ECE 5700 Digital Control Systems

ECE 5700
Digital Control Systems

Chapter 4
Dr. Bradley J. Bazuin
Western Michigan University
College of Engineering and Applied Sciences
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
1903 W. Michigan Ave.
Kalamazoo MI, 49008-5329
Open-Loop Discrete-Time Systems
E(z) and E*(s)
The Pulse Transfer Function
Open-Loop with Digital Filters
Modified z-Transform
Systems with Time Delay
ECE 6950
Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the course textbook: C.L. Phillips and H.T Nagle,
Digital Control System Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, 1995, ISBN: 0-13-309832.
2
Systems with Time Delay
Nonsynchronous Sampling
State Variable Models
Review of Continuous Time State Variables
Discrete State Equation
E(z) and E*(s) Similarity
Based on the relationship of z to s:
Example 4-1
From last class
( ) ( )
sT
e z
s E z E
=
=
*
From last class
ECE 6950 Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the course textbook: C.L. Phillips and H.T
Nagle, Digital Control System Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, 1995, ISBN: 0-13-309832.
3
( )
( ) ( )
2 1 ,
1
= =
+ +
= b and a for
b s a s
s E
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) T sT T sT
T T sT
sT T sT T
s E
2 exp exp exp exp
2 exp exp exp
exp 2 exp 1
1
exp exp 1
1
*

=
(

=
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
bT aT
bT aT
e z e z
e e z
z E
b s a s
a b
s E

=
+ +
=
E(z) and E*(s) Differences
Example 4-1
Poles and zeros of the functions
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) bT sT aT sT
bT aT sT
a b
s E

=
exp exp exp exp
exp exp exp 1
*
( )
( )
( ) ( )
bT aT
bT aT
e z e z
e e z
a b
z E

=
1
4
{ } 0 = z zeros
{ }
bT aT
e z e z poles

= = ,
)
`
=
T
jn s zeros
2
)
`
= =
T
jn b s
T
jn a s poles
2
,
2
E(z) Computation Using Residues
Using the residue equation
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )

=
s E of poles
sT T
E of residues s E
exp exp 1
1
*
( ) ( )
( 1
5
( ) ( )
( )
( )
E of poles
T z
E of residues z E
exp 1
1
1
Pulse Transfer Function
R.C. Dorf and R.H. Bishop, Modern Control Systems, 9
th
ed., Prentice Hall, 2001. ISBN 0-13-030660-6
( ) s C
( ) s E
( ) s E
*
Combining the ZOH of the DAC into the system transfer
function G
This is now an equation all in (s)
6
( ) s G
( ) ( ) ( ) s G s E s C =
*
( ) ( ) ( )
=
=
0
*
exp
k
skT k e s E
Pulse Transfer Function G(z)
For c(t) continuous at all the sampling points
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
*
* *
1
s G s E jnw s C
T
s C
n
s
= + =

=
( ) ( ) ( )
+ + =
s s
jnw s G jnw s E
T
s C
* *
1
7
( ) ( ) ( )
=
+ + =
n
s s
jnw s G jnw s E
T
s C
But
( ) ( )
s
jnw s E s E + =
* *
( ) ( ) ( )
=
+ =
n
s
jnw s G
T
s E s C
1
* *
( ) ( ) ( ) s G s E s C
* * *
=
And
( ) ( ) ( ) z G z E z C =
Generalization
For
where
Then
( ) ( ) ( ) s B s F s A =
*
( ) L + + + =
T s sT
e f e f f s F
2
2 1 0
*
Then
and
using
8
( ) ( ) ( ) s B s F s A
* * *
=
( ) ( ) ( ) z B z F z A =
( ) ( ) [ ] s B Z z B =
( ) ( )
sT
e z
s F s F
=
=
*
Example 4.2
Using the previous results: Finding the z-Transform
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) 1
exp 1
*
+

= =
s s
sT
s B s F s A
( )
T
e z

1 1
( ) ( ) ( )
1 *
1 exp 1

= = z z F sT s F
9
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
T
T
e z z
e z
z B
s s
s B

