2.

EQUILIBRIUM AND COMPATIBILITY

Equilibrium Is Essential - Compatibility Is Optional
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Equilibrium equations set the externally applied loads equal to the sum of the
internal element forces at all joints or node points of a structural system; they are
the most fundamental equations in structural analysis and design. The exact
solution for a problem in solid mechanics requires that the differential equations
of equilibrium for all infinitesimal elements within the solid must be satisfied.
Equilibrium is a fundamental law of physics and cannot be violated within a
"real" structural system. Therefore, it is critical that the mathematical model,
which is used to simulate the behavior of a real structure, also satisfies those
basic equilibrium equations.
It is important to note that within a finite element, which is based on a formal
displacement formulation, the differential stress-equilibrium equations are not
always satisfied. However, inter-element force-equilibrium equations are
identically satisfied at all node points (joints). The computer program user who
does not understand the approximations used to develop a finite element can
obtain results that are in significant error if the element mesh is not sufficiently
fine in areas of stress concentration[1].
Compatibility requirements should be satisfied. However, if one has a choice
between satisfying equilibrium or compatibility, one should use the equilibrium-
based solution. For real nonlinear structures, equilibrium is always satisfied in
2-2 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
the deformed position. Many real structures do not satisfy compatibility caused
by creep, joint slippage, incremental construction and directional yielding.
2.2 FUNDAMENTAL EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS
The three-dimensional equilibrium of an infinitesimal element, shown in Figure
1.1, is given by the following equilibrium equations[2]:
0 = + +
x
+
x
1
3
13
2
12
1
1

0 = +
x
+
x
+
x
2
3
23
2
2
1
21

(2.1)
0 = +
x
+
x
+
x
3
3
3
2
32
1
31

The body force,

i , is per unit of volume in the i-direction and represents

gravitational forces or pore pressure gradients. Because ji ij
=
, the
infinitesimal element is automatically in rotational equilibrium. Of course for this
equation to be valid for large displacements, it must be satisfied in the deformed
position, and all stresses must be defined as force per unit of deformed area.
2.3 STRESS RESULTANTS - FORCES AND MOMENTS
In structural analysis it is standard practice to write equilibrium equations in
terms of stress resultants rather than in terms of stresses. Force stress resultants
are calculated by the integration of normal or shear stresses acting on a surface.
Moment stress resultants are the integration of stresses on a surface times a
distance from an axis.
A point load, which is a stress resultant, is by definition an infinite stress times an
infinitesimal area and is physically impossible on all real structures. Also, a point
moment is a mathematical definition and does not have a unique stress field as a
physical interpretation. Clearly, the use of forces and moments is fundamental in
EQUILIBRIUM AND COMPATIBILITY 2-3
structural analysis and design. However, a clear understanding of their use in
finite element analysis is absolutely necessary if stress results are to be physically
evaluated.
For a finite size element or joint, a substructure, or a complete structural system
the following six equilibrium equations must be satisfied:
0 =
F
0 =
F
0 =
F z y x

0 =
M
0 =
M
0 =
M z y x
(2.2)
For two dimensional structures only three of these equations need to be satisfied.
2.4 COMPATIBILITY REQUIREMENTS
For continuous solids we have defined strains as displacements per unit length.
To calculate absolute displacements at a point, we must integrate the strains with
respect to a fixed boundary condition. This integration can be conducted over
many different paths. A solution is compatible if the displacement at all points is
not a function of the path. Therefore, a displacement compatible solution
involves the existence of a uniquely defined displacement field.
In the analysis of a structural system of discrete elements, all elements connected
to a joint or node point must have the same absolute displacement. If the node
displacements are given, all element deformations can be calculated from the
basic equations of geometry. In a displacement-based finite element analysis,
node displacement compatibility is satisfied. However, it is not necessary that the
displacements along the sides of the elements be compatible if the element passes
the "patch test."
A finite element passes the patch test "if a group (or patch) of elements, of
arbitrary shape, is subjected to node displacements associated with constant
strain; and the results of a finite element analysis of the patch of elements yield
constant strain." In the case of plate bending elements, the application of a
constant curvature displacement pattern at the nodes must produce constant
curvature within a patch of elements. If an element does not pass the patch test, it
may not converge to the exact solution. Also, in the case of a coarse mesh,
2-4 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
elements that do not pass the patch test may produce results with significant
errors.
2.5 STRAIN DISPLACEMENT EQUATIONS
If the small displacement fields
,
2 1
u u
and
3
u
are specified, assumed or
calculated, the consistent strains can be calculated directly from the following
well-known strain-displacement equations[2]:
1
1
1
x
u

