Stellar Structure and Evolution

Achim Weiss
Max-Planck-Institut fur Astrophysik

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.1

Lecture Content

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.2

What will be included . . .

Basic types of observations and global stellar quantities
Main assumptions and fundamental parameters
Stellar structure equations
Micro- (or input) physics
Stellar model calculations
The Standard Solar Model
Overview about stellar evolution for different mass
ranges (including relevant objects)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.3

What will be excluded . . .

hydrodynamics
rotation
late/nal stages
explosive nucleosynthesis
atmospheres
theory of mass loss

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.4

Reading suggestions
Kippenhahn R. & Weigert A.: Stellar structure and
evolution, Springer, 1990
Hansen C.J. & Kawaler S.D.: Stellar interiors, Springer,
1994
de Loore C.W.H. & Doom C.: Structure and evolution of
single and binary stars, Kluwer, 1992
Padmanabhan T.: Theoretical Astrophysics, vol. II: Stars
and stellar systems, Cambridge University Press, 2001
Chiosi C.: The HertzsprungRussell-Diagramm, (for the
British Encyclopedia of Science), preprint 1999

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.5

More reading suggestions

Clayton D.,: Principles of Stellar Evolution and
Nucleosynthesis, Chicago University Press, 1983
Cox J.P. & Giuli R.Th., Principles of Stellar Structure,
vol. I, Gordon & Breach, 1968, and 2nd, enlarged
edition by Weiss, Hillebrandt, Thomas, Ritter, to be
published in 2002/2003 (Taylor & Francis)
Christensen-Dalsgaard J., Lecture Notes on Stellar
Oscillations, available from
http://astro.ifa.au.dk/jcd/oscilnotes
various reviews in ARAA, in particular in vols. 37 (1999)
and 38 (2000).

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.6

Fundamental Quantities
The interior structure and the global properties of a star are
determined by
the initial mass Mi
the initial composition X , Y , Z (and individual metal
abundances), where X(t = 0, r) = X(t = 0)
the age, which determines
M (t) (mass loss)
X(t, r) (nuclear reactions, transport processes)

The global quantities of interest are L, Te (or R), X(R), M ,

vrot , osc

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.7

Basic facts and relation to

observations

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.8

The Signicance of Stars

Stars contribute . . .
information (photons, neutrinos)
energy (radiation, winds, explosions)
matter (nucleosynthesis, winds, ejecta)
Stars allow to . . .
trace gravitational potentials
follow the history of galaxies and the Universe
probe basic physics
Stars host . . .
planets
life
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.9

The Signicance of Stars - Applications

structure formation
population synthesis
galactic history
plasma physics
nuclear physics
neutrino and particle physics

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.10

Stellar data
photometry brightness, colour

spectroscopy Te , g , X , M

astrometry distance

eclipsing binaries mass ratios, orbital elements,

geometric quantities
occultations & interferometry angular diameter R
seismology interior structure, c, , 1 =

ln P
ln

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.11

Photometry: Basics
Photometry: Astronomical observations make use of
several broad-band lters to measure the ux of a star in
different wavelength-bands.
Best-known lter system: Johnson-Cousins-Glass
U BV RIJHK ; the V lter is similar to the human eye.

Illustration of the UBV-lter response functions

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.12

Photometry: Basics
Stars are almost perfect Black Body radiators; spectrum
characterized by temperature T
Flux in several bands stellar temperature Te
I

2c2 h
=
exp
5

dI = T

F =

hc
1
kT
4

erg
cm3 s

erg
cm2 s

ac
2 5 k 4
= = 5.67 105
=
15c2 h3
4

erg
cm2 s K4

Photometric observations of interest for this lecture yield

V Mv : brightness (luminosity)
B V or V I : colour (temperature)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.13

Luminosity, magnitudes, etc.:

For the Sun,
L = 4R2 (F )

is the solar luminosity (integrated ux through solar

surface).
erg
Flux on earth: S = 1.36 106 cm2 s (solar constant):
S = F (R2 /d2 )
L = 3.82 1033 erg/s

with
4
L = 4R2 Te Te = 5770 K.

L, Te , mass M (or g , R) are the basic global stellar

parameters.
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.14

HRD & CMD

Hertzsprung-Russell-Diagram (HRD): log L log Te
Colour-Magnitude-Diagram (CMD): V (B V )
(more general: brightness vs. colour index)

Magnitudes measure stellar brightness in log L-system.

m2 m1 = 2.5 log b1 /b2
m: apparent magnitude; M : absolute magnitude:
M m 5 5 log d
d: distance in parsec (3.08 1018 cm);
M is m at 10 pc.
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.15

HRD & CMD

distance modulus m M : 0.2(m M ) + 1 = log d.
Indices to m and M denote lter, e.g. MV or mB .
Bolometric luminosity or brightness is
Mbol = Mbol, 2.5 log(L/L ).
Bolometric correction B.C.: Mbol MV
For the sun, B.C. = 0.12 (Alonso et al. 1996) and
MV, = 4.82 0.02 Mbol = 4.70 and therefore
Mbol

L
= 2.5 log
+ 4.70
L

A further convention is that for a star of spectral class A0 V (e.g. Lyr = Vega),
MV = MB = MU . This denes the bolometric corrections for U and B bands.

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.16

Colour-Magnitude-Diagrams
A globular cluster mass :

The HIPPARCOS solar neighbourhood

mass, composition, age:

A dwarf spheroidal galaxy mass, composition, age, distance

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.17

Spectroscopy: abundances and Te

mass discrepancy in OB-stars

The Li- (Spite-) plateau

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.18

Astrometry distances
Distances allow brightness calibrations, mass determinations,
help spectroscopic analyses, . . .

The Hyades main sequence

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.19

Eclipsing binaries masses and radii

Procyon:

OGLE-17 in Cen: age and mass

evolutionary and astrometric mass

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Seismology & oscillations & c

Solar sound speed and 1

Power in solar oscillation modes

and: hydrogen mass on white dwarfs, evolutionary state, . . .

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.21

The Structure Equations

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.22

Basic assumptions
Stars are self-gravitating objects of hot plasma;
emitting energy in the form of photons from the surface;
spherical symmetry (absence of rotation and magnetic
elds);
one-dimensional problem with radius r being the natural
coordinate (Euler description).

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.23

Mass and radius

Eulerian description: mass dm in a shell at r and of
thickness dr is
dm = 4r 2 dr 4r 2 vdt

From the partial derivatives of this equation one can derive:

(r 2 v)
= r 2
t
r

= (v)

(continuity equation in 1-dimensional form and Eulerian description)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.24

Lagrangian description
mass elements m (mass in a concentric shell). r = r(m, t)
Variable change (r, t) (m, t):

= r m and t m = r r m + t r
m
t

1
r
=
m
4r 2

(1)

This is the rst structure equation (mass equation or mass

conservation).
Contains transformation Euler- Lagrange-description
1

=
m
4r 2 r

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.25

Gravity
2 = 4G
Gravitational eld
(G = 6.673 108 dyn cm2 g2 ).

In spherical symmetry:
1
r2 r

= 4G

g = g = Gm is solution of Poissons equation.

r
r2
Potential vanishes for r .

0 dr

is the energy required to disperse the complete

star to innity.

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.26

Hydrostatic equilibrium
On layer of thickness dr two forces:
gravity gdr and pressure P = P r.
r
If shell is at rest (hydrostatic equilibrium):
P
Gm
= 2
r
r
in Lagrangian coordinates:
P
Gm
=
m
4r 4

(2)

Second structure equation (hydrostatic equilibrium).

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.27

A simple estimate
. . . for central values of P and T :
Replace derivatives in the hydrostatic equation by
differences between center (Pc ) and surface (P0 0)
2GM 2
Pc
R4
(M/2 and R/2 were used for mean mass and radius)
Sun: Pc = 7 1015 (cgs units).
P

With = RT and = (3M )/(4R3 )

8 GM
GM

3 107 K
<
Tc =
3 R R c
R R

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.28

Motion:
If forces are not balanced

P
m

Gm
4r4

1. P = 0 free-fall Gm/r 2 = r; =

1 2r
4r2 t2

R/||
r

R/g .