=
+
=
1
1
1
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
T
T
e z z
e z
z z B z F z A

= =
1
1
1
1
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
T
T
e z
e
z B z F z A
= =
1
Example 4.3
Driving the previous system with a unit step function
( ) ( )
T
T
e z
e
z G z A
= =
1
( ) ( ) t u t e =
( )
1
=
z
z
z E
( ) ( ) ( ) z E z G z C =
10
( ) ( ) ( ) z E z G z C =
( )
1 1
1
z
z
e z
z
z
z
e z
e
z C
T T
T

( )
nT
e nT c

=1
( )
T
e z
z
z
z
z C
=
1
DC Gain
Determining the steady state gain to a unit step function
input
Unity in, what comes out? The DC gain!
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( )
(
(
= =

1
1
1 lim 1 lim
z
z
e z
e
z z C z c
T
T
11
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( )
(
= =

1
1 lim 1 lim
1 1
z e z
z z C z c
T
z z
( ) 1
1
1
1
1
lim
1
=
=
(
T
T
T
T
z
e
e
e z
e
z c
Generalizing DC Gain
Using the unit step function
( ) ( ) ( ) z E z G z C =
( ) ( ) t u t e =
( )
1
=
z
z
z E
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] z E z G z z C z c
z z
= =

1 lim 1 lim
1 1
[ ]
z
(
12
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] z G z
z
z
z G z c
z z
=
(
=
1 1
lim
1
1 lim
( ) ( ) [ ] z G c
z 1
lim
=
Therefore, the DC gain is the equal to
the limit as z approaches 1 of G(z)
DC Gain using Example 4-3
( )
T
T
e z
e
z G
=
1
( ) [ ] 1
1
1 1
lim lim
1 1
=
=
(
= =

T
T
T
T
z z
e
e
e z
e
z G DCgain
13
1

e e z
Open Loop-Multiple Samplers
Two sampler equivalent
From prior definitions
Therefore
( ) ( ) s E s E
*
( ) ( ) s A s A
*
( ) ( ) ( ) s G s E s A
1
*
= ( ) ( ) ( ) s G s A s C
2
*
=
( ) ( ) ( ) z G z A z C
2
= ( ) ( ) ( ) z G z E z A
1
=
Therefore
But this should be similar to
and
where the G1G2 term is the z-transform of the s-plane product
14
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) z G z G z E z C
2 1
=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) s G s G s E s C
2 1
*
=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) z G G z E s G s G Z z E z C
2 1 2 1
= =
Continuing
In general
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) z G z G s G s G Z
2 1 2 1

15
Open Loop Second Stage Sampler
Equivalent
( ) ( ) s A s A
*
( ) ( ) ( ) s G s E s A
1
= ( ) ( ) ( ) s G s A s C
2
*
=
( ) ( ) ( ) z G z A z C
2
=
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) z EG s G s E Z z A
1 1
= =
Note:
The output at A(s) contains the continuous processing history of
E(s); therefore, it may be inappropriate to estimate the only the
sampled time history of E(s) would be required to form A(s)!
16
( ) ( ) ( ) z G z EG z C
2 1
=
( ) ( ) ( )
=
t
d e t g t a
0
1

Digital Filters in Open Loop Systems
If the sampler is modeled as an A-to-D converter and the
ZOH is the model of a D-to-A converter, we typically
perform digital processing in the form of a digital filtering
in between!
( ) ( ) s E s E
*
( ) ( ) ( ) z D z E z M =
( ) ( ) ( ) s G s M s C
p
=
but
17
( ) ( ) s E s E
*
( ) ( ) ( ) z D z E z M =
( ) ( ) ( ) s G s M s C
p
=
( ) ( ) ( ) s D s E s M
* * *
= ( ) ( ) s M
s
e
s M
sT
*
1
Continuing
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) s G s M
s
e
s G s M s C
p
sT
p