=
(2.3a)
2
2
2
x
u

=
(2.3b)
3
3
3
x
u

=
(2.3c)
1
2
2
1
12
x
u
x
u

=
(2.3d)
1
3
3
1
13
x
u
x
u

=
(2.3e)
2
3
3
2
23
x
u
x
u

=
(2.3f)
2.6 DEFINITION OF ROTATION
A unique rotation at a point in a real structure does not exist. A rotation of a
horizontal line may be different from the rotation of a vertical line. However, in
many theoretical books on continuum mechanics the following mathematical
equations are used to define rotation of the three axes:

1
2
2
1
3
2
1
x
u
x
u
(2.4a)
EQUILIBRIUM AND COMPATIBILITY 2-5

3
1
1
3
2
2
1
x
u
x
u
(2.4b)

2
3
3
2
1
2
1
x
u
x
u
(2.4c)
It is of interest to note that this definition of rotation is the average rotation of
two normal lines. It is important to recognize that these definitions are not the
same as used in beam theory when shearing deformations are included. When
beam sections are connected, the absolute rotation of the end sections must be
equal.
2.7 EQUATIONS AT MATERIAL INTERFACES
One can clearly understand the fundamental equilibrium and compatibility
requirements from an examination of the stresses and strains at the interface
between two materials. A typical interface for a two-dimensional continuum is
shown in Figure 2.1. By definition, the displacements at the interface are equal.
Or,
) , ( ) , ( n s u n s u
s s
=
and
) , ( ) , ( n s u n s u
n n
=
.
s, u
s
(s,n)
n, u
n
(s,n)
G E,
G E,
Figure 2.1 Material Interface Properties
Normal equilibrium at the interface requires that the normal stresses be equal. Or:
n n
=
(2.5a)
2-6 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Also, the shear stresses at the interface are equal. Or:
ns ns
=
(2.5b)
Because displacement
s s
u u and
must be equal and continuous at the
interface:
s s
=
(2.5c)
Because the material properties that relate stress to strain are not equal for the
two materials, it can be concluded that:
s s

(2.5d)
n n

(2.5e)
ns ns

(2.5f)
For a three-dimensional material interface on a s-t surface, it is apparent that the
following 12 equilibrium and compatibility equations exist:
n n
=

n n

(2.6a)