2. G = 0, expl R /P (isothermal sound speed)

3. hydrostatic timescale hydro 1 (G)1/2

4. Examples: hydro =
27 minutes for the Sun
18 days for a Red Giant (R = 100R )
4.5 seconds for a White Dwarf (R = R /50)
stars return to hydrostatic equilibrium within an
extremely short time.

Conclusion:

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.29

The Virial Theorem

From hydrostatic equilibrium equation by integration:
M
0

Gm
dm = 3
r

M
0

P
dm

where the l.h.s. = Eg (gravitational energy).

Monatomic ideal gas: P/ = (2/3)u = (2/3)cv T (u: specic
internal energy) Ei := udm.
Eg = 2Ei

(3)

General gas, 3(P/) = u ( = 3( 1)); for monatomic gas

= 2 ( = 5/3) and for photon gas 1.
Ei + Eg = 0.
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.30

The Virial Theorem

Total energy: W = Ei + Eg = (1 )Ei =
L+

dW
dt

1
Eg

= 0 L = ( 1) dEi .
dt

monatomic gas:

Eg

=2L=
= Ei ,
2

(4)

On contraction, half of the energy liberated is radiated, the

other half is used to increase the internal energy (star heats
up) or vice versa: stars lose energy from surface must
contract (overall) negative specic heat!
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.31

The Kelvin-Helmholtz timescale

dEg
|Eg |
Ei
L

KH :=
dt
L
L
GM 2
GM 2
KH
.
|Eg |
2R
2RL

Sun: KH = 1.6 107 yrs.

Sun could shine only for about 10 million years, if the

reactions at the center would be switched off.

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.32

The constant density model I

specic internal energy of the ideal monatomic gas:
3 NA k B
3R
3P
3 nkB T
=
T =
T =
,
u=
2
2
2
2

exploit the Virial Theorem; assume = = const.

3 R
1
1
Ei = uM = M T = Eg =
2
2
2

3 GM 2

5 R

using = const.
T = 4.09 106

M
M

2/3

1/3

(Sun: T 3 106 )

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.33

The constant density model II

hydrostatic equilibrium equation + r = (m/M )1/3R
P
GM
=
m
4R4

M
m

1/3

Integration over M (P (M ) = 0)

P (m) = Pc 1 (m/M )2/3 = Pc 1 (r/R)2 ;

Pc =

3 GM 2
8 R4

= 1.34

1015

M
M

R
R

and
T (m) = Tc 1 (m/M )2/3 ; Tc = 1.15 107

M
M

R
R

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.34

Local energy conservation

L(r) = Lr energy passing through sphere r per unit time;
includes energy transported by radiation, convection,
conduction, but not neutrino energies (lost!)
Energy gained (or lost) by a shell of dm is
dLr = 4r 2 dm,

(erg/gs): specic energy generation rate

Sources for :
in a stationary mass shell: =
energy generation;

n (, T, X)

: nuclear

in non-stationary mass shell: interaction with

surrounding via P dv = dq

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.35

Local energy conservation

Lr
n
m

dt = dq
Lr
=
m
=

g:

s
nT
t
n+ g

gravothermal energy
g

T
P
= cP
+
= cP T
t
t

1 T
ad P

T t
P t

(5)

(see thermodynamic relations)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.36

Local energy conservation

Energy loss due to plasma neutrinos: . energy
conservation equation reads
Lr
=
m

(6)

Conventions: > 0 for the neutrinos, therefore subtracted

(loss);
g > 0 for contraction, liberating energy Lr (m) raised.
Simplication: entropy changes due to composition changes
(mixing, burning) are ignored; usually of order 104 Lr .
m

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.37

Global energy conservation

= d (Ekin + Eg + Ei + En ) = (L + L )
W
dt

Def.: L =

Lr
m dm,

Integrating

L =

dm,

dm = dEn .
n
dt

over dm: from

g

u P
=
+ 2 .
t
t

the rst term gives dEi /dt.

