ix

Preface
O
bserving Development of the Young Child presents a unique system for
observing and recording development of children ages 3 to 5 in early child-
hood classroom settings. It is based on a progression of childrens skill devel-
opment in six major domains. The text is designed for use by college students
preparing to be teachers in prekindergarten programs, child care centers, Head Start
classes, and preschools. The book can also be used in such programs by the teachers
and assistant teachers who want to learn more about children in order to make indi-
vidual learning plans, as well as for making assessments of individual children for
program development. Staff members preparing for Child Development Associate
(CDA) Assessment will also find this text helpful with its suggestions for classroom
activities that are developmentally appropriate for young children. The text not only
teaches readers how to observe, record, and interpret development of children 3
through 5 years of age, but also discusses what these children are like and how to
support them in their development with exciting hands-on activities.
The text focuses on six major domains of child developmentemotional, social,
physical, cognitive, language, and creativethat are readily observable. It divides
each of these aspects further into specific areas: self-esteem; emotional competence;
social competence; physical development; cognitive development; spoken lan-
guage; emergent writing and reading skills; art, music, and dance skills; and dra-
matic play skills. The principal observation tool to be used is the Child Development
Checklist. Other observation methods and tools include anecdotal records, running
records, samplings, rating scales, rubrics, audio and visual documentation, and doc-
ument panels.
Finally, teachers learn to share their observational data with childrens families.
The text serves college students as a guide for observing and recording development
of young children in their student teaching and coursework. The text is especially
well suited as a supplementary text for child development courses. It also can help
in-service teachers and assistants who are upgrading their skills in observing chil-
dren, as well as those who are learning to plan for individuals based on their devel-
opmental needs.
Unique aspects of Observing Development of the Young Child include discus-
sions of how to observe young children, how to interpret the data recorded, and
how to plan for individuals based on the observations. Important topics include chil-
drens emotional development, how young children make friends, how to deal with
bullying, how to help second-language speakers learn English, how children use
exploratory play to learn, how to help young children emerge into reading and writ-
ing, and how to develop childrens creativity through art, music, and dramatic play.
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x Preface
NEW TO THE EIGHTH EDITION
This edition has been reorganized to broaden the coverage of observation and to
make it more concise and accessible. Among its key changes are the following:
Chapters 1 and 2 were reorganized to deepen and expand the coverage of
basic observation methods.
The former editions chapters on large-motor development and small-motor
development were combined into a new streamlined chapter on physical
development.
New Learning Outcomes were added to each chapter.
Many more boxed features help to clarify ideas.
New sections in domain chapters explaining benefits of using particular
observing and recording tools for a particular domain.
Chapter by chapter changes include the following:
Chapter 1 Observing to Assess Childrens Development
Revised Child Development Checklist
Standardized tests as tools for assessment
Developmental screening
NAEYC program criteria
Portfolios for assessment
How to become an observer
Chapter 2 Recording and Collecting Observational Data
Using rubrics
Using Learning Prescriptions
Chapter 3 Self-Esteem
Playing without fear of bullying
Books about bullying
Chapter 4 Emotional Competence
Building emotional competence
Emotional literacy
Affective joy; cognitive joy
Chapter 5 Social Competence
Play and neuroscience research
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Brain scan evidence
Strategies for gaining access to group play
Chapter 6 Physical Development
Combination of previous chapters on large-motor development and small-motor
development
More vigorous playground exercise
Large-motor skills rating scale
Running skills rating scale
Chapter 7 Cognitive Development
Brain imagining; brain development
Making thinking visible
Using document panels
Recording dramatic play scenarios
Chapter 8 Spoken Language
Dual language learners
Books to promote speaking aloud
Telephone conversations
Documenting conversations
Chapter 9 Emergent Writing and Reading Skills
Dual language learners; readers
Writing Skills Checklist; Reading Skills Checklist
Name-Writing Rubric; Book-Handling Rubric
Books on CDs
Scaffolded readings
Chapter 10 Art, Music, and Dance Skills
Observation of creativity
Drawing Skills Checklist
Music and disabilities
Singing and literacy
Developing dance skills; checklist
Chapter 11 Dramatic Play Skills
Children who do not know how to play
Scaffolding dramatic play
Culturally diverse props
Prosocial superheroes
Preface xi
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Chapter 12 Sharing Observational Data with Families
Parent outcomes of shared observations
Collaborative portfolios
CHECKLISTS FOR OBSERVING AND RECORDING
Child Development Checklist
Vigorous Playground Exercise
Large-Motor Skills Rating Scale
Running Skills Rating Scale
Large-Motor Checklist
Small-Motor Checklist
Writing Skills Checklist
Reading Skills Checklist
Drawing Skills Checklist
Music and Dance Skills Checklist
USE AS A COMPANION TEXT
This eighth edition of Observing Development of the Young Child is designed to be
used as a companion volume with the authors text Skills for Preschool Teachers, Ninth
Edition (Pearson, 2012). While Observing Development of the Young Child is intended
as a child development text, the companion volume Skills for Preschool Teachers is
a teacher development text focusing on 13 areas of teacher competencies.
Like this text, Skills for Preschool Teachers is also based on an observational
checklist, the Teacher Skills Checklist, which documents teacher competencies in
the 13 Child Development Associate (CDA) functional areas: safe, healthy, learn-
ing environment, physical, cognitive, communication, creative, self, social, guid-
ance, families, program management, and professional.
Together, the two texts form a cohesive, complete training program for preserv-
ice teachers, beginning teachers, and in-service teachers preparing for the CDA cre-
dential. Preservice teachers can use these complementary texts as especially effective
guidance in their student teaching field experiences. Both books focus on positive
behaviors in children and teachers. Both the development of children and the train-
ing of teachers look at areas of strength and confidence and areas needing
strengthening to set up individualized training plans.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My special thanks for the new edition of this text goes to the directors, teachers,
parents, and children of Tiger Paws Head Start, Park Avenue Head Start, and
Trinity Lutheran Child Learning Center in Columbia, Missouri, with thanks to its
xii Preface
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director, Gail Schuster. It is always inspiring for me to visit these fine programs
and photograph the children as they work and play together, developing their
own unique selves.
Ann Gilchrist, director of the Central Missouri Foster Grandparents Program,
once again deserves my gratitude for setting up my observations in these centers and
allowing me to participate with her grandparents who have given so much of them-
selves to the young children in these programs. My appreciation also goes to Elaine
West, executive director of the Missouri Association for Community Action, Inc., for
allowing me to use some of the exciting childrens art created for the annual MACA
calendar; to my editor, Julie Peters, for her guidance and encouragement; and finally
to the following reviewers of the text: Mary L. Flyr, Riverside City College, and
Amanda Quesenberry, Illinois State University.
Preface xiii
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Observing to Assess Childrens
Development
M
ost teachers of young children love to watch
the children in their classrooms as they work
and play together or apart. Which ones are
excited about the activities? Who has found a new
buddy to play with? Which one stands around and
watches? As the days progress, so do the children,
growing taller, speaking clearer, showing sparks of
creativity never before revealed. And you are witness-
ing it all with wonder.
1 C H A P T E R
1
In this chapter you will
learn to:
____ Explain why
observation is the most
useful and meaningful way
to assess young childrens
development
____ Describe a specific
standardized test and
explain how it can be used
in an assessment
____ Explain in detail how
certain tests present
problems as assessment
instruments and how
teachers can help
overcome their limitations
____ Gather data for a child
through alternative
methods such as child
interviews, visual
documentation, document
panels, or portfolios
____ Become an observer
by following the steps in
systematic observation
____ Demonstrate that you
see a child using all your
senses

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2 Chapter 1
Such observations of children are more than just pleasurable these days. They are
more than just the way to get to know the children. They have become an important
component of your teaching duties. Observing children in early childhood class-
rooms has taken top priority in programs across the nation in order to determine child
progress, curriculum requirements, and program effectiveness. Such progress and
effectiveness needs to be measuredassessedin a careful, comprehensive manner.
Children can be tested, interviewed, compared with others, or asked to perform. But
the most useful and meaningful way to assess young children is through observation.
ASSESSMENT THROUGH OBSERVATION
As early childhood professionals, we have found that in most instances the best
method to determine a childs strengths is for the teacher to observe the young child
in the regular classroom based on a particular set of criteria. Early childhood special-
ist Seefeldt (1998 ) agreed when she talked about how observations reveal much
about childrens growth and development, their perceptions of self and others, pat-
terns of behavior, and their strengths and weaknesses, as well as the fact that they
take place naturally and spontaneously (p. 316 ). This is known as authentic assess-
ment because the children are behaving in a natural manner in a normal setting.
We have chosen observation of child development to determine childrens
progress. Wortham (2012) notes that one of the most valuable ways to become aware
of the individual characteristics of young children is through observation. Develop-
mental indicators in early childhood are more likely to be noted from childrens
behavior in natural circumstances than from a designed assessment or instrument.
Observation might not work so well with an older child, but it is eminently
suited to a preschooler. Because young children are unable to express themselves
Knowing the development of a
child helps teachers plan the
curriculum.
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Observing to Assess Childrens Development 3
fully with words, direct observations are the next best thing. Preschoolers reveal
themselves through their behavior because, unlike older children, young children
are really incapable of hiding their feelings.
Observing Child Development
Knowing the development of a young child helps a teacher to plan the curriculum,
to set up activities for individuals, or to ask for special help when necessary. Wortham
(2012) talks about development as a process of change in an individual over time.
We realize that all children grow and change. Some do it more rapidly than oth-
ers. Some do it more slowly. This change is affected by the childs age, the childs
rate of maturity, and the childs experiences. Thus children of the same age may not
be at the same level of development. Their rate of maturity may be different. Their
life experiences may be different. But their development, nevertheless, is continu-
ous. It occurs in certain stages or sequences. All children everywhere go through
these same stages and in the same orderbut not at the same rate. Most important
for us as child observers: These stages can be observed. We are able to tell where a
child stands in his or her development by observing the stage or sequence the child
is in. Then as teachers we are able to provide activities that will help the child
progress. Figure 1. 1 shows how child development occurs.
Once you know the stages or sequences of the various domains of child devel-
opment, you will be able to make sense of the assessment of children that is cur-
rently required of us as teachers. What is the purpose for such child observation? A
number of researchers have noted two principal ways for using the data obtained:
For curriculum planning
For child assessment
For Curriculum Planning
To make daily and long-term curriculum plans for the children, you will need to
know how the child is progressing in the domains listed in Figure 1. 2 .
Although we treat these domains separately, young childrens development
occurs in all of them simultaneously. To set up activities in the various curriculum
Figure 1.1 How Child
Development Occurs Development is continuous.
Development occurs in a certain order.
Development occurs in stages or sequences.
All children go through every stage.
Each childs rate of development may differ.
Each childs development depends on age, maturity,
and experience.
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4 Chapter 1
centers of the classroom that will help children progress, you will need to know
where a child stands in each of these developmental areas. How will you do it? The
most appropriate method we have discovered is by observing each child in a regu-
lar, continuous, systematic manner. By observing each child, you will be able to
gather the necessary data to help you plan your daily and long-range program.
For Child Assessment
Assessment is the process by which teachers collect information about a childs
capabilities. Teachers look at childrens skill levels, interests, strengths, and weak-
nesses. McAfee and Leong (2011) include tests, observations, interviews, reports
from knowledgeable sources, and almost any form of measurement and appraisal of
what children know and can do as being assessment. Here we focus on classroom
assessment of childrens development ages 3 through 5.
Other terms connected with classroom assessment include formative assess-
ment, the gathering of information to help in the formation of an instructional pro-
gram, and summative assessment, the evaluation done at the end of a period of time,
for example, the school year. McAfee and Leong stress it is important that assess-
ment be aligned with a programs curriculum and expected outcomes. Although
tests may require children to perform on demand, assessment should be measuring
what children have gained through a particular curriculum.
Assessment of preschool children is a current issue of great importance and con-
cern for early childhood educators. Most programs are now required to provide data
about childrens outcomes. Programs for young children have always attempted to
determine childrens needs and to evaluate their accomplishments, sometimes suc-
cessfully, sometimes not. The number of instruments currently available for assess-
ing the learning, progress, and behavior of preschool children is mind-boggling.
Literally hundreds of instruments and procedures have come into use in the past 20
years. Behavior rating scales, tests of visual perception, performance inventories,
developmental profiles, portfolios, language batteries, self-concept screening
devices, social competence scales, sociometric tests, personality inventories, picto-
rial intelligence tests, case studies, developmental screening tests, performance-
based interviews, and video or audio recordings are only a few.
Figure 1.2 Child
Development Domains Child Development Domains
Emotional development
Social development
Physical development
Cognitive development
Language development
Creative development
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Observing to Assess Childrens Development 5
The Child Development Checklist
We have developed a tool called the Child Development Checklist for students of
child development and teachers of young children ages 3 through 5 for informally
observing and recording childrens natural development. It is a recording tool that
can help observers determine where each child stands in the six areas of emotional,
social, physical, cognitive, language, and creative development. (See Table 1. 1 .)
All children go through an observable sequence of development. From large- to
small-motor coordination, from simple ideas to complex thinking, from one-word utter-
ances to lengthy sentences, from scribbles to representational drawings all children
everywhere seem to proceed through a step-by-step sequence of development that can
be traced by an observer who knows what to look for. The observer then records these
data and later interprets them to make appropriate plans for individual children.
The Child Development Checklist ( Table 1. 1 ) helps observers focus on each of
the six major areas. These areas are in turn divided into nine topics of child develop-
ment. Each topic focuses on at least six observable items of child behavior based on
recognized developmental sequences or progressions. Rather than including every
detail of development on the checklist, six representative items are discussed. This
makes observations inclusive enough to be meaningful, but not so detailed to be
cumbersome for the observer.
Table 1.1 Child Development Checklist
CHILD DEVELOPMENT CHECKLIST
Name ________________________________________ Observer _____________________________________
Program ______________________________________ Dates ________________________________________
Directions :
Put an X for items you see the child perform regularly. Put an N for items where there is no opportunity to
observe. Leave all other items blank.
Item Evidence Dates
1. Self-Esteem
_____ Separates from primary
caregiver without difficulty

_____ Develops a secure attachment
with teacher

_____ Completes a task
successfully

_____ Makes activity choices
without teachers help

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6 Chapter 1
_____ Stands up for own rights
_____ Displays enthusiasm about
doing things for self

2. Emotional Competence
_____ Releases stressful feelings
in appropriate manner

_____ Expresses anger in words
rather than negative actions

_____ Can be calmed in frightening
situations

_____ Shows fondness, affection,
love toward others

_____ Shows interest, excitement
in classroom activities

_____ Smiles, seems happy much
of the time

3. Social Competence
_____ Plays by self with own
toys/materials

_____ Plays parallel to others
with similar toys/materials

_____ Plays with others in
group play

_____ Gains access to ongoing
play in positive manner

_____ Makes friends with
other children

_____ Resolves play conflict
in positive manner

4. Physical Development
_____ Runs with control over
speed & directions

_____ Climbs up, down, across
climbing equipment

Table 1.1 (Continued)
Item Evidence Dates
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Observing to Assess Childrens Development 7
_____ Throws, catches, & kicks balls
_____ Turns knobs, lids, eggbeaters
_____ Picks up & inserts objects
with dexterity

_____ Uses tools (scissors, hammer)
with control

5. Cognitive Development
_____ Classifies objects by shape,
color, size

_____ Places objects in a sequence
or series

_____ Recognizes, creates patterns
_____ Counts by rote to 20
_____ Displays 1-to-1 correspondence
_____ Problem-solves with concrete
objects

_____ Makes thinking visible
6. Spoken Language
_____ Listens but does not speak

_____ Gives single-word, short phrase
responses

_____ Takes part in conversations
_____ Speaks in expanded sentences
_____ Asks questions
_____ Can tell a story
7. Emergent Writing and Reading Skills
_____ Pretends to write with drawings
& scribbles

_____ Makes horizontal lines of writing
scribbles

_____ Makes some letters, prints name
or initial

Table 1.1 (Continued)
Item Evidence Dates
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8 Chapter 1
_____ Holds book right side up; turns
pages right to left

