanoes are visible from the area of Lake
Chapala (center right), through the young caldera complex of Sierra La
Primavera (center), to Volcn Tequila (upper left). These images
provide a remarkable overview of the geology of a region.
+and4O-nership Maps
These maps may be available from federal or municipal government offices. When in
the field, it is useful-even essential-to know whom to contact before crossing any
private property.
Establishing the "tratigraphic *rame-or1 of a Volcanic *ield
The field methods used in geothermal exploration to establish stratigraphic relationships
between volcanic rocks are very similar to those used for sedimentary rocks:
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[Full Size]
Fig. A.2
Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) image of an area of northern Chile, on its frontier with B
olivia.
Area shown is 90 by 90 km. In the center is Lago Chungara, which was formed
when a river was dammed by a debris avalanche from Volcn Parinacota (the
snow-covered peak north of the lake). TM images come as color prints and
are extremely useful for mapping in arid regions. This TM image was
prepared by Peter Francis at the Lunar and Planetary Institute in Houston, Texas.
- 299 -
[Full Size]
Fig. A.3
Space Shuttle Imaging Radar image of northwestern Honduras,
showing the north-south-trending Sula graben. The lake visible near the
bottom of the image is Lago de Yojoa, which is 5 km wide at the narrow neck;
Yojoa was formed behind a natural dam composed of basaltic cones and lavas
that were erupted in the Sula Graben. North-south-trending faults, which cut
these youthful lavas, are easily identified. Synthetic aperture radar images
such as these are excellent for reconnaissance geologic mapping in regions
with heavy vegetation or cloud cover. This image was provided by Ron Blom
at the NASA-Jet Propulsion Laboratory of Pasadena, California.
- 300 -
careful geological mapping of lithologic units, measurements of many stratigraphic
sections, and age-dates for those units. However, rock units within volcanic fields show
much more lateral and vertical variation than do units in most sedimentary basins
(Fisher and Smith, 1991). They can fill caldera depressions or deep valleys, which
means that one might find younger volcanic rocks at a lower levels than older rocks,
even if no folding or faulting has occurred. Pyroclastic rocks are formed quickly-initially
with abundant kinetic and thermal energy-and are deposited as ashfalls that drape
topography, surges that cross topographic highs, pyroclastic flows that follow the
valleys, as well as wet surges of cohesive ash that defy the laws of original horizontality
when plastered onto vertical surfaces.
The possibilities of facies variations within single depositional units must be
considered when mapping volcanic rocks (Fig. A.4). For example, surges and pyroclastic
flows can grade outward into volcanic mudflows because of cooling and condensation of
steam within the flow some distance from the source. The degree of welding of
pyroclasts in the flow units can vary with the unit thickness; dense rocks are found near
the vent or in the center of valley fills. For detailed descriptions of facies variations in
volcanic rocks, see Fisher and Schmincke (1984) and Cas and Wright (1987).
Field and laboratory observations must be adapted to fit the volcanic field of
interest. For example, the approach used for a large basaltic lava plateau would differ
considerably from that used to study a group of small tuff rings.
Stratigraphic analysis of volcanoes provides the necessary foundation for all other
studies, including petrology, geochemistry, thermal state, and structural framework;
without this foundation, sample analysis is nothing more than rock collecting. Table A.1
provides a list of further functions for which various field observations are used.
Approa$h
A working stratigraphy can be established by considering earlier work as well as the
field geologist's own study of aerial photographs or topographic maps. Published
stratigraphic studies supply useful information from nearby areas and may include
radiometric dates. All of this information should be compiled in a notebook and on a
map or photo base. We offer the following suggestions to be considered when entering
this stage of field work.
By quickly examining the whole area, one can locate the best exposures, especially
those that show contacts between depositional units. If these locations are noted on
maps and/or photographs it is easy to return later to measure stratigraphic sections. As
stratigraphic data are collected, the information should be entered on working copies of
cross sections through the volcanic field. During a field study, geologists' ideas on the
stratigraphy will evolve and it will be necessary to revisit some outcrops several times
to reevaluate the interpretations.
Obviously, it is preferable to measure sections at the best exposures in unfaulted
areas; however, this may not always be possible. The best way to begin is by standing
back and looking at the outcrop from a distance to determine the layers or discrete rock
units that stand out. They are marked on a sketch or polaroid photograph and their
general characteristics are noted, including thickness, texture or structure, and color.
This distant view may be useful when unraveling variations from one detailed
stratigraphic section to another.
When a section is measured, the attitude (strike and dip) of the rock units is
described as well as the rock types and their relation to older rocks, paleosols, and any
intrusive rocks. The area traversed while measuring the section is noted on a map or
aerial photograph; if neither map or photo exist, a pace-and-compass map of the
traverse with distances, slope angles, and
- 301 -
[Full Size]
Fig. A.4
Schematic cross sections illustrate (a) facies changes between volcanic units and
(b) time-correlative sedimentary units. These deposits are grouped into map units that
are
linked to the eruption or sedimentary processes responsible for the deposit.
(Adapted from Smith, 1987.)
- 302 -

Table A.1. Stratigraphy in Volcanic Fields
a

"urpose Fiel$ 0bser#ations
Correlation of lavas, tuffs, and epiclastic sedimentary rocks; Individual beds; bedding sets in layered sequences;
eruption types; unit volumes; location of buried or eroded
volcanic vents
grain size; component analysis of features; fabric
Paleotopography and paleogeology; eruption history;
depositional history; "basin analysis"
Facies analysis; creation of a stratigraphy;
descriptions of relations at unconformities
Magma composition and volcano evolution; tectonic setting and
volcanism; regional stratigraphy
Relations of rock sequences to tectonic framework in time and
space; comparison of volcanic fields,
centers, and provinces
a
From Fisher and Schmincke (1984).
attitudes (strikes and dips) can be useful. An altimeter is employed to determine
elevations of the base, top, and important contacts, in addition to elevations chosen
from the topographic map. If working as a team, field geologists use a tape measure; if
by themselves, a Jacob's staff is helpful. If the stratigraphic sections are very thick, it is
possible to confirm thicknesses by using an altimeter or by measuring elevations of
contacts on a topographic map.
What should be measured and described? Within the field, rock-stratigraphic units
are defined solely on physical differences. Fisher and Schmincke (1984) defined a
formation as
"a mappable bed, bedding set or sequence of beds of any thickness set apart from rock units above and below
by distinctive physical criteria such as texture, color, lithologic or mineralogic characteristic, or by weathered
zones or erosional unconformities; a member is a convenient subdivision of a formation."
Fisher and Schmincke also defined the concept of an eruption unit , which is a
deposit from a single eruptive pulse, eruptive phase, or an eruption. A sequence of
several eruption units can be treated as a mappable unit or formation. Eruption units
can refer to pyroclastic fallout deposits, pyroclast flow deposits, volcanic mudflows, lava
flows, and any other deposit from a single eruptive pulse. For detailed information on
defining stratigraphic units within volcanic rocks, see Fisher and Schmincke (1984), or
Cas and Wright (1987).
If at all possible, a geologist should not create new stratigraphic names, but rather
work within existing stratigraphic designations. The rationale for this philosophy stems
from experience with such cases as the Wairakei geothermal field of New Zealand. The
body of knowledge about the relationship between tuffs and lavas erupted at Wairakei
during the last 200,000 years has grown as more field work, drilling, and further
geological exploration revealed additional details. As volcanological concepts change and
more data are available, rock sequences have been refined and redefined. Over a period
of 60 years, no less than 12 different stratigraphic sequences have been described for
the same rocks at Wairakei. This melange of stratigraphic names confuses the working
geologist to the point of desperation.
#ol$ani$ -o$. :nits
Volcanic rock units include pyroclastic and epiclastic rocks and lava flows and domes.
Ideally, descriptions would go onto graph paper that is taped to a large clip board-
making it possible to evaluate relationships
- 303 -
at a glance while measuring the stratigraphic section. However, because rain and wind
make it impractical to carry around a bulky board, this is not the usual means of
recording field notes. The most logical method is to record field observations and
sketches in a waterproof notebook and draw the section later in camp or the office (Fig.
A.5). It is far better to take copious notes as well as photos and sketches while in the
field than to wish for them later when one is several thousand kilometers from the field
area.
ontact 6elationships
Understanding the nature of the contact between rock units is critical. One should
determine if there is a sharp erosional or depositional contact, a tectonic displacement,
a collection of reworked clastic debris, or paleosol. In the case of a depositional contact,
one should ascertain whether the deposits drape the underlying topography or are
concentrated in channels and valleys. If they are deposited within a valley, it is valuable
to measure the size, orientation, and slope of the valley floor.
olor
A color chart is very helpful for maintaining consistency in descriptions of rock-unit color
and color variations. (Rock color charts are available from the Geological Society of
America.)
6oc142nit lassification
Volcanic rock units generally fall into the categories of pyroclastic, epiclastic, and lava.
In the following sections, we discuss various field observations and measurements that
are useful in writing detailed and complete rock-unit descriptions.
'hara$teristi$s of &yro$lasti$ and Epi$lasti$ -o$.s
Pyroclastic rocks can be classified by their textural and mineralogical characteristics
(see Appendix B). Complete descriptions include important details about thickness,
grain size, pyroclast types, bedding sets, grading, clast orientation, flow features,
induration and welding, and thermal remanent magnetization. This information is
further supplemented by sampling representative clastic rock units for laboratory
analysis.
#hic1ness
Pyroclastic units show thickness variations that are indicative of vent location, deposit
type (for instance, fallout, flow, and surge), and the effects of paleotopography (Fisher
and Schmincke, 1984). Even where pyroclastic units are not fully exposed, maximum
exposed thicknesses can be used in constructing isopach maps. In some cases,
thicknesses are estimated from topographic constraints such as scarp heights and
bedding dips.
Grain "i<e
Field estimates of grain size can be made using the Fisher (1961) classification, which
parallels the Folk (1966) classification of clastic sediments; both of these can be done
with a scale and charts. Actual measurements will be done by sample sieving or thin-
section studies in the laboratory, but visual estimates are sufficient for measured
sections in the field. Coarser materials, including pumice and lithic clasts, can either be
sieved in the field with coarse (>4-cm) sieves or measured and described at an outcrop
within a designated area outlined on the rock surface (usually ~1 m
2
). These
observations are especially useful in studies of lithic clasts within pyroclastic units.
Another technique for recording the textural variations within an eruption unit is to
measure the lengths of the five largest lithic clasts and those of the five largest
pumices.
,yroclasts
Most of this detailed work will be done within the laboratory, however, it is helpful while
in the field to note pyroclast and lithic
- 304 -
[Full Size]
Fig. A.5
An example of notes taken during measurement of a pyroclastic rock sequence.
Field notes should be as complete as possible, including the date, location,
thorough rock descriptions, thicknesses of individual units, and location and numbers
of the samples collected for later laboratory analysis.
- 305 -
clast characteristics that can be used later to identify a specific formation or member:
color, shape, percentage of phenocrysts, phenocryst types, and variety of lithic clasts.
Lithic clasts include those of lag breccias, mesobreccias, and megabreccias (the two
latter types are related to catastrophic collapses such as avalanches from a sector
collapse in a volcano or wall collapse within a caldera).
0edding
Bedform identification is helpful for interpreting the origin of a pyroclastic deposits.
Fisher and Schmincke (1984) discussed various bedforms that can be related to
different types of eruptions (such as Plinian, hydroclastic, Strombolian), as well as the
emplacement mechanism. Where a pyroclastic deposit shows a sequence of bedforms
as a coherent unit (bedding set), the sequence can be used with other observations to
identify a mappable unit in the field. For example, a specific member might consist of a
fine-grained ash fallout bed overlain by a surge bed, two pyroclastic flow deposits, and a
volcanic mudflow breccia. Although the thicknesses and degree of compaction and
welding within the pyroclastic flow deposits might vary, if the sequence appears to be
unique, it can be helpful for correlating units.
Grading
The character of grading in pyroclastic deposits is also indicative of origin. The field
geologist should determine whether a bed is massive, normally graded, or reversely
graded.
last Orientation
Within surge deposits and pyroclastic flows, there may be elongate clasts or accidental
debris, such as fossil tree trunks, that can be used to determine flow directions. The
orientations of the long axes of as many elongate clasts as possible should be measured
and averaged for each field location.
*lo- *eatures
Many surge deposits are characterized by dunes or antidunes. Measurements of implied
current directions, descriptions of types of cross-bedding, and estimates of the
magnitude of the cross-beds are all useful for evaluating eruption types and processes
and for locating vent areas. In pyroclastic flow deposits, flow features should be noted,
including thickening in paleovalleys and shadow areas behind paleotopographic high
areas where the flow is relatively thin.
(nduration and $elding
To establish whether a rock is welded, partly welded, or nonwelded, bulk sample density
can be compared to that of a nonvesicular lava of similar composition; welded tuffs
have densities similar to those of equivalent lavas, nonwelded tuffs have densities less
than half of those for equivalent lavas, and nonwelded tuffs have intermediate densities.
To determine if the rock has been indurated or cemented by post-depositional
processes, one should look for vapor-phase alteration within pyroclastic flow deposits,
matrix cementation by diagenesis or weathering, and secondary clays from
hydrothermal activity. Other evidence of induration might be found in the form of fossil
fumaroles (pipe-like zones cemented with vapor phase minerals) and compaction
features such as vertical concentrations of small lithic clasts (segregation pipes).
#hermal 6emanent Magneti<ation
Most welded tuffs have high magnetic stability and exhibit uniform thermal remanent
magnetization (TRM) directions. Polarity determinations of welded ignimbrites can be
made in the field with a portable magnetometer (Lipman, 1975).
"ampling
For each distinct unit (but not necessarily from all measured stratigraphic sections),
- 306 -
field geologists collect a sample that is representative of that unit. If the tephra are
unconsolidated and coarse grained, they are sieved, the size fractions are weighed, and
chunks of the pumice are collected (in addition to a split of the <1-mm fraction that is
kept for laboratory sieving). The various lithic clasts are described and samples of each
lithic type are collected for thin-section study. If it is appropriate, samples are chosen
for radiometric dating and chemical analysis: pyroclastic flows often show subtle
compositional stratification that can be related to magma chamber evolution; fallout
layers provide widespread time-stratigraphic units; organic matter such as buried tree
trunks are very helpful in dating young pyroclastic deposits-these types of samples are
always particularly valuable.
Lava Flo*s and omes
For lava flows and domes, descriptions should include observations of texture, flow
layering, jointing. petrology, overall lava flow type, thermal effects, and thickness. The
field geologist also samples representative lava units.
#exture
Textural variations that might be found within flows or domes include differences in
vesicularity (size, shape, and orientation), phenocryst content and size, brecciation, and
flow foliation or layering. Coarsely pumiceous zones, which have risen diapirically and
may have been broken or folded by flow movement (Fink and Manley, 1987), are often
distinct features that can be mapped. Variations in relief and vesicularity may be visible
on aerial photographs of silicic lava flows and can be used to map flow structures (Fig.
A.6).
*lo- +ayering
Especially in lavas of intermediate to silicic compositions, layering is common and
ranges from submicrometer shears to macroscopic bands of dense glass and slightly
vesicular glass. Layering attitudes, measured vertically and over the entire lava flow,
can provide information about vent locations and the physical properties of the flow.
3ointing
Most lavas are broken into blocks by thermal stresses during cooling. The open
fractures or joints are often columnar and form at right angles to the flow surface and
base (normal to the isotherms or cooling surfaces). Fracture surfaces are striated; Ryan
and Sammis (1978) concluded that striae provide a record of incremental crack advance
during stress buildup in the cooling lava (Fig. A.7).
Columnar joints can range from a few tens of centimeters to >1 m wide and can
be up to 30 m long in some thick plateau basalt flows. The columns can have as few as
three or as
- 307 -
[Full Size]
Fig. A.6
Examples of maps and useful observations of silicic lava flows. (a) Sketch map of Little
Glass Mountain in California, made quickly from an aerial photograph. This is a young rh
yolitic
obsidian flow for which flow lobes and the direction of flow can be observed by mapping
the ridged and furrowed flow surface; from this information and topographic profiles,
it is possible to locate the vent area. The flow lobes also can be identified through
textural changes; in this example, zones of coarsely vesicular pumice can be mapped.
(Adapted from Fink and Manley, 1987.) (b) Map of Little Glass Mountain that shows
zones of coarsely vesicular pumice (dark areas). (Adapted from Fink and Manley, 1987).
(c) Map of the Watchman dacite flow at Crater Lake in Oregon. Flow patterns
were identified by measuring the attitudes of flow foliation. This method is particularly
useful if no aerial photographs are available. (Adapted from Williams, 1942). (d) Cross
section along the long axis of a silicic lava flow illustrates textural variations, including
coarse rubble scattered over the flow surface, along the flow front, and at the base.
Ragged spines or slabs quite often extend out from the flow or dome.
- 308 -
many as seven sides; most appear to have five or six sides (Williams and McBirney,
1979). Maps of column orientations can sometimes help determine lava flow
boundaries, and this is especially useful where outcrops are poor. For example, within a
valley-filling lava flow, columns in the center of the valley would be vertical; however,
along the valley walls, they would be oriented at an angle and would be perpendicular
to the walls, which had acted as heat sinks during cooling of the lava flow. Similar
columnar jointing can also be found in dikes, plugs, and lava lakes.
If the lavas are potential reservoir rocks, maps of the size, width, and extent of
cooling joints in these flows exposed at the surface may be useful for estimating their
permeability.
,etrology
For field identification of lava type, geologists use the petrographic classification with
which they are most familiar (such as those illustrated in Fig. 1.3 and Appendix B, for
instance), but consistency is crucial. The field descriptions should be the best possible,
but it is likely that these will change after thin sections have been examined
petrographically, especially in the case of finely crystalline rocks.
+ava *lo- #ype
If possible, descriptions of the type of lava flow should include its overall texture and
morphology. Most basaltic lavas can be identified by the terms pahoehoe& aa , or bloc!
lava . Details of basal breccia and lava tubes or channels should be provided if they are
visible.
#hermal Effects
To ascertain whether there has been thermal alteration of rocks underlying the lava
flow, field geologists look for oxidation of soil layers or older rocks, formation of pipe
vesicles during heating of water in soil or bogs, and desiccation of clastic sedimentary
rocks (Fig. A.7).
#hic1ness
In measuring thicknesses, all mappable sub-divisions (eruption unit, member, or
formation) and all textural subunits are noted.
[Full Size]
Fig. A.7
Cross section of a generic basaltic lava flow, showing some of the basic structural featur
es
that should be described when mapping flows. Flow surfaces, if preserved, present
a variety of textures that range from smooth, ropy pahoehoe to spiny, rubbly aa lavas.
Flow interiors exhibit variations in structure such as different types of columnar joints,
vesicle concentrations, and lava tubes; the presence of these features often depends
on flow thickness and viscosity. Pipe vesicles are formed within flows as they cross
wet ground; rising steam leaves vesicle trains or small tubes that are bent by flow
(a good indicator of flow direction). Lava blocks spalled or extruded from the toe of
an aa lava flow leave lava rubble beneath and in front of the flow.
- 309 -
Thickness is measured from the base of a unit to the level of some significant textural
change.
"ampling
Lava samples are critical for developing a sound understanding of the time-stratigraphy
for a field area. In addition to providing documentation of the petrogenetic evolution of
a volcanic field, carefully selected samples can provide important radiometric dates. To
obtain dates and chemical analyses that are reliable, it is important to assess the
evident weathering and diagenetic effects as well as phenocryst content of samples.
'orrelation of #ol$ani$ -o$. :nits
The ability to identify and correlate eruption units becomes much more significant if the
units are large, extensive, and within a tectonically complex area. If a pyroclastic unit
(either fallout deposit or ignimbrite) is to be traced to determine either its volume or its
utility as a stratigraphic marker across complex terrain, then correlation criteria must be
established. Geothermal exploration within calderas requires that pyroclastic deposits
exposed around the margins be correlated with thick caldera-fill deposits; these tuffs
are from the same eruption but may have substantially different textures.
An entire branch of volcanology, tephrochronology , has been developed to answer
the need for correlating volcanic ash deposits (see, for example, Wilcox, 1965; Self and
Sparks, 1981). To correlate ash beds, it is necessary to identify the mineral phases,
glass compositions, and particle shapes (such as shard types and pumice
characteristics) that are characteristic of each deposit. If the ash is petrographically
unique, it is possible to identify it with a hand lens plus a reference sample of the known
deposit. If there are several ash beds of similar composition or appearance, it may be
necessary to use chemical analyses of the glass pyroclasts, including trace elements, for
correlation. Ideally, radiometric age dates are employed, but they are expensive. Bulk
chemical analyses are known to be a poor basis for correlation: with increasing distance
from the source, the gravitational segregation of mineral phases from a glass-shard-
laden eruption plume can change the bulk chemical composition. The refractive indices
of glass shards (see Fig. B.1), used at one time for correlation, are not always accurate
because glasses change as a result of alteration and hydration in different depositional
environments.
Correlation of ignimbrites can be difficult because of facies variations, the degree
of welding, postdepositional alteration, and chemical zonation of large-volume eruption
units. For example, it is not easy to quickly correlate a nonwelded ignimbrite on the
outer slopes of a volcano and a densely welded, hydrothermally altered ignimbrite from
the same eruption within the thick caldera fill. Hildreth and Mahood (1986) have
reviewed techniques for correlating ignimbrites and conclude that the following
observations are the most reliable:
careful mapping of the whole unit;
stratigraphic position;
thermal remnant magnetic directions within welded tuffs and high-precision
potassium-argon ages;
a distinctive suite of lithic clasts; and
petrographic characteristics within pumice clasts, pyroclast shapes, and unusual
phenocrysts.
+ithology and "tructure
The characterization of rock samples provides qualitative and quantitative data that are
used for interpreting the origin of the rocks and their significance to the overall volcanic
structure and geothermal properties. In addition, laboratory analyses of lithological
character provide strong tests of field hypotheses. Appendix B outlines various rock
classification methods.
- 310 -
Before doing a structural analysis, it is extremely important to properly map faults,
showing topographic effects that constrain their dip and strike. In addition to delineation
and classification of faults and fractures, the overall volcanic structure must be
evaluated. With this information, various rock associations, and the rocks' spatial and
temporal variations, it it possible to constrain a probable underlying volcanic structure,
as has been described in previous chapters of this book.
The following discussions cover basic aspects of the techniques employed in
lithological and structural studies. More detailed information is available in popular
petrographic and structural textbooks such as Williams et al . (1982) and Dennis
(1972).
Lava Samples
!and "ample lassification
Because many volcanic rocks are fine-grained, accurate hand-sample classification is
often difficult. The color, texture, density, and mineral content are descriptive features
that can be used to identify a sample. These macroscopic features are also invaluable
for making the field identifications and correlations that are necessary for mapping.
Compositional classification is generally determined by color and phenocryst
content, if any. An example of such a classification is shown in MacDonald (1972; p.
458). Mineralogical classification is greatly aided by the use of rock associations, as was
described for roc! families by Carmichael et al . (1974, pp. 32-37), including the
basalts, andesite-rhyolite associations, trachybasalt-trachyandesites, trachyte-
phonolites, lamprophyres, and nephelinites. In addition to the sample's phenocryst
mineralogy, secondary mineralogy is employed to classify many volcanic rocks,
especially those found in areas of geothermal activity. (This subject is discussed more
thoroughly in Chapter 3.)
Textural features of samples lend a physical basis for classification to supplement
the more chemical nature of mineralogical classifications. For example, textural features
of lavas include vesicularity, phenocryst abundance and size, foliation and fracture, and
secondary transformations such as hydration, devitrification, and weathering.
In general, a combination of the compositional and textural classifications of lava
samples (for instance, aphyric rhyolite; pumiceous, hornblende-biotite dacite; flow-
banded andesite) provides a satisfactory, unambiguous method of naming rocks for field
and laboratory recognition.
#hin4"ection ,etrography
Analysis of rock samples by petrographic microscope is the most important laboratory
procedure geologists use to supplement the field study; its value lies in part in the
relatively simple preparation and facilities required. This work can be accomplished
conveniently in the field area with a rock trim saw and lap, quick setting glues or
epoxies (Hutchinson, 1974), and a polarizing, petrographic microscope. Petrographic
methods, outlined in crystallography texts such as Heinrich (1965), as well as textural
descriptions, well illustrated in other texts such as Williams et al . (1982), facilitate the
analysis. This analysis usually includes textural classification (for example, aphyric,
foliated, or vesicular) and modal analysis of the crystal content, which is quantified by
point counts. One possible format for the analysis is shown in the sidebar on this page.
Petrographic analyses may also include scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of thin
sections. This procedure requires sophisticated equipment that might not be readily
available, but it can be extremely helpful in characterizing and interpreting phase
mineralogy and textures in fine-grain samples, especially those that are pyroclastic or
have been altered to secondary minerals. Etching samples with acids or by an ion beam
greatly enhances poorly developed textures by
- 311 -
selectively thinning the section according to mineral and glass hardnesses (Heiken et
al ., 1989).
$hole46oc1 and Mineral hemistry
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) and atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AA)
are the most widely used methods for obtaining bulk chemical analyses of rock samples.
(The methods and analytical problems are outlined by Hutchinson, 1974.) These data
are very valuable when combined with petrographic descriptions to characterize volcanic
stratigraphy and determine the nature of a magmatic source. For instance, Carmichael
et al . (1974) reported that magma evolution through differentiation is revealed by the
enrichment in the silica contents of erupted products with time. Samples for bulk
chemical analysis must be carefully chosen to obtain a suite of samples for which
analyses can be compared. Problems in discerning variable effects of secondary
alterations and phenocryst contents can reduce the value of sample data for
characterization and correlation.
Mineral compositions provide information to be used in detailed classification
schemes that require specificity; for example, discrimination of the anorthite content of
plagioclase. Mineral chemistry data also can be applied to calculation of
geothermometers and geobarometers (Behen and Lindsley, 1987).
This type of information is typically obtained from thin sections by electron probe
microanalysis (EPM); however, mineral separates, obtained when the sample is crushed
and prepared for bulk chemical analyses (Hutchinson, 1974), can be readily analyzed by
x-ray diffraction (XRD). These separates may be also useful for radiometric dating by
mass spectrometry.
Alteration
Alteration mineralogy is an significant aspect of volcanic petrography in geothermal
areas