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.38

Global energy conservation

Second term. Use
M

Eg = 3
d
dt

P
dm,

of integrated hydrostatic equilibrium

M
0

3 P
dm = 4
4r
m

M
0

Gm r

dm = 4Eg
r r

From l.h.s.: integration by parts, P (M ) = 0, and

M

m
r

= 4r 2

dm = 4Eg ;

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.39

Global energy conservation

and nally, use this for

dEg
dt

Eg =

M
0

P
dm,

which corresponds to second term in

therefore we have shown that
d
dt

g;

d
(Eg + Ei )
g dm =
dt

and W is recovered, without the Ekin -term, however.

This is recovered when using the full equation of motion,

instead.
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.40

The nuclear timescale

n := En /L

Nuclear energy reservoir:

mass of fuel times q , the specic energy release in erg/g.
Sun (H-burning): q = 6.3 1018 erg g1 8.75 1051 erg.
n = 7 1010 yrs
n

KH

hydr

n most important timescale

(thermal equilibrium).

Lr
m

With mechanical equilibrium complete equilibrium.

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.41

Energy transport
T -gradient in Sun: T / r 107 /1011 = 104 (K/cm).
energy tranport by radiation, convection and conduction
T Gm
T
=
m
P 4r 4

ln T
ln P

T Gm
=
P 4r 4

Radiative transport

cross section for scattering/absorption of radiation:

mean free path lph = 1/(n), n: absorber density;
(lph 2 cm in Sun)
opacity denition = n ; (T, , X) (cm2 /g)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.42

Radiation diffusion
In analogy to particle diffusion equation:
Diffusive ux j of particles (per unit area and time) is
1
j = D n = vlph n
3

(D is called the diffusion constant; v the diffusion velocity; lp

is the particle free path length and n the particle density).
We now use U := aT 4 for the radiation density in place of
particle density and c instead of v . In a 1-dimensional
problem, we get for U
U
3 T
= 4aT
r
r
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.43

and for the radiative ux F (replacing j )

4ac T 3 T
F =
,
3 r
4ac T 3
3

or F = Krad T . Krad =
With Lr = 4r 2 F , we obtain

is the radiative conductivity.

T
Lr
3
=
m
64ac 2 r4 T 3

(8)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.44

The Rosseland mean opacity

is actually an appropriate mean of over frequency :
1
:=

1 B
0 T d
B
0 T d

where
2h 3
B (T ) = 2
c

exp

h
kT

is the Planck-function for the energy density ux of a black

body. (U = aT 4 = (4/c) B d ).
Note that the Rosseland mean is dominated by those frequency intervals, where matter is almost transparent to radiation!
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.45

Electron conduction
If energy is transported efciently by conduction:
F = Frad + Fcond = (Krad + Kcond ) T

introduce formally cond :

Kcond

4ac T 3
=
.
3 cond

1
1
1
Replace in (8) by = rad + cond
Effective in transport equation:

rad

3
Lr P
=
16acG mT 4

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.46

Perturbations and stability: convection

Schematic picture: the
temperature excess DT is
positive, if the element is
hotter than its surrounding. DP = 0 due to hydrostatic equilibrium. If D <
0, the element is lighter
and will move upwards.
r:

Take an element and lift it by

D =

r
s

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.47

Stability condition
The stability condition thus is

r e

r s

> 0.

EOS: d ln = d ln P d ln T d the stability

condition changes into
dT
T dr

dT
T dr

d
dr

>0
s

multiply the stability condition by the pressure scale height

dr
dr
P
HP :=
= P
=
>0
d ln P
dP
g

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.48

Stability condition . . .
d ln T
d ln P

<
s
s

<

rad

<

d ln T
d ln P

ad +

ad +

d ln
d ln P

The last equation holds in general cases and is called the

Ledoux-criterion for dynamical stability.
Schwarzschild-criterion holds. Note:

If

= 0, the

> 0 and will sta-

bilize.