= =
*
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) s G
s
e
s D s E s C
p
sT
1
* *
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) s G
s
e
z D s E s C
p
sT
e z
sT

=
1
*
but then
where
18
s
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) z G z D z E s G
s
e
Z z D z E z C
p
sT
=
(
1
( ) ( ) s G
s
e
s G
p
sT
1
Example 4.4 (1)
Example of a ADC-Filter-DAC
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) T k e kT e kT m 1 2 =
( ) ( ) ( ) z E z z E z M =
1
2
( )
( )
( ) z
z
z
z E
z M
z D
1 2
2
1

= = =

( )
1
19
( )
1
1
+
=
s
s G
p
( ) ( )
T
T sT
e z
e
z G
s
e
s
s G
+
=
1 1
1
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
T
T
e z
e
z
z
z E z G z D z E z C

= =
1 1 2
Example 4.4 (2)
Using a step response input
( )
1
=
z
z
z E
( )
T
T
e z
e
z
z
z
z
z C
=
1 1 2
1
20
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
1 1
1 1
1 1
2
1
1
1 1 2

=

=
z e z
z z
e
e z z
e z
z C
T
T
T
T
( )
1 1
1 1

+
+ =
z e z
z C
T

Note: this isnt what you expected, but must exist

in the partial fraction expansion
Example 4.4 (3)
Using residues instead (like the book)
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
T T
T
e z z z e z z z
e z
z
z C

+ =

=

1 1
1 1 2
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
T T
T
T
T
T
T
e z e
e
z z e
e
e z z z
e z
z
z C

=

=
1 2
1
1 1
1
1 1 2
( )
T T
e e z C 2 1 1
21
( )
T
T T
e z
e
z z
e
z
z C
=
2
1
1 1
( )
( )
T
T
T
e z
e z
z
z
e z C
+ =
2
1
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
nT T T
e e nT u nT e nT c

+ + = 2 1
( )
( ) ( )
( )
= +
= = + +
=
L , 3 , 2 , 1 , 2 1
0 , 0 2 1 1
n for e e
n for e e
nT c
nT T
T T
Example 4.4 (4)
Checking the response
Initial value, final value and DC gain
( ) ( ) [ ] ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
0
0 1 0 1
0 2 0
1
1 1
2
1 lim lim 0
1 1
1 1
=

=
(

= =

T
T
T
T
z z
e
e
z e z
z z
e z C c
22
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(

= =

T
T
z z
e z z
e z
z z C z c
1
1 1 2
1 lim 1 lim
1 1
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
1
1
1 1 2 1 1 2
lim
1
=

=
(
T
T
T
T
z
e
e
e z
e z
c
Example 4.4 (5)
Checking the response
Initial value, final value and DC gain
( ) ( ) [ ] 1
1
1
1
1 1 2 1 1 2
lim lim
1 1
=

=
(

= =

T
T
T
T
z z
e
e
e z
e
z
z
z G z D DCgain
[ ] [ ]
1 1 1 2 1 1 2
( (
z
23
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] 1
1 0
1
1
1 1 2
1
1
lim
1 2
lim lim lim
0 1 0 1
=
+

=
(

= =

s z
z
s G z D DCgain
s z
p
s z
Note that since the input is a step and the final value
of the output is 1, we expected that gain was 1.
The Delayed z-Transform
Small time delays happen in a system, before sampling
may occur or as part of the process.
Assume that the time delay is less than a full sample period
Taking the z-transform
1 0
( ) ( ) ( ) T t u T t e t x =
Taking the z-transform
This is a delayed z-transform
24
( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) [ ]
T s
e s E Z T t u T t e Z t x Z

= =
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] ( )
=

= =
1
1
n
T s
z T nT e e s E Z t x Z
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) [ ]
T s
e s E Z T t u T t e Z z E

= = ,
Delayed z-Transform Description
Using distance from the next sample instead of delay
m=1-
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
m
T s
m
e s E Z z E m z E
=