18 %a$ple 9u$:er0
28 /ate and ;ocation0
&8 Roc 9a$e0
(8 1and %a$ple /escription0
,8 <verall !hin=%ection !e7ture0
68 Phenocryst /escription
Essential MineralsE
Varietal MineralsE
Accessor! MineralsE
Secon$ar! MineralsE
*8 Phenocryst and #round$ass
!e7tures0
>8 'odes :y Point Count0

- 312 -
(see Chapter 3). Both the traditional XRD powder methods and the SEM are useful for
identifying suites of alteration minerals such as clays and zeolites. These suites are
typical of hydrothermal alteration environments and therefore can be employed to
establish thermal regimes, the likely chemistry of the host rocks, and the nature of
hydrothermal fluids. We recommend the review by Henley et al . (1983) for
comprehensive instructions on this method.
&yro$lasti$ Samples
*ield lassification
Several classification schemes are provided in Appendix B. Field descriptions include
general grain size and sorting, bedding textures, color, and topographic effects on the
pyroclastic deposit. More detailed descriptive aspects are discussed in Chapter 2.
+aboratory Analysis
Analysis of tephra samples in the laboratory involves several interdependent techniques
that generally do not require elaborate analytical equipment. Figure A.8 is a flow chart
that outlines laboratory treatment of pyroclastic samples, including both preparatory
and analytical steps. The petrographic inspection follows procedures outlined above for
lava samples and can be simply performed with a binocular scope on small sample splits
or thin sections of epoxy-impregnated samples. Fundamental measurements comprise
granulometry, mode and component analysis, grain shape and texture description, and
mineral and glass chemical analysis.
Granulometric Analysis
Grain-size analysis of pyroclastic samples is a standard characterizing technique and,
over the last 20 years, has been increasingly used to interpret the origin of samples (for
instance, Sheridan, 1971; Walker, 1971; Wohletz, 1983). Granulometric
characterization of samples is an especially important tool for correlation and
classification in areas where many pyroclastic deposits are encountered. Interpretation
is generally needed to determine the eruption and emplacement mechanisms for the
deposits sampled.
Sieving is a practical approach for classifying samples in the range of ~16 to 0.064
mm, for which standard screens are readily available (see, for instance, Folk and Ward,
1957). Above this grain size, hand counts of individual fragments are useful; below this
size, settling-tube measurements, based on either a pipette method (Folk, 1976) or
optical methods such as fluid suspension absorbance measurements can extend the
range to near 1 m. The wide range easily analyzed by screen sieves provides enough
data to adequately characterize and interpret most tephra samples. Table A.2 presents
class size intervals for clastic sediments and pyroclastic rocks. Because of the broad
range of grain sizes represented by pyroclastic materials, it is common to use a
logarithmic transformation of grain diameters called the phi (f ) scale (Wentworth,
1922):

for which dmm is the grain diameter in millimeters. Krumbein (1938) showed that
on this scale transformation, plots of mass frequency vs phi size approximated a
Gaussian distribution, which can be characterized by the use of log-normal statistics:

where d m/df = the mass per unit interval of f , Ks = a constant to normalize the
distribution (usually Ks = 1), sd = the standard deviation in log units, d = particle
diameter, and dm = the mode diameter of the distribution.
Tephra size data are useful for various types of interpretation. For example, Sparks
et al .
- 313 -
[Full Size]
Fig. A.8
Flow chart for laboratory treatment of pyroclastic samples.
- 314 -
(1978) discussed the importance of particle size to terminal fall velocity, which is useful
in determining the amount of time required for pyroclasts to fall out of eruption plumes
and clouds (Fig. A.9). Carey and Sparks (1986; Figs. 1.13 and 1.14) related maximum
clast sizes to distance from source for eruptions of different magnitudes. A plot of
median diameter vs distance from the source (Fig. A.10) shows the general fining of
pyroclastic samples with distance for a number of different eruptions.
By using single-mode lognormal statistics, Walker (1971) characterized tephra
samples of pyroclastic fall and flow origin. Wohletz (1983) described similar size data for
pyroclastic surge samples. Sheridan and Wohletz (1983a) characterized size data for
numerous samples of hydrovolcanic origin (see Fig. 2.20). Taken together and plotted
on a sorting vs median diameter plot (Fig. A.11), these data provide a general
interpretation scheme for tephra samples.
Another, more specific example illustrates the application of size data to a
stratigraphic section of the Lathrop Wells scoria cone in Nevada that exhibits two main
types of eruptive behavior (Wohletz, 1986): early

Table A.2. Class Size Intervals
"hi (% ) Mesh mm Clastic Se$iments
a
"!roclastic Roc3s
b
-10