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.49

The four

In an unstable layer,
the following relations hold:
rad

>

The task of convection theory is to calculate

>

>

ad

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.50

Convection in stars
highly turbulent (Reynolds number Re := vlm 1010 ;

viscosity; lm = 109 cm; lab.: turbulence for Re > 100);)

3-dimensional and non-local
motion in compressible medium on dynamical
timescales (v speed of blobs 103 cm/s = 105 vsound )
3-d hydro simulations limited to illustrative cases

2-d hydro: larger stellar parameter range; shallow

convective layers
dynamical models: averages, simplications, too
complicated for stellar evolution

from simple approaches with additional extensions

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.51

The Mixing Length Theory

F

F =:
Frad

Fconv

Lr
= Fconv + Frad
2
4r
4acG T 4 m
rad
3 P r 2
4acG T 4 m
3 P r 2
vcP (DT )

A blob starts somewhere with DT > 0 and loses identity

after a typical mixing length distance lm . On average
1 (DT ) lm
DT
=
=(
T
T r 2

lm 1
e)
2 HP
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.52

DT D; buoyancy force: fb = gD/ = gDT /T .

The work done by it is (assume 50%)

1 lm
fb
= g(
2 2

2
lm
e)
8HP

50% kinetic energy of the element, 50% pushing

away the surrounding. Then,
2

v = g(
v2,

DT /T in Fconv Fconv

2
lm
e)
8HP

2
lm 3/2
= cP T g 42 Hp (

e)

3/2

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.53

Te changes due to adiabatic cooling and radiation losses,

dT
dr

or

ad

HP
8V vT cP ;

=
e

dT
dr

,
V cP v
ad

describes the radiation loss relative

to the blobs energy; = Sf

8acT 3
DT S
3
d

At this point, geometric factors and other assumptions come

in (for the details see Kippenhahn & Weigert).

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.54

multiplication by HP /T
e

ad

HP
=
V cP vT

use denition of with average DT , and replace form

factor lm S/V d by some geometrical measure, e.g. 9/2 (6
lm
instead of 4.5 for sphere). Above equ. then becomes
e

ad
e

6acT 3
2
cP lm v

Finally, one obtains 5 equations for v , Fconv , Frad ,

in terms of P, T, , lm ,

ad ,

and

rad , cP , g .
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.55

Five equations
Fconv + Frad
Frad
v2
Fconv
e

ad
e

4acG T 4 m
=:
3 P r 2
4acG T 4 m
=
3 P r 2

rad

2
lm
= g( e )
8HP
2
lm 3/2
= cP T g Hp (
4 2
6acT 3
=
2 cP lm v

)3/2
e

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.56

The MLT cubic equation

An analytical solution is possible and leads to a cubic
equation:
8U 2
( U ) +
( U 2 W ) = 0
9
3

where
2 =

+ U2
ad

3acT 3
U =
2
cP 2 lm
W =

rad

8HP
g
ad

W and U can be calculated at any point (local!) and the cubic

equation can be solved.

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.57

The MLT cubic equation

:=

e )1/2
(
=
2U
(

e)
ad )

is the ratio of energy transported by the blob over that lost

from it, or the efciency of the convection.
U small large: almost all ux transported by
convection ad .
U large small; transport by convection but
rad .

general case: convection superadiabatic:

ad

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.58

The mixing length parameter

mixing length lm = MLT HP ; MLT : mixing-length
parameter
MLT of order 1

determined usually by solar models, MLT 1.6 1.9

or other comparisons with observations
NO calibration or meaning!
Examples for
==1

: Sun: r = R /2, m = M /2, T = 107 , = 1,

U = 108

(as long as

rad

< 100

ad );

+ 105 = 0.4
ad

at center,

ad

+ 107 .
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.59

Decits of MLT
local theory no overshooting from convective
boundaries due to inertia of convective elements
time-independent instantaneous adjustment; critical
if other short timescales (pulsations, nuclear burning)
present
only one length scale, but spectrum of turbulent eddies
improvements by Canuto & Mazzitelli
presence of chemical gradients ignored
(semiconvection) treatment of such layers unclear;
probably slow mixing on diffusive timescale due to
secular g -modes; T -gradient radiative?

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.60

Chemical composition
The chemical composition of a star changes due to
nuclear burning
convection and other mixing
diffusion
Notation:
i
relative element mass fraction: Xi := mni , with
hydrogen X , helium Y , metals Z = 1 X Y .

i Xi

= 1;

mi and ni are particle masses and densities.