s s


s s
=
(2.6b)
t t


t t
=
(2.6c)
ns ns
=

ns ns

(2.6d)
nt nt
=

nt nt

(2.6e)
st st


st st
=
(2.6f)
These 12 equations cannot be derived because they are fundamental physical
laws of equilibrium and compatibility. It is important to note that if a stress is
continuous, the corresponding strain, derivative of the displacement, is
discontinuous. Also, if a stress is discontinuous, the corresponding strain,
derivative of the displacement, is continuous.
EQUILIBRIUM AND COMPATIBILITY 2-7
The continuity of displacements between elements and at material interfaces is
defined as C0 displacement fields. Elements with continuities of the derivatives
of the displacements are defined by C1 continuous elements. It is apparent that
elements with C1 displacement compatibility cannot be used at material
interfaces. Therefore, the rotations, as defined by Equations 2.4 are not
continuous at material interfaces.
2.8 INTERFACE EQUATIONS IN FINITE ELEMENT SYSTEMS
In the case of a finite element system in which the equilibrium and compatibility
equations are satisfied only at node points along the interface, the fundamental
equilibrium equations can be written as:
0 = +
n n
F F
(2.7a)
0 = +
s s
F F
(2.7b)
0 = +
t t
F F
(2.7c)
Each node on the interface between elements has a unique set of displacements;
therefore, compatibility at the interface is satisfied at a finite number of points.
As the finite element mesh is refined, the element stresses and strains approach
the equilibrium and compatibility requirements given by Equations (2.6a) to
(2.6f). Therefore, each element in the structure may have different material
properties; and, special interface equations are required at material interfaces.
The discussion in this Chapter to this point applies to three-dimensional elastic
solids only. In addition, it clearly indicates the difference between classical
elasticity and the modern finite element method exactly satisfy equilibrium as the
mesh is refined. Also, in my opinion, it is prove that displacement compatible
finite element solutions will converge to the exact elasticity solution as the mesh
is refined.
2-8 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
2.9 NODE ROTATIONS IN FINITE ELEMENT SYSTEMS
Gustave Kirchhoff (1824-1887) [3], in a paper on the theory of thin plates,
introduced the following approximation: under small deflections, each line
which is initially perpendicular to the middle plane of the plate remains
straight during bending and normal to the middle surface of the deflected
plate. In modern structural analysis the normal rotations of the normal line are
the two unknown node rotations. However, if shearing deformations are
included the plate, beam or shell element the average normal line rotation is not
the same as the rotations of the middle surface of the plate.
The membrane formulation for the plate and shell elements, as presented in
Chapters 9 and 10, introduces a normal node rotation in order to allow more
flexibility in the connection of complex beam, plate and shell elements to model
the three-dimensional behavior of complex structural systems. However, at the
intersection of elements of different materials or thicknesses, great care must be
taken to impose the appropriate interface continuity conditions. For example,
Appendix K illustrates how to model the behavior of a horizontal floor slab with
a vertical shear wall..
2.10 STATICALLY DETERMINATE STRUCTURES
The internal forces of some structures can be determined directly from the
equations of equilibrium only. For example, the truss structure shown in Figure
2.2 will be analyzed to illustrate that the classical "method of joints" is nothing
more than solving a set of equilibrium equations.
EQUILIBRIUM AND COMPATIBILITY 2-9
Figure 2.2 Simple Truss Structure
Positive external node loads and node displacements are shown in Figure 2.3.
Member forces i
f
and deformations
i
d
are positive in tension.
Figure 2.3 Definition of Positive Joint Forces and Node Displacements
Equating two external loads, j
R
, at each joint to the sum of the internal member
forces, i
f
, (see Appendix B for details) yields the following seven equilibrium
equations written as one matrix equation:
8
6 6
2 , 2
u R
1 , 1
u R
6 , 6
u R
5 , 5
u R
4 , 4
u R
3 , 3
u R
7 , 7
u R
1
,
1
d f
2
,
2
d f
5
,
5
d f
4
,
4
d f
7
,
7
d f
6
,
6
d f
3
,
3
d f
2-10 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 . 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 . 1 8 . 0 0
0 0 0 0 . 1 0 6 . 0 0
0 0 . 1 8 . 0 0 0 . 1 0 0
0 0 6 . 0 0 0 0 0 . 1
0 0 0 0 0 8 . 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 6 . 0 0 . 1
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
(2.8)
Or, symbolically:
Af R = (2.9)
where A is a load-force transformation matrix and is a function of the geometry
of the structure only. For this statically determinate structure, we have seven
unknown element forces and seven joint equilibrium equations; therefore, the
above set of equations can be solved directly for any number of joint load
conditions. If the structure had one additional diagonal member, there would be
eight unknown member forces, and a direct solution would not be possible
because the structure would be statically indeterminate. The major purpose of
this example is to express the well-known traditional method of analysis
("method of joints") in matrix notation.
2.11 DISPLACEMENT TRANSFORMATION MATRIX
After the member forces have been calculated, there are many different
traditional methods to calculate joint displacements. Again, to illustrate the use of
matrix notation, the member deformations
i
d
will be expressed in terms of joint
displacements j
u
. Consider a typical truss element as shown in Figure 2.4.
EQUILIBRIUM AND COMPATIBILITY 2-11
Lx
x
y
Ly L
Deformed Position
Initial Position
v
1
v
2
v
3
v
4
Figure 2.4 Typical Two-Dimension Truss Element
The axial deformation of the element can be expressed as the sum of the axial
deformations resulting from the four displacements at the two ends of the
element. The total axial deformation written in matrix form is:

=
4
3
2
1
v
v
v
v
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
d
y
x
y
x
(2.10)
Application of Equation (2.10) to all members of the truss shown in Figure 2.3
yields the following matrix equation:
2-12 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 . 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 . 1 0 0
0 0 0 8 . 0 6 . 0 0 0
0 0 0 . 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 . 1 0 0 . 1 0 0 0
0 8 . 0 6 . 0 0 0 8 . 0 6 . 0
0 0 0 0 0 . 1 0 0 . 1
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
(2.11)
Or, symbolically:
u B d =
(2.12)
The element deformation-displacement transformation matrix, B, is a function of
the geometry of the structure. Of greater significance, however, is the fact that
the matrix B is the transpose of the matrix A defined by the joint equilibrium
Equation (2.8). Therefore, given the element deformations within this statically
determinate truss structure, we can solve Equation (2.11) for the joint
displacements.
2.12 ELEMENT STIFFNESS AND FLEXIBILITY MATRICES
The forces in the elements can be expressed in terms of the deformations in the
elements using the following matrix equations:
d k f =
or,
f k d
1
=
(2.13)
The element stiffness matrix k is diagonal for this truss structure, where the
diagonal terms are
i
i i
ii
L
E A
k =
and all other terms are zero. The element
flexibility matrix is the inverse of the stiffness matrix, where the diagonal terms
are
i i
i
E A
L
. It is important to note that the element stiffness and flexibility
matrices are only a function of the mechanical properties of the elements.
EQUILIBRIUM AND COMPATIBILITY 2-13
2.13 SOLUTION OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE SYSTEM
The three fundamental equations of structural analysis for this simple truss
structure are equilibrium, Equation (2.8); compatibility, Equation (2.11); and
force-deformation, Equation (2.13). For each load condition R, the solution steps
can be summarized as follows:
1. Calculate the element forces from Equation (2.8).
2. Calculate element deformations from Equation (2.13).
3. Solve for joint displacements using Equation (2.11).
All traditional methods of structural analysis use these basic equations. However,
before the availability of inexpensive digital computers that can solve over 100
equations in less than one second, many special techniques were developed to
minimize the number of hand calculations. Therefore, at this point in time, there
is little value to summarize those methods in this book on the static and dynamic
analysis of structures.
2.14 GENERAL SOLUTION OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
In structural analysis using digital computers, the same equations used in
classical structural analysis are applied. The starting point is always joint
equilibrium. Or,
f A R =
. From the element force-deformation equation,
d k f =
, the joint equilibrium equation can be written as
d k A R =
. From
the compatibility equation,
u B d =
, joint equilibrium can be written in terms of
joint displacements as
u B k A R =
. Therefore, the general joint equilibrium
can be written as:
u K R =
(2.14)
The global stiffness matrix K is given by one of the following matrix equations:
B k A K =
or
T
A k A K =
or
B k B K
T
=
(2.15)
2-14 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
It is of interest to note that the equations of equilibrium or the equations of
compatibility can be used to calculate the global stiffness matrix K.
The standard approach is to solve Equation (2.14) for the joint displacements and
then calculate the member forces from:
u B k f =
or
u A k f
T
=
(2.16)
It should be noted that within a computer program, the sparse matrices
K k B A and , ,
are never formed because of their large storage requirements.
The symmetric global stiffness matrix K is formed and solved in condensed
form.
2.15 SUMMARY
Internal member forces and stresses must be in equilibrium with the applied loads
and displacements. All real structures satisfy this fundamental law of physics.
Hence, our computer models must satisfy the same law.
At material interfaces, all stresses and strains are not continuous. Computer
programs that average node stresses at material interfaces produce plot stress
contours that are continuous; however, the results will not converge and
significant errors can be introduced by this approximation.
Compatibility conditions, which require that all elements attached to a rigid joint
have the same displacement, are fundamental requirements in structural analysis
and can be physically understood. Satisfying displacement compatibility involves