1024.0

-9

512.0 Boulder

-8

256.0

Block, bomb
-7

128.0 Cobble

-6

64.0

-5

32.0

-4

16.0

-3 5/16 8.0 Pebble Lapillus
-2 5 4.0

-1 10 2.0 Granule

0 18 1.0 Very coarse sand

1 35 0.500 Coarse sand Coarse ash
2 60 0.250 Medium sand

3 120 0.125 Fine sand

4 230 0.063 Very fine sand

5

0.031

6

0.015 Silt

7

0.008

Fine ash
8

0.004

9

0.002

10

0.001 Clay

a
Method described by Wentworth (1922).
b
Method described by Schmid (1981).
- 315 -
hydrovolcanic explosions and later Strombolian eruptions (Fig. A.12). Three types of
bedforms were recognizable: scoria fall, fine ash layers of undetermined origin, and
pyroclastic surge. Figure A.13 is a sorting vs median diameter plot that nicely
differentiates between the three bedforms. Because of their relatively poor sorting, it
was assumed that the fine ash layers had been emplaced by pyroclastic surge.
Furthermore, a plot of median diameter and weight percent of fine ash (Fig. A.14)
correlated the fine ash layers with similar size distributions from early hydrovolcanic
samples in the cone stratigraphy and thus permitted their classification as
hydrovolcanic. This interpretation was supported by a later study of pyroclast
constituents, morphology, and surface chemistry.
We believe that size analysis can provide even more information about the history
of fragmentation and dispersal of pyroclastic samples through mathematical analysis of
individual size-frequency distributions. Sheridan et al . (1987) discussed the typical
polymodality of tephra size-frequency distributions and possible types of interpretations.
Typically, size-frequency distributions are analyzed as lognormal-type distributions, in
which, for any particular sample, one or more lognormal subpopulations may overlap to
form the total observed distribution. Because the single-mode lognormal statistics are
not strictly applicable to tephra samples, we advocate the subpopulation discrimination
technique established by Sheridan et al . (1987), in which microcomputer software can
be applied to sieve data for fully characterized sized distributions. More recently,
Wohletz et al . (1989) developed a new mathematical distribution, the sequential
fragmentation/transport model, that relates distribution shapes to physical
[Full Size]
Fig. A.9
Terminal fall velocities for (a) pumice and (b) lithic fragments of varying radii in fluid of
several densities (for example, the lower two curves of each plot are for fallout in air at
room
temperature and steam at 1300 K). Vertical dashed lines are shear velocities of 15 to 20
0 m/s,
assuming a drag coefficient of 0.01; these lines define the rate of fallout of tephra from
an eruption plume and velocities required to suspend the fragments in a pyroclastic flow
.
(Adapted from Sparks et al., 1978.)
- 316 -
[Full Size]
Fig. A.10
Plot of median grain size vs distance from the source for various tephra deposits.
(Adapted from Fisher and Schmincke, 1984.)
processes of fragmentation and transport sorting, which allows a much more
extensive analysis of size data. The distribution is given as
[Full Size]
where the normalization constant (Ks ) and the transport distance factor (x/$o ) are
set to unity for frequency distributions totaling 100%, gf = a parameter analogous in
part to standard deviation, and gf = gf + 2 for fragmentation processes or gf = 2 for
transport processes. Because the distribution shapes for the fragmentation and
transport forms of Eq. (A-3) are nearly identical and because almost all tephra samples
have experienced some sorting by a transporting agent, the gf = 2 form is most
appropriate. Figures A. 15 through A.17 show the results when Eq. (A-3) is applied to
several tephra samples. In Table A.3, we show observed ranges and expected values of
gf for volcanic fragmentation and transporting process.
- 317 -
[Full Size]
Fig. A.11
Plot of sorting (sf ) vs median diameter (Mdf ), showing ranges of values as 1 and 8%
contours for fallout (dashed lines) and pyroclastic flows (solid lines).
(Adapted from Walker, 1971.)
The bold solid line encloses the range of values observed for pyroclastic surge samples
from observations referenced by Fisher and Schmincke (1984); the dotted line
surrounds values of cross-bedded surge deposits.
(Adapted from Fisher and Schmincke, 1984.)
omponent Analysis
Tephra samples contain essential juvenile, (meaning new magma), accessory (older
volcanic materials), and accidental (subvolcanic basement fragments) components. In
juvenile components, fragments of glass, lava, and crystals vary in proportion in a
complex fashion that is dependent on the magma composition and temperature as well
as the mode of ejection and transport. Glass is often vesiculated and forms pumice or
scoria. The three tephra components (glass, crystals, and lithic fragments) can be easily
recognized with assistance of a hand lens or microscope. An example from Walker and
Croasdale (1972) shows vertical and lateral changes of pyroclast constituents for the
Fogo A tephra sampled southeast of Lake Fogo at Sao Miguel in the Azores (Fig. A.18).
An analysis of tephra components is especially important for identifying samples
from deposits that have major nonjuvenile contributions. Abundant accidental and
accessory lithic fragments are indicative of eruptions that have fractured and excavated
rocks from around the magma conduit, as is the case for vent-opening and
hydrovolcanic eruptions. A careful count of lithic-fragment abundances for the scoria
cone at Lathrop Wells (Fig. A.12) showed the relative abundance of lithic fragments in
pyroclastic deposits from hydrovolcanic phases (Fig. A.19). In addition, Fig. A.19
illustrates the relative increases of crystals in pyroclastic surge samples from the tuff
ring and fine ashes from
- 318 -
[Full Size]
Fig. A.12
Stratigraphic section of the Lathrop Wells, Nevada, scoria cone,
showing sampled intervals.
(Adapted from Wohletz, 1986.)
- 319 -
[Full Size]
Fig. A.13
Plot of sorting vs median diameter for samples from the scoria cone described in Fig. A.
12.
[Full Size]
Fig. A.14
Plot median diameter (Mdf ) and wt% ash <1 mm vs the scoria cone
stratigraphy (shown in Fig. A.12). The peaks in median diameter and ash abundance
for the hydrovolcanic samples are unlike those for the Strombolian
samples, which are products of magmatic eruption.
- 320 -
[Full Size]
Fig. A.15
Plots of the size-frequency distribution for a
sample of a planar surge bed from Crater
Elegante in Sonora, Mexico. The upper plot
shows a cubic spline curve fit to the data
points ( ), and the lower plot shows the
modeled distribution (solid curve) made
by adding three subpopulations of SFT
form (dashed curves).
(Adapted from Wohletz et al ., 1989.)
the early and late cone samples, which were interpreted as surge deposits. This
increase in crystal concentration is a typical feature of surge-emplaced tephra.
Grain "hape and #exture
For most samples (except those with a high content of fine ash), a hand lens is
sufficient to make vital observations about features such as those listed here.
Vesicularity: the relative abundance and size of vesicles and whether they are
spherical or elongated; in most cases, this is a measure of the contribution of magmatic
gas
Angularity: blocky grains with few vesicles-earmarks of phreatomagmatic or
phreatic pyroclasts
[Full Size]
Fig. A.16
Plots of the size-frequency distribution for
a sample of the proximal bedded deposits
of the Mount St. Helens May 18, 1980
pyroclastic flow. The upper plot shows
a cubic spline curve fit to the data points ( ),
and the lower plot shows the modeled
distribution (solid curve) made by adding four
subpopulations of SFT form (dashed curves).
(Adapted from Wohletz et al ., 1989.)
Rounding: used to determine the relative degree of transport abrasion and
reworking by epiclastic processes
Surface alteration: indicates weathering or hydrothermal processes;
phreatomagmatic pyroclasts from wet surge deposits show abundant alteration
coatings.
Grain-shape analysis can be further developed by using an SEM; methods for
analysis and interpretation are discussed by Heiken (1972), Wohletz (1983; 1986), and
Heiken and Wohletz (1985). The SEM micrographs in Fig. A.20 reveal prominent
textural features. Figure A.21 plots the variation of grain textures that proved useful in
distinguishing between Strombolian (magmatic) and hydrovolcanic samples from the
scoria cone at Lathrop Wells (Fig. A.12).
- 321 -
[Full Size]
Fig. A.17
Plots of the size-frequency distribution for a
sample of gray pumice fall from the AD 79
eruption of Vesuvius. The upper plot
shows a cubic spline curve fit to the
data points ( ), and the lower plot shows
the modeled distribution (solid curve) made
by adding three subpopulations of
sequential fragmentation/transport (SFT)
form (dashed curves).
(Adapted from Wohletz et al ., 1989.)
#ephra hemistry and Alteration
Bulk chemical analyses can be obtained by x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and atomic
absorption (AA) methods, as discussed for lava samples earlier; however, such analyses
are not commonly performed because of the secondary alterations typical found in
tephra samples. Glass silica content can easily be determined by index of refraction
measurements with a petrographic microscope (see Fig. B.1). An x-ray analyzer
attached to the scanning electron microscope (SEM) also provides a rapid means by
which to obtain relative chemical compositions; using this technique, it is possible to
analyze small alteration crystals that cover individual pyroclast surfaces (Fig. A.22).
Many types of pyroclastic deposits show variations of glass surface chemistry with
stratigraphic position (Fig. A.23). These variations can be interpreted with respect to the
degree of secondary alteration (an essential measurement for porosity and
permeability), the degree of water interaction during hydrovolcanic eruption, and
changes in magma chemistry. In the Fig. A.24 plot of major-element variations for the
Lathrop Wells scoria cone (Fig. A.12), the strongest variations occur in hydrovolcanic
samples, as is the case for palagonitic constituents and surface alteration textures (Figs.
A.19 and A.20, respectively).
Stru$tural Analysis
Identification of geologic structures is a crucial component of field work. Frequently,
these structures are most readily observed from stereo pairs of aerial photographs. In
the field, definition of fault and vent structures requires careful correlation of rock units
and close inspection of outcrop fabrics.
6egional #ectonic ontrol
Regional structures are related to past and present tectonic conditions such as crustal
compression (thrusting and folding) and extension (block faulting, graben formation,
and strike-slip movement). In general, regional structure exerts some control over
volcanic vent locations and, to some degree, the type of volcanic complex that evolves
(for instance, composite cones from compressional regions and scoria cone fields from
extensional environments).
"tratigraphic orrelation and Volcano4#ectonic Models
As we discussed earlier, preparation of a detailed stratigraphy is one of the most
important aspects of field work. Stratigraphic units in volcanic fields consist of old
basement rocks, which are relatively large areally as a result of their sedimentary,
intrusive, or metamorphic origin; rocks of petrologic consanguinty, such as older mafic
rocks buried by younger intermediate extrusives; and widespread pyroclastic units.
- 322 -

Table A.3. Possible Variation of gf with Fragmentation and Transport Processes
a
[Full Size]