_____ Pretends to read using pictures to
tell story

_____ Shows awareness that print in
books tells story

8. Art, Music, and Dance Skills
_____ Makes basic scribble shapes

_____ Draws person as sun-face with
arms & legs

_____ Makes pictorial drawings
_____ Moves arms & hands in
rhythm to beat

_____ Plays rhythm instruments
_____ Sings with group or by
him/herself

_____ Moves body to represent people,
animals, feelings

_____ Dances with others to music
9. Dramatic Play Skills
_____ Does pretend play by him/herself

_____ Assigns roles or takes assigned
roles

_____ Needs particular props to do
pretend play

_____ Takes on characteristics
& actions related to role

_____ Uses language for creating
& sustaining the plot

_____ Enacts exciting, danger-packed
themes

Table 1.1 (Continued)
Item Evidence Dates
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Observing to Assess Childrens Development 9
In this text, for items the observer does not check as apparent when observing a
child, a section of ideas following the item called If You Have Not Checked This
Item: Some Helpful Ideas can be useful in planning for individual needs. The pur-
poses for assessing childrens development in this manner are twofold:
1. It allows students of child development to gain an in-depth understanding of
real children and their sequences of growth.
2. It helps teachers of young children to become aware of each childs growth and
to support individual development with appropriate activities and materials.
STANDARDIZED TESTS AS TOOLS FOR ASSESSMENT
Many teachers measure young childrens growth and development using more formal
tools called standardized tests . These tests have been designed by researchers to inter-
pret a childs performance in comparison to the performance of other children with
similar characteristics ( Mindes, 2011 ). Some of these formal assessment tools and pro-
cedures use the observation of children; some do not. Some need to be administered
by professional testers; others dont. Some assessment procedures place children in
artificial rather than authentic situations. Many ask children to perform contrived activ-
ities. Although such tools and tasks may be helpful to researchers and professionals
who are evaluating children for developmental problems, many are not appropriate
for the nonspecialist teacher in the early childhood classroom. Table 1. 2 lists several of
the standardized assessment instruments using observation of children.
Table 1.2 Selected Preschool Assessment Instruments
Instrument Age Range Description
Battelle Developmental
Inventory, 2nd Ed. (BDI)
Birth to 8 years Measures social, communication, motor, cognitive;
observation of child in natural setting; parent interview;
structured items
Child Observation
RecordRevised;
(COR) HighScope
2 to 6 years Measures childs development of initiative, social,
creative, music, language, literacy, math, science; teacher
observations throughout year; training may be needed
Developmental
Observation Checklist
System (DOCS)
Birth to 6 years Observation questionnaire; language, motor, social,
cognitive
Early Learning
Accomplishment Profile
Diagnostic (LAP-D)
2 to 6 years Assessment in 5 areas of development: motor, social,
self-help, language, c ognition
Early School Inventory
Developmental (ESI-D)
Prekindergarten 80-item observation checklist of child; performance
ratings
Source: Based on McLean, Wolery, & Bailey, 2004 ; Meisels & Atkins-Burnett, 2005 ; Mindes, 2011 , Wortham, 2012
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10 Chapter 1
The COR test, for example, developed by HighScope, is an observation tool with
six categories (initiative, social relations, creative representation, movement and
music, language and literacy, math and science), plus 32 items. Each of the items
describes five developmental levels from simple to complex. Teachers spend a few
minutes each day writing brief notes that describe significant episodes of each young
childs behavior. They record the notes on printed forms or computer files. Then they
classify and rate them according to COR categories, items, and levels. Figure 1. 3 is a
sample of the five levels for the category InitiativeA. Making Choices and Plans.
The teacher/observer lists notes she or he has taken about the childs behavior under
the appropriate level. When all six categories, 32 items, and 5 levels have been com-
pleted, a comprehensive view of the child and her or his accomplishments and needs
is available. Training is recommended for first-time users.
Developmental Screening
Another type of child assessment known as screening is often done at the beginning
of the program year to identify children who may experience developmental lags,
learning problems, or disabilities that call for further investigation. Screening helps
children who need services to gain access at an early age in order to prevent more
severe problems later. Should such problems be identified, further assessment and
evaluation will be necessary. Head Start and many state prekindergarten programs
are required to perform such screening. A selection of standardized screening instru-
ments is listed in Table 1. 3 .
THE PROBLEM WITH TESTS AS ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
As noted earlier, the reasons to assess young children are many and varied. Some
early childhood programs do assessments of children as a program evaluation tool.
Are the children progressing as they should? Should changes be made in the curricu-
lum? Other programs do assessments because they are mandated by the state or fed-
eral government to prove their effectiveness to receive ongoing support and funding.
The 21st century is an accountability era. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
required states across the nation to develop standards-based assessment (i.e., tests)
for kindergarten through 12th-grade students in order to receive benefits. States
COR Category: InitiativeA. Making Choices and Plans
Level 1: Child indicates a choice by pointing or some other action.
Level 2: Child expresses a choice in one or two words.
Level 3: Child expresses a choice with a short sentence.
Level 4: Child makes a plan with one or two details.
Level 5: Child makes a plan with three or more details.
Figure 1.3 COR Category:
InitiativeA
Source: Information based on
HighScopes Child Progress
Assessment Tools, 2012; http://www.
highscope.org
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Observing to Assess Childrens Development 11
failing to comply fully would lose benefits. By 2003 testing of students had reached
down into preschool with the Head Start Bureaus test National Reporting System
being administered to 4- and 5-year-oldswith mixed results.
Testing, the traditional means for evaluating children, should work if the testing
instruments have been carefully developed and validated by researchers in the field,
shouldnt they? However, when applied to young children, the results are often
mixed. What works with older children does not seem to work as well with pre-
schoolers and kindergartners. Test developers sometimes blame the validation pro-
cedures used in developing the tests. Early childhood educators nod wisely and
think to themselves: Its the kids.
Young children have little interest in tests. Why should they? They dont need to
prove to anyone what they can or cannot do. Its true that they can be talked into
cooperating with a test-giver. The teacher can administer a test to a child and occa-
sionally get valid results on a particular day. Next week the results may be different
with the same child. Honest researchers have had to admit that the major conclusion
of their study is that it is inadvisable to routinely test young children prior to or
immediately after their entry into kindergarten ( Wenner, 1988 ). Wenner found that
even highly respected and widely used tests predicted little more than a quarter of
the actual academic performance of kindergarten children.
Romero (1999) pondered the problem of distinguishing the young childs inabil-
ity from his or her refusal to cooperate. Sometimes a childs response of I dont
know may really mean just that, but often it can mean I dont want to. Neverthe-
less, assessment procedures routinely include tests of many kinds. Although many
are reliable and valid instruments, for their results to be used with confidence, teach-
ers and testers alike need to be aware of this young child factor.
Young children do not test well. Thus assessors need to include other more infor-
mal but reliable types of assessmentsuch as observations of children in the regular
classroomto round out the picture when they are evaluating young children.
Dodge, Heroman, Charles, and Maioca (2004) also pointed out that government
mandates to test preschoolers are the wrong reason for administering tests. Ongoing
Table 1.3 Selected Preschool Screening Instruments
Ages & Stages Questionnaires,
3rd Ed. (ASQ)
Parent-completed; self-regulation,
communication, social interaction
AGS Early Screening Profiles (ESP) Cognitive, language, motor, self-help,
social
Denver II Observation or parent interview format;
gross & fine motor, communication
Developmental Indicators for the
Assessment of Learning, 3rd Ed. (DIAL-3)
Identifies children with potential learning
problems or giftedness
Early Screening Inventory-Revised (ESI-R) Visual/motor, language, cognition
Source: Based on Meisels & Atkins-Burnett, 2005 ; Wortham, 2012
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12 Chapter 1
assessment should support childrens learning and lead to appropriate curriculum,
not gather statistics about children and programs for a political agenda. The tests
used for such purposes are often inappropriate as well. These writers say that
researchers recommend assessing children based on observations of the processes
children use rather than on simple, concrete, disconnected indicators or milestones .
Teachers as Testers
If formal tests are used, it is especially important that the classroom teachers learn to
administer the instrument themselves whenever possible. If an outside tester is the
administrator, be sure to help such a person establish rapport with individual children.
Invite the tester to the classroom ahead of time. Help her or him to become acquainted
with individuals by playing with them, reading to them, and talking with them before
the testing begins. Otherwise, results for young children are sure to be suspect.
Much testing of young children constitutes misassessment because the testing is
not developmentally appropriate. Tests often present young children with a series of
demands to answer here and now, although young children may not be inclined to
respond immediately. Classroom teachers who need child assessment data to plan
activities that will support individual needs must first understand the meaning of
developmentally appropriate assessment before choosing such a test or other data-
gathering procedure. This means the assessment must be age appropriate, individu-
ally appropriate, and culturally appropriate for the children.
It should be stressed again that the classroom teacher, rather than a tester from
outside the program, should be the primary assessor . The assessment should be
based on activities in which children typically engage within the classroom, and not
contrived activities in artificial situations . Assessment should not threaten children,
nor should it focus on wrong answers or what children cannot do.
It is important that the teacher be
the tester.
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Observing to Assess Childrens Development 13
NAEYC STANDARDS FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD
PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION
Learning standards for preparing teachers of preschool children have been devel-
oped in most states following the trend of standards for kindergarten through 12th
grade. If they are used carefully, standards can become a helpful tool to identify
expectations in the many diverse early childhood programs ( Gronlund & James,
2008 ). Our national organization, the National Association for the Development of
Young Children (NAEYC), has developed its own Standards for Professional Prepara-
tion to ensure high-quality early childhood education. Its position statement is avail-
able online at http://www.naeyc.org .
There are six core standards, each of which describes what well-prepared stu-
dents should know and be able to do:
Standard 1. Promoting child development and learning
Standard 2. Building family and community relationships
Standard 3. Observing, documenting, and assessing to support young children
and families
Standard 4. Using developmentally effective approaches to connect with chil-
dren and families
Standard 5. Using content knowledge to build meaningful curriculum
Standard 6. Becoming a professional
This text focuses on Standard 3 as shown in Figure 1. 4 .
ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO ASSESSMENT
OF YOUNG CHILDREN
In addition to testing instruments, the assessment of preschool children can be done
using alternative techniques. Many of them include child observation, but also the
collecting of representative work in play-based assessment , child interviews , and
visual documentation .
3a. Understanding the goals, benefits, and uses of assessment
3b. Knowing about and using observation, documentation, and
other appropriate assessment tools and approaches
3c. Understanding and practicing responsible assessment to
promote positive outcomes for each child
3d. Knowing about assessment partnerships with families and with
professional colleagues
Figure 1.4 Observing,
Documenting, and Assessing
to Support Young Children
and Families
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14 Chapter 1
Play-Based Assessment
Because play is young childrens natural means of interacting with the world around
them, it makes sense to assess childrens development while they are engaged in
play activities. Toys and specific artificial play situations have long been used by
psychologists to observe and record childrens behavior using standardized instru-
ments. Play-based assessments, on the other hand, vary from these traditional assess-
ments in that the child is observed doing whatever the child typically does in the
environment. Although standardized assessment instruments may be used for the
observations and analysis of childrens behavior, in this assessment the observer
records the child interacting naturally with play materials, peers, or even parents or
teachers in the classroom environment. Three types of play-based assessment are
typically used:
Nonstructured: identifies all behaviors occurring during a play session;
assessors often watch a parent playing with the child
Structured: uses a previously designed set of play behaviors using specific play
items
Transdisciplinary: uses a team of assessors observing the child simultaneously,
each team member looking for specific information
Play-based assessment ( Figure 1. 5 ) has also become the method of choice for
assessing children with special needs ( Ahola & Kovacik, 2007 ).
Child Interviews
Assessment interviews done by a teacher and a child can provide important informa-
tion about a child not easily obtained by any other means. Wortham (2012 ) tells us
about interviews being especially appropriate for young children who are just begin-
ning to develop literacy skills and cannot yet express themselves with paper-and-
pencil tests. The strategies followed can be similar to those used by Swiss psychologist
Jean Piaget to understand childrens thinking. He used questioning, then asked more
questions based on childrens initial responses.
Such interviews are best conducted on an informal basis during a free-play situ-
ation. As the teacher interacts or plays with the child, she or he can talk about what
Figure 1.5 Advantages of
Play-Based Assessment Provides an opportunity to assess behavior of
a child who cannot or will not perform in formal
testing situation.
More can be seen in observing children at play
than in asking them to perform.
All the development domains of a child can be
witnessed at the same time.
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Observing to Assess Childrens Development 15
is happening. For example, while making an animal puzzle with Nicole, the teacher
can make remarks about Nicoles skill in finding and matching the puzzle pieces.
This may lead Nicole to tell how she does it. What does she guess the animal will
look like when the puzzle is finished? If teachers listen closely to what children have
to say, they can use childrens responses to lead them to new questions that will
elicit further information about their development. Teachers can then record their
interviews either on a recording device or by writing them down afterward.
Interviews should be short. Ten minutes is an appropriate length of time. Chil-
dren should also be given plenty of time to think about and respond to the teachers
questions. Reading a picture book to an individual child can serve as an informal
interview if the book is carefully chosen and the questions carefully framed to elicit
desired information.
Most teachers find such simple informal interviews to be so valuable that they
tailor book readings to particular children and develop forms for recording elicited
information. These forms are kept in a childs documentation folder or portfolio
along with other observational data. You can develop your own interview questions
on a recording form or use questions like those in Figure 1. 6 .
Visual Documentation
Visual documentation is also something we can look at to gain insight into a childs
development. With young children, it can take many forms: photographs of children
involved in activities, photographs of childrens work, video recordings, audio
recordings, or samples of childrens work.
You can add another dimension to your observation of children by using digital
cameras, smartphones, video cameras, or digital audio recorders in addition to con-
ducting play-based assessments, interviews, or traditional classroom observations.
Describing:
Whats happening on this page?
Predicting:
What do you think will happen next?
Problem solving:
How else could the character solve the problem?
Empathizing:
How does the characters feel about whats
happening?
Creating:
What would you do if you were the character?
Recalling:
Do you remember what the character did first?
Figure 1.6 Book Interview
Protocol
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16 Chapter 1
Such visual documentation can capture important moments to be used to document
observational data already gathered about the children. They also can serve as foci
for team discussion regarding each childs development or to help make decisions
on follow-up activities for the children in question. These observations can then be
placed in each childs portfolio or documentation folder.
Photographs
Photos of children are easy to take with digital cameras or smartphones these days,
so be sure to take a series of the same child or same incident for later recording.
These photos are for your use, not the childrens. They should be captioned with
content descriptions, dated, and placed in the same file as your recorded notes
perhaps in a childs portfolio.
Photos have other uses as well ( Figure 1. 7 ). You can use the photo of a child
interacting with others or engaged in a classroom activity as the focus of an assess-
ment interview , just as you would use a picture book. Jot down simple questions
you will want to ask the child about the photo to elicit assessment information. Be
sure the questions are open ended enough for the child to respond in creative ways
you may not expect. You may want to audio record your conversation or make a
written record of the results on file cards with the picture attached.
Photographs of individual children taken with a digital camera open other ave-
nues for child assessment. Using appropriate software, these photos can be printed
on regular computer paper, making several copies of each for use in child or parent
interviews, or for inclusion in child portfolios. They also can be used as pages in a
book children can create with their own stories written under the photos. Digital
photos can also be shown on computer or television screens for use in staff planning
sessions on individual children or for parent conferences.
Digital photos are especially well suited to on-the-spot recording. In areas where
a child needs strengthening, such photos can be especially useful. For example, if
Jessica experiences difficulty at arrival time in making the transition from home to
school, be sure to take photos of her every morning for several days, whether or not
she continues to encounter the difficulties. Keep a running record of her actions at
Captures image of child at moment of action
Serves as memory aid for teachers
Promotes childs self-image
Can be used in assessment interviews
Can be used in parent conferences
Can be used in book child creates
Can be used in portfolios, document panels
Helps staff interpret childs development
Helps staff plan for child
Figure 1.7 Uses for Photos
in Child Assessment
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Observing to Assess Childrens Development 17
the same time and then mount the daily photos
together with your written observations on file
cards or portfolio pages. Interpreting childrens
behavior and making plans to help them
improve it are more effective when you can see
firsthand the visual evidence of their actions
long after it occurs ( Good, 2009 ).
Videos
Videos serve the same purpose as photos. Use a
video camera or smartphone to capture a childs
actions for later observation and discussion with
other staff members or parents. After you have
previewed the video and know what areas of
development it documents, ask staff members to
check off that particular section of the Child
Development Checklist when they view the
video. Checklists can be used like this with vid-
eos, treating them like live observations. A group
discussion of the video can be recorded and
added to the observational data for making indi-
vidual plans or for documenting the assessment.
Audio Recordings
A digital audio recording or smartphone record-
ing can also add depth to your written observa-
tions by recording a childs spoken language or
verbal interactions with other children. Speak the childs name, your name, the date,
and the classroom location into the recorder before placing it on a table or countertop
near the child. After listening to the recording, make notes or check off appropriate
items on a checklist to be placed in the childs portfolio. Audio recordings can also be
made of child interviews, as noted previously. Some observers also prefer to speak
softly into a smartphone recorder instead of taking notes during their observations of
children. Later, the recording can be downloaded into a computer and printed.
Document Panels
Another alternative assessment method for observing childrens development is the
document panel. Photographs of children along with their products (e.g., painting,
writing, and science collections) are displayed on a board or a panel on the wall of
the classroom. The Reggio Emilia schools in Italy promoted this approach, believing
that documentation should be a part of the learning process. Teachers and parents
alike need to see visually what children have accomplished.
Many programs use videos for child observations.
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18 Chapter 1
For instance, the children in Noahs Ark Preschool in Taos, New Mexico, built
their own playhouse outside on their playground over several weeks from adobe
bricks they made. Fathers of the Hispanic children helped them plan the dimensions,
mix mud and straw, fill square frames, set the bricks out to dry, and then build up the
walls and roof. Each step of the process was photographed. Children audio-recorded
what was happening. Then they wrote stories and made drawings. This material was
then assembled on poster board panels as a visual day-by-day diary of the project.
Although the children and parents often view these panels simply as pictures of
an exciting project, teachers understand that this is a permanent record of how the
children are developing. It is a form of summative evaluation . The playhouse panels
displayed childrens large- and small-motor accomplishments over time. Their cogni-
tive skills of measuring and counting emerged. Turn-taking and helping one another
were captured on video. Their creative skills of making up stories about the play-
house and then reenacting them in real life materialized. These document panels
could then be shared with other professionals and afterward kept for future planning.
Other, shorter projects can be documented on panels when they are finished.
The Buddies not Bullies project illustrated in the accompanying photo was com-
pleted in three weeks after a bullying problem was discovered. Teachers did the
photography, but children listened to stories, wrote stories, illustrated their stories,
interviewed other children, did puppet role-plays, and started a Kindness Classroom.
Portfolios
Many early childhood educators have adopted the portfolio as one of the best meth-
ods for assessing the ongoing development of each child. A portfolio is an individual
This document panel shows what
children learned about bullying.
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Observing to Assess Childrens Development 19
systematic collection of documents that reflects what a child does in a classroom. It
is usually assembled by both teachers and children, and emphasizes both process
and product in the documents collected.
The teacher must provide the framework for collecting items; otherwise, the
results may become a meaningless hodgepodge. Helm, Beneke, and Steinheimer
(2007) tell us about the many different approaches to systematizing a portfolio col-
lection process. They discuss a variety of portfolios that have been effectively used in
early childhood programs. Some programs use a three-folio system with separate
portfolios for ongoing work, current work, and permanently kept work.
The purpose for creating the portfolio may be the deciding factor in how to
assemble it. Teachers who need to document a childs development will be assem-
bling a developmental portfolio . If the primary purpose is to chart development,
then the portfolios should emphasize work in progress.
Such portfolios can be used for assessment of a childs development by the
teachers, the program, outside evaluators, and the parents. This author suggests
using the Child Development Checklist as an outline for collecting documentation
materials. Observing and documenting can then go hand-in-glove in helping teach-
ers, children, and parents to illustrate where the child stands in each of the develop-
ment areas. See Figure 1. 8 .
Before beginning to create a portfolio for each child, it should be clearly under-
stood what the portfolios will be used for, thus what work samples will best illustrate
this use. Mindes (2011) believes that observational notes form the foundation of the
portfolio. Also included should be a collection of childrens paintings, drawings, and
stories; lists of books read; transcripts of discussions with children about their work;
and other products collected throughout the year.
At first this may look like an overwhelming task, but once the observers realize
the portfolio can be assembled over the entire school year, they may be more will-
ing to take on the task of adding a piece of evidence to one of the nine areas of
development only when appropriate. For example, the teacher may add a sample
of a childs writing at the beginning, middle, and end of the year. Or she or he may
decide to include only a copy of a childs journal. Photos of children at work and
play can be excellent illustrations of their development products for the nine
checklist areas.
BECOMING AN OBSERVER
To become an observer of children, you must first step out of the role you normally
hold. If you are a teacher or teaching assistant, you must temporarily give that role to
another staff member. This can be planned ahead of time at a staff meeting. Each
staff member should take on an observers role for brief periods every week. Student
interns can participate, adding another dimension to this important information-
gathering task.
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20 Chapter 1
Self-esteem
Photos of child showing classroom accomplishments
Anecdotal records about child from classroom meetings
Parents communications about child at home
Emotional competence
Teachers records of how child handles stress, anger, joy
Photo of books child likes to hear when under stress
Finger painting child made to relieve stress
Social competence
Photos of child playing with others
List of dramatic play themes child participates in
Parent communication about child playing in neighborhood
Physical development
Photo of child on outside climber
Photo of large hollow block building child helped build
Parent communication on child climbing stairs up and down
Sample of cut-and-paste artwork
Photo of child pounding nails into wood
Cognitive development
Pictures with colors child identified
Photo of block building showing patterns
Caption dictated by child on drawing he makes
Spoken language
Audio recording of story child tells
List of songs child sings
Funny words child likes to say
Emergent writing and reading skills
Page of scribbles child makes
List of books parent has read to child
Sign-up sheet with name child prints
Art, music, and dance skills
Sample of easel painting
Audio recording of child singing, dancing
Photo of play dough creation
Dramatic play skills
Hand puppet child made for pretending
Video of child in dramatic play role
Running record of child pretending with small figures
Figure 1.8 Portfolio
Items Based on Child
Development Checklist
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Observing to Assess Childrens Development 21
Where to Observe
As an observer, you should step back unobtrusively and position yourself close
to, but not interfering with, the child you are to observe. You may be seated,
standing, or walking aroundwhatever it takes to get close enough to the child
without calling attention to yourself. Try to avoid making eye contact with the
child you are observing. If he or she looks your way, you can look around at the
other children.
Young children are often much more observant than we give them credit for.
Despite your best efforts, the child you are observing will often pick up the fact that
you are watching him or her if you keep at it long enough. Most children soon forget
about the scrutiny they are undergoing and continue their participation in their activ-
ity. If you find, however, that a child seems uncomfortable with your presence and
even tries to get away, you should break off your observation. Try again another day,
or let another staff member or student observe that particular child.
Children actually like teachers to observe them in this focused way. They relish
such one-on-one attention. Children who are not being observed sometimes com-
plain about it. The problem is that you, the observer, want to see what your child is
doing with materials and with other children without her looking over her shoulder
at you. If she realizes she is being watched, her normal behavior may change.
Psychologists call this the Hawthorne effect ( Ahola & Kovacik, 2007 ). Thus, you
must try your best to observe a child without being noticed.
What Tools to Use
Many observers prefer to use a clipboard with paper or the Child Development
Checklist on it for recording their observations. Several such boards can be left on
countertops or the tops of room dividers in each learning center, to be picked up and
used by observers whenever the occasion calls for it. If children see you writing on a
clipboard for any length of time, some will come over to see what you are doing and
want to write with your pencil. Tell them you are busy with your work this morning
and that they need to do their own work now. If they persist in wanting to write with
your tool, direct them to the classroom writing center, where you can keep a similar
clipboard with pencil and paper.
Because children love to imitate you, you could ask those children to observe
something like the guinea pig. If they continue to demand your attention, tell them
you are busy at the moment but you will attend to them when you are finished.
Some observers redirect other children to another staff person or give them a chore
to accomplish in one of the learning centers.
Do not announce to the class that you are now doing observations and should
be left alone. For youngsters of this age, such an announcement only calls attention
to yourself, making everyone stop to look at you. Instead, you should be doing just
the opposite: making yourself invisible. Then the child you are observing will con-
tinue his or her actions undisturbed. Once you have started observing regularly,
most children will soon understand and respect your need for privacy.
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22 Chapter 1
How Do You Get Started?
Once you begin observing regularly, you will soon find yourself getting hooked and
never want to stop. The problem is getting started. If observing is something you
have never done before, you may keep putting it off. What will the children think?
Wont you look foolish just standing around? Even though you understand that mak-
ing observations of individuals is just as important as teaching, it may still be hard for
you to drop your regular tasks and begin. Getting started demands conscious effort.
Some ideas for getting started are listed in Figure 1. 9 .
When and How Long Should You Observe?
When is the best time to observe? Any time! You understand how important it is for
you to acquire baseline data about each of the children in your program to plan for
them. You must therefore make time in your busy schedule to gather the necessary
information about each child through observation. The time of day to do your
observing depends on what you want to learn about a child.
Do you want to see how she makes the transition from home to school in the
morning? Which learning centers attract her attention? How long she stays with an
activity? How she interacts with others in the dramatic play center? How she handles
tools such as scissors, paintbrushes, or pencils? Whether she knows how a particular
book works? Plan to observe her, then, in each of the centers where these activities
take place any time of day.
It does not take long. Only 5 to 10 minutes a day of focused observing on the
part of each staff member will produce a surprising amount of information on chil-
dren. Make plans to spend your 5 to 10 minutes observing a child you would like to
know better. Every day for a week observe the same child for a different 5- to
10-minute period, and soon you will accumulate enough data for a nearly complete
profile of her development.
How Should You Plan for Observing?
Because observing and recording are such important aspects of a teachers commit-
ment to child development, you should explore ways to make it easier for yourself
Start at the beginning of the day.
Walk around watching several children before settling
down.
Keep in mind how interesting the child is.
Think about painting this childs picture in words.
Just take the plunge and do it!
Figure 1.9 Getting
Started
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Observing to Assess Childrens Development 23
and other staff members to carry out this responsibility. Some teachers plan to do
their most in-depth recording during free-choice time, when children are busily
engaged in all the classroom learning centers. Others preplan by placing an obser-
vation chair in an unobtrusive spot near childrens activities. Having notebooks or
clipboards and pencils ready at strategic locations also helps.
Some programs include a smartphone as a tool so teachers can record their
observations for computer downloading later instead of writing them down at the
time. This material can then be transcribed on a checklist. You should consider any-
thing that makes your task easier. Share ideas with other staff members and find out
what works best for them. Then everyone can get into the act of observing, recording,