the use of simple equations of geometry. However, the compatibility equations
have many forms, and most engineering students and many practicing engineers
can have difficulty in understanding the displacement compatibility requirement.
Some of the reasons we have difficulty in the enforcement of the compatibility
equations are the following:
1. The displacements that exist in most linear structural systems are small
compared to the dimensions of the structure. Therefore, deflected shape
drawing must be grossly exaggerated to write equations of geometry.
EQUILIBRIUM AND COMPATIBILITY 2-15
2. For structural systems that are statically determinate, the internal member
forces and stresses can be calculated exactly without the use of the
compatibility equations.
3. Many popular (approximate) methods of analysis exist that do not satisfy the
displacement compatibility equations. For example, for rectangular frames,
both the cantilever and portal methods of analysis assume the inflection
points to exist at a predetermined location within the beams or columns;
therefore, the displacement compatibility equations are not satisfied.
4. Many materials, such as soils and fluids, do not satisfy the compatibility
equations. Also, locked in construction stresses, creep and slippage within
joints are real violations of displacement compatibility. Therefore,
approximate methods that satisfy statics may produce more realistic results
for the purpose of design.
5. In addition, engineering students are not normally required to take a course in
geometry; whereas, all students take a course in statics. Hence, there has not
been an emphasis on the application of the equations of geometry.
The relaxation of the displacement compatibility requirement has been justified
for hand calculation to minimize computational time. Also, if one must make a
choice between satisfying the equations of statics or the equations of geometry,
in general, we should satisfy the equations of statics for the reasons previously
stated.
However, because of the existence of inexpensive powerful computers and
efficient modern computer programs, it is not necessary to approximate the
compatibility requirements. For many structures, such approximations can
produce significant errors in the force distribution in the structure in addition to
incorrect displacements.
2.16 REFERENCES
1. Cook, R. D., D. S. Malkus and M. E. Plesha. 1989. Concepts and
Applications of Finite Element Analysis, Third Edition. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. ISBN 0-471-84788-7.
2-16 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
2. Boresi, A. P. 1985. Advanced Mechanics of Materials. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. ISBN 0-471-88392-1.
3. Timoshenko, Stephen P. History of the Strength of Materials, Dover
Publication, Inc. 1983, Originally published by McGraw-Hill, 1953, ISBN
0-486-61187-6.
EQUILIBRIUM AND COMPATIBILITY 2-17
APPENDIX H
SPEED OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS
The Current Speed of a $2,000 Personal Computer
is Faster than the $10,000,000 Cray Computer of 1975
INTRODUCTIO
N
The calculation of element stiffness matrices, solution of equations and evaluation
of mode shapes and frequencies are all computationally intensive. Furthermore, it is
necessary to use double-precision floating-point arithmetic to avoid numerical errors.
Therefore, all numbers must occupy 64 bits of computer storage. The author started
developing structural analysis and design programs on the IBM-701 in 1957 and since
that time has been exposed to a large number of different computer systems. In this
appendix the approximate double-precision floating-point performances of some of
those computer systems are summarized. Because different FORTRAN compilers
and operating systems were used, the speeds presented can only be considered
accurate to within 50 percent.
DEFINITION OF
ONE
NUMERICAL
OPERATION
For the purpose of comparing floating-point speeds, the evaluation of the
following equation is defined as one operation:
2-18 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
A = B + C * D Definition of one numerical operation
Using double precision arithmetic, the definition involves the sum of one
multiplication, one addition, extracting three numbers from high-speed storage, and
transferring the results to storage. In most cases, this type of operation is within the
inner DO LOOP for the solution of linear equations and the evaluation of mode
shapes and frequencies.
SPEED OF
DIFFERENT
COMPUTER