Correlation of these units can generally be accomplished in the field by examining
out-crop textures and alteration, phenocryst contents, erosion surfaces, and overall rock
type. For widespread pyroclastic units, discontinuities in surface elevation and thickness
(for example, large thickness variations seen across graben- or caldera-bounding faults)
are often used to identify fault locations. Composite cones can show facies such as
near-vent intercalations of lava and pyroclastic units that change laterally to distal
laharic deposits. Other typical stratigraphic successions for various volcanic field types
are discussed in previous chapters (see also Cas and Wright, 1987).
#he Map
Because planimetric maps are the most significant and tangible product of
geological/volcanological investigations, we place great emphasis on detailed, accurate,
and legible maps that portray as much qualitative and quantitative data as possible. The
spatial relationships of observations and data collection points are not only the key to
understanding the subsurface structure of an exploration property but also necessary in
planning drilling operations-especially for issues concerning topographic accessibility.
The three-dimensionality of geologic investigations also dictates the need for maps with
associated cross-section interpretations. The exercise of producing maps and cross
sections is one way to validate spatial observations-the spacial and temporal laws of
superposition, topographic control, and cross-cutting relationships must be satisfied by
data and observations before the field geologist can produce a technically accurate map.
During the map-editing stage, inconsistencies in observations and the completeness of a
field study become obvious.
The stages of mapping are well described in classical texts on geological field
methods.
- 323 -
[Full Size]
Fig. A.18
Median size (Mdf ), sorting coefficient (sf ), and frequency distribution of pumice (light gr
ay),
crystals (white), and lithic clasts (black) for the Fogo A tephra. (a) These variations sho
w
vertical changes that are documented within a stratigraphic section. (b) These
variations show lateral changes documented within the deposit with
increasing distance from the vent.
(Adapted from Walker and Croasdale, 1972.)
For instance, Compton (1962) discusses the scale and detail, types of data and
observations to be included, ways maps address specific themes or problems, note-
taking and location protocol, field equipment required, sampling procedures, sample
density, and traverse plans.
Generally, mapping is first approached from the reconnaissance level where
previous reports and maps are compiled, accessibility is determined, and land
ownerships are determined. Many of these issues were covered at the beginning of this
appendix. Often maps and orientations provided by previous workers can be compiled
into a working reconnaissance map. The mapping process then progresses from
observations of type localities for development of the stratigraphic framework to field
checking major geological contacts determined by previous work. Most useful
reconnaissance traverses are along areas with outcrops, such as streams, roads, ridges,
and trails that cross structural and stratigraphic contacts. At the end of the
reconnaissance stage, when the area of interest has been placed in a regional context,
the size of the area to be studied and the level of detail required can be determined; in
addition, specific areas can be selected for detailed mapping.
- 324 -
[Full Size]
Fig. A.19
Variation of pyroclast constituents for samples from the scoria cone section shown in Fig
. A.12.
The curves depict variations for the size fractions indicated.
(Adapted from Wohletz, 1986.)
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[Full Size]
Fig. A.20
SEM photographs illustrating four common pyroclast textures. (a) Vesicularity is well
developed for this pyroclast sampled at Surtsey. (b) Grain angularity is prominent in a
hydroclastic sample from Surtsey. (c) Grain rounding indicates transport abrasion in this
poorly vesicular pyroclast from Kilbourne Hole maar in New Mexico. (d) Surface
alteration coats this pyroclast from the Coliseum Diatreme maar in Arizona.
S$ale and "raphi$ etail
Topographic maps for most areas are available at scales of 1:250,000 to 1:25,000. The
scales of satellite and aerial photo images vary, but satellite images are generally more
regional. It is often satisfactory to photographically enlarge topographic base maps for
more detailed investigations, but this process can make it difficult to judge absolute
distances correctly and triangulation methods will be necessary.
For geothermal fields, the scale of the map may be determined by the size of the
volcanic field with which it is associated. For example, if a hydrothermal system strongly
interacts with regional aquifers, related hydro-thermal manifestations, geochemical
survey points, and sampling locations may extend over regions of up to several hundred
square kilometers. In such cases, a large-scale geological reconnaissance map helps
identify the geological control of the hydrothermal manifestations and their possible
relationships with primary hydrothermal prospects. These large-scale maps are valuable
in establishing hydrologic recharge and hydrothermal outflow areas, which are a
function of the regional hydrologic gradient. As a part of the geological and hydro-
- 326 -
[Full Size]
Fig. A.21
Variation plot for pyroclast textures determined by SEM vs scoria cone
stratigraphy (Fig. A.12). The vesicularity in magmatic (cone-forming eruptions)
samples is greater than that in samples from the hydrovolcanic tuff ring, but
the hydrovolcanic phases show greater grain alteration and blocky (angular) textures.
Pyroclast rounding is increased in samples abraded during surge transport.
(Adapted from Wohletz, 1986.)
geochemical survey, evaluations of the regional groundwater budget often play a
major role in modeling the productivity of a hydrothermal system.
When exploration has progressed to the drilling/coring stage and production
drilling plans are being considered, a detailed plane-table map showing the target area's
topographic contours, geological contacts, lithology, and structures is beneficial. This
process may require scales in the range of 1:1,000 to 1:10,000, which will make it
easier not only to determine the well site, but also to locate geologic details and project
depths accurately.
(hemati$ %apping
Geological maps can be very different, depending on the theme of the map-whether it
focuses on bedrock lithology, detailed volcanologic or tectonic structure, rock facies
determined by chemical or physical properties, or geothermal manifestations. The most
useful type of map is
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[Full Size]
Fig. A.22
SEM of microcrystalline alteration materials coating a vesicular pyroclast from Surtsey.
The mineralogy of these materials can constrain the alteration environment.
geovolcanological and shows aspects of bedrock lithology, volcano structure, and
cognate lithologies (suites of rocks all erupted from the same volcanic edifice). A
geovolcanological map adds these structural interpretations to more classical geologic
base maps. Producing this type of map requires that the field geologists
recognize related rock types that can be grouped as co-genetic suites related to
the evolution of particular vents;
delineate subunits or facies of rocks that reflect their genesis;
map geomorphological changes that reflect concealed vent structures; and
distinguish between regional tectonic structural fabrics and local volcanic ones.
Several map themes we have found particularly useful in specific areas are
discussed in more detail below. Creating multiple maps of a geothermal area can be
very useful in separating different data sets and observations so they can be judged on
their internal consistency; however, multiple maps are also useful as a group when they
are over-laid so as to determine areas of greatest data correspondence. (Map overlays
will be discussed in the later section on 3-D models.)
- 328 -
+ithological
A geological map that emphasizes only rock data and observations illustrates the
greatest number of mapped geological units and structural contacts but places little
emphasis on volcanic or tectonic structure. These maps are employed to show rock
sample locations and subtle variations in rock properties. However, because the detail
can obscure volcanological and structural interpretations, this type of map may not be
the most suitable for illustrating key rock and structural elements that control a
geothermal system. The geological map of Usu volcano (Fig. 5.34) is typical of a
lithological approach that shows variations of rock types according to their age,
petrography, and geomorphology.
"tructural
A map that emphasizes tectonic and volcanological structure may have some
interpretive elements that are based on grouping of lithological units and the delineation
of individual volcanic edifices by geomorphological features. Because only major rock
units are shown, much greater emphasis is
[Full Size]
Fig. A.23
Variation in glass-surface chemistry for samples taken from stratigraphic sections of fou
r
volcanoes: Crater Elegante and Cerro Colorado in Sonora, Mexico, and Panum
Crater and Obsidian Dome from the Inyo-Mono volcanic field of California.
Sample types are designated as fall (F), sandwave surge (SW), massive surge (M),
and planar surge (P). Fall samples are most representative of magmatic compositions
(stippled patterns), whereas the surge samples show hydrovolcanic tephra compositions
that result from the rapid alteration of the magma through its interaction with water.
The vertical line on plots for Crater Elegante and Cerro Colorado separates essentially
magmatic samples (left) and later-erupted hydrovolcanic samples (right).
(Adapted from Wohletz, 1987.)
- 329 -
placed on structural features that affect subsurface conditions and locations of
hydrothermal systems. Relative ages and the amount of recent fault movement can be
depicted by variable thicknesses of contacts. Figure 5.24 provides a prototype in the
detailed structural map for the Coso volcanic field.
*acies
Volcanic facies (lateral and vertical variations in single eruptive units) are manifest as
gradation changes in physical or chemical properties. Some examples of mappable
facies discussed in previous chapters include
downslope variations in composite cones, from lavas to lavas intercalated with
pyroclastic units to dominantly epiclastic and pyroclastic textures;
variations in pyroclastic units related to median grain size, sorting, and bedding
structures;
pyroclastic and lava facies of silicic domes;
contrast between caldera fill and caldera outflow rocks;
plateau forming, horizontally outcropping rocks of basin fills; and
dipping and unconformable rock strata of near-vent facies.
Other examples are described by Cas and Wright (1987).
Facies variations shown in plan view can provide information on
porosity/permeability relationships that are meaningful when a potential hydrothermal
reservoir must be delineated. In other cases, facies variations in some pyroclastic units
can point to potential vent areas that have been eroded or concealed under younger
units. Wohletz and Sheridan (1979) discussed one example of ways in which pyroclastic
surge facies can indicate vent area, and another example, shown in Fig. 2.34, suggests
how dry-to-wet pyroclastic rock facies might help constrain the degree of aquifer
interaction for a given eruptive unit.
Geothermal Manifestations
Chapter 3 outlined aspects of geothermal manifestations, including thermal spring and
fumarole locations, silica sinter and travertine deposits, hydrothermally altered rocks,
and phreatic explosion craters and breccias. A map indicating locations of such
manifestations is very useful for hydrogeochemical surveys; it not only points to
individual sample localities, it also becomes a base map (like that shown in Fig. A.25)
for plotting hydrogeochemical samples and subsequent interpretations.
'ross Se$tions
Construction of cross sections should begin before field work actually commences. The
following approach works well to stimulate ideas about the area's geologic history and
framework; it also allows the geologist to identify inconsistencies and deficiencies while
still in the field.
#opographic ,rofile
After previous topographic maps, aerial photographs, and any other available data have
been examined, it is possible to establish lines for cross sections through critical parts of
the field area. If topographic maps are available, the geologist prepares topographic
profiles for the cross sections at the same scale used for the working copy of the map.
After the profiles are completed, several copies are made with indelible ink on sturdy
paper (cross-section paper is good) or plastic mylar (Fig. A.26). No vertical
exaggeration is used, especially when sketching in lithologic units and structural
features; cross sections with vertical exaggeration are often deceptive and can lead to
later problems in siting wells.
,reliminary (nterpretation
At this point, the geologist has examined all the older data, aerial photographs, and
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[Full Size]
Fig. A.24
Variation of major-element chemistry for surfaces of pyroclast samples taken from the s
coria
cone described in Fig. A.12. Strong variations are evident in major-element abundances
for the hydrovolcanic, magmatic, and lava samples.
(Adapted from Wohletz, 1986.)
- 331 -
topographic maps and has some preliminary ideas about the structure of the area from
geomorphological clues. Folds, faults, and major lithologic breaks are sketched in pencil
on the cross-sections (Fig. A.26). Studying these preliminary cross sections can help in
planning field traverses.
(n the *ield
Each evening in the field, appropriate changes are made to the working cross sections,
based on the day's lithologic descriptions as well as observations of faults, attitudes,
areas of alteration, etc. Sometimes it is necessary to erase an earlier interpretation or
add new lines. This messy working cross section evolves, along with the geologist's
ideas about the field area (Fig. A.26); the daily review exercise is stimulating and
sharpens perceptions for the next day's observations.
By the end of the field season, the geologist has a fairly sophisticated set of cross-
sections that are consistent with the geologic map, working hypotheses, and the logical
framework within which samples were collected.
Additional (nformation from Drill !oles
The ultimate test of the three-dimensional view of the field area is a comparison of the
map, cross-sections, and data gained through drilling. A proposed stratigraphy, based
on field work, is created for the drillers; this exercise helps them prepare a drilling plan
and cost estimates. In return, the drilling provides the geologist with hard data about
subsurface geological features. As drilling proceeds, numerous changes to the cross-
sections may be necessary. On the other hand, well-founded cross sections may be
useful for interpreting core or cuttings that are difficult to classify.
The ideal exploration well is a corehole that has been sampled to its full depth.
Wireline coring is a proven technology and eliminates guessing about the rock types and
the degree of alteration or fracturing. Procedures for the curation and description of
core samples are outlined in Appendix F. If no cores are to be collected, careful
evaluation of drill cuttings can be useful; however, it is important to take into
consideration the limitations of this method when cuttings from different strata are
mixed during their rise to the surface and there is a time lag involved. Onsite
petrographic identification of cuttings is aided by hand lens and a binocular microscope,
but ideally a geologist should set up a simple thin-section preparation system with basic
equipment: quick-setting glue (super"glue ) or epoxy to fix the cuttings on a glass slide,
a hot plate to set the glue, and a grinder or abrasives to grind down the cuttings
mounted on the slide to the appropriate thickness. Because this method takes only a
few minutes per thin section, it allows the geologist to keep up with the drilling
operations.
When calibrated against core or cuttings, geophysical logs provide critical
information on lithologies, temperatures, and permeability (see Appendix F). Integrating
these data-perhaps with the aid of a professional well-log analyst-is time-consuming
but well worth the effort if the geologist is to understand the third dimension within the
geothermal field.
=*inal= Versions of ross4"ections
At this stage, the field geologist has confidence in the cross sections. If the cross
sections are to be used in a publications or report, it is desirable to use a technical
illustrator for the final drafting. However created, the final maps and cross sections
should be drawn on a plastic base or good quality paper that will exhibit minimal
expansion and contraction with changes in humidity. One way to avoid many problems
is to prepare the cross sections and map with a computer that has computer-assisted
design programs or a geographic information system
- 332 -
[Full Size]
Fig. A.25
Example of a spring map from a site near Azacualpa, Honduras. Descriptions
and measurements of hot springs include details of local landmarks such as streams,
large boulders, and canyon walls.
(Adapted from Eppler et al., 1987.)
- 333 -
program. Distinct patterns or conventional symbols should be used for lithologic units.
Horizontal and vertical scales must be included; it is impossible to use either cross
sections or maps accurately without clearly labeled scales.
The final cross sections should be laid across the map parallel to the profile lines
(Fig.A.26) and several questions should be asked: do the interpretations still appear to
be reasonable? Is the scale correct? Do key points on the map (for example, faults)
correlate with those same features on the cross section?
The process of creating these maps is lengthy and involves many stages. The last,
extremely necessary step is to proof the completed map: checking the data and spelling
of place names as well as myriad other details that have been assimilated during the
mapping process.
#hree4Dimensional Model from Maps, ross "ections, and Drillhole Data
The final stage of a geovolcanological field study is the compilation of all data, including
maps, cross sections, stratigraphic sections, well logs, and rock chemical and physical
data. At this stage of a geothermal investigation, if complementary hydrogeochemical
and geophysical survey data are available and if there are any drillhole logs, a complete
geothermal model might be developed. Cross sections drawn from geovolcanological
maps can be greatly enhanced by drill core and cutting information (Appendix F), as
discussed above, and the resulting lithological and structural sections can be compared
to geophysical lines such as electrical and gravity profiles. This comparison is used in
the interpretation of the geophysical data and further constrains the vertical dimension
of the geological study. In addition, geochemical surveys suggest areas of recharge and
outflow of thermal waters and can constrain rock chemistries of potential reservoirs
(Wohletz et al ., 1984).
By developing the superposition and adjustment of the geological, geophysical, and
hydrogeochemical cross sections, it is possible to formulate a three-dimensional model.
This exercise generally simplifies each of the data sets but produces an internally
consistent picture of the subsurface. The degree to which interpretation plays a role in
developing a generalized cross sectional illustration depends largely on supporting
evidence from analyses and observations that are not typically shown on thematic
maps. For example, where hydrovolcanic vents have been mapped, the type and
abundance of lithic constituents of pyroclastic deposits indicate the lithology of potential
reservoir rocks at depth under the vents. With stratigraphic information, the projected
section below the vent can be interpreted and the lithologic and structural character of
the potential reservoir can be determined.
This modeling stage can be the most critical stage of a field geothermal study,
even if all the desired data sets are not available. A carefully designed model portrays
the dominant controlling features of a geothermal system; it is formulated to be easily
tested and readily understandable. Such a model combines observed constraints on
subsurface conditions with many of the more subtle aspects of field observations that
can not always be easily interpreted in their raw form. A model can be a single or
several
- 334 -
two-or three-dimensional illustrations or a set of numerical calculations that reproduce
the quantitative features of a geothermal system. We emphasize that such a model is a
hypothesis-one that can be tested by further detailed geological studies and specific
geophysical surveys. The richness of detail portrayed by a model also indicates
something about the completeness of the field study. The uncertainties shown by the
model are also of great significance because they emphasize missing information and
point to potential methods of obtaining that data.
6ecommendations and 3ustification for Drilling
In the final report of a field study, data and observations must be clearly separated
from interpretations and conclusions. After documentation of all the studies and their
associated conclusions, a formulation of required future work and a summary should be
added.
Following an extended field study (whether it has been accomplished by
reconnaissance or detailed field work), the project reaches a point when one must
justify future work and specify the direction it should take. Field researchers evaluate
both their supporting data and their overall inclination about the potential success of a
geothermal exploration project. If data and observations are sufficient to produce a
three-dimensional model that can be tested by further studies such as geophysical
surveys, thermal gradient boreholes, or core drilling, the justification must be succinctly
presented and a strategy that will work within this framework should be suggested.
It is our experience that even if shallow thermal gradient wells are indicated, the
cost of obtaining core from these boreholes is not a significant additional expense; core
information greatly enhances the overall body of data that can be extracted from
drilling. The location of these boreholes should be determined by (a) drilling targets
specified by various field investigators; (b) ways in which the three-dimensional model
can be best tested and augmented by drilling information; and (c) considerations of
access and property rights.
The field geologist can also emphasize conclusions about the size of the heat
source in locations where young volcanism will allow application of the methods
described by Smith and Shaw (1975), which are discussed in Chapter 2. Such
estimations are supported by field observations of geothermal manifestations, such as
surface heat flow that can be determined from hot spring and fumarolic areas (also
discussed in Chapter 3). After the temperature of a potential hydrothermal system is
constrained (either through direct, surface-temperature measurements or analysis of
hydrothermal-mineral assemblages) conversions of thermal resource to available heat
for production and electric power generation can be generalized from graphs shown in
Appendix D. Such exercises produce only crude numerical estimations of a geothermal
resource, but the information could emphasize the relative potential of a geothermal
prospect and help justify or discourage exploration drilling.
The final step in writing a report is a summary that compiles all aspects of the
work, including the perceived regional importance; geological, hydrogeochemical, and
geophysical conclusions; an overall geothermal model; the projected size and
temperature of the potential resource; and recommendations for continuation or
culmination of the exploration. Nontechnical language should
- 335 -
[Full Size]
Fig. A.26
Cross-section development shown in stages.
- 336 -
be used wherever possible in this summary because it will be read by individuals of
diverse backgrounds. Optimism about the project and its success must be carefully
balanced against the data; the possibility that an exploration project does not
satisfactorily justify future development is a valid recommendation. If the
recommendation is to discontinue a project, it may be necessary to consider culminating
work, such as releasing property rights and effecting environmental restoration where
field work has infringed (such as might be required if geophysical lines caused
topographic modifications or if boreholes must be capped and cemented). On the other
hand, if continuation is recommended, aspects of property ownership, environmental
restoration (access, governmental restrictions, and logistics), and local operational
support should be discussed. These considerations can greatly facilitate promotion of
future work.
- 337 -
Appendi7 5
Volcanic Roc Classifications and /ata
[Full Size]
lassification Methods
Classification methods have been developed for pyroclastic materials, lavas, and in
some cases, their intrusive equivalents. The following classification schemes are taken
from Williams et al . (1982) and Fisher and Schmincke (1984). In general, classification
systems include a rock chemistry designation, which may be derived from either a
major-element chemical analysis or color and phenocryst content. Some textural
classifications are based on hand sample inspection, but in the case of fine-grained
rocks and tuffs or rocks that have been altered during diagenesis or metamorphism, it is
necessary to use in addition a textural analysis by petrographic or scanning electron
microscope.
'hemi$al 'lassifi$ation
Most volcanic rocks are composed of silicate minerals and glass; notable exceptions are
carbonatites, which are composed of carbonate minerals, and rare lavas that are
dominated by magnetite or sulfur. The SiO2 content is the most general basis for
classification: Silicic (acid) rocks have >66 wt%, intermediate rocks range from 52 to
66 wt%, mafic (basic) rocks have between 45 to 52 wt%, and ultramafic (ultrabasic)
rocks <45 wt%. Alkali-silica variation diagrams (see Fig. 1.3) are widely used to classify
volcanic rocks. Table B.1 shows average major-element chemical compositions for
common volcanic rock types in order of increasing silica content.
A simple petrographic technique can also be used to estimate the SiO2 content of
volcanic rocks that contain glass. This technique is based on the decreasing refractive
index of nonhydrated glass with increasing SiO2 content; such a relationship is shown in
Fig. B.1.
- 338 -

Table B.1. Average Chemical Compositions of Selected Common Volcanic Rocks
a
0xi$e 1ephelinite 'asanite 6aaiite Tephrite 'asalt
Tholeiitic
'asalt Mugearite
SiO2 42.43 45.46 48.65 50.06 50.06 52.72 52.48
TiO2 2.71 2.56 3.30 1.80 1.86 1.96 2.11
Al2 O3 14.90 14.89 16.32 17.31 15.99 14.98 16.98
Fe2 O3 5.78 4.14 4.92 4.21 3.92 3.51 5.17
FeO 6.60 8.02 7.73 5.48 7.46 8.22 6.52
MgO 6.76 8.93 5.15 4.80 6.96 7.38 2.52
CaO 12.32 10.53 8.21 9.34 9.66 10.35 6.14
Na2 O 4.97 3.58 4.15 3.77 2.97 2.44 4.87
K2 O 3.53 1.88 1.58 4.58 1.12 0.45 2.46
0xi$e An$esite "honolite Trach!te )atite Dacite Rh!o$acite Rh!olite
SiO2 56.86 57.49 62.61 62.80 66.36 67.52 74.00
TiO2 0.88 0.64 0.71 0.83 0.58 0.60 0.27
Al2 O3 17.22 19.47 17.26 16.37 16.12 15.53 13.53
Fe2 O3 3.29 2.87 3.07 3.34 2.39 2.46 1.47
FeO 4.26 2.28 2.42 2.27 2.41 1.80 1.16
MgO 3.40 1.12 0.95 2.25 1.74 1.68 0.41
CaO 6.87 2.80 2.34 4.27 4.29 3.35 1.16
Na2 O 3.54 7.98 5.57 3.88 3.89 3.90 3.62
K2 O 1.67 5.38 5.08 3.98 2.22 3.16 4.38
a
From Le Maitre (1976).
Williams et al . (1982) demonstrated that a reasonable chemical classification can
be assigned to rocks and tephra containing phenocrysts because these minerals have
characteristic SiO2 contents that are a key to the bulk composition. Williams et al .
(1982) listed the SiO2 contents of felsic and mafic minerals as a useful guide.
Identification of the phenocryst content also makes it possible to use the
international classification scheme of Streckheisen (1967), which was discussed in
Chapter 1 (Fig. 1.3).

Silicic Minerals ?
quartz 100
alkali feldspars 64 to 66
oligoclase 62
labradorite 52 to 53
bytownite 47
leucite ~54
nepheline ~40 to 44
kalsilite 39
Ma%ic Minerals ?
magnesian and diopsidic pyroxenes 50 to 55
augites 47 to 51
titaniferous augites 46 to 47
hornblendes 2 to 50
biotites 35 to 38
opaque oxides 0
Where phenocryst abundances are significant (>4%), the rock name can be
prefixed by the names of the significant phenocrysts in order of increasing abundance
(for example, hornblende-biotite rhyodacite, pyroxene andesite, and olivine basalt).
(e1tural 'lassifi$ation
Textural classification can be very detailed, especially if it is determined by petrographic
microscopic observation. Williams et al .
- 339 -
[Full Size]
Fig. B.1
The range of glass refractive index as a function
of silica content is shown by the shaded
band; the average values for several volcanic
rock types are indicated by dots.
(Adapted from Best, 1982.)
(1982) described and illustrated many textural features of volcanic rocks, but for
the sake of simplicity here, we limit lava textural terminology to some hand-sample
features (Table B.2).
Pyroclastic rocks in general are called tephra where they are unconsolidated and
pyroclastic roc! where they are consolidated. In the case of ash-size pyroclasts (see
Table B.3), the unconsolidated deposit is simply termed ash , whereas the consolidated
deposit is denoted tuff . Fisher and Schmincke (1984) based the textural classification of
well-sorted pyroclasts on their granulometric character. For volcanic rocks composed of
poorly sorted pyroclasts, Fisher and Schmincke advocated the system shown in Table
B.4; however, some samples may contain a mixture of pyroclasts that spans the

Table B.2. Simple Textural Classification of Lava Hand Samples
Classi%ication "henocr!sts Glass
Aphyric None None to subordinate
Porphyritic Present Minor to subordinate
Obsidian None to minor Dominant
Vitrophyre Present Present
size categories (Table B.3), and in that case, the ternary classification system
shown in Fig. B.2 is prescribed.
Because pyroclastic rocks are composed of various proportions of vitric, crystal,
and lithic constituents of juvenile, cognate, or accidental origin, the classification should
also be made according to the proportion of these constituents in a sample, as is
illustrated in Fig. B.3.
Finally, where the environment of deposition or mode of emplacement can be
determined (as discussed in Chapter 1), classification may include such a designation.
For example, tuff deposited in a marine environment is called submarine tuff , which
distinguishes it from subaerial or lacustrine tuff. Tuff deposited by fallout is denoted
fallout tuff, but tuff emplaced by pyroclastic flow is generally termed ash"flow tuff.
Reworked tuff may be aeolian tuff where wind-reworked or fluvial tuff where deposited
by a river or a stream. Combining these classification schemes produces terms such as
crystal"lithic lapilli tuff& lithic tuffaceous breccia , or lithic"vitric fallout agglomerate .
Density
Volcanic rocks show a range of densities-from <1.0 Mg/m
3
for silicic pumice to ~2.9
Mg/m
3
for basalt. Because of the degree of vesiculation, crystallization, fragmentation,
and postemplacement compaction, it is clear that after eruption, volcanic rock densities
change from those of their parental magma. Bottinga and Weill
- 340 -

Table B.3. Granulometric Classification of Pyroclasts and Unimodal, Well-Sorted Pyroclastic Deposits
a

"!roclastic Deposit
Clast Size
(mm* "!roclast
Mainl! 5nconsoli$ate$E
Tephra
Mainl! Consoli$ate$E "!roclastic
Roc3
64 Block, bomb Agglomerate, bed of blocks
or bomb, block tephra
Agglomerate, pyroclastic breccia

Lapillus Layer, bed of lapilli
or lapilli tephra
Lapillistone
2
1/16
Coarse ash grain Coarse ash Coarse (ash) tuff
Fine ash grain (dust grain) Fine ash (dust) Fine (ash) tuff (dust tuff)
a
From Schmid (1981).
(1970) demonstrated the relationship of magma density to composition as a function of
temperature. With increasing water content, magma densities generally decrease-as
do their vesiculated volcanic equivalents. Table B.5 lists some average densities for
common volcanic and intrusive rock types. The densities for intrusive equivalents exhibit
maximum ranges for a given composition, whereas those for volcanic glasses fall in the
minimum ranges. Because tuffs have pore space as a result of vesicles and
intergranular voids, their densities (shown in Table B.5 for silicic rocks) are commonly
40 to 60% of those for their glassy lava equivalents. Vesicles may make up as much as
80% of the volume of pumices, for example.
,orosity and ,ermeability
Although there is no direct relationship between porosity and permeability, both of
these rock properties are extremely important when assessing the reservoir potential of
a given rock type. Porosity in volcanic rocks is mainly defined by the abundance of
vesicles. In the case of pyroclastic rocks, grain size distribution and sorting determine
the packing density of clasts. The porosity of a pyroclastic rock generally imparts a
primary permeability; if subjected to hydrothermal fluid circulation, this permeability
may change as a result of the dissolution of glass and the growth of secondary
minerals. As we said earlier in the section on density, the porosity of pyroclastic rocks
may reach 80%, but for fresh, nonaltered pyroclastic rock, porosity is generally in the
range of 40 to 60%. Lavas, on the other hand, exhibit porosity only if they are
brecciated during emplacement or contain vesicles and other gas cavities such as
lithophysae; in these cases, lava porosity is generally <20%.
The bulk permeability of volcanic rocks is a function of primary and secondary
permeability. Primary permeability (sometimes called formation permeability ), as
discussed above, develops from the original texture of the rock (for example,
interconnected pores and vesicles and grain boundaries). In contrast, secondary
permeability (sometimes called fracture permeability ) is promoted by rock fracture and
foliation, and where it occurs, it is generally the dominant type of permeability. Volcanic
rock fracture has numerous origins, such as tectonic movement and proximity to faults,
differential compaction that causes stress fractures, cooling contractions, thermal
spallation, and eruptive/emplacement brecciation. Typical permeabilities for all rock
types range from 10
-20
m
2
(0.01 Darcy) to 10
-7
m
2
- 341 -

Table B.4. Terms for Mixed Pyroclastic-Epiclastic Rocks
"!roclastic
b
Tu%%ites
(Volcanic an$?or 1on#olcanic*
Epiclastic
(Mixe$ "!roclastic-Epiclastic*
A#erage Clast Size
(mm*
Agglomerate,
agglutinate,
pyroclastic breccia
Tuffaceous conglomerate,
tuffaceous breccia
Conglomerate, breccia 64
Lapillistone

(Ash) tuff coarse Tuffaceous sandstone Sandstone 2

fine Tuffaceous siltstone Siltstone 1/16

Tuffaceous mudstone shale Mudstone, shale 1/256
[Full Size]

a
From Schmid (1981).
b
Terms are those used in Table B.3.
[Full Size]
Fig. B.2
Classification scheme for pyroclastic samples
composed of a mixture of fragment sizes;
the term lapilli-tuff is
synonymous with lapillistone.
(Adapted from Schmid, 1981.)
[Full Size]
Fig. B.3
Classification scheme for pyroclastic samples
composed of a mixture of constituents.
(Adapted from Cook, 1965.)
- 342 -

Table B.5. Average Densities for Common Igneous Rocks
a
Roc3 T!pe
Range o% Densit!
(Mg?m
3
)
Mean Densit!
(Mg?m
3
)
Silicic


Rhyolitic pumice 0.500-1.500 1.000

Rhyolitic tuff 1.000-1.800 1.400

Rhyolitic welded tuff 1.800-2.400 2.100

Rhyolitic obsidian 2.330-2.413 2.370

Rhyolite

2.51

Granite 2.516-2.809 2.667
4nterme$iate


Trachytic obsidian 2.435-2.467 2.450

Trachyte

2.57

Andesitic glass 2.40-2.537 2.474

Andesite

2.65

Syenite 2.630-2.899 2.757

Granodiorite 2.668-2.785 2.716

Quartz diorite 2.680-2.960 2.806
Ma%ic


Leucitic tephritic glass 2.52-2.58 2.55

Basaltic glass 2.704-2.851 2.772

Basalt

2.74

Diorite 2.721-2.960 2.839
a
From Daly et al . (1966) and Johnson and Olhoeft (1984).
(0.1 MDarcy), as shown in Table B.6. The permeabilities of unaltered pyroclastic
rocks should be similar to those of silty and clean sand-in the range of 10
-14
to 10
-10
m
2

(0.01 to 100.0 Darcy).
Geophysical ,roperties
A set of geophysical properties for a volcanic rock includes its elastic constants,
strength, seismic velocity, heat capacity and thermal conductivity, radioactivity,
electrical resistivity, and well-log parameters. Although data for many volcanic rock
types are sparse, in Tables B.7 through B.13 we list some typical values [chiefly from
Clark (1966) and Carmichael (1984)]. However, volcanic rocks show considerable
variability in their geophysical properties and these values listed below are provided as
examples-useful for rough calculation but not for strict application in geothermal
exploration. Needless to say, specific data should be obtained for volcanic rocks in the
field of interest.
- 343 -

Table B.6. Range of Permeabilities for Common Rock Types
a
[Full Size]


Table B.7. Elastic Constants of Selected Volcanic Rocks
a
Roc3 T!pe
Densit!
(Mg?m
3
)
HoungIs Mo$ulus JEK
(Mb*
Shear Mo$ulus JGK
(Mb* "oissonIs Ratio J#K
Obsidian 2.446 0.656 0.303 0.08

0.652 0.278 0.17

0.718 0.303 0.18
Silicic Tuff

Lithic 1.45 0.14

0.11
Bedded 1.6 0.042 0.021

Welded 2.2 0.116 0.054 0.12
Andesite 2.57 0.54

0.18
Basalt 2.85 0.61 0.27


2.97 0.85 0.34


2.74 0.63

0.25

2.82 0.485

0.384
a
From Birch (1966).
- 344 -

Table B.8. Strength of Selected Volcanic Rocks
a
Roc3 T!pe
5ltimate Strength
(3b*
Crushing Strength
(3b*
Cohesi#e Strength
(3b*
Rhyolite
b
8.00

Rhyolite
c
10.47

Rhyolite Tuff
d

0.067-0.482

Lithic Tuff

0.250 0.050
Andesite

1.320 0.290

1.290 0.280
Basalt
e

T=297 K 15.40

T=673 K 13.80

T=873 K 10.30

T=973 K 5.31

T=1073 2.63

Basalt
f
2.62

a
From Handin (1966).
b
Confining pressure = 1.01 kb; temperature = 423 K.
c
Confining pressure = 5.05 kb; temperature = 773 K.
d
Information from Zalessky (1961).
e
Confining pressure = 5.00 to 5.07 kb.
f
Confining pressure = 0.00 kb; Temperature = 297 K.

Table B.9. Seismic Velocities of Selected Volcanic Rocks
a
Roc3 T!pe
#p
(km/s)
#s
(km/s)
Tuff 1.43 0.87

0.76-4.57
b

Silicic Tuff 2.16 0.83
Rhyolite 3.27 1.98
Latite 3.77 2.21
Volcanic Breccia 4.22 2.49
Trachyte 5.41 3.05
Andesite 5.23 3.06
Basalt 3.35 1.64

4.76 2.19

5.06 2.72

5.41 3.21

6.4 3.2
Basaltic Scoria 4.33 2.51
a
Adapted from Press (1966) and Christensen (1984); vp =
compressional velocity and vs = shear velocity.
b
Gardner and House (1987.)
- 345 -

Table B.10. Heat Capacities and Thermal Conductivities of Selected Volcanic Rocks
a
Roc3 T!pe
6eat Capacit!
(3L?3g--*
Con$ucti#it! Range
(&?m--*
Con$ucti#it! Mean
(&?m--*
Rhyolitic Tuff
b

0.20-0.40 0.3
Rhyolite 1.06
c
1.58-4.33 3.0
Obsidian

T = 273 K

1.34
T = 373 K

1.46
T = 473 K

1.56
T = 573 K

1.67
T = 673 K

1.78
T = 773 K

1.89
Altered Rhyolite

3.1-3.7 3.44
Dacite
d
1.17 0.54-0.97 0.69
Andesite 1.04
c
1.35-4.86 3.7
Lava
e

2.6-3.6 3.10
Lava
e

2.7-3.3 3.01
Lava
f

1.7-2.8 2.10
Basalt 1.05
c
1.12-2.38 1.8
Diabasic Basalt

T = 303 K

1.69
T = 348 K

1.73
a
From Clark (1966) and Nathenson et al . (1982).
b
From W. Sibbett, personal communication (1978).
c
Heat capacity at 1000 K; from Bacon (1975).
d
From Friedman et al . (1981) for Mount St. Helens dacite.
e
Ventersdorp Lava, Orange Free State.
f
Portage Lake Lava, Calumet, Michigan.

Table B.11. Radioactivity in Selected Volcanic Rocks as Noted by Potassium, Uranium,
and Thorium Abundances
a
Roc3 T!pe
"otassium
(.*
5ranium
(ppm*
Thorium
(ppm*
Rhyolite 4.2 5

Feldspathic Tuff 2.04 5.96 1.56
Andesite 1.7 0.8 1.9
Basalt

Alkali 0.61 0.99 4.6
Alkali-Olivine <1.4 <1.4 3.9
Tholeiite

Orogenic <0.6 <0.25 <0.05
Nonorogenic <1.3 <0.50 <2.0
a
From Fertl and Overton (1982).
- 346 -

Table B.12. Electrical Resistivity Ranges of Selected Water-
Bearing Volcanic Rocks
a
Roc3 T!pe
)oer
(& -m*
5pper
(& -m*
Volcanic Roc3s

Quaternary-Tertiary 10 200
Mesozoic 20 500
Carboniferous 50 1000
Paleozoic 100 2000
Precambrian 200 5000
Tertiar! Tu%%

Granular 17.2 59.1
Welded 217 1410
a
From Keller (1966).

Table B.13. Simple Classification of Volcanic Rocks by Well Log Response Parameters
a
[Full Size]

- 347 -
Appendi7 C
9otation
[Full Size]

A Area
Af two-dimensional, fracture-fluid flux
Ad area of tephra deposit where its thickness is at
least 1% of its maximum
Av vent area
a acceleration
ah ellipsoid halfwidth
B availability
be e-folding distance of plume centerline velocity
bh ellipsoid half-length
C specific heat
Cd drag coefficient
Cf fracturing fluid coefficient
Cm specific heat of magma
Cp specific heat at constant pressure
Cpw specific heat at constant pressure of water
Cs specific heat of solids
Cv specific heat at constant volume
Cvw specific heat at constant volume of water
C degrees Celsius
ch ellipsoid half-thickness
cl concentration of chemical species existing in the
liquid during fractional crystallization or melting
co concentration of chemical species in the liquid
before fractional crystallization or melting
cs gas dynamic sound speed
cx concentration of chemical species in the mixed
magma
c1 concentration of chemical species in magma 1
c2 concentration of chemical species in magma 2
D characteristic length
Db depth of burial
Dd ratio of penetration depths for thermal to hydraulic
diffusivities = (!t /w )
1/2
- 348 -

Do weighted average solid/liquid partition coefficient
d particle diameter
dm size-distribution mode diameter
dmm particle diameter in millimeters
E Young's modulus
Ek kinetic energy
Ep potential energy
Et thermal energy
F fraction of melt remaining
F degrees Fahrenheit
Ft wt% tephra finer than 1 mm found along dispersal
axis where thickness is 10% of its maximum
f modified isentropic exponent for mixture
g gravitational acceleration
gf exponent in sequential fragmentation/transport
model
H enthalpy or heat content
Ha enthalpy of water at ambient temperature
Hi enthalpy of radioactive decay component i
Hlv enthalpy of water vaporization
Hq heat flux
Hr enthalpy of reservoir fluid
Htr thermal resource energy
h vertical distance or height
hb plume height of neutral buoyancy
hc column collapse height
hmc magma chamber thickness
ho vent elevation
hp plume height
ht plume-top height
h1 height of location 1
h2 height of location 2
Ji chemical reaction heat of component
K Kelvin
Ki stress intensity factor
Ks normalization constant for tephra size distributions
kd Nernst distribution coefficient of element
kh proportionality constant for plume height
ki isopach half-thickness constant
kt thermal conductivity
ktx thermal conductivity along x axis
kty thermal conductivity along y axis
L fracture length
Le pyroclastic flow/surge energy line runout distance
Lf total pyroclastic flow runout distance
Lp lava plug thickness
Li maximum thickness of pyroclastic deposits


measure of crack tip length
M Mach number
Mdf median diameter
m mass
mf mass fraction of solids in solid and vapor mixture
mm magma mass
mm1 mass of magma 1
mm2 mass of magma 2
- 349 -

mw water mass
n gas weight fraction
na acceleration function of Taylor instability
P bulk partition coefficient for melting phases
p pressure
patm atmospheric pressure
pb formation break-down pressure
pf final pressure
ph hydrostatic pressure
pi initial pressure
pl lithostatic pressure
po stagnation pressure
pp pore-fluid pressure
ppi fluid injection pressure
ps static pressure
p1 pressure at location 1
p2 pressure at location 2
p, pressure at an infinite distance
Q fracture volume
Qf fracture-fluid volume flux or pumping rate
q ratio of average column velocity to its centerline
velocity
R universal gas constant
R degrees Rankine
Ra Rayleigh number
Re Reynolds number
Rm ratio of water to magma
D Rm absolute value of difference between Rm and Rm at
optimum explosive ratios
r radial distance
rc conduit radius
rf final runout distance of pyroclastic flow or surge
rh radius of isopach half-thickness
ri vesicle radius before burst
rm magma fragment size after thermal detonation
rmc magma chamber radius
rp plume radius
rr radial or runout distance
rv vent radius
rw well-bore radius
rx radius of elliptical isopach major axis
ry radius of elliptical isopach minor axis
S entropy
Sz overburden pressure
s incrementally small distance from end of a crack
T temperature
Ta ambient temperature
Te temperature at high-pressure thermal equilibrium
Tf temperature of spring water
Ti initial temperature
Tm initial temperature of magma
Tr reservoir-fluid temperature
Ts rock tensile strength
Tw initial temperature of water
T2 temperature at atmospheric pressure
t time
Um internal energy of magma
Uw internal energy of water
- 350 -

Umix total internal energy of mixture
u velocity


velocity vector
uconv convection velocity
usonic sonic velocity
uf final velocity
uc plume centerline velocity
uv vertical velocity
ur radial velocity
urel relative velocity between magma and water
u1 velocity at location 1
u2 velocity at location 2
V volume
Vcir volume enclosed by circular isopachs
Vdre volume of dense rock equivalent
Ve volume enclosed by elliptical isopachs
Vf volume fraction of hot spring water measured in
stream
Vlv volume difference between liquid and vapor states
Vsys total volume of system
Vtr volume of thermal resource
v velocity
ve ejecta velocity
vo initial velocity of pyroclastic flow or surge
vx fracture-fluid velocity
W fracture width
Wh fracture half-width
Wnet work converted to electrical power
Wsys total work of system
x distance
xe steam fraction
xr radial distance from plume axis
xs thickness of steam cap
x2 steam fraction at atmospheric pressure
y distance
ym vertical distance over which rock mass is moved
zd depth of drilling limit
zh depth of hydrologically active zone

a isobaric coefficient of thermal expansion
am magnitude of thermal expansion (aD T)
as shearing stress angle
b isothermal coefficient of compressibility
be ratio of elliptical isopach minor axis to major axis
radius
D designates change


Nabla vector operator = * /* x + * /* y + * /* z

2 Laplacian operator = *
2
/* x
2
+ *
2
/* y
2
+ *
2
/* z
2
d
18
O abundance of
18
O relative to standard mean ocean
water
ee eccentricity of elliptical isopachs
ec conversion efficiency or ratio of kinetic or
mechanical energy to thermal energy
g gas isentropic exponent Cp /Cv
gf size-distribution parameter in sequential
fragmentation/transport model
- 351 -

gi radioactive decay constant
gk nondimensional stress intensity factor
fh frictional head loss
! permeability
!h effective heat transfer coefficient as function of
permeability
!t thermal diffusivity
l Taylor wavelength
lcrit critical Taylor wavelength
viscosity
h Heim coefficient of energy line
s shear modulus
h Boltzmann variable [x/(4!t t)
1/2
]
hc power plant cycle efficiency
ht amplitude of Taylor instability
v Poisson's ratio
p pi; p@ 3.14159
f logarithmic grain size
ff internal angle of friction
fp porosity
r density
ra air density
rb bulk density
rg gas density
rm magma density
rp solid-particle density
rw water density
s normal stress
sd standard deviation
seff effective normal stress
ss surface tension
sz effective vertical stress
sf Inman sorting coefficient
s1 greatest principal stress
s3 least principal stress
t constant in ideal gas equation of state
te radiometric age of eruptive products
ts shear stress
to zero-normal stress; shearing strength of rock
q topographic slope angle
qe slope of energy line
qp particle volume fraction
qtr minimum temperature required for economic heat
extraction
w hydraulic diffusivity (! /fp b )
$o normalized distance constant in sequential
fragmentation/transport model
- 353 -
Appendi7 /
Conversion 2actors4 %tea$ Properties4 and
Conversion of #eother$al 1eat to "lectricity
[Full Size]
onversion *actors
Conversion factors shown in Table D.1 are presented as basic equivalents in English, cgs
(centimeter/gram/second), and SI (International System) units to facilitate
computations in volcanological and mechanical engineering models.
#hermodynamic ,roperties of "team
Throughout this book, heat flow through rocks and heat transfer to water are discussed
as important concepts to consider when attempting to understand volcanic and
hydrothermal behavior. Although water is not pure in volcanic hydrothermal systems
and contains variable amounts of dissolved gases, ionic species, and molecular species,
it is possible to estimate the pressure/volume relationships of fluids on a first-order
approximation by considering the phase relationships of pure water. We recommend
using the U.S. National Bureau of Standards steam tables (Haar et al ., 1984), which
are published in SI units for temperatures between ambient (273 K) and 1273 K at
pressures from atmospheric (0.1 MPa) to 1500 MPa (15 kbar). The quick-reference table
in this appendix (Table D.2) lists values for some of these conditions.
- 354 -

Table D.1. Basic Equivalents for Major Measurement Systems
5nit English cgs S4
Length 1.0 in. 2.54000 cm 0.02540000 m
Mass 1.0 lb 453.59237 g 0.45359237 kg
Temperature 212.0F 100.0C 373.0 K
Force 1.0 lbf 453.59237 gf
444,822.2 dynes
0.45359237 kgf
4.448222 N
Pressure
(1 atm
a
)
1.0 bar
14.696 lb/ft
2
1,000,000.00 dynes/cm
2
1,013,250.00 dynes/cm
2
100,000.0 Pa
101,325.0 Pa
Energy 1.0 Btu 1.054 10
10
ergs 1054.350 J
0.292875 W-hr

1.0 kt 4.184 10
19
ergs 1.1626 10
6
kW-hr
Work 1.0 ft/lb 0.32405 g-cal 1.355818 J
Power 1.0 Btu/hr
1.0 hp
0.0699988 g-cal/s
178.2263 g-cals/s
0.292875 W
745.6999 W
Specific heat and
specific entropy 1.0 Btu/lb-R 1.0 cal/g-C 4.184 kJ/kg-K
Specific volume 1.0 ft
3
/lb 62.428 cm
3
/g 0.06248 m
3
/kg
a
At sea level.

'onversion of "eothermal +eat to Ele$tri$ity
Production of electricity from a geothermal heat source is limited by the Second Law of
Thermodynamics, which specifies that it is impossible to convert all the heat energy
from a system into mechanical-hence, electrical-energy (Gokcen, 1975). For an
idealized geothermal power conversion process, the total maximum work that can be
extracted from a geothermal fluid is often termed availability (B), which is given by

where D H and D S are the enthalpy and entropy differences between ambient
conditions and the geothermal fluid's wellhead pressure and temperature; Ta = ambient
temperature. Figure D.1 (a) is a plot of D B as a function of wellhead temperature for
saturated vapor and saturated liquid cooled to three different ambient temperatures.
The actual amount of work converted to electrical power (Wnet ) is a function of the cycle
efficiency of the power plant (hc )

Figure D.1 (b) shows typical cycle efficiencies for geothermal plants as a function
of wellhead temperature for a range of condensing temperatures. The discarded or
reinjected fluids above ambient temperatures are not counted as thermodynamic losses
in calculations of cycle efficiency; thus hc can be proportionately larger than the utilized
efficiency for some applications (Tester, 1982).
- 355 -
[Full Size]
Fig. D.1
(a) Plot of D B as a function of wellhead temperature
for saturated vapor and saturated liquid that have
cooled to three different ambient temperatures.
(b) Typical cycle efficiencies for geothermal plants
are shown as a function of wellhead temperature
for a range of condensing temperatures.
(Adapted from Tester, 1982.)
- 356 -

Table D.2. Abbreviated Steam Table
a
Temperature
(7C*
Densit!
(3g?m
3
)
Enthalp!
(3L?3g*
Entrop! (3L?3g-
-*
6eat Capacit!
(3L?3g--*
4sentropic
Coe%%icient
+M, 'ar

0.0 999.83 0.06 -0.00015 4.228

++86 @IA +,>866 (1*8,1 18&)2*&

++86 @vA )8,+)2 26*,81 *8&,>+

100 0.5896 2675.9 7.3609 2.042 1.33
200 0.46035 2874.8 7.8335 1.975 1.31
300 0.37896 3073.9 8.2152 2.013 1.30
400 0.32230 3278.0 8.5432 2.070 1.29
500 0.28046 3488.2 8.8342 2.135 1.28
600 0.24827 3705.0 9.0979 2.203 1.27
700 0.22272 3928.8 9.3405 2.273 1.26
800 0.20194 4159.7 9.5662 2.343 1.25
900 0.18472 4397.5 9.7781 2.412 1.24
1000 0.17020 4642.0 9.9781 2.478 1.23
;/M, 'ar

0 1001.05 2.51 0.00003 4.215

100 959.52 420.87 1.30502 4.211

200 865.47 852.76 2.32926 4.484

22(8) @IA >&,81+ +618+* 28,,(&>

22(8) @vA 128,)> 2>)282 682,6)

300 10.113 3008.0 6.6424 2.433 1.29
400 8.327 3239.2 7.0146 2.245 1.29
500 7.144 3462.2 7.3235 2.228 1.28
600 6.287 3686.3 7.5960 2.259 1.27
700 5.608 3914.7 7.8436 2.310 1.26
800 5.071 4148.6 8.0724 2.370 1.25
900 4.6305 4388.7 8.2862 2.431 1.24
1000 4.2616 4634.9 8.4876 2.493 1.23
/,M, 'ar

0 1002.31 5.05 0.00020 4.202 400
100 960.68 422.75 1.3038 4.206 450
200 867.35 853.79 2.32533 4.469 250
26(8) @IA ***8,2 11,(82) 28+2)11

26(8) @vA 2,8&,, 2*+&8* ,8+*2,

300 22.073 2923.5 6.2067 3.181 1.28
400 17.299 3195.5 6.6456 2.468 1.28
500 14.586 3433.9 6.9760 2.335 1.28
600 12.709 3666.2 7.2586 2.322 1.27
700 11.299 3899.7 7.5117 2.351 1.26
800 10.189 4137.0 7.7438 2.398 1.25
900 9.287 4379.4 7.9598 2.452 1.24
1000 8.536 4627.4 8.1626 2.508 1.24
- 357 -

D.2. Abbreviated Steam Table (cont.)
Temperature
(7C*
Densit!
(3g?m
3
)
Enthalp!
(3L?3g*
Entrop! (3L?3g-
-*
6eat Capacit!
(3L?3g--*
4sentropic
Coe%%icient
C>M, 'ar

0 1003.52 7.48 0.00033 4.190 250
100 961.79 424.56 1.30123 4.200 250
200 869.13 854.80 2.32162 4.456 225
2>+86 @lA *&28>& 12>*82( &81,622

2>+86 @vA &>8>+2 2*668( ,8*>(,

300 36.713 2817.5 .8744 4.642 1.27
400 26.665 3150.0 6.4128 2.736 1.28
500 22.041 3405.7 6.7674 2.448 1.28
600 19.036 3646.5 7.0604 2.386 1.27
700 16.843 3885.0 7.3190 2.392 1.26
800 15.145 4125.7 7.5544 2.425 1.25
900 13.780 4370.5 7.7725 2.472 1.24
1000 12.652 4620.3 7.9767 2.523 1.24
+,,M, 'ar

0 1004.81 10.10 0.00045 4.177 200
100 962.98 426.52 1.29924 4.195 225
200 871.03 855.91 2.31766 4.442 170
300 715.58 1342.38 3.24697 5.675 60
&118) @lA 6>>86& 1()*82> &8&,+12

&118) @vA ,,8(> 2*2(8, ,861&+

400 37.867 3096.1 6.2114 3.100 1.28
500 30.503 3374.0 6.5971 2.584 1.28
600 26.068 3624.7 6.9022 2.458 1.27
700 22.941 3869.0 7.1671 2.437 1.26
800 20.982 4112.5 7.3963 2.456 1.26
900 19.050 4360.1 7.6169 2.494 1.25
1000 17.466 4612.0 7.8229 2.540 1.24
+/,M, 'ar

0 1007.28 15.11 0.00060 4.153 150
100 965.25 430.29 1.29546 4.184 160
200 874.6 858.1 2.3102 4.41 110
300 725.9 1337.4 3.2261 5.470 45
&(282 @lA 6)&8, 16)+8> &86>&*

&(282 @vA +68*2 261)81 ,8&)+2

400 63.89 2974.7 5.8799 4.177 1.28
500 48.08 3309.3 6.3452 2.891 1.29
600 40.15 3581.5 6.6767 2.610 1.28
700 34.94 3837.6 6.9544 2.529 1.27
800 31.12 4089.6 7.2009 2.518 1.26
900 28.15 4342.2 7.4260 2.538 1.26
1000 25.75 4597.7 7.6350 2.573 1.25
- 358 -

Table D.2. Abbreviated Steam Table (cont.)
Temperature
(7C*
Densit!
(3g?m
3
)
Enthalp!
(3L?3g*
Entrop! (3L?3g-
-*
6eat Capacit!
(3L?3g--*
4sentropic
Coe%%icient
;,,M, 'ar

0 1010.21 21.08 0.00066 4.130 100
100 967.92 434.83 1.29098 4.174 125
200 878.7 860.9 2.3015 4.394 90
300 735.0 1333.4 3.2073 5.311 40
&6,8> @IA (+182 1>268* (8)1(6

&6,8> @vA 1*)82, 2(1&86 (8+&&)

400 100.54 2816.9 5.5521 6.371 1.29
500 67.71 3239.4 6.1417 3.269 1.30
600 55.04 3536.7 6.5039 2.778 1.29
700 47.32 3805.5 6.7955 2.627 1.28
800 41.87 4065.4 7.0498 2.583 1.27
900 37.72 4323.5 7.2797 2.583 1.26
1000 34.42 4582.8 7.4919 2.606 1.26
F,,M, 'ar

0 1014.53 29.92 0.00051 4.089 70
100 971.86 441.64 1.28439 4.154 80
200 884.7 865.2 2.2890 4.350 60
300 750.9 1328.0 3.1744 5.075 25
400 358.05 2150.7 4.4723 25.080 2
500 115.26 3083.5 5.7936 4.312 1.34
600 87.48 3443.1 6.2324 3.160 1.32
700 73.23 3740.1 6.5547 2.836 1.31
800 63.92 4016.7 6.8254 2.716 1.29
900 57.13 4285.9 7.0653 2.677 1.28
1000 51.87 4553.3 7.2840 2.674 1.27
>,,M, 'ar

0 1019.23 39.63 0.00003 4.053 60
100 976.12 449.24 1.27722 4.135 70
200 891.0 870.1 2.2758 4.312 45
300 764.6 1324.8 3.1457 4.906 25
400 523.7 1930.8 4.1134 8.717 5
500 177.97 2906.7 5.4745 5.799 1.45
600 123.81 3345.8 6.0111 3.597 1.37
700 100.71 3673.8 6.3673 3.057 1.34
800 86.68 3967.8 6.6551 2.854 1.31
900 76.86 4248.5 6.9052 2.771 1.30
1000 69.44 4523.9 7.1305 2.743 1.29
- 359 -

Table D.2. Abbreviated Steam Table (cont.)
Temperature
(7C*
Densit!
(3g?m
3
)
Enthalp!
(3L?3g*
Entrop! (3L?3g-
-*
6eat Capacit!
(3L?3g--*
4sentropic
Coe%%icient
/,,M, 'ar

0 1023.82 49.20 -0.00076 4.021 45
100 980.27 456.84 1.27021 4.117 55
200 897.0 875.3 2.2631 4.277 40
300 776.6 1323.1 3.1202 4.775 22
400 578.0 1874.1 4.0022 6.789 7
500 257.0 2724.2 5.1780 7.239 1.8
600 163.99 3247.7 5.8184 4.062 1.45
700 129.64 3607.8 6.2097 3.283 1.37
800 110.09 3919.5 6.5148 2.992 1.34
900 96.88 4211.5 6.7751 2.866 1.32
1000 87.12 4495.0 7.0070 2.812 1.31
+N,,,M, 'ar

0 1045.31 95.40 -0.00854 3.909 30
100 999.70 495.00 1.23713 4.139 35
200 923.7 903.6 2.2068 4.141 25
300 823.2 1328.2 3.0202 4.391 15
400 692.6 1790.9 3.7632 4.911 8
500 528.2 2316.2 4.4897 5.557 4
600 373.9 2863.4 5.1558 5.123 2.5
700 282.4 3323.1 5.6552 4.129 1.75
800 231.03 3704.3 6.0286 3.561 1.55
900 198.45 4044.3 6.3317 3.269 1.45
1000 75.61 4362.6 6.5921 3.113 1.42
a
Temperature and pressure units shown as bar and Celsius scales, respectively, to correspond to tabulated tables from
Haar et al . (1984). Values denoting liquid (I) and vapor (v) saturation are shown in bold. Isentropic (expansion)
coefficients are approximated from graphical data in Fig. 7 of Haar et al . (1984).
- 361 -
Appendi7 "
1eat 2lo3 @!3o=/i$ensional /iffusion CodeA
[Full Size]
Time-dependent heat diffusion expressed by Fick's second law of diffusion [Eq. (2-
9); Chapter 2] is an important tool for evaluating thermal resource [Eq. (2-6); Chapter
2]. Because the temporal and spatial variation of temperature in a sequence of rocks of
varying character is the desired solution, Eq. (2-9) can be written in a two-dimensional,
nonlinear Cartesian form using thermal conductivity (kt ) and temperature (T):

where ktx and kty are the thermal conductivities in the x and y directions,
respectively. The following computer program uses a two-dimensional, finite-difference
numerical solution based on an algorithm given by Harbaugh and Bonham-Carter
(1970). It calculates time-dependent heat diffusion for an array of variable rock
properties, using an averaging technique to obtain the spatially varying thermal
conductivity coefficients.
Important initial conditions include regional thermal gradient, variation of vertical
and horizontal conductivities as a function of user-specified stratigraphy, and time and
spatial step size. This code is written for interactive use; results are printed out to an
external file as well as to the screen.
The program requests
(1) the number of rows and columns in the array that represents a vertical cross
section of the desired model,
(2) the spatial and temporal step for the array, and
(3) the number of rock types.
After the numerical representation of the simulated cross-section is entered by
rock type, the array is saved to an external file for
- 362 -
access in future runs. By specifying conductivity coefficients for each rock type, the
program calculates effective convective coefficients for locations in which vertical
conductivities are greater than horizontal ones. Finally, the program calculates whether
the specified time step is small enough to result in stable solutions for the desired
mesh.
"ource ode +isting
The source code, listed below, is written in VAX5 FORTRAN, which makes use of virtual
memory. Implementation of this program on a personal computer requires a FORTRAN
compiler, and the source code may require some changes of array sizes, variable
declarations, and assignment of external files. Standard code format requires that each
statement is indented at least 7 spaces and line continuation characters (denoted here
as '&') are typed in the sixth space of each line.
c............program 2DHF.....................
c........... Two dimensional heat diffusion in heterogeneous
c............materials by solution of Fick's second law
c...........of diffusion, utilizing finite difference techniue
c...........of Harbaugh and !onham"#arter,
c...........$#omputer %imulation in &eololgy$,
c...........'iley (nterscience, )*+,, p. 22-
common krock.-,,-,/,temp.-,,-,/,tempi.-,,-,/,
0ntempi.-,,-,/,coef1.-,,-,/,coefy.-,,-,/,ntgradi.-,/,
0ntemp.),,,,-,,-,/,l.-,/,tempnew.-,,-,/,
0ntgrad.),,,,-,/
write.-,),/
) format.')','2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2"D H3T345&36357%',
0'H38T F95'2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2'/
c....Define grid size and geology..................
write.-,),/
), format.:::,' 3nter ncol, nrow, d1y .km/, and nrock',:,
0'.number of rock types up to ;, e1cluding the magma,':,
0'for the computational mesh<',:/
read.-,2/ ncol, nrow, dd1y, nrock
d1y = dd1y2 ).,e>,-
n? = ncol:2
write.-,)-/
)- format.:,' 3nter magma temperature and',
0'regional geothermal gradient .deg #:km/<',:/
read.-,2/ tm, tg
c@ = ,.A
c....4ead in geologic stucture and rock characteristics..
-, call grid.nrow,ncol,nrock,tm,tg,d1y,dd1y,c@,coef,,
0coef)1,coef)y,coef21,coef2y,coefB1,coefBy,coef;1,
0coef;y,con@,,con@),con@2,con@B,con@;/
c.....%tabilize initial heat flow in grid...........
hfb = ).,
hft = ).,
stab = ,.,
call stabil .stab,hfb,hft,nrow,ncol,n?,tm,tg,d1y,c@,
0coef)1,coef)y,con@,,con@),con@2,con@B,con@;/
c.....%et dt for time step...................
*, write.-,*2/ hfb,hft
*2 format.:,' hfb = ',f+.;,'C hft = ',f+.;,::,
0''hat is the time"step .yrs/D',:,
0'(f time"step is too large, program will go unstable',::/
read.-,2/ dt
dt = dt2B.)-BAe>+
c.....4eset grid ..................
do *; i=),nrow
do *B ?=),ncol
temp.i,?/ = tempi.i,?/
if.krock.i,?/.e.,/ then
coef1.i,?/ = coef,:c@
coefy.i,?/ = coef,:c@
end if
*B continue
*; continue
nt = )
ntt = ,
factor = dt:d1y222.,
tma1 = ,.,
tmin = tm
itt = )
write.-,*-/
*- format.::,' &rid all set up for calculation,',:,
0'do you wish to continueDEyF'/
read.-,'.a/'/ ano )
if.ano).e.'n'.or.ano).e.'6'/ go to 2,,
write.-,*A/
*A format.$,::,),1,' nt',-1,' tma1 ',-1,' tmin',:/
c....!egin diffusion loop.........
- 363 -
),, call diffus .stab,hfb,hft,ntt,nt,tma1,tmin,nrow,n?,
0 ncol,factor,con@,,con@),con@2,con@B,con@;/
c....4ecord e@ery ),,,2dt calculation of thermal state.....
id = ).,:dd1y > ,.-
do )+, i=),nrow
do )A, ?=),ncol
ntemp.nt,i,?/ = temp.i,?/ > ,.-
if.i.e.id/ ntgrad.nt,?/ = .temp.i,?/"2,.,/ > ,.-
)A, continue
)+, continue
write.-,)+-/nt,tma1,tmin
)+- format.),1,iB,-1,fA.2,-1,fA.2/
if.nt.e.).or.nt.e.-.or.nt.e..itt2),// then
write.-,)G,/
read.-,'.a/'/ ano
if.ano.e.'y'.or.ano.e.'H'/ go to *,
write.-,)G)/
read.-,'.a/'/ ayes)
if.ayes).e.'n'.or.ayes).e.'6'/ go to )*,
end if
)G, format.::,' Do you wish to change time stepD EnF'/
)G) format.' Do you wish to continueD EyF'/
)*, if.tm.ge.B,,.,/ then
if.tma1.le.B,,.,/ go to 2,,
if.nt.ge.)**.or.ntt.lt.),,,/ go to 2,,
end if
if.ntt.e.),,,/ ntt = ,
if.ayes).e.'n'.or.ayes).e.'6'/ go to 2,,
nt = nt > )
if.nt.gt..itt2),// itt = itt > )
go to ),,
c....'rite out results, timef .ka/.................
2,, ncy = nt
nccy = ntt
timef = ..ncy2),,,.,>nccy/2dt/:B.)-BAe>,+
tntt = .dt2),,,.,/:B.)-BAe>,+
tint = ,.,
space = d1y:).,e>,-
time = ).,
write.-,2-,/ timef,tma1,nt,tntt
2-, format.')',:::,' #alculation #omplete',:,' ',
0'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII',::,
0' #ooling time = ',G1,f),.),' years',:,
0' Ja1imum magma temperature = ',f-.),' deg #':,
0' 6umber of plots = ',iB,'at',f),.2,' year inter@als',::,
0' Do you wish printout of initial geometryD EyF',::/
read.-,'.a/'/ ano
if.ano.e.'n'.or.ano.e.'6'/ goto B2,
c....(nitial time plots...............
write.-,B,*/ space, tint, .l.?/,?=),ncol/
do B,, i=),nrow
write.-,B))/ i, .krock.i,?/, ?=),ncol/
B,, continue
B,* format.')',' 2"D H38T F95' K95T',::,
0' &rid spacing = ',f;.2,' km',
0' Time = ',f)2.),' yrs ',::,-1,EncolFi;,::/
B), format.')',' 2"D H38T F95' K95T',::,
0' &rid spacing = ',f;.2,' km',
0' Time = ',f)2.),' yrs',::,
0-1,EncolFi;,:,' d:km',EncolFi;,::,' ,',21,EncolF.'2,'//
B)) format.$,i2,21,EncolFi;/
B2, write.-,BB,/
BB, format.:,' Do you wish printout of init. temperaturesDEyF'/
read.-,'.a/'/ ano
if.ano.e.'n'.or.ano.e.'6'/ goto B-,
write.-,B),/ space, tint, .l.?/,?=),ncol/,.ntgradi.?/,?=),ncol/
do B;, i=),nrow
write.-,B))/ i, .ntempi.i,?/,?=),ncol/
B;, continue
c....#alculated"time plots............
B-, if.ano).e.'n'.or.ano).e.'6'/ go to ;,2
BA, write.-,B+,/
B+, format.'For which time inter@al do you wish a plotD',:,
0' enter , for initial time plot, .")/ for none.'/
read.-,2/time
if.time.e.").,/ go to ;,,
if.time.e.,./ go to B2,
ncy = time
nccy = ,
if.ncy.e.nt/ nccy = ntt
tint = .ncy2),,,.,>nccy/2dt:B.)-BAe>,+
write.-,B),/ space,tint,.l.?/,?=),ncol/,
0.ntgrad.ncy,?/,?=),ncol/
do BG, i=),nrow
write.-,B))/i, .ntemp.ncy,i,?/,?=),ncol/
BG, continue
write.-,B*,/
B*, format.$,'Do you wish another time plotDEyF'/
read.-,'.a/'/ano
if.ano.e.'n'.or.ano.e.'6'/ goto ;,,
go to BA,
;,, if.ayes).e.'n'.or.ayes).e.'6'/ then
;,2 write.-,;,-/
read.-,'.a/'/ano
if.ano.e.'n'/ go to ;,*
ayes ) = 'y'
go to )*,
end if
- 364 -
;,- format.:,'Do you wish to continue this calculationD EyF'/
;,* write.-,;),/
;), format.:,'Do you wish to reset the conducti@ities and',
0'time stepD EnF'/
read.-,'.a/'/ayes
if.ayes.e.'y'/ go to -,
-,, stop
end
c.........%7!457T(63 &4(D.......................
subroutine grid .nrow,ncol,nrock,tm,tg,d1y,dd1y,c@,
0coef,,coef)1,coef)y,coef21,coef2y,coefB1,coefBy,
0coef;1,coef;y,con@,,con@),con@2,con@B,con@;/
common krock.-,,-,/,temp.-,,-,/,tempi.-,,-,/,
0ntempi.-,,-,/,coef1.-,,-,/,coefy.-,,-,/,ntgradi.-,/,
0ntemp.),,,,-,,-,/,l.-,/,tempnew.-,,-,/,
0ntgrad.),,,,-,/
open.unit=G,status='unknown',file='2dhdif.dat'/
c....%et up initial rock geometry in grid......
write.-,),/
), format.::' 4ead rock"grid fileD EyF'/
read.-,'.a/'/ ano
if.ano.e.'n'.or.ano.e.'6'/ go to B,
do 2, i=),nrow
read.G,;-/ .krock.i,?/, ?=),ncol/
2, continue
go to -,
B, write.-,B-/
B- format.:,'3nter rock types in grid by row,',:,
0' , = magma, ) for deepest basement rock,',
0'2,B,; for other rocks<',:/
do ;, i=),nrow
read.-,2/ .krock.i,?/, ?=),ncol/
write.G,;-/ .krock.i,?/, ?=),ncol/
;, continue
;- format.EncolFiB/
c......3nter 1 and y conducti@ity constants.......
c......set constant @olume heat capacity .........
c......for cp = ,.2; cal:g"deg, rho = 2.- g:cmB..
c......to c@ = ,.A,..........................................
-, coef, = ,.,,-
coef = coef,2),,,.,
con@, = B.,
con@f = ),,,.,
write.-,-)/ coef
-) format.:,' 3nter 1 and y conducti@ities .mcal:cm"s"deg/',
0'by rock type.',:,' For @eritcal con@ection y F 1,',
0' for horizontal con@ection .to the right/ 1 F y/<':,
0' Jagma conducti@ity = ',fB.),' mcal:cm"s"deg'::,
0' 4ock ) conducti@ities = '/
read.-,2/ coef)1,coef)y
con@) = ).,
if.coef)y.gt.coef)1/ then
write .-,-*/
read.-,'.a/'/ ayes
if.ayes.e.'y'.or.ayes.e.'H'/
0 con@) = con@f2coef)y:coef)1
end if
if.coef)1.gt.coef)y/ then
write .-,-*/
read.-,'.a/'/ ayes
if.ayes.e.'y'.or.ayes.e.'H'/
0 con@) = "con@f2 coef)1:coef)y
end if
if.nrock.e.)/ go to A,
write.-,-B/
-B format.:,' 4ock 2 conducti@ities = '/
read.-,2/ coef21,coef2y
con@2 = ).,
if.coef2y.gt.coef21/ then
write .-,-*/
read.-,'.a/'/ ayes
if.ayes.e.'y'.or.ayes.e.'H'/
0 con@2 = con@f2 coef2y:coef21
end if
if.coef21.gt.coef2y/ then
write .-,-*/
read.-,'.a/'/ ayes
if.ayes.e.'y'.or.ayes.e.'H'/
0 con@2 = "con@f2 coef21:coef2y
end if
if.nrock.e.2/ go to A,
write.-,--/
-- format.:,' 4ock B conducti@ities = '/
read.-,2/ coefB1,coefBy
con@B = ).,
if.coefBy.gt.coefB1/ then
write .-,-*/
read.-,'.a/'/ ayes
if.ayes.e.'y'.or.ayes.e.'H'/
0 con@B = con@f2 coefBy:coefB1
end if
if.coefB1.gt.coefBy/ then
write .-,-*/
read.-,'.a/'/ayes
if.ayes.e.'y'.or.ayes.e.'H'/
0 con@B ="con@f2 coefB1:coefBy
end if
if.nrock.e.B/ go to A,
- 365 -
write.-,-+/
-+ format.:,' 4ock ; conducti@ities ='/
read.-,2/ coef;1,coef;y
con@; = ).,
if.coef;y.gt.coef;1/ then
write .-,-*/
read.-,'.a/'/ ayes
f.ayes.e.'y'.or.ayes.e.'H'/
0 con@; = con@f2coef;y:coef;1
end if
if.coef;1.gt.coef;y/ then
write .-,-*/
read.-,'.a/'/ ayes
if.ayes.e.'y'.or.ayes.e.'H'/
0 con@; = "con@f2coef;1:coef;y
end if
-* format.:'(s this rock unit con@ecti@eDEnF'/
c....Klace initial temperatures in grid.........
A, idd = ).,:dd1y > ,.-
do G, i=), nrow
do +, ?=),ncol
l.?/ = ?
if.krock.i,?/.e.,/ then
tempi.i,?/ = tm
ntempi.i,?/ = tempi.i,?/ > ,.-
end if
if.krock.i,?/.gt.,/ then
tempi.i,?/ = 2,., > .tg2i2d1y:).,e>,-/
ntempi.i,?/ = tempi.i,?/ > ,.-
end if
if.i.e.idd/ ntgradi.?/ = .tempi.idd,?/"2,.,/ > ,.-
+, continue
G, continue
c....Klace diffusi@ity coefficients in grid.........
do ),, i=), nrow
do *, ?=),ncol
if.krock.i,?/.e.,/ then
coef1.i,?/ = coef,:c@
coefy.i,?/ = coef,:c@
end if
if.krock.i,?/.e.)/ then
coef1.i,?/ = ,.,,)2coef)1:c@
coefy.i,?/ = ,.,,)2coef)y:c@
end if
if.nrock.e.)/ go to *,
if.krock.i,?/.e.2/ then
coef1.i,?/ = ,.,,)2coef21:c@
coefy.i,?/ = ,.,,)2coef2y:c@
end if
if.nrock.e.2/ go to *,
if.krock.i,?/.e.B/ then
coef1.i,?/ = ,.,,)2coefB1:c@
coefy.i,?/ = ,.,,)2coefBy:c@
end if
if.nrock.e.B/ go to *,
if.krock.i,?/.e.;/ then
coef1.i,?/ = ,.,,)2coef;1:c@
coefy.i,?/ = ,.,,)2coef;y:c@
end if
*, continue
),, continue
close.unit=G,status='keep'/
return
end
c..........%7!457T(63 %T8!(9.......................
%ubroutine stabil .stab,hfb,hft,nrow,ncol,n?,tm,tg,d1y,c@,
0 coef)1,coef)y,con@,,con@),con@2,con@B,con@;/
common krock.-,,-,/,temp.-,,-,/,tempi.-,,-,/,
0ntempi.-,,-,/,coef1.-,,-,/,coefy.-,,-,/,ntgradi.-,/,
0ntemp.),,,,-,,-,/,l.-,/,tempnew.-,,-,/,
0ntgrad.),,,,-,/
if.stab.e.).,/ go to ),,
), write.-,),/
), format.:::,' %tabilizing ambient heat flow'/
do B, i=),nrow
do 2, ?=),ncol
temp.i,?/ = 2,., > .tg2i2d1y:).,e>,-/
if.krock.i,?/.e.,/coef1.i,?/ = ,.,,)2coef)1:c@
coefy.i,?/ = coef1.i,?/
2, continue
B, continue
nt = ,
ntt = ,
tob = tempi.nrow,n?/
tot = tempi.),n?/
tma1 = ,.,
tmin = tm
dt = ),., 2 B.)-BAe>+ 2 ..d1y:).,e>,-/222.,/
factor = dt:d1y222.,
;, call diffus .stab,hfb,hft,ntt,nt,tma1,tmin,nrow,n?,
0 ncol,factor,con@,,con@),con@2,con@B,con@;/
if.ntt.e.2,,,/ go to ),,
tnb = temp.nrow,n?/
tnt = temp.),n?/
hf = hfb
tn = tnb
to = tob
i2 = )
-, if.i2.e.2/ then
hf = hft
tn = tnt
to = tot
- 366 -
end if
if.tn.gt..to>,.,)// hf=hf>,.)
if.tn.gt..to>,.,,-// hf=hf>,.,)
if.tn.gt..to>,.,,)// hf=hf>,.,,2
if.tn.gt..to>,.,,,-// hf=hf>,.,,,-
if.tn.gt..to>,.,,,)// hf=hf>,.,,,,2
if.tn.gt..to>,.,,,,-//hf=hf>,.,,,,,-
if.tn.lt..to",.,)// hf=hf",.)
if.tn.lt..to",.,,-// hf=hf",.,)
if.tn.lt..to",.,,)// hf=hf",.,,2
if.tn.lt..to",.,,,-// hf=hf",.,,,-
if.tn.lt..to",.,,,)// hf=hf",.,,,,2
if.tn.lt..to",.,,,)// hf=hf",.,,,,,-
if.i2.e.)/ then
hfb = hf
tob = tn
end if
if.i2.e.2/ then
hft = hf
tot = tn
end if
if.i2.e.2/ go to ;,
i2 = i2 > )
go to -,
),, stab = ).,
return
end
c.........%7!457T(63 D(FF7%...................
subroutine diffus .stab,hfb,hft,ntt,nt,tma1,tmin,nrow,n?,
0 ncol,factor,con@,,con@),con@2,con@B,con@;/
common krock.-,,-,/,temp.-,,-,/,tempi.-,,-,/
0ntempi.-,,-,/,coef1.-,,-,/,coefy.-,,-,/,ntgradi.-,/,
0ntemp.),,,,-,,-,/,L.-,/,tempnew.-,,-,/,
0ntgrad.),,,,-,/
character large22G:' Time"step too largeM':
c....!egin diffusional loop..........
c....First determine heat flow to stabilize grid...
),- ntt = ntt > )
tma1new = ,.,
do );, i=),nrow
do )B, ?=),ncol
c......#alculate new temperatures from diffusion
euation.
c......with appropriate boundary conditions and
diffusion.
c......coefficients......................................
if.i.e.).and.?.e.)/ go to )),
if.i.e.).and.?.gt.).and.?.lt.ncol/ go to ))2
if.i.e.).and.?.e.ncol/ go to ));
if.i.gt.).and.i.lt.nrow.and.?.e.ncol/ go to ))A
if.i.e.nrow.and.?.e.ncol/ go to ))G
if.i.e.nrow.and.?.gt.).and.?.lt.ncol/ go to )2,
if.i.e.nrow.and.?.e.)/ go to )22
if.i.gt.).and.i.lt.nrow.and.?.e.)/ go to )2;
c....6on"boundary cells with [email protected]
con@y = ).,
con@1 = ).,
if.stab.e.,.,/ go to ),*
if.krock.i,?/.e.,/ then
if.con@,.lt.,.,/ con@1 = "con@,
if.con@,.gt.,.,/ con@y = con@,
end if
if.krock.i,?/.e.)/ then
if.con@).lt.,.,/ con@1 = "con@)
if.con@).gt.,.,/ con@y = con@)
end if
if.krock.i,?/.e.2/ then
[email protected].,.,/ con@1 = "con@2
[email protected].,.,/ con@y = con@2
end if
if.krock.i,?/.e.B/ then
[email protected].,.,/ con@1 = "con@B
[email protected].,.,/ con@y = con@B
end if
if.krock.i,?/.e.;/ then
if.con@;.lt.,.,/ con@1 = "con@;
if.con@;.gt.,.,/ con@y = con@;
end if
),* c1) = .con@y 2 coef1.i,?/ > coef1.i>),?//:2.,
c12 = .coef1.i"),?/ > coef1.i,?//:2.,
c1 = .c1) > c12/:2.,
cy) = .con@1 2 coefy.i,?/ > coefy.i,?>)//:2.,
cy2 = .coefy.i,?")/ > coefy.i,?//:2.,
cy = .cy) > cy2/:2.,
tempnew.i,?/ = temp.i,?/ > factor 2"
0 . .temp.i"),?/2c12/ > .temp.i>),?/2c1)/ "
0 .2.,2temp.i,?/2c1/ >
0 .temp.i,?")/2cy2/ > .temp.i,?>)/2cy)/ "
0 .2.,2temp.i,?/2cy//
go to )2-
c....Top left corner cell.......................
)), c1) = .coef1.i,?/ > coef1.i>),?//:2.,
c12 = .2., 2 coef1.i,?//:2.,
c1 = hft 2 .c1) > c12/:2.,
cy) = .coefy.i,?/ > coefy.i,?>)//:2.,
cy2 = .2., 2 coefy.i,?//:2.,
cy = .cy) > cy2/:2.,
tempnew.i,?/ = temp.i,?/ > factor 2
0 ..temp.i,?>)/2cy)/ " .temp.i,?/2cy/ >
0 .temp.i>),?/2c1)/ " .temp.i,?/2c1//
- 367 -
go to )2-
c....Top margin of grid........................c
))2 c1) = .coef1.i,?/ > coef1.i>),?//:2.,
c12 = .2., 2 coef1.i,?//:2.,
c1 = hft 2 .c1) > c12/:2.,
cy) = .coefy.i,?/ > coefy.i,?>)//:2.,
cy2 = .coefy.i,?")/ > coefy.i,?//:2.,
cy = .cy) > cy2/:2.,
tempnew.i,?/ = temp.i,?/ > factor 2
0 ..temp.i,?")/2cy2/ > .temp.i,?>)/2cy)/"
0 .2.,2temp.i,?/2cy/ >
0 .temp.i>),?/2c1)/ " .temp.i,?/2c1//
go to )2-
c....Top right corner cell.......................
)); c1) = .coef1.i,?/ > coef1.i>),?//:2.,
c12 = 2., 2 coef1.i,?//:2.,
c1 = hft 2 .c1) > c12/:2.,
cy) = .2., 2 coefy.i,?//:2.,
cy2 = .coefy.i,?")/ > coefy.i,?//:2.,
cy = .cy) > cy2/:2.,
tempnew.i,?/ = temp.i,?/ > factor2
0 ..temp.i,?")/2cy2/ " .temp.i,?/2cy/ >
0 .temp.i>),?/2c1)/ " .temp.i,?/2c1//
go to )2-
c....4ight margin of grid.......................
))A c1) = .coef1.i,?/ > coef1.i>),?//:2.,
c12 = .coef1.i"),?/ > coef1.i,?//:2.,
c1 = .c1) > c12/:2.,
cy) = .2., 2 coefy.i,?//:2.,
cy2 = .coefy.i,?")/ > coefy.i,?//:2.,
cy = .cy) > cy2/:2.,
tempnew.i,?/ = temp.i,?/ > factor 2
0 . .temp.i,?")/2cy2/ " .temp.i,?/2cy/ >
0 .temp.i"),?/2c12/ > .temp.i>),?/2c1)/"
0 .2.,2temp.i,?/2c1//
go to )2-
c....!ottom right corner cell, maintain heat flow.........
))G c1) = .2., 2 coef1.i,?//:2.,
c12 = .coef1.i"),?/ > coef1.i,?//:2.,
c1 = hfb 2 .c1) > c12/:2.,
cy) = .2., 2 coefy.i,?//:2.,
cy2 = .coefy.i,?")/ > coefy.i,?//:2.,
cy = .cy) > cy2/:2.,
tempnew.i,?/ = temp.i,?/ > factor 2
0 . .temp.i,?")/2cy2/ " .temp.i,?/2cy/ >
0 .temp.i"),?/2c12/ " .temp.i,?/2c1//
go to )2-
c....!ottom margin of grid, maintain heat flow.........
)2, c1) = .2., 2 coef1.i,?//:2.,
c12 = .coef1.i"),?/ > coef1.i,?//:2.,
c1 = hfb 2 .c1) > c12/:2.,
cy) = .coefy.i,?/ > coefy.i,?>)//:2.,
cy2 = .coefy.i,?")/ > coefy.i,?//:2.,
cy = .cy) > cy2/:2.,
tempnew.i,?/ = temp.i,?/ > factor 2
0 ..temp.i,?")/2 cy2/ > .temp.i,?>)/2cy)/"
0 .2.,2temp.i,?/2cy/ >
0 .temp.i"),?/2c12/ " .temp.i,?/2c1//
go to )2-
c....!ottom left corner cell, maintain heat
flow..............
)22 c1) = .2., 2 coef1.i,?//:2.,
c12 = .coef1.i"),?/ > coef1.i,?//:2.,
c1 = hfb 2 .c1) > c12/:2.,
cy) = .coefy.i,?/ > coefy.i,?>)//:2.,
cy2 = .2., 2 coefy.i,?//:2.,
cy = .cy) > cy2/:2.,
tempnew.i,?/ = temp.i,?/ > factor 2
0 ..temp.i,?>)/2cy)/ " .temp.i,?/2cy/ >
0 .temp.i"),?/2c12/ " .temp.i,?/2c1//
go to )2-
c....9eft margin of grid........................
)2; c1) = .coef1.i,?/ > coef1.i>),?//:2.,
c12 = .coef1.i"),?/ > coef1.i,?//:2.,
c1 = .c1) > c12/:2.,
cy) = .coefy.i,?/ > coefy .i,?>)//:2.,
cy2 = .2., 2 coefy .i,?//:2.,
cy = .cy) > cy2/:2.,
tempnew.i,?/ = temp.i,?/ > factor 2
0 ..temp.i,?>)/2cy)/ " .temp.i,?/2cy/ >
0 .temp.i"),?/2c12/ > .temp.i>),?/2c1)/"
0 .2.,2temp.i,?/2c1//
go to )2-
c....%et new ma1 and min magma
temperature......................
)2- if..temp.i,?/"tempnew.i,?//.gt.-,,/ then
write.-,'.::,2Ga/'/ large
go to -,,
end if
if.krock.i,?/.e.,/ then
if.tempnew.i,?/.ge.tma1new/
0 tma1new = tempnew.i,?/
if.tempnew.i,?/.le. tmin/ tmin = tempnew.i,?/
end if
)B, continue
);, continue
c....4eset temp and test for stability.............
- 368 -
do );; i=), nrow
do );2 ?=), ncol
temp.i,?/ = tempnew .i,?/
);2 continue
);; continue
if.stab.e.,.,/ go to -,,
if.tma1new.le.A,,.,/ con@, = ).,
if.tma1new.gt.tma1.and.nt.gt.-/ then
write.-,2,,/
go to -,,
end if
2,, format.:::,'J39T D5'6MMM .Jagma is heating up/'/
tma1 = tma1new
if.ntt.lt.),,,/ go to ),-
-,, return
end
- 369 -
Appendi7 2
Core and /rill Cuttings0
#eother$al Bell ;ogs
[Full Size]
ores
In geothermal exploration, continuous coring and geophysical logging techniques are an
effective means of evaluating the lithologies, permeabilities, degree of hydrothermal
alteration, temperatures, and reservoir potential. Continuous wireline coring (lowering
core barrels on a cable into the drilling string) is used to retrieve 2.5- to 7.5-cm-
diameter cores. Wireline retrieval is commonly used in the mining industry, but it can
also be used effectively for geothermal-gradient well drilling. Although larger diameter
cores can be collected, this process usually requires pulling up the entire drill string to
retrieve the core. For a comprehensive review of coring technologies, see Rowley
(1985).
If cores are to be used efficiently, an on-site geologist is needed during the entire
coring operation. This person's job can be tedious, but it is essential for the successful
collection and use of the cores. Before the drilling rig is in place, the well-site geologists
should agree on consistent record-keeping procedures, description forms, and the best
means of storing the core. This consistent approach is extremely important because by
the time the project is complete, there may be several thousand meters of core.
- 370 -
For each core brought up by the drilling crew, the geologist should:
(1) mark the top and bottom of the core and draw a line down the long axis;
(2) note the well number and depth from which the core was taken;
(3) provide a brief lithologic description (a more complete description should be
completed after drilling, when time permits detailed examination;
(4) note and mark with a number or letter all of the pieces of the core (in
geothermal areas, cores rarely arrive in one piece because of fracturing and
hydrothermal alteration);
(5) wrap the core with foil and then dip it in hot wax to retain fluids within the rock
if this is crucial for any laboratory geophysical measurements;
(6) note the length of core and compare that measurement with the depth drilled
(obtained from the driller) to determine the percentage of core recovery; and
(7) box the core and number the box.
More detailed procedures for core curation are described in Goff (1986), SPWLA
(1982), and in many oil, mining, or geothermal company handbooks.
After drilling is complete, the cores can be described in a more pleasant
environment, removed from the pressures of the next core barrel or rainstorm. After
the major lithologic units have been identified, pieces can be cut for thin sections or
chemical analysis, the hydrothermal minerals from major fractures can be sampled, and
fracture orientations and frequency can be measured. These fracture data are useful for
later comparison with well log measurements of temperature and flow from the
reservoir.
All the core information should be ploted and interpreted on long strips of paper
(Fig. F.1). If done by hand and pencil, this can be a very slow job; it is much more
efficient to store the observational data in a computer where the output can be
continuously modified and quickly printed out at nearly any scale. Some of this work
might easily be done onsite with a portable computer.
Drill uttings
Rocks in geothermal areas are usually hydrothermally altered and fractured. Drill
cuttings from geothermal areas, brought to the surface by circulating drilling mud, are
sometimes difficult to interpret. The production of cuttings depends on not only the rock
type itself, but also the type of drill bit, drilling speed, and the characteristics of the
drilling mud (Hulen and Sibbett, 1982).
To maximize the data from drill cuttings, cuttings should be collected from shaker
screens through which the mud is sieved. A sample should be collected for every 3 m
drilled. If the wells are drilled with compressed air, cuttings can be collected from the
mound around the wellhead orifice or from the muffler.
Cuttings should be placed in cloth or plastic bags and labeled with the current
drilling depth in waterproof marking ink. However, the drilling depth is likely to be
greater than the actual depth from which the sample came and must be corrected (Low,
1977). This discrepancy between recorded and actual depths is negligible if the well is
being drilled with air.
After cuttings are washed, the coarser fractions should be examined with a
binocular microscope before thin sections of epoxy-impregnated cuttings are prepared.
Cuttings can be examined quickly if representative samples are mounted on continuous
strips with an adhesive; these "chip boards" are an efficient means of storing samples
and provide a stratigraphic record (Hulen and Sibbett, 1982).
- 371 -
[Full Size]
Fig. F.1
Summarized geologic log for geothermal well VC-2B in the Valles Caldera of New Mexico
.
(From Jeff Hulen, University of Utah Research Institute.)
Cuttings can be contaminated by collapse of portions of the drillhole, materials
added to the drilling mud, etc. Most of these contaminants can be recognized because
they are very different from the materials in the cuttings; for a full treatment of this
problem, consult Hulen and Sibbett (1982), who discussed potential problems with
different rock types and drilling methods.
Geothermal $ell +ogs
Geophysical well logging in geothermal fields can be used in place of lithologic logs
(although they are not as accurate) or as a supplement to lithologic logs (for which they
are quite accurate). Logging is necessary for characterizing reservoir characteristics and
size (Mathews, 1982), which in turn
- 372 -
can be used to measure temperature, pressure, flow, borehole geometry, and fracture
frequency (Table F.1). Most of these parameters are controlled by the reservoir and its
fluids; they change with time and cannot be determined solely from the core or
cuttings. The interpretation of well logs requires specific training, which can be acquired
from intensive short courses followed by work with experienced well log analysts.
Another approach is to work directly with well log analysts employed by a logging
service.
Most logging tools and cables available from commercial logging services have an
upper operating temperature of 260C and cannot be used in some geothermal
systems. Some high-temperature tools have been developed, but they are not yet
available commercially.