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.61

Changes due to nuclear reactions

Xi
mi
=
[
t

rji

rik ]
k

1
Energy released is ij = rij eij .
rij : number of reactions per second
eij : energy released per reaction
qij = eij /mi energy released per particle mass
For the conversion of hydrogen into helium, for example, we
get
Y
X
H
=
=
t
qH
t

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.62

Changes due to diffusion

Diffusion equation:
1
vD = D
c

c + kT

ln T + kP

ln P

From Ficks law

jD = cvD = D c

with jD : diffusive particle ux, D: diffusion constant, c:

concentration (relative number density).
From the continuity equation:
c
= jD =
t

(D c) = D

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.63

Diffusion
Corresponding equations for the other two terms, with kT
and kP describing relative diffusion speeds w.r.t.
concentration diffusion.
Sun: D 10 cm2 s1 ; di 1013 yrs; effect is measured:
Y (t ) = 0.246 Y (t = 0) = 0.275 (GARSOM4)
Low-mass stars (1213 Gyr): possibly large effect, but
not yet measured
Mixing by convection can be described with high
D 1015 cm2 s1
Mixing due to rotation: D 1010 cm2 s1

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.64

The overall problem

m = Mr : Lagrangian coordinate
r, P, T, Lr : independent variables
Xi : composition variables
, , , . . .: dependent variables

initial value problem in time: r(m, t = 0), P (m, t = 0),

T (m, t = 0), Lr (m, t = 0), X(m, t = 0) = X(t = 0)
integration with time
boundary value problem in space: r(m = 0, t) = 0,
4
Lr (m = 0, t) = 0 and L = 4R2 Te ,
P (m = M ) = P ( = 2/3)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.65

The equations
The four structure equations to be solved are:
r
m
P
m
Lr
m
T
t

1
=
4r 2
1 2r
Gm

=
4
4r
4r 2 t2
P
T
= n cP
+
t
t
GmT
=
4r 4 P

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.66

The equations
For energy transport, we have to nd the appropriate
In case of radiative transport, this is:
rad

3
Lr P
=
16acG mT 4

Finally, for the composition, we have

Xi
mi
rji
rik + diff. or similar terms
=
t

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.67

Simple stellar models: Homology

Two stars (0, 1) are said to be homologous to each other, if
the following homology assumption holds:
m0
r1
r0
m1
=

=
at
M1
M0
R1
R0
m
r
M

= Rfr

m
M

m
M

= Pc fP

m
M

similarly for T , Lr , where the scaling functions fi are independent of M , but constants are dependent on M and .

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.68

Homology
Assume power laws for the dependent variables:
=

T
0

= 0 n T s
R
P =
T

The equation of state can be written more general as

P T T
n = 1, s = 3.5 for Kramers opacity
= 1, = 7 for pp-chains

...
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.69

Homology
x := m/M ; from (radiative) structure equations
P
dP
P d ln fP
Gm
m

=
=
4
4
dm
m d ln x
4r
m
r
r d ln fr
1
r
1
dr
=
=

2
2
dm
m d ln x
4r
m
r
T
T d ln fT
3 Lr
Lr
dT

=
=
4 3
4T 3
dm
m d ln x
64ac r
m
r T
dLr
Lr d ln fL
=
=
dm
m d ln x

Lr

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.70

MassLuminosityRelation
From the relations for P and and the EOS it follows that
m
T
P

(or rT m) and with that for Lr Lr 4 m3

in particular, for x = 1 or m = M , we have
L 4 M 3 ,

which is the mass-luminosity relation for main sequence

stars. It does not depend on energy generation, but the proportionality is determined mainly by opacity!
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.71

MassLuminosityRelation
. . . and the observed counterpart

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.72

Mass-RadiusRelation
Since also Lr m m T , we obtain (again for x = 1)
R

4
+3

+2
+3

For = 1 and 5 (pp-cylce)

R 0.125 M 0.5

For = 1 and 15 (CNO-cycle)

R 0.61 M 0.78

These are mass-radius relations for the two main nuclear

cycles on the main sequence.
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.73

Mass-RadiