Models, Theory & Systems Analysis in Geography
Models, Theory & Systems Analysis in Geography
Models, Theory & Systems Analysis in Geography
.
In other words, for both the sets of elements
there is common cause or stimulus to function. Taking the same example as in the
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previous case, the rainfall is the cause of soil erosion on the hill slopes and also of the
increased runoff in the streams.
a
i
a
k
a
j
Fig..3: Parallel Relationship
(iii) Feedback Relationship: It is a kind of link that has newly been introduced into
analytic structures. It describes a situation in which one element influences itself. For
instance, if crop- production of a year is not up to the desired level of production, then
there will be a kind of feedback to the stimulus, i.e. to improve the ways and means of
production. Then the whole system of the crop-production will either modify itself or
will be discarded.
a
i
Fig. 4: Feedback Relationship
Feedback in a system is essentially a way whereby the output is used to control its
working so that it may achieve its desired goal. It is a self-steering mechanism.
(iv) Simple Compound Relationship: Where a set of components is affected by two ways,
i.e. by feedback and also because of the influences from other set of components,
working simultaneously.
a
i
a
j
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Fig. 5: Simple Compound Relationship
The present Indian Society can be an example cited here, because today it is not only
changing and modifying its norms and values by discarding certain old ones but also
adopting certain characteristics of the western society. It is all for the betterment of
human beings.
(v) Complex Compound Relationship: i.e. where there are influences and changes from
all sides and within each and every component, modifying and influencing each other.
a
i
a
j
Fig. 6: Complex Compound Relationship
In this system, there are influences and changes from all sides and within each and every
component modifying and influencing each other. Our environment, consisting of
physical and cultural environment, may be cited as an example here. Such systems are
very difficult to interpret.
All the above five types of links form a kind of wiring system connecting the elements
in various ways.
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Types of Systems
There are various ways in which we could classify systems. We would differentiate between
open and closed systems; between man-made and natural systems; and so on. Rather than to
attempt an exhaustive classification of systems, the attention has been concentrated upon those
types of systems which have something new to tell us regarding the analysis of complex
interactions. Most that is new in systems analysis has to do with systems which are homeostatic,
self-regulatory, adaptive, and particularly with systems that incorporate some form of feedback.
(a) Homeostatic System: It is the system that maintains a constant operating environment in the
face of random external fluctuations. Such systems resist any alteration in the environmental
conditions and exhibit a gradual return to equilibrium or steady-state behaviour after such an
alteration. The displacement of a spring, e.g. , will be followed by a series of oscillations until
eventually the spring returns to a stationary state. Human body itself is a homeostatic system, i.e.
it maintains its equilibrium at about 98.2 degrees Celsius. Generally the homeostatic systems
refer to open-systems analysis, and are associated with the important concept of steady-state - a
concept which has a great significance in the study of fluvial and other geomorphological
processes.
(b) Adaptive System: It is similar to homeostatic system in many respects, but possesses some
special characteristics. An adaptive system is one for which there exists for each possible input a
set of one or more preferred states, or preferred outputs. The adaptive character of the system
means that if the system is not initially in a preferred state, the system will so act as to alter its
state until one of the preferred ones is achieved. The study of such systems provides a mode of
approach to systems that are usually throught of as goal-seeking. Such systems clearly rely
upon feedback mechanisms of some kind in order to achieve the preferred state. Wheat-
production of a country can be taken as an example. Suppose a nation has set the goal for the
production of wheat during a certain plan year. If the required figures are not achieved in that
year, in the next year more sophisticated and advanced techniques will be used and something
more will be done in order to increase the production of the wheat up to the desired level, i.e.
there is a kind of feedback to the system.
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(c) Dynamic System: It may be regarded as a separate class of systems. Both homeostatic and
adaptive systems show a change of state over time as they move towards steady or preferred
state. In a truly dynamic system, however, feedback operates to keep the state of the system
changing through a sequence of unrepeated states usually termed as the trajectory or line of
behaviour of the system. Feedback may, for example, cause new preferred states to be
identified. Economic growth models, such as the circulation and cumulative causation models,
may be regarded as dynamic systems.
(d) Controlled System: In this kind of system, the operator has some level of control over the
inputs. Such controlled systems are, of course, of great interest in systems engineering and
cybernetics (the study of communication and control mechanisms in machines and living
beings). Systems control theory provides a good deal of insight into the behaviour of systems,
and is not irrelevant to the application of geography to substantive problems. Particularly in the
field of planning, government of both national and local levels, controls some of the inputs into
the economic systems and manipulates (handles, manages) these in order to try and achieve some
desired level of output. Monetary or budgetary policy are thus used to stimulate house demand,
while at the local level the investment in roads, utilities, public housing and so on which is
controlled by local government, provides an important means for varying the inputs in order to
achieve certain goals (outputs).
In most situations we have control over certain inputs while others are impossible or too
expensive to manipulate. In seeking to maximize agricultural input, for example, we may be able
to control water input by irrigation, but we must do so in a situation where other aspects of the
biosphere remain uncontrolled. Partial controlling systems are thus of great interest.
Thus, Systems analysis is capable of dealing with the structural characteristics and the
behaviour of complex interacting phenomena, and systems concept therefore provides an
appropriate conceptual framework for handling substantive geographical problems.
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In conclusion it is worthwhile to stress that there is no single path to scientific understanding. All
scientists search for order in the real world, whatever their disciplinary perspective is in
organizing the search. For this, model building, theory formation and the use of systems
approach serve as important tools of explanation and cannot be dispensed with lightly.
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