Table F.1. Essential Parameters for Well Log Interpretation of Geothermal Reservoirs
Formation E#aluationE Measurements ma$e in the
borehole that are ultimatel! use$ to characterize the
entire geothermal reser#oir
"ro$uction ManagementE Measurements in or near the
ellbore that re8uire engineering expertise to 3eep the
ell pro$ucing o#er a number o% !ears an$ to pro#i$e
$ata %or $esign an$ operation o% sur%ace %acilities
- Time-lapse temperature profile measurements for true
formation temperature profile
- Lithology, depth, and thickness of formations
- Both intergranular (matrix) and fracture permeability
- Both intergranular (matrix) and fracture porosity
- Location, depth, orientation, permeability, and other
characteristics of fracture systems
- Borehole geometry as an indicator of fractures
- Fluid composition
- Thermal conductivity and heat capacity
- Elastic moduli of rocks; properties useful in designing well-
stimulation procedures
- Flow profile, including flow rate
- Pressure profile
- Fluid composition
- Hole and/or casing mechanical conditions such as
(a) scaling, (b) corrosion, (c) cement quality, and
(d) mechanical properties of the borehole itself
a
From Mathews(1982).
- 373 -
Appendi7 #
#lossary
[Full Size]
Terms and explanations in this glossary reflect the latest usage in the
volcanological literature cited within the text. Wherever possible, the definitions are
adapted from those in the American Geological Institute Glossary (1980).
A
Aa lava
Hawaiian term for lava flows characterized by a rough, jagged, spiny surface.
Accretionary lapilli
More or less spherical masses of cemented ash ranging in diameter from a few
millimeters to several centimeters; sometimes referred to as volcanic bailstones&
pisolites , or volcanic mudballs .
Adia:atic
Refers to a process that causes no change in the heat content of a system; for example,
when a gas or fluid is compressed or expanded.
Advection
Spatial transfer of physical properties, such as heat, through a system.
Agglutinate
Vitric pyroclasts consisting of a cluster of smaller pyroclasts that are annealed or
"welded" to one another.
Aphanitic
Texture of a fine-grained igneous rock in which the crystalline components are not
visible to the naked eye.
Aphyric
Igneous texture in which phenocrysts are absent in a fine-grained or glassy
groundmass.
ACuagene
Synonym for hyaloclastic .
ACuifer
Body of rock or unconsolidated deposits with enough permeability to conduct a
significant amount of groundwater.
- 374 -
ACuitard
Rocks that confine, but do not necessarily prevent leakage from an aquifer.
Argillic
Type of rock alteration in which the products are mostly kaolin- and smectite-group
minerals.
Ash fall
Rain of airborne volcanic ash from an eruption cloud and the resulting deposit.
Synonym: .sh fallout .
Ash flo3
Synonym for pyroclastic flow but referring to pyroclastic flows that consist of ash.
Asthenosphere
Region below the Earth's lithosphere in which magmas may be generated and seismic
waves are strongly attenuated. Synonym: upper mantle .
Audio$agnetotelluric
Geophysical survey technique that measures global electric and magnetic fields in
audiofrequencies.
Authigenic
New minerals formed in place; for example, authigenic clays formed during alteration of
volcanic glass by hot water.
0
5atholith
Large, usually composite mass of plutonic rock.
5loc
Pyroclast larger than 64 mm that was solid when ejected. It may be juvenile or torn
from older rocks in the vent or crater walls.
5locy
Grain shape characterized by planar or curviplanar surfaces that intersect at nearly right
angles.
5o$:
Pyroclast larger than 64 mm that was partly or completely fluid when ejected.
5reccia
Fragmental rock composed of highly angular coarse fragments with or without a fine-
grained matrix.