=
= =
1
1
, ,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

(
25
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

=
+ = + =
(
=
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 ,
n n
m
n
z T m n e z T T m nT e z T nT e m z E
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) L + + + + + =
3 2 1
2 1 , z T m e z T m e z T m e m z E
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 3 2 1 ,
3 2 1
e z E z T e z T e z T e z E = + + + =

L
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) z E z z T e z T e z e z E = + + + =
1 3 2 1
2 1 0 0 , L
Modified z-Transform
The transform
For the bounding values of m
No Delay, m=1 (Note: e(0) is still missing if 0
+
is used)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) L + + + + + =
3 2 1
No Delay, m=1 (Note: e(0) is still missing if 0
+
is used)
1 Sample Delay, m=0
26
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 1 , e z E z E =
( ) ( ) z E z z E =
1
0 ,
Example 4.6
Perform the modified Z of a known Z
( )
( ) ( )
L + + + =
+ + 3 2 2 1 1
, z e z e z e m z E
T m T m mT
( ) ( )
T
t
e z
z
z E e t e
= =
( ) [ ] L + + + =
2 2 1 1
1 , z e z e z e m z E
T T mT
27
( ) [ ] L + + + =
2 2 1 1
1 , z e z e z e m z E
T T mT
( )
T
mT
T
mT
e z
e
e z
z
z e m z E
=
1
,
Solving for the Modified Z
The general solution is describe in a combination of
Appendix III and the description on P. 143.
Tables for the modified z-transform are in Appendix VIII
28
Using the Modified z-Transform
Sampler-ZOH-Plant Followed by a small delay
( ) ( ) ( )
0
* t s
e s G s E s C

=
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
0
t s
e s G Z z E z C

=
Let
29
Let
1 0 ,
0
< < + = T kT t
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
[ ] ( ) ( ) [ ]
T s kT s T kT s
e e s G Z z E e s G Z z E z C
+
= =
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) = =

1 , z G z z E e s G Z z z E z C
k T s k
Example 4.8 (1)
The previous system with a unit step input and delay of 0.4T
( )
1
1 1
+
=

s s
e
s G
T s
( ) ( ) ( ) =

1 , z G z z E z C
k
0 = k
( )
1
=
z
z
z E
( ) ( )
( (

1 1 e
T s
30
( )
( )
( )
( )
(
+
=
(
=

1
1
1
1
1
,
1
s s
Z z
s s
e
Z m z G
m
T s
m
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
T
mT T
T
mT
e z z
z e e z
z
z
e z
e
z
z m z G
=
(
=
1
1 1
1
1
1 ,
1
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
T
T mT mT
T
mT T
e z z
e e e z
e z z
z e e z
m z G

+
=

=
1 1
,
Example 4.8 (2)
Continuing
( ) ( ) ( ) 6 . 0 , z G z E z C =
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
T
T T T
T
T T T
e z z
e e e z
e z z
e e e z
z
z
z C

+
=

+
=
1
1 1
1
6 . 0 6 . 0 6 . 0 6 . 0
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
T T
T T T
e z z z e z z z
e e e z
z
z C

+ =

+
=

1 1
1
6 . 0 6 . 0
31
( ) ( ) e z z z e z z z z 1 1
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
T T T
T T T T
T
T T T
T
T T
e z e e
e e e e
e z
e e e
e z
e e
z
z C

+
+

+
+
=
1
1
1 1
1
6 . 0 6 . 0 6 . 0 6 . 0 6 . 0
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
T T T
T T
T
T
T
T T
e z e e
e e
e z
e
e z
e e
z
z C

=
1
1
1 1
1
6 . 0 6 . 0
( )
( )
( )
( )
T
T
T
e z
e z
z
z
e z C
+ =
6 . 0 1
6 . 0 1
1
1
Example 4.8 (3)
Continuing
( )
( )
( )
( )
T
T
T
e z
e z
z
z
e z C
+ =
6 . 0 1
6 . 0 1
1
1
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) nT T T
e e nT u nT e nT c

