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LECTURE 1 - Fundamentals of Computer

Computer Defined
An electronic device designated to manipulate useful information
An electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory unit, that can
accept data, process data arithmetically and logically, produce output from the processing, and store the
results for future use
A computer is an electronic machine that accepts information, stores it until the information is needed,
processes the information according to the instructions provided by the user, and finally returns the results
to the user. The computer can store and manipulate large quantities of data at very high speed, but a
computer cannot think. A computer makes decisions based on simple comparisons such as one number
being larger than another. Although the computer can help solve a tremendous variety of problems, it is
simply a machine. It cannot solve problems on its own.

A thinking machine
Generations of Computers
First Generation (1952 1958)
Awesome in size
Controlled by thousands of vacuum tubes or valves
Consumes great amount of power that often resulted in overheating and failure
The operators cannot recognize whether the breakdown was in the programming or in the machine
Information were stored on punched cards as well as on magnetic tapes
The language level used was machine language which used numbers
Second Generation Computer (1959-1964)
Development of assembly or symbolic language
Development of high level language such as Fortran (1954) and Cobol (1959) allowed programmers to
give more attention to solving problems
Uses transistors (used less power and did not get so hot quickly)
Third Generation Computers (1965-1970)
Uses Integrated Circuit, commonly known as the silicon chip, which revolutionized electronic
If later progressed to Large Scale Integration (LSI), where few chips could replace several hundred
thousands of transistors
Fourth Generation Computer (1971-present)
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Uses microprocessor, a chip which contains all the main electronic components of a compound
If made possible to build computers to enormous logical capacity and reliability, more cheaply and in a very
small space
Very Large Space Integration (VLSI) was achieved
Microprocessors led to the development of microcomputers
History of Computers
500 BC the Chinese invented the Abacus, considered to be the first computer device, which can perform
simple addition and subtraction operations.
1617 John Napier, a Scottish mathematician, invented the NAPIERS Bone a table of logarithms made of
ivory
1630 William Oughtred, an English mathematician, invented the SLIDE RULE, a device made of wood with
movable scales arrange to slide opposite each other
1642 Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician, invented the PASCALINE the first mechanical calculating
machine
1694 Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, a German mathematician. His machine, the LEIBNIZ MACHINE,
considered of a stepped cylinder that could perform the four fundamental operations and square root.
1801 Joseph Marie Jacquard, a French weaver and designer, devised the JACQUARD LOOM which used
hole-punched cards. This machine wove variety of patterns
1822 Charles Babbage, an English mathematician and is known to be the Father of Modern Computer,
invented the DIFFERENCE MACHINE. This machine was capable of computing mathematical tables and
solves polynomial equation
1833 Charles Babbage also invented the ANALYTICAL MACHINE designed to perform complex
mathematical calculations. This was considered to be the first general purpose computer
1887 Herman Hollerith, an American statistician and founder of Tabulating Machine Company (now
called International Business Machine or IBM) invented the CENSUS MACHINE
1892 William Seward Burrough, an American inventor, designed a key-driven machine that produced a
hardcopy. This was called ADDING/CALCULATING MACHINE.
1944 Burrough invented the MARK 1 or ASCC (Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator) machine that
contains more than 15,000 vacuum tubes some of which are 3 feet tall
1945 John Presper Eckert, Jr. and William Mauchly from the University of Pennsylvania invented the
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) that had the capacity of 5,000 computations per
second
1948 The IBM developed a more different design than the ENIAC the SSEC (Selective Sequence
Electronic Calculator)
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1950 Eckert Jr. and Mauchly again developed a machine The UNIVAC 1 (Universal Automatic
Computer)which could perform 10,000 computations per second. The IBM again developed a machine that
could perform 100,000 computations per second and can store data internally. The machine was the IBM
704
1963 Digital Equipment Corp. introduced the PDP-8, regarded as the first successful minicomputer
1977 Two young computer enthusiasts, Steven Jobs and Steve Wozniak, collaborated to create and build
their Apple II computer on a makeshift production line in Jobs garage
1981 IBM introduced its hat into the personal computer ring with the announcement of the IBM PC. It
sold 35,000 on its first year of release.
Applications of Computers
In the scientific and engineering fields, it provides inexpensive and accurate computation for better designs
of devices or machines and more discoveries made in less time
In the business world, it is used in the preparation of payrolls, in recording accounts receivables, in keeping
tracks or inventions
In banks, insurance companies, hospitals, and government offices, records are computerized
Large firms and offices such as PLDT, Meralco and MWSS prepare invoices with computers
Provide instantaneous and accurate data for airlines, hotels and check-out counters in the department
stores
Now becoming an everyday tool not only in the offices but in homes as well
Characteristics of Computer
It is a machine can only do things for it was designed
It is electronic runs on electrical energy through its electronic components
It is automatic runs continuously once started
It can manipulate data following specified instructions, it can perform arithmetic functions and can
compare data
It has memory the ability to read instructions and store these
It has logic functions can produce results after instructions were fed into it
Computer Limitations
Dependence on prepared instructions
Inability to derive meanings from objects
Inability to generate information
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It cannot correct wrong instructions
Why Computers Sometimes Fail
GIGO (Garbage In Garbage Out). Computer error may result from erroneously entered input.
Programs contain errors or bugs that do not become evident until a specific set of circumstances arises.
Users do not understand each others needs or have not communicated successfully.
Improper controls can lead to sabotage the company and invasion of privacy
Lack of standard results in problems when an organization obtains new equipment, hires new computer
professionals, and attempts to provide some consistent set of procedures to be adopted by its computing
staff
Manufacturer fails to supply needed spare parts, trained technicians, or that particular machine model is no
longer in production
Classification of Computers
Classification by purpose
General-Purpose Computers - A computer that has the ability to store different programs of instructions
and thus to perform a variety of operations.
Special-Purpose Computers - A computer designed to perform one specific task
Classification by Type of Data Handled
Digital Computers a machine that specialize in counting of items that are distinct from one another, e.g.
Text, integers, morse code
Analog Computer machine that deals with quantities that are continuous variable. This means that no
individual elements can be identified from any other element, e.g. Light, voice, and video
Hybrid Computers machine that combines the measuring capabilities of the analog computer and the
logical and control capabilities of the digital computer
Classification of Computers Acc. to Capacity
Microcomputers capable of handling small, single-business applications such as sales analysis, inventory,
billing and payroll.
Minicomputers They can do operation like airline reservations
Medium-size Computers They can serve the needs of a university.
Large Computers They can be used in government agencies and in the development of space technology
Supercomputers machines that have capabilities far beyond even the traditional large-scale systems.
They are essential for applications ranging from nuclear weapon development to accurate weather
forecasting.
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Electronic Data Processing (EDP) - what we call a machine if it is and electronic digital computer
- or simply a computer system.

EDP system consists of:
Hardware the physical equipment or components of an EDP system.
Software the intermediary between the users of the EDP and hardware.
- it commonly includes programs and operating aids that maximize the use of the computer.
Peopleware - represents the personnel involved in using the computer.
Ex. programmers, end users, system maintenance, analysts, typists.
Program - a sequence of instructions for the computer to follow.
The COMPUTER
- derived from the word to compute or calculate
- patterned after the human brain.
- an electronic system designed to manipulate data.
- they are machines for storing, retrieving, processing, etc data.
4 Basic functions of the computer

Input - Any data or instructions you enter into the memory of a computer using hardware.
Ex. Keyboard for typing.

Four types of input
Data - unorganized facts
Programs - series of instructions
Commands - an instruction given to a computer program
User responses - responses to questions or messages

Processing - Part where the computer converts human language into machine language and perform
operations such as logical ,mathematical ,control of hardware devices and management of
memory.
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Output - Conveys text, graphics, and video information to the user (Output Devices).
- Non-visible output wherein after the processing of data it would store output into memory or
storage media.

Storage - Where output is placed and saved.





CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
By purpose
General Purpose Computers - flexible
Special Purpose Computers - dedicated
By type of data handled
Analog Computers -
Digital Computers -
Hybrid Computers -
Types of Computers
Personal Computers
Can perform input, processing, output, and storage by itself
Desktop, tower, or notebook
Used as standalone, workstation, or server
Personal Computers
Newest forms are network computers, web appliances, and PDAs Personal Digital Assistant

Minicomputers
Support up to 4,000 users
Often connected via a terminal

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT STORAGE
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Mainframe Computers
Large
Expensive
Very powerful
Can handle hundreds or thousands of users

Supercomputers
Fastest
Most powerful computers
Able to process more than 64 billion instructions per second

COMPUTER HARDWARE

System unit - a box-like case that houses the electronic components of the computer that are used to
process data.

THE SYSTEM UNIT (Common Components)
Processor chip Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Memory chip
The Motherboard
Contains many electronic components (video, sound, network, imaging cards)
Secondary storage



PROCESSOR CHIP (CPU)
The CPU (processor chip) - interprets and carries out the basic instructions that operate a computer.
- contains the control unit and the arithmetic logic unit.
The Control Unit coordinates processing operations. It uses the Machine Cycle (4 steps):
Fetch - get the next instruction from memory
Decode - translate the instruction
Execute - carry out the command
Store - write the result to memory

The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU) performs the execution step. It can do:
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Arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division)
Comparison (greater than, equal to, less than)
Logical (AND, OR, NOT)

System Clock - synchronizes all computer operations.
Faster clock means more instructions the CPU can execute each second. The clock speed is measured in
megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz).
Tick - is called a clock cycle.
One MHz = one million ticks per second
One GHz = one billion ticks per second)
MEMORY CHIP
Used to store the operating system, application program instructions, and data being processed by application
programs.
Sizes
Sizes of memory is measured by the number of bytes available
Bit - Basic unit of memory, represented either by a logical 1 or 0.
Byte - 8 bits
Kilobyte - 1,024 bytes
Megabyte - one million bytes
Gigabyte - one billion bytes
Terabyte - one trillion bytes
Petabyte - one quadrillion bytes.

Two memory types:
Volatile - can be erased or removed from storage.
Nonvolatile - can be stored or saved.

Memory found inside the system unit
RAM (volatile)
RAM stands for random access memory.
The more RAM a computer has, the more programs and files a computer can work on at once.
Software usually tells you how much RAM is required.
Makes the computer faster.

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Cache (volatile)
Special type of RAM
Helps speed up processing.
Helps the CPU in handling and temporarily holding data.

ROM
Read-only memory .
Cannot be modified.
Software is programmed inside the chip.
Contents not lost when the computer is turned off.

CMOS
Stores configuration information such as types of disk drives, keyboard, and monitor.
Uses a battery to retain the information when the computer is turned off.









SYSTEM UNIT
The system unit is the entire computer. Powerful electronic circuitry that makes up the computer is housed inside the case.
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Timeline
History of Computers