and planning for children. This entire process is known as systematic observation .
FOLLOW THE STEPS IN SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION
Systematic observationusing a particular system to look at and record childrens
behaviorhas thus become an important part of a classroom staffs daily responsi-
bilities. Systematic observation of young children requires that you have a plan you
will be following to do the observing and recording of a child. Steps in such a plan
may include those in Figure 1. 10 .
SHOW THAT YOU KNOW HOW TO SEE
Before you become too deeply involved in child observation, you need to ask your-
self: What do I really see when I look at a child? Most of us tend to take a cursory
look, make some sort of judgment, and then dismiss it. Bentzen (2005) explains
about our brains enabling us to see in ways that far exceed the cameras ability to
see. Then observation becomes complicated because we do more with sensory
information than the camera is able to see. All of us look at and organize the objects
according to our past experiences, what we know, and what we believe. In other
words, we judge what we see.
This means that two people looking at the same child engaged in play will come
away with two different views. On the other hand, the more each of us knows about
child development, the more similar our observations of the same child will be. As
1. Identify the information you want to gather.
2. Identify the child you plan to observe.
3. Identify the method you plan to use.
4. Set up a schedule for observation.
5. Follow the observation schedule.
Figure 1.10 Systematic
Observation
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24 Chapter 1
you practice observation according to this texts suggestions , try doing it with a part-
ner so you can compare your notes. You will find the more you observe, the better
you become. The more you learn about young children, the more you will see when
you observe. The old adage We see what we look for holds true with child obser-
vations. When we are not looking for specific details, we tend not to see them. Thus
it behooves us to become aware of as many details as possible.
Children see with all their senses, not just their eyes. They use sight, sound,
touch, smell, taste, and movement to see the environment that surrounds them. As
an observer of young children, you will need to use as many of these senses as pos-
sible for every observation you make. You will also need to record as many details
as possible for each of these five senses plus movement.
Practicing Observation Skills
It is important to practice your observing skills before you begin observing children.
Look at a person near you or a photo of a person and jot down all the descriptive
details you can see. Do this exercise with a team member and compare your results.
Do it again and try doubling the details. Next zero in on one aspect of a person, for
instance, his or her facial expression, and describe it in detail: eyes, eyebrows, lashes,
nose, mouth, lips, cheeks, chin, forehead, ears, and movements. Now take the eyes
alone and describe them in detail: eye color, winking, blinking, twinkling, flashing,
sparkling, staring, gazing, glancing, opening, closing, squinting, peeking, peering,
laughing, scowling. Be careful about being judgmental. Use objective terms only.
Read to a child from a picture book that focuses on careful observation. See if
the child can discover hidden objects. See if you can. In Looking for a Moose (Root,
2006), four children hike into the woods, a swamp, the bushes, and up a hillside in
search of a moose. Only parts of the moose are visible in each location, but no one
sees anything at all until the moose finally bugles its call. Zany sound words that
accompany the search add to the excitement.
Observation of young children is critical for a number of reasons. Bentzen
(2005) goes on to mention how we learn about reality by observing it, by having
contact with it through one or more of our five physical senses. Therefore, if we are
to understand children, we must watch them, listen to them, and even touch them.
Then we need to make some sense of this data in order to act toward children in
appropriate and meaningful ways.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Write a brief report explaining what makes child
observation the best way to assess childrens
development and why.
2. Choose one of the standardized tests discussed and
explain how it can be used in a child assessment.
3. Choose one of the standardized tests that present
problems and describe how teachers can over-
come some of the problems.
4. Use one of the alternative methods for assess-
ment such as child interviews, document panels,
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Observing to Assess Childrens Development 25
SUGGESTED READINGS
Curtis, D. (2011). Changes in how we see children.
Exchange, July/August, 2025.
Garrigues, S. M. (2012). Competency-based
behavioral interviewing. Exchange, February,
3741.
Gibson, C. Jones, S., & Patrick, T. (2010). Conducting
informal developmental assessments, Exchange,
May/June, 3640.
Harris, M. E. (2009). Implementing portfolio
assessment. Young Children, 64 (3), 8285.
Ogunnaike-Lafe, Y., & Krohn, J. (2010). Using
document panels to record, reflect, and relate
learning experiences. Exchange, May/June, 9296.
Reifel, S. (2011). Observation and early childhood
teaching: Evolving fundamentals. Young
Children, 66 (2), 6265.
WEB SITES
UCLA Center for the Study of Evaluation
http://www.cse.ucla.edu
The National Center for Fair and Open Testing
http://www.fairtest.org
HighScope Educational Research Foundations
http://www.highscope.org
KidSource Online (issues related to assessment and
observation)
http://www.kidsource.com
Early Childhood Direction Center Behavioral
Observation Checklist
http://www.thechp.syr.edu
The National Association for the Education of
Young Children (NAEYC)
http://www.naeyc.org
CHILDRENS BOOK
Root, P. (2006). Looking for a Moose. Cambridge,
MA: Candlewick Press.
videotapes, or portfolios and show what kinds of
data you can gather on child development.
5. Use the steps in systematic observation of a
child and describe in detail the plan you would
use to determine the childs development.
6. Work with a partner in observing a child in all
the developmental domains mentioned. Write
up the results separately and then compare
them. What did you learn?
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Recording and Collecting
Observational Data
METHODS FOR RECORDING
AND COLLECTING
OBSERVATIONAL DATA
As you begin the actual observation of young children,
you need to keep in mind that important criteria apply
to the details you are discovering and recording. They
include those in Figure 2. 1 .
2 C H A P T E R
26
In this chapter you will
learn to:
____ Make an anecdotal
record and running record
of a childs actions
____ Record information
using your own shorthand
____ Make samplings,
rating scales, and rubrics of
childrens actions
____ Choose a new method
of observing and recording
____ Use the Child
Development Checklist in
two of the domains to
observe and record a
childs actions
____ Interpret the data and
fill out a Learning
Prescription for a child
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Recording and Collecting Observational Data 27
Systematic observation of young children always implies recording. Not only
must observers have a particular reason to observe a child and know what to look
for, but they also need a method for recording the information they gather. Mindes
(2011) reminds us to to make multiple measures, collecting several samples of obser-
vations on all the children. A sampling of these methods is included for discussion in
this chapter ( Figure 2. 2 ).
ANECDOTAL AND RUNNING RECORDS
The most popular methods for recording child observations fall under the heading of
narrative recording, that is, written descriptions of childrens actions. Three of the
several types of informal narratives most widely used are anecdotal records, running
records, and logs.
Objectivity: You must observe each child without
judging.
Confidentiality: You must keep the information you
obtain to yourself.
Recording details: You should look for and record
even the smallest details.
Using direct quotes: You should listen closely and
record what each child says.
Using mood cues: You should describe the emo-
tional mood of the child.
Figure 2.1 Criteria for
Observing Children
Narratives
Anecdotal records
Running records
Learning Center logs
Sampling
Time sampling
Event sampling
Rating scales
Graphic scales
Rubrics
Checklists
Developmental
Figure 2.2 Recording
Methods
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28 Chapter 2
Anecdotal Records
Anecdotal records are brief narrative accounts describing an incident of child behav-
ior that is important to the observer. Anecdotes (a) describe what happened in a fac-
tual, objective manner, (b) telling how it happened, (c) when and where it happened,
and (d) what was said and done. Sometimes they include reasons for the childs behav-
ior, but the why is better kept in the commentary part of the record. These accounts
are most often written after the incident has occurred, by someone who witnessed it
informally, rather than during its occurrence, by someone who was formally observing
and recording. Anecdotal records have long been made by teachers, psychologists,
social workers, and even parents who record when their babies first walk and talk.
Although anecdotal records are brief, describing only one incident at a time,
they are cumulative. A series of them over a period of time can be extremely useful
in providing rich details about the child being observed. Teachers can also use anec-
dotal records with the Child Development Checklist to describe more fully the evi-
dence they offer when checking an item. When combined with photos, anecdotes
written as captions for photos provide very rich visual information about each childs
development. Other advantages of using anecdotal records include the following.
Advantages
1. The observer needs no special training to record.
2. The observation is open ended. The recorder writes anything and everything he
or she witnesses and is not restricted to one kind of behavior or recording.
3. The observer can catch an unexpected incident no matter when it occurs, for it
is usually recorded at a later time.
4. The observer can look for and record the significant behavior and ignore the rest.
As in all observational methods, there are also disadvantages. Observers need to
decide (1) why they are observing, (2) what they want to find out, and (3) which
method will be most useful. Some of the disadvantages of the anecdotal method
include the following.
Disadvantages
1. It does not give a complete picture because it records only incidents of interest
to the observer.
2. It depends too much on the memory of the observer because it is recorded after
the event. Witnesses to events are notoriously poor on details.
3. Incidents may be taken out of context and thus be interpreted incorrectly or
used in a biased manner.
4. It is difficult to code or analyze narrative records; thus, the method may not
prove useful in a scientific study.
Such records can be more useful if recorded on a vertically divided page with
the anecdote on the left side and a space for comments or interpretation on the right,
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Recording and Collecting Observational Data 29
or the page can be divided horizontally with the anecdote at the top and the com-
mentary at the bottom. Figure 2. 3 is an example of the latter format.
This anecdote tells what happened in an objective manner. Especially good are the
direct quotes. The anecdote could have included more details about the childs facial
expression, tone of voice, and gestures. The reader does not get the feeling of whether
the boy was enjoying himself as a helper, trying to ingratiate himself with another child
who was not paying much attention, or desperately trying to gain the attention of the
other boy. Such details are sometimes missing from anecdotes because they have not
been written down until the end of the day or even later. By then, much is forgotten.
The comments contain several inferences and conclusions based on insufficient
evidence. Obviously this observer has spent some time watching Stevie, based on her
comments, Stevie is often involved and Once engaged in play, he likes to con-
tinue, and will usually not . . . She would need an accumulation of such anecdotes to
make valid statements like this based on evidence. If this were one page in an accu-
mulation of anecdotes about Stevie, the comments would perhaps be more accurate.
The observer infers that Stevie likes to be near or playing with Ron, although
there is not sufficient evidence here to make that definite an inference. Perhaps she
should have said: Whatever rules Ron sets in the play, Stevie follows, if Stevie actu-
ally placed a cylinder block where directed. However, this was only hinted at and not
stated. Particular words are very important in objective recording. Her conclusion
ANECDOTAL RECORD
Childs Name Stevie Age 4 Date 2/23
Observer Anne Place HS Time 9.00-10.00
INCIDENT
Stevie went over to the block corner and asked two boys, Ron and Tanner, if he
could help them build. They told him it was okay. As they were building he acciden-
tally knocked some blocks down. I can put it back up, he said, and handed the
blocks to Ron. For awhile he watched Ron build and then said, I found a smoke-
stack, Ron, and handed him a cylinder block. Ron told him where to put it, and
Stevie began getting cylinders off the shelf and handing them to Ron and Tanner to
place. Finally he started placing his own cylinders around the perimeter of the build-
ing. The teacher asked him if he wanted to finger paint but he replied, Im not gonna
finger paint unless Ron finger paints.
COMMENT
Stevie is often involved in a lot of dramatic play with several other boys. He espe-
cially likes to be near or play with Ron. He seems to look up to him. Whatever rules
Ron sets in the play, Stevie follows. Once engaged in play, he likes to continue, and
will usually not let another child, or even the teacher, distract him.
Figure 2.3 Anecdotal Record of Observation
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30 Chapter 2
about Stevie not letting another child or even the teacher distract him is only partially
accurate because the observer recorded no evidence about another child.
If you were writing the comments about this particular anecdotal record, what
might you infer from the incident? Can you make any conclusions based on this
information alone, or is it too limited? Are there things you might want to look for in
the future when observing this boy that you would include in the commentary?
It is also helpful to indicate what the purpose is for the particular observation.
Most observation forms do not provide a space for this, but the usefulness of the
observation is enhanced if it is included. In this case, the observer was looking for
evidence of involvement in social play for this child.
Running Records
Another popular informal observing and recording method is the running record . It
is a detailed narrative account of behavior recorded in a sequential manner as it hap-
pens. The observer sits or stands apart from the children and writes down everything
that occurs to a particular child over a specified period, which may be as short as
several minutes or may be recorded from time to time during a full day. The running
record is different from the anecdotal record because it includes all behavior and not
just selected incidents, and it is written as the behavior occurs instead of later. Sen-
tences are often short, and words are abbreviated to keep up with the pace of the
action. Ahola and Kovacik (2007) point out how the running record is beneficial
because it allows us to record minute details, but it is not considered practical when
trying to collect a great deal of information about a child. Information you should
record in a running record includes the items shown in Figure 2. 4 .
The observer needs to make
careful inferences about the boys.
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Recording and Collecting Observational Data 31
As with all factual recording, the observer must be careful not to use descriptive
words and phrases that are judgmental. The running record has a number of advan-
tages for persons interested in child development.
Advantages
1. It is a rich, complete, and comprehensive record not limited to particular
incidents.
2. It is open ended, allowing the observer to record everything he or she sees, and
not restricting the observations to a particular kind of behavior.
3. Because it is written at the time of the incident, it tends to be more accurate
than accounts written later.
4. It does not require that the observer have special observational skills and
therefore is particularly useful to the classroom teacher.
There are also several disadvantages to using this method, once again depend-
ing on the purpose for gathering the information.
Disadvantages
1. It is time consuming, making it difficult for observers to find periods of
uninterrupted time.
2. It is difficult to record everything for any length of time without missing
important details.
3. It works best when observing an individual, but it is inefficient when observing
a group.
4. Observers must keep themselves apart from the children for long periods.
Observer Errors
Insufficient Evidence
Look at the running record for Katy ( Figure 2. 5 ). Has the observer, Rob, omitted any
information that would be important for any conclusion he might make about Katy?
Facial expressions
Interactions with materials
Interactions with people
Body movements
Body langauge
Spoken language
Attention span
Figure 2.4 Information
to Record
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32 Chapter 2
Figure 2.5 Running Record for Katy
RUNNING RECORD
Name Katy Age 4 Date 2/9
Observer Rob Place S.Preschool Time 9.30-10
Observation Comments
Katy is playing by herself with plastic
blocks, making a gun; she walks into
playroom; Lisa, would you play with me?
Im tired of playing by myself; They walk
into other room to slide & climber area.
K: I am Wonder Woman.
L: So am I.
Clips blocks together to make gun;
copies it to make gun for Lisa; clever;
shows creativity; does teacher allow
guns?
K: No. There is only 1 Wonder Woman.
You are Robin.
L: Robin needs a Batman because
Batman and Robin are friends. All this
takes place under slide & climber; Lisa
shoots block gun Katy has given her;
Katy falls to floor.
L: (to teacher) Were playing super
friends and Wonder Woman keeps fall-
ing down.
Seems to be the leader here as in other
activities I have observed. Lisa is the
friend she most often plays with.
K: Opens eyes; gets up; says: Lets get
get out our Batmobile & go help the
world. She runs to other room & back
making noises like a car.
L: Wonder Woman is died. She fell out
of the car. She falls down.
Katy switches roles here. She shows
good concentration & spends much
time on one play episode.
K: Its only a game; wake up, Lisa. You
be Wonder Woman. Ill be.
L: Lets play house now.
She can distinguish reality from fantasy.
Katy begins sliding down the slide. Says:
Robin is coming after you! she shouts
to Lisa, running from slide to other room.
L. Katy, here is your dolls dress. John
joins girls.
L. Im Wonder Woman.
K. Im Robin.
J: Im Batman. Where is the Batmobile?
Shows good large motor coordination.
Spends much time every day like this,
running around room. Seems to know
she is good at this & spends a lot of
time doing it.
K. John, we are not playing Superf-
riends any more.
Seems to be more comfortable playing
with only 1 child at a time.
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Recording and Collecting Observational Data 33
Look at the information to record in Figure 2. 4 . Check off each item as you
reread the running record for Katy. Was anything overlooked or omitted? What
about facial expressions and body language? Can you comment on the emo-
tional mood of the child from this running record? What conclusions can you make
about Katy from this record?
In another situation, if we see a child come into the room in the morning, refuse to
greet the teacher, walk outside and sit on a trike without riding it, shoo away another
child who tries to talk to her, and shake her head in refusal when the teacher suggests
an activity, how can we record it? A running record of the situation might read like this:
Jennifer walks into the room this morning as if she is mad at the world. She will not look
up at the teacher or respond to her greeting. She sort of slumps as she walks out to the
playground with the others. She plunks herself down on a trike but doesnt ride it. When
Monica comes over to talk to her she shoos her away. The teacher goes over and asks her
if she wants to ride in the trike parade but she shakes her head no.
This record is rich enough in detail for us to visualize it, but is it factually
objective? No. The words as if she is mad at the world are a conclusion based on
insufficient evidence. The recorder might better have described Jennifers entrance
objectively like this:
Jennifer walks into the room this morning with a frowning kind of look on her face. She
lowers her head when the teacher greets her and does not respond.
This behavior is unusual for Jennifer, the staff knows. Later the teacher found out
that she was not mad at the world, but sad because her pet cat had been killed by a
car the night before. We realize that frowning looks, lowered head, and refusal to speak
Does this girl look angry or sad?
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34 Chapter 2
or participate may be the result of emotions other than anger. If the observer first
thought about recording the child as acting grumpy this morning, he needs to avoid
this judgment and instead record the actual details that explain what happened, such
as: Jennifer wouldnt respond to the teachers greeting at first, and when she did, she
muttered good morning in a low voice with head bent down. It is up to us to sift out
our inferences and judgments and make sure we record only the facts.
Omitting or Adding Facts
Other observer errors include (a) omitting some of the facts, (b) recording things that
did not happen, and (c) recording things out of order. Here is the Jennifer incident
again with some of these errors included. Can you find them?
Jennifer walks into the classroom this morning. She doesnt look at the teacher but goes out
on the playground with the others and sits on a trike. The teacher wants her to join the trike
parade but she refuses. Monica comes over to talk with her, but she shakes her head no.
Facts omitted from the observation:
1. Has a frowning look on her face.
2. Does not respond to teachers greeting.
3. Walks out to the playground with shoulders slumped.
4. Drops herself down onto a trike but doesnt ride it.
A fact added to the observation:
1. She shakes her head no to Monica.
Such errors can creep into an observation almost without the recorder being
aware. You need to practice with at least two observers recording the same incident,
and then compare results. If you find discrepancies between the records, check care-
fully that you have followed the guidelines in Figure 2. 6 .
Learning Center Logs
Some programs have found that the best way to observe and record on-the-spot
actions is to keep a small spiral notebook on the top of the room divider for each
learning center. Staff members are asked to briefly record what they see happening
in a center whenever they are in the vicinity and to date their observations. The
Figure 2.6 Guidelines
for Objective Recording Record only the facts.
Record every detail without omitting anything.
Do not interpret as you observe and record.
Use words that describe but do not judge or interpret.
Record the facts in the order that they occur.
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Recording and Collecting Observational Data 35
teacher later gathers these logs and transfers the information onto the Child Devel-
opment Checklists being used for each of the children.
This is a way to collect data for several children at once, as well as data for child
interactions in several learning centers at once. Some programs divide the pages of
their logs into the headings of Child, Actions, and Language to help remind observers
of what information to record. If the teacher notes that nothing has been recorded in
one of the centers by the end of the day, she or he can discuss this with the staff. Did
no children play in that particular center, or did none of the staff happen to observe
what was going on there?
Using learning center logs like this helps to alert staff members not only to what
is occurring throughout the classroom during the day, but also as a reminder to
record what they see happening. As a result, the teacher can piece together a record
for more than one childs entire day of activities as seen by several different observ-
ers. In addition, no one feels burdened by stepping out of the role as a teacher to
observe. Child observation occurs naturally as a part of the staffs normal checking
of learning centers to see how children are doing.
All the staff, including the teacher, benefit from this sort of ongoing assessment of
children. They learn where each child is developmentally, which centers and which
activities seem to attract the most children, and which centers need changing. Learning
center log recording like this gives the entire staff a better feel for what is really happen-
ing in the program. Martin (1994) also pointed out, The log system requires a teacher
to be diligent in record keeping. It can provide a detailed analysis of what the child is
doing. For the child who has a diagnosed special need, this type of record keeping can
provide data which can be interpreted and form part of the planning process (p. 227 ).
RECORDING INFORMATION
Using Your Own Shorthand
Children often move from one area to another very rapidly. Even within the same
learning center they may not settle down. To catch all the action in your notes, you
will want to develop your own shorthand by using abbreviations. Use childrens
initials for their names and abbreviate words: child = ch, teacher = tch, with = w/,
different = dif, and so on. Use descriptive verbs whenever you can. Instead of walks
over to sink, can you be more specific? Try to paint a picture with words. Figure 2. 7
suggests descriptive verbs to be used for the word walks .
Figure 2.7 Descriptive
Words for Walks
marches prances strolls
stomps tiptoes skips
shuffles toddles strides
plods trudges tramps
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36 Chapter 2
Practice makes perfect, and you will soon be developing your own observa-
tional shorthand and vocabulary. Complete sentences are not necessary on a run-
ning record. Instead, catch the moment on paper as quickly and completely as you
can. Afterward, you can draw a line under the recording and write any comments or
interpretive remarks that may help explain what you saw happening. Your first
5-minute running record may be rather short, perhaps not more than a half-page of
notes. But as you hone your skills, you will soon be filling up more than one page
because the more experienced you become, the more you will see.
Be sure to record as much of the spoken language as possible. Also include how
the child sounds as she or he speaks. Figure 2. 8 lists some of the many verbs describ-
ing speaking that you can use instead of the word said.
You may want to keep a card with you listing descriptive verbs to substitute for
walks and said and other frequently used but nondescriptive verbs.
What about judgmental words? Be careful that the words you use do not carry
judgments that will give a unintended meaning to the observation. Figure 2. 9 lists
judgmental phrases and sentences sometimes found in observation records. Should
they ever be used? If not, why not? What could you substitute for them?
SAMPLINGS, SCALES, AND RUBRICS
A different way of observing children is to look at samples of certain behaviors to
discover how often, how long, or when a particular behavior occurs. When using
samples, it is important to combine them with other forms of recordingsuch as
developmental checklistsso that a whole picture of the child emerges.
Time Sampling
Because many of young childrens behaviors are brief, the observer can gain com-
prehensive information by using time sampling ( Wortham, 2012 ). In time sampling,
Figure 2.8 Descriptive Words
for Said
whispered stammered muttered
shouted grumbled mumbled
argued declared insisted
announced uttered stated
Figure 2.9 Judgmental
Phrases He was a good boy today. Lost his temper
Marcie was mad at Elena. Got upset
Shouted angrily Made a big mess
Acted happy Couldnt wait to go home
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Recording and Collecting Observational Data 37
the observer records the frequency of a behaviors occurrence over time. The behav-
ior must be overt and frequent (at least once every 15 minutes) to be a candidate for
sampling. For example, hitting or crying are behaviors that a teacher might want to
sample for certain children because they can be seen and counted. Laughing and
helping to pick up are other overt behaviors. Problem solving is not a good candi-
date for time sampling because this behavior is not always clear to the observers, nor
can it be counted easily.
Time sampling thus involves observing a specified behavior of an individual or
group and recording the presence or absence of this behavior during short time
intervals of uniform length. The observer must prepare ahead of time, determining
what specific behavior(s) to look for, what the time interval will be, and how to
record the presence or absence of the behavior. Such time sampling is often used in
behavior modification interventions. If the behavior is an inappropriate one, it is
also important to use other assessment tools (such as a developmental checklist) to
give a complete picture of the child.
For example, to help Jamie change his bullying behavior, the teacher needed to
know how frequently the behavior occurred. The teacher noted that it included the
following behaviors, determined by previous observations:
Hitting = h
Pushing = p
Kicking = k
Holding another against his will = hd
Taking anothers toy = t
Next the teacher needed to decide about the time intervals to observe and
record. She decided she wanted to sample Jamies behavior for 5-minute intervals
during the first half hour of the morning for a week. This seemed to be the most dif-
ficult time for him. Then the teacher had to decide what and how to record on the
sheet she had blocked off in time intervals. Often an observer simply records 1 if
the behavior occurs and 0 if it does not. This is called duration recording .
Check marks and tally marks can also be used if the teacher wants to know how
many times the behavior occurred, rather than just its presence or absence. If the
teacher is more concerned with specific categories of bullying, each of the catego-
ries can be given a code. The teacher can then set up her recording chart like the
one in Figure 2. 10 or in any way she wants, since this is an informal type of observa-
tion. This chart also involved frequency counts .
How would you interpret the results gathered on the first day as shown in Fig-
ure 2. 10 ? The teacher could see that Jamies bullying during the first 15 minutes of
the day involved mostly hitting and pushing certain children. That also seemed to be
the case on the following mornings. She decided to set up a home-to-school transi-
tion activity for Jamie to get involved in interacting nonaggressively with other chil-
dren. Future observations would help the teacher determine if the intervention
strategy had been successful. Time sampling is thus a useful method for observing
children for some of the following reasons:
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38 Chapter 2
Advantages
1. It takes less time and effort than narrative recording.
2. It is more objective and controlled because the behavior is specified and
limited.
3. It allows an observer to collect data on a number of children or a number of
behaviors at once.
4. It provides useful information on intervals and frequencies of behavior.
5. It provides quantitative results useful for statistical analysis.
Disadvantages
1. It is not an open method and therefore may miss much important behavior.
2. It does not describe the behavior, its causes, or results because it is more
concerned with time (when or how frequently the behavior occurs).
3. It does not keep units of behavior intact because its principal concern is the
time interval, not the behavior.
4. It takes the behavior out of its context and therefore may be biased.
5. It is limited to observable behaviors that occur frequently.
6. It usually focuses on one type of behavior (in this case an inappropriate
behavior) and thus may give a biased view of the child.
Event Sampling
Event sampling is used instead of time sampling when a behavior tends to occur in a
particular setting, rather than a particular time period ( Wortham, 2012 ). The observer
waits for and then records a specific preselected behavior. Event sampling is used to
study the conditions under which particular behaviors occur. It may be important to
Figure 2.10 Time
Sampling
Time Intervals
(5 minutes each)
Duration Recording
(presence or absence)
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 1 0 0 0
Event Recording
(frequency)
IIII II I 0 0 0
Event Recording
(presence or absence)
h, p h, p, t h 0 0 0
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Recording and Collecting Observational Data 39
learn what triggers a particular kind of behaviorbiting, for instanceto find ways
to control it. Or the observer may want to find out how many times a certain behav-
ior occurs. Time sampling could be used if time intervals or time of day were the
important factor. If the behavior occurs at odd times or infrequently, event sampling
is more appropriate.
The observer must first define the event or unit of behavior. Then, the setting
in which it is likely to occur must be determined. The observer takes the most advan-
tageous position to observe the behavior, waits for it to occur, and records it.
Recording can be done in several ways, depending on the purpose for the obser-
vation. If the observer is studying causes or results for certain behaviors, then the
so-called ABC analysis is especially useful (see Figure 2. 11 ). It is a narrative descrip-
tion of the entire event, breaking it down into three parts: A = antecedent event, B =
behavior, and C = consequent event. Each time the event occurs, it is recorded.
If subsequent observations of Darrell show the same sort of sequence as in the
event sampling, the teacher could interpret this to mean that Darrell does not ini-
tiate the kicking, but rather responds to interference with his activities in this
inappropriate manner. The teacher may need to help him learn an acceptable
way to vent his frustration other than kicking. Until this issue is resolved, he may
need to keep his shoes off in the classroom. This may also help him learn that
Figure 2.11 ABC Event Sampling Observation
Event Sampling
Name Darre11 Age 3
1
/2
Center Head Start Date 10/5
Observer Sue S. Time 9:00-12:00
Behavior: Kicking: striking out at other children or teacher with right foot, hard
enough to make children cry.
Time Antecedent Event Behavior Consequent Event
9:13 Darrell playing alone
in block corner; Rob
comes in & puts
block on Darrells
building
Darrell looks at Rob
with frown; stands;
pushes at Rob; Rob
pushes back; Darrell
kicks Rob on leg
Rob cries & runs to
teacher
10:05 On playground;
Darrell waiting turn in
line with others to go
on slide; Sally tries to
cut in
Darrell kicks Sally
hard on leg Darrell
kicks teacher
Sally cries; teacher
comes & takes
Darrell away by arm
to talk to him
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40 Chapter 2
kicking hurts. The advantages and disadvantages for using event sampling include
the following:
Advantages
1. It keeps the event or behavior intact, making analysis easier.
2. It is more objective than some methods because the behavior has been defined
ahead of time.
3. It is especially helpful in examining infrequent or rarely occurring behaviors.
Disadvantages
1. It takes the event out of context and thus may minimize other phenomena that
are important to the interpretation.
2. It is a closed method that looks only for specified behavior and ignores other
important behavior.
3. It misses the richness of detail that anecdotes, specimen records, or running
records provide.
Rating Scales
Rating scales are observation tools that indicate the degree to which a person pos-
sesses a certain trait or behavior. Each behavior is rated on a continuum from the
lowest to the highest level (or vice versa) and is marked off at certain points along the
scale. The observer must make a judgment about where on the scale the childs
behavior lies. As an observation tool, rating scales work best where particular
degrees of behavior are well defined or well understood by the observer and where
there is a distinct difference in the behavior at the various points on the scale.
These tools are useful in diagnosing a child on several behaviors at the same
time. The observer watches the child and checks off or circles the point on the scale
that indicates the childs current position in regard to the behavior or ability. Such
scales are simple to make: Simply state the behavior, draw a line, then mark off a
number of points or intervals along the line. Five intervals are often used so that
there is a middle (neutral) position, with positive and negative intervals on either
side of it (see Figure 2. 12 ).
Graphic Scale
The rating scale in Figure 2. 12 shows only one item of behavior. Many similar
behaviors could be listed on this same scale. Such scales are called graphic scales
and can be drawn either horizontally or vertically. Many traits can be listed on one
sheet. Graphic scales are often easier to construct than to use. The observer must
know the children well, be able to interpret their behavior, and be able to make an
objective judgment within a limited time. For example, how would you rate the girl
in the accompanying photo?
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Recording and Collecting Observational Data 41
Rating Scale Observer Errors
A different kind of observer error can affect the use of rating scales. Contrary to
other types of observation, this tool calls for the observer to make an on-the-spot
judgment, rather than an objective description. It is extremely difficult for observers
to be totally unbiased and objective. They may be influenced by other things they
already know about the child or the childs family, or by outside influences com-
pletely unrelated to the situation they are observing. For example, one observer
persistently gave lower ratings to an overweight child. When asked about it later,
the observer admitted a prejudice against overweight children because he had been
one himself.
To guard against these tendencies, the observer should rate all of the different
children being observed on the same trait before going on to another trait. To check
objectivity, a second rater can observe the same children and compare results.
Rating scales may be used on their own, implemented with other observation
methods as a part of the procedure, or filled in after the observation is completed
This girl has trouble sharing toys.
Figure 2.12 Graphic Scale for Single Behavior
Shares toys______________________________________________________
Always Often Sometimes Seldom Never
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42 Chapter 2
from data gathered from running records. As with the other observation methods,
rating scales have certain advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages
1. They are easy to design and less time consuming to use.
2. They provide a convenient method to observe a large number of traits at one
time or more than one child at a time.
3. They make it possible to measure difficult-to-quantify traitsshyness, for example.
4. They can be used by nonspecialist observers.
5. They are easier to score and quantify than most other methods.
Disadvantages
1. Rating scales use a closed method. They examine specified traits and may
overlook other important behavior.
2. They feature the negative as well as the positive side of each trait.
3. Clearly differentiating between each point on the scale is sometimes difficult,
both for the designer and the observer.
4. It is difficult to eliminate observer bias when judgments must be made quickly
on many different traits.
Rubrics
Rubrics are a set of guidelines that evaluate performance. They have a range of cri-
teria, like rating scales, but have indicators that determine the quality of perform-
ance from one level to the next ( Wortham, 2012 ). There are three types of rubrics:
holistic, analytic, and developmental.
Holistic Rubric
This type of rubric has a number of indicators that describe the quality of work or
performance arranged in a progression from worst to best. It is scored with points for
the level a child obtains. See Figure 2. 13
Figure 2.13 Holistic Rubric for Attention Span
Attention Span
1Rarely finishes task, moves rapidly from one task to another
2Usually needs encouragement to stay with task until complete
3Can usually remain with task appropriate to age level until it is finished
4Can stay with a chosen activity for very long periods, even returning next day
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Recording and Collecting Observational Data 43
Analytic Rubric
Describes and scores each task attribute separately with limited descriptors. For
example, for Rarely finishes task the descriptors could be: 1Gets up and leaves
before starting task; 2Starts a task but leaves before finished; 3Stays with task for
a while before leaving; 4Stays with task almost to the end before leaving. This kind
of rubric is used for diagnostic purposes.
Developmental Rubric
This type of rubric is used to serve a multiage group of children over a long period of
time, often several grade levels. A child is assessed on a continuum of skills that
shows developmental progress ( Wortham, 2012 ).
Advantages
1. They provide guidelines for a childs performance.
2. They can be designed for many uses and ability levels.
3. They can easily meet changing needs.
4. They can be used to discuss childrens performance with parents.
Disadvantages
1. Teachers may have difficulty determining the assessment criteria.
2. Rubrics may be limited or too specific.
3. Holistic rubrics may lack validity and reliability.
4. Teachers may focus on the wrong characteristics of student work.
Checklists
Checklists are lists of specific traits or behaviors arranged in a logical order. The
observer must indicate the presence or absence of the behaviors either when observ-
ing them or when reflecting on the observation. Checklists are especially useful for
types of behaviors or traits that can be specified easily and clearly. We tend to see
what we look for. Thus a checklist can prove to be a valuable tool for focusing atten-
tion when many different items need to be observed. A survey or inventory of a situ-
ation can be done more efficiently with a checklist than with almost any other
observation tool. If the observer needs to know whether a child displays the speci-
fied behavior, a checklist is the instrument of choice to use.
Both checklists and rating scales often include large numbers of traits or behav-
iors. The difference between the two is not necessarily in their appearance but in
their use. An observer using a checklist merely checks off the presence of the trait (a
blank denotes its absence). The observer using a rating scale must make a snap judg-
ment about the degree to which the trait is present.
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44 Chapter 2
Checklists can be used in a number of ways, depending on the purpose for the
observation. For instance, a separate checklist can be used for each child in the
class, if the results are to be used for individual planning. Or all of the childrens
names can be included on the same checklist along with the checklist items, if it is
the observers purpose to screen children for certain traits.
The items on a checklist can simply be checked off, or the date or time when
they first appear can be entered to make a more complete record. A different check-
list can be used for each observation, or a single checklist can serve in a cumulative
manner for the same child all year if dates are recorded for each item. A single
checklist can be used by one observer or by several observers who will add to the
cumulative data over a period of time.
Finally, information gained from anecdotal and running records can be trans-
ferred to checklists to make interpretation easier. It is much simpler to scan a list of
checked behaviors than to read through long paragraphs of wordy description when
attempting to interpret observational evidence. However, it is obvious that checklists
need to be prepared carefully.
Whether you plan to make your own checklist or use a prepared list, make sure the
items listed are specified very clearly in objective, nonjudgmental terms. The user
should be able to understand the items easily; thus, it makes sense to put items through
a pretest before actual use in an observation tool. All checklist items should be positive,
unlike rating scale items, which include a range of behavior from positive to negative.
Checklist items not observed are left blank, indicating absence of the particular
behavior. If the observer does not have the opportunity to witness certain behaviors,
these items should not be left blank, but denoted by some symbol (e.g., N , meaning
no opportunity to observe). Some suggestions for developing checklist items are
listed in Figure 2. 14 .
Overall, the checklist format should allow the observer to scan the items at a
glance. The Child Development Checklist is an example of an observation tool that
A separate checklist can be used
for each child in the class.
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Recording and Collecting Observational Data 45
looks at nine important areas of child development, breaking down each area into
six observable items: Each item is brief, represents an important aspect of develop-
ment, is parallel in construction (beginning with a verb), and is positive. The six
items are listed in either a sequence or a progression of known child development.
Together, they form the profile of a whole child as he or she works and plays in the
environment of an early childhood classroom. Advantages for using checklists of this
nature include the following:
Advantages
1. They are easy, quick, and efficient to use.
2. The nonspecialist observer can use them with ease.
3. They can be used in the presence of the child or later from remembered
behaviors or recorded narrative observation.
4. Several observers can gather the same information to check for reliability.
5. These checklists help to focus observation on many behaviors at one time.
6. They are especially useful for curriculum planning for individuals.
Checklists have a number of disadvantages as well. Observers must weigh one
against the other, always keeping in mind their purpose for observing.
Disadvantages
1. They are closed in nature, looking at particular behaviors and not everything
that occurs; thus they may miss behaviors of importance.
2. They are limited to recording the presence or absence of behavior.
3. They lack information about the quality and duration of behavior and a
description.
CHOOSING THE METHOD FOR OBSERVING
AND RECORDING
Table 2. 1 compares six of the methods for observing and recording young children
discussed in this chapter. Each has advantages and disadvantages that an observer
needs to consider before choosing a particular method. The final choice often
depends on the purpose for the observation.
Figure 2.14 Checklist
Items Short, descriptive, understandable
Parallel in construction (word order, verb tense)
Objective and nonjudgmental
Positive in nature
Not repeated elsewhere in checklist
Representative of behavior, not all-inclusive
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Table 2.1 Comparison of Methods of Observing and Recording
Method Purpose Advantages Disadvantages
Anecdotal Record:
A narrative of descriptive
paragraphs, recorded
after behavior occurs
To detail specific
behavior for childs
record; for case
conferences; to plan
for individuals
Open-ended; rich in
details; no special
observer training
Depends on observers
memory; behavior
taken out of context;
difficult to code or
analyze for research
Running Record:
A narrative written in
sequence over a
specified time, recorded
while behavior is
occurring
To discover causes
and effects of
behavior; for case
conferences; to plan
for individuals
Open-ended;
comprehensive; no
special observer training
Time-consuming;
difficult to use for more
than one child at a
time; time-consuming
to code and analyze
for research
Time Sampling:
Tallies or symbols
showing the presence or
absence of specified
behavior during short time
periods, recorded while
behavior is occurring
For behavior
modification baseline
data; for child
development research
Objective and controlled;
not time-consuming;
efficient for observing
more than one child at a
time; provides quantitative
data for research
Closed; limited to
observable behaviors
that occur frequently;
no description of
behavior; takes
behavior out of context
Event Sampling:
A brief narrative of
conditions preceding and
following specified
behavior, recorded while
behavior is occurring
For behavior
modification input; for
child development
research
Objective; helpful for
in-depth diagnosis of
infrequent behavior
Closed; takes event
out of context; limited
to specified behaviors
Rating Scale:
A scale of traits or
behaviors with
checkmarks, recorded
before, during, and after
behavior occurs
To judge degree to
which child behaves
or possesses certain
traits; to diagnose
behavior or traits; to
plan for individuals
Not time-consuming;
easy to design; efficient
for observing more than
one child at a time for
many traits; useful for
several observers
watching same child
Closed; subjective;
limited to specified
traits or behaviors
Checklist:
A list of behaviors with
checkmarks, recorded
before, during, and after
behavior occurs
To determine
presence or absence
of specified behaviors;
to plan for individuals;
to give observer an
overview of childs
development or
progress
Efficient for observing
more than one child at a
time for many behaviors;
useful for an individual
during a period of time; a
good survey or inventory
tool; useful for several
observers at once; no
special training needed
Closed; limited to
specified behaviors;
no information on
quality of behavior
46
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Recording and Collecting Observational Data 47
A checklist was chosen as the basis for this book because of checklists unique
ability to give the observer an overview of child development. It is a teaching tool as
well as an observational tool. The Child Development Checklist will thus assist the
observer not only in gathering information to help plan for specific children, but also
in learning the sequences of child growth in the areas of emotional, social, physical,
cognitive, language, and creative development. Ahola and Kovacik (2007) concur,
saying: Checklists that are well-designed and appropriately used can be useful in
understanding childrens development and in developing curriculum (p. 27 ).
USING THE CHILD DEVELOPMENT CHECKLIST
The Child Development Checklist in Table 2. 2 , around which this text is written, is
as much a learning device for the observer as it is a planning tool for helping the
child. With sequences of child development as its focus, it presents the areas of emo-
tional, social, physical, cognitive, language, and creative development by dividing
most of these domains into two major areas, then subdividing each area into six rep-
resentative items of development.
Emotional development, for example, is divided into self-esteem and emo-
tional competence (shown here) with a chapter devoted to each of these topics .
These chapters illustrate representative behaviors in the sequence of emotional
development that can be seen in the early childhood classroom.
Using One Checklist Section at a Time
As a learning device for the observer, the checklist is best used one section at a time.
To understand the sequence of emotional development as it appears in the early
childhood classroom, for instance, the observer should first plan to use the Self-
Esteem section of the checklist in observing a child for enough time to see if all six
items are present . This means coming into the classroom early enough to see how
the child enters the room, what she does when her parent/caregiver leaves, and how
she interacts with the teacher(s). It also means coming early to the classroom more
than once to observe how the child behaves on different days and to record this
information. The observer should not only check off the items as they appear, but
also record evidence for each item in the space provided.
Using the Entire Checklist
Once you are familiar with each of the checklist areas and items, you can use the
entire checklist ( Table 1.1 ) for one child to gain a complete overview. How should
you begin? You may want to learn something about a particular child in a certain
area of development. Perhaps she has difficulty getting involved with the others in the
pretend play during free-choice period. Plan to begin your observation during this
period. You will want to look at the items in the social competence section. Other
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48 Chapter 2
Table 2.2 Child Development Checklist (Self-Esteem; Emotional Competence)
CHILD DEVELOPMENT CHECKLIST
Name ________________________________________ Observer _____________________________________
Program ______________________________________ Dates ________________________________________
Directions:
Put an X for items you see the child perform regularly. Put an N for items where there is no opportunity to
observe. Leave all other items blank.
Item Evidence Dates
1. Self-Esteem
_____ Separates from primary caregiver
without difficulty

_____ Develops a secure attachment
with teacher

_____ Completes a task successfully
_____ Makes activity choices without
teachers help

_____ Stands up for own rights
_____ Displays enthusiasm about
doing things for self

2. Emotional Competence
_____ Releases stressful feelings in
appropriate manner

_____ Expresses anger in words rather
than negative actions

_____ Can be calmed in frightening
situations

_____ Shows fondness, affection, love
toward others

_____ Shows interest, excitement
in classroom activities

_____ Smiles, seems happy much
of the time

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Recording and Collecting Observational Data 49
checklist areas that can often be seen at the same time as Social Competence include
the items under Self-Esteem, Emotional Competence, Spoken Language, and Dra-
matic Play Skills. Either check off the items as you see them, writing in the evidence,
or do a running record of everything the child does and says and convert it to the
checklist afterward.
Be sure to make notes after each item, jotting down the evidence that prompted
you to check the item (or leave it blank). If you leave the item blank, it is still impor-
tant to write down your reasonthe evidence for leaving the item blank. If you use
the same checklist on more than one day in a cumulative manner, be sure to put the
date after each item as well.
The time of your next observation may be determined by the areas you have not
had the opportunity to observe. For Self-Esteem, for instance, you will want to
observe the child when she arrives in the morning, especially at the beginning of the
year. Emotional Competence items also need to be observed during lunch or snack
time, toileting, and naptime.
INTERPRETING AND USING THE DATA
Once you have observed a child and recorded data about her in a running record,
then transferred the data to the Child Development Checklist, the next step is to
interpret the information. Learning to know and understand a child is a fascinating
process. Objective observing and recording like this make possible a deeper under-
standing than a lifetime of merely being around children can do. We need to step
back from children and look at them impartially and objectively. Only then do we
truly see who they are and what they are. Only then do we begin to understand how
we can help them reach their greatest potential.
Interpreting the information your observations have provided takes knowledge and
skill. You need to know a great deal about child development both from reading and
studying about children and from actual experience with them. Then you can begin to
make valid inferences and conclusions about children based on your observations.
However, the data you have gained about a child from the Child Development
Checklist observation can help you plan activities for the child to help in his or her
development. Go over the checklist carefully making notes of the particular strengths
of a child whom you have observed. Also note the areas needing strengthening (not
weaknesses). Make what we call a Learning Prescription for the child by listing three
areas of strengths and three areas needing strengthening. Using the childs strengths,
decide on three activities that can help the child in the areas needing strengthening
(see Figure 2. 15 ). Set up these activities and observe to see how the child responds
over time. New activities can be added if necessary.
Use of the Checklist by Preservice Teachers and Student Teachers
Preservice teachers and student teachers can use the Child Development Checklist
just as a classroom teacher does, making a series of observations of a single child
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50 Chapter 2
until all the items have been noted. In case the observer has no access to live chil-
dren in a classroom, it is possible to observe and record using prerecorded videos or
CD-ROMs of children in a classroom.
For student observers who observe and record live children, you need to rewrite
your notes as soon as possible after you have finished your observations. As an expe-
rienced observer notes:
Memory is a poor recorder. Therefore you will want to make it a practice to
transcribe your notes soon after you visit a classroom.
OBSERVATION OF EACH CHILD
It is important to observe each of the children in this kind of detail throughout the
year. Teachers report that they can learn more about each child by stepping back
and making a relatively brief, focused observation like this, than by having the child
in their program for an entire year. It is an eye-opening experience to look at one
child in depth from an observers point of view, rather than from the perspective of a
busy teacher involved with the activities of many other lively youngsters.
Child development students report that an in-depth examination of a real child
makes textbooks and courses come alive, as well. Parents, too, benefit from the infor-
mation that objective observations provide. Not only do the parents learn new activities
to use with their children at home, but they also often become involved in the fascinat-
ing drama of how their own children develop, why their children act the way they do,
and how they, as parents, can best help their children realize their full potential.
Figure 2.15 Learning
Prescription Learning Prescription
Name____________________________Age_______Date__________
Areas of Strength and Confidence
1._______________________________________________________________
2._______________________________________________________________
3._______________________________________________________________
Areas Needing Strengthening
1._______________________________________________________________
2._______________________________________________________________
3._______________________________________________________________
Activities to Help
1._______________________________________________________________
2._______________________________________________________________
3._______________________________________________________________
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Recording and Collecting Observational Data 51
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Have a team of observers record a 10-minute
observation of a child at play in a preschool
classroom. One team member should record a
running record of the child at the time of the
observation. The other member should make a
running record of the same observation at the
end of the day. Compare the results. Write up
which one showed the most details and which
worked best for the observers.
2. Write up the results of the time sampling, event
sampling, and rubric you used to observe a
child. Tell which of these methods was more
satisfactory and why.
3. Write up a comparison of the six methods of
observing and recording shown in Table 2. 1 as
they apply to a specific child of your interest.
What would you want to find out about the
child? Which method worked best and why?
4. Write up your use of the Child Development
Checklist in two of the domains to observe a dif-
ferent childs actions. Summarize your findings
about this child.
5. Fill out a detailed Learning Prescription about
the child based on your observations.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Burke, K. (2011). From standards to rubrics in six
steps (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Gibson, C., Jones, S., & Patrick, T. (2010).
Conducting informal developmental assessments.
Exchange (May/June), 3640.
McAfee, O., & Leong, D. J. (2011). Assessing and
guiding young childrens development and
learning (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
McFarland, L. (2008). Anecdotal records:
Valuable tools for assessing young childrens
development. Dimensions of Early Learning,
36 (1), 3136.
Nilsen, B. A. (2010). Week by week: Plans for
documenting childrens development (5th ed.).
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage.
Puckett, M. B., & Black, J. K. (2008). Meaningful
assessments of the young child (3rd ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
WEB SITES
American Educational Research Association
http://www.aera.net
Kidsource Online (assessment and observation)
http://www.kidsource.com
Lesson Planz (suggestions for assessment)
http://www.lessonplanz.com
A quick program for creating rubrics
http://www.ribistar.41teachers.org
Focuses on building rubrics
http://www.teachnology.com/web_tools/rubrics/
An early childhood behavioral checklist
http://www.thechp.syr.edu/Behavioral_
Observation_Checklist.pdf
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