+ =
6 . 0 1 6 . 0 1
1
32
( )
( ) ( )
( )
=
= = +
=

L , 3 , 2 , 1 , 1
0 , 0 1 1
4 . 0
6 . 0 1 6 . 0 1
n e
n e e
nT c
T n
T T
( )
nT
e nT c

=1
From example 4.3, the non-delayed sampled time output is
Another Application
Modeling computation delay prior to D-to-A output
Digital filters take time to perform D(z)
DAC written at time = kT+T
Use Laplace LTI properties to incorporate into the plant
33
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) =

1 , z G z z D z E z C
k
Example 4.9 (1)
Previous example with
A digital filter
Computational delay of 1 msec and sample period of 0.05 sec
T T T m = +
05 . 0 001 . 0 = + T m
34
05 . 0 001 . 0 = + T m
049 . 0 = T m
Note: we really dont need m, we need mT
98 . 0 = m
Example 4.9 (2)
Previous example with
A digital filter
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
T
T mT mT
T
mT T
e z z
e e e z
e z z
z e e z
m z G

+
=

=
1 1
,
( ) ( )
= 1 ,
1 2
z G
z z
z C
35
( ) ( )
= 1 ,
1 2
1
z G
z
z
z
z
z C
( )
( )
( )
T
T mT mT
e z z
e e e z
z
z
z
z
z C
=
1 1 2
1
( )
( ) ( ) [ ]
( ) ( )
T
T mT mT
e z z z
e e e z z
z C

+
=
1
1 1 2
Nonsynchronous Sampling
I would prefer to call this skewed sampling
If multiple samplers are operating at a perfectly periodic
rate, they are synchronous, but there may be a time delay
difference or skewed clock that exists between the two.
For example, try sampling to analog inputs using two unique For example, try sampling to analog inputs using two unique
devices with a distributed clock one will likely be skewed with
respect to another.
As another example, many ADCs have input multiplexers. If you
sample 4 analog inputs, you may not sample them simultaneously,
but each one sequential at the ADC sample rate or with deltas of
0, , , and .
36
Skewed Sampling
If the sampled data isnt output for a small delay
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
=
+ =
0 k
kT hT T t uu kT hT t u kT hT e t e
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
=
(

+ =
0
exp exp
k
s
skT T shT
s
skT shT
kT hT e s E
37
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
=
+

=
0
exp exp
exp 1
k
skT kT hT e shT
s
sT
s E
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) L + + + + + =
3 2 1
Using
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
=
+ +

=
0
1 exp exp exp
exp 1
k
T k s kT hT e shT sT
s
sT
s E
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
sT
e z
h z E shT sT
s
sT
s E
=

= , exp exp
exp 1
Modifying the Model
The sample and data hold function has been described.
model of Fig. 4-12 can be described using Fig. 4-13.
This model uses a non-causal sample advance after the sampling
operation.
The example of Fig. 4-11 uses this block to be related as the The example of Fig. 4-11 uses this block to be related as the
new model in Fig. 4-14.
38
State-Variable Models
The discrete time state equation are
Placing our plant example into state-space form
( ) ( ) ( ) k u B k x A k x + = +1
( ) ( ) ( ) k u D k x C k y
k
+ =
Placing our plant example into state-space form
39
( ) ( )
T
T sT
e z
e
z G
s
e
s
s G
+
=
1 1
1
1
( )
z
z
z D
1 2
=
( )
1
1
2
=
z
z
z D ( ) ( )
1
1
1
1

=
z e
z
e z G
T
T
Example 4-11
The output of the D(z) delay element is one state
The output of the G/1+GH feedback loop in G(z) defines
the second state
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) k u
e
k x
e e
k x
T T T
(
(

+
(
(

= +

1 2 1
1
40
( ) ( ) ( ) k u k x k x
(
+
(
= +
1 0 0
1
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] ( ) k u k x k y + = 0 1 0
Review of Continuous State Variables
R.C. Dorf and R.H. Bishop, Modern Control Systems, 9th ed., Prentice Hall, 2001
41
R.C. Dorf and R.H. Bishop, Modern Control Systems, 9th ed., Prentice Hall, 2001
u B x A x + = &
u D x C y + =
Position, Velocity and Acceleration
Position: x1(t)
Velocity: x2(t)
Acceleration: d/dt of x2(t)
( )
( )
( )
( )
u B
t v
t p
A
t a
t v
+
(
(
=
(
(
42
( ) ( )
u B
t v
A
t a
+
(
=
(
( )
( )
( )
( )
u B
t x
t x
A
t x
t x
+
(
=
(
2
1
2
1
&
&
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) t f
t x
t x
t x
t x
+
(
=
(
1
0
0 0
1 0
2
1
2
1
&
&
So for an open-loop
Example 4.12 (1)
Spring-Mass-Damper System
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] 0
2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + t y t y B t y K t y B t y M & & & & &
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) t u t y t y B t y M = +
1 2 2 2 2
& & & &
Let ( ) ( ) t x t x
( ( ( (
0 0 0 1 0
1 1
&
43
Let
( ) ( ) t y t x
1 1
= ( ) ( ) t y t x
2 3
=
( ) ( ) t y t x
1 2
& = ( ) ( ) t y t x
2 4
& =
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) t f
t x
t x
t x
t x
t x
t x
t x
t x
(
(
(
(
+
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
1
0
0
0
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
&
&
&
&
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) t f
t x
t x
t x
t x
B B
B B B K
t x
t x
t x
t x
(
(
(
(
+
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
1
0
0
0
0 0
1 0 0 0
0
0 0 1 0
4
3
2
1
2 2
2 2 1
4
3
2
1
&
&
&
&
Example 4.12 (2)
Spring-Mass-Damper System
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] 0
2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + t y t y B t y K t y B t y M & & & & &
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) t u t y t y B t y M = +
1 2 2 2 2
& & & &
Outputs are positions
44
Outputs are positions
( ) ( ) t y t x
1 1
= ( ) ( ) t y t x
2 3
=
( ) ( ) t y t x
1 2
& = ( ) ( ) t y t x
2 4
& =
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) t f
t x
t x
t x
t x
t y
t y
+
(
(
(
(
=
(
0
0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
4
3
2
1
2
1
Solving the State Equation
u B x A x + = &
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) s U B s X A x s X s + = 0
[ ] ( ) ( ) ( ) s U B x s X A I s + = 0
u D x C y + =
45
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] ( ) s U B A I s x A I s s X + =
1 1
0
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) { } ( ) s U D s U B s x s C s Y + + = 0
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) { } ( ) s U D B s C x s C s Y + + = 0
( ) [ ]
1
= A I s s
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) s U B s x s s X + = 0
State Transition or
Fundamental Matrix
Solving for the states in time
( ) [ ]
1
= A I s s
t
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) d u B t A x t A t x
t
+ =
0
exp 0 exp
( ) ( ) t A t = exp
The solution for an unforced system, where u(t)=0, becomes
46
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) d u B t x t t x
t
+ =
0
0
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 x t t x =
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 x t C t y =
The Matrix Exponential Function
The general solution for the Fundamental Matrix is in the
form of
The Matrix Exponential Function (Taylor Series like)
( ) ( ) t A t = exp
The Matrix Exponential Function (Taylor Series like)
47
( ) L L +
+ +
+ + = =
! ! 2
exp
2
2
k
t A t A
t A I t A e
k
k
t A
Dorf Chapter 3 Notes
See solutions Web site for old Dorf Notes
48
Discrete State Space
Based on Continuous Time
And defining an initial time to
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) d u B t t x t t t x
t
t
+ =
0
0 0
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
= =
0
exp
k
k
t t A
t t A t t
Evaluating at t=kT+T with the initial time at kT
Use that m is the output for u from a ZOH
49
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
= =
0
0
0 0
!
exp
k
k
t t A
t t A t t
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) d kT m B T kT kT x T T kT x
T kT
kT
+ + = +
+
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) d B T kT kT m kT x T T k x
T kT
kT
+ + = +
+
1
Discrete Form
Letting Equivalent pieces define the discrete state space
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) d B T kT kT m kT x T T k x
T kT
kT
+ + = +
+
1
( ) T A =
( ) d B T kT B
T kT
+ =
+
50
( ) T A =
( ) d B T kT B
kT
+ =
( ) ( ) ( ) k u B k x A k x + = +1
( ) ( ) ( ) k u D k x C k y + =
Rewriting, we have
Example 4.13 (1)
Converting from continuous to discrete
u x x
(
+
(
=
10
0
1 0
1 0
&
( )
( ) 1
10
+
=
s s
s G
p
sec 1 . 0 = T
51
[ ] u x y + = 0 0 1
( ) [ ]
( )
( )
(
(
(
(
+
+
=
+
(
+ +
=
(
= =
1
1
0
1
1 1
1
0
1 1
1 0
1
1
1
s
s s s
s s
s
s
s
s
A sI s
( )
( )
(

=
(
(
(
(
+
+
=
t
t
e
e
s
s s s
L t
0
1 1
1
1
0
1
1 1
1
Example 4.13 (2)
Forming the discrete time integral
sec 1 . 0 = T
( )
(
t
t
e
e
t
0
1 1
( )
(
(
+
=
(
(
(
(

=
(
=

0 0
1 1
T
T t T
e
dt
e
B dt t B

( )
(
=
(

= =
9048 . 0 0
0952 . 0 1
0
1 1
T
T
d
e
e
T A
52
( )
(
+
=
(
(
(

=
(
=

10
0
0
10
0
0
1 1
0
0 0
t
d
e
e
dt
e
e
B dt t B
=
(
=
9520 . 0
0484 . 0
10
0
0952 . 0 0
00484 . 0 1 . 0
d
B
( ) ( ) ( ) k u k x k x
(
+
(
= +
9520 . 0
0484 . 0
9048 . 0 0
0952 . 0 1
1
( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) k u k x k y + = 0 0 1
Example 4.13 (3)
For the comparable signal flow diagrams,
See Fig. 4-20a for the continuous time
See Fig. 4-20b for the discrete time
53
MATLAB Example 4.13 (1)
Using MATLAB
Ac=[0 1;0 -1];
u x x
(
+
(
=
10
0
1 0
1 0
&
[ ] u x y + = 0 0 1
a =
x1 x2
x1 0 1
x2 0 -1
b =
u1
x1 0
x2 10
54
Ac=[0 1;0 -1];
Bc=[0 10]';
C=[1 0];
D=0;
SYS=SS(Ac,Bc,C,D)
[nc,dc]=ss2tf(Ac,Bc,C,D)
x2 10
c =
x1 x2
y1 1 0
d =
u1
y1 0
nc =
0 -0.0000 10.0000
dc =
1 1 0
MATLAB Example 4.13 (2)
Using MATLAB
Ac=[0 1;0 -1];
Bc=[0 10]';
C=[1 0];
D=0;
SYS=SS(Ac,Bc,C,D)
[nc,dc]=ss2tf(Ac,Bc,C,D)
% Descretize the x values
u x x
(
+
(
=
10
0
1 0
1 0
&
[ ] u x y + = 0 0 1
Ad =
1.0000 0.0952
0 0.9048
Bd =
55
% Descretize the x values
[Ad,Bd]=c2d(Ac,Bc,0.1)
% Derive the discrete
trasnfer function equation
[nd,dd]=ss2tf(Ad,Bd,C,D)
0.0484
0.9516
nd =
0 0.0484 0.0468
dd =
1.0000 -1.9048 0.9048
( ) ( ) ( ) k u k x k x
(
+
(
= +
9520 . 0
0484 . 0
9048 . 0 0
0952 . 0 1
1
( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) k u k x k y + = 0 0 1

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