SYSTEMS
Table H.1 indicates the speed of different computers used by the author.
Table H.1 Floating-Point Speeds of Computer Systems
Year
Computer
or CPU
Operation
s
Per
Second
Relativ
e
Speed
1963 CDC-6400 50,0
00
1
1967 CDC-6600 100,
000
2
1974 CRAY-1 3,00
0,00
0
6
0
1980 VAX-780 60,0
00
1.2
1981 IBM-3090 20,0
00,0
4
0
EQUILIBRIUM AND COMPATIBILITY 2-19
Year
Computer
or CPU
Operation
s
Per
Second
Relativ
e
Speed
00 0
1981 CRAY-XMP 40,0
00,0
00
8
0
0
1990 DEC-5000 3,50
0,00
0
7
0
1994 Pentium-90 3,50
0,00
0
7
0
1995 Pentium-133 5,20
0,00
0
1
0
4
1995 DEC-5000
upgrade
14,0
00,0
00
2
8
0
1998 Pentium II -
333
37,5
00,0
00
7
5
0
1999 Pentium III -
450
69,0
00,0
00
1
,
3
8
0
If one considers the initial cost and maintenance of the various computer systems, it
is apparent that the overall cost of engineering calculations has reduced significantly
during the past several years. The most cost effective computer system at the present
2-20 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
time is the INTEL Pentium III type of personal computer system. At the present time,
a very powerful personal computer system that is 25 times faster than the first CRAY
computer, the fastest computer made in 1974, can be purchased for approximately
$1,500.
SPEED OF
PERSONAL
COMPUTER
SYSTEMS
Many engineers do not realize the computational power of the present day inexpensive personal computer. Table H.2
indicates the increased speed of personal computers that has occurred during the past 18 years.
Table H.2 Floating-Point Speeds of Personal Computer Systems
YE
AR
INTE
L
CPU
S
p
e
e
d
M
H
z
Ope
ratio
ns
Per
Sec
ond
R
el
at
iv
e
S
p
e
e
d
C
O
S
T
19
80
8080 4 200 1 $
6
,
0
0
0
19
84
8087 1
0
13,0
00
6
5
$
2
,
EQUILIBRIUM AND COMPATIBILITY 2-21
5
0
0
19
88
8038
7
2
0
93,0
00
4
6
5
$
8
,
0
0
0
19
91
8048
6
3
3
605,
000
3,
0
2
5
$
1
0
,
0
0
0
19
94
8048
6
6
6
1,21
0,00
0
6,
0
5
0
$
5
,
0
0
0
19
95
Penti
um
9
0
4,00
0,00
0
2
6,
0
0
0
$
5
,
0
0
0
19
96
Penti
um
2
3
3
10,3
00,0
00
5
2,
0
0
0
$
4
,
0
0
2-22 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
0
19
97
Penti
um II
2
3
3
11,5
00,0
00
5
8,
0
0
0
$
3
,
0
0
0
19
98
Penti
um II
3
3
3
37,5
00,0
00
1
9
8,
0
0
0
$
2
,
5
0
0
19
99
Penti
um
III
4
5
0
69,0
00,0
00
3
4
5,
0
0
0
$
1
,
5
0
0
One notes that the floating-point speed of the Pentium III is significantly different
from the Pentium II chip. The increase in clock speed, from 333 to 450 MHz, does not
account for the increase in speed.
PAGING
OPERATING
SYSTEMS
The above computer speeds assume all numbers are in high-speed memory. For
the analysis of large structural systems, it is not possible to store all information within
high-speed storage. If data needs to be obtained from low-speed disk storage, the
effective speed of a computer can be reduced significantly. Within the SAP and
EQUILIBRIUM AND COMPATIBILITY 2-23
ETABS programs, the transfer of data to and from disk storage is conducted in large
blocks to minimize disk access time. That programming philosophy was used before
introduction of the paging option used in the modern Windows operating systems.
In a paging operating system, if the data requested is not stored in high-speed
memory, the computer automatically reads the data from disk storage in
relatively small blocks of information. Therefore, the modern programmer need
not be concerned with data management. However, there is a danger in the
application of this approach. The classical example that illustrates the problem
with paging is adding two large matrices together. The FORTRAN statement can
be one of the following forms:
DO 100 J=1,NCOL DO 100 I=1,NROW
DO 100 I=1,NROW DO 100 J=1,NCOL
100 A(I,J)=B(I,J)+C(I,J) 100 A(I,J)=B(I,J)+C(I,J)
Because all arrays are stored row-wise, the data will be paged to and from disk storage in the same order as needed by
the program statements on the left. However, if the program statements on the right are used, the computer may be
required to read and write blocks of data to the disk for each term in the matrix. Hence, the computer time required
for this simple operation can be very large if paging is automatically used.
SUMMARY
Personal computers will continue to increase in speed and decrease in price. It is
the opinion of many experts in the field that the only way significant increases in
speed will occur is by the addition of multi-processors to personal computer systems.
The NT operating system supports the use of multi-processors. However, the free
LINUX operating system has proven faster for many functions.
2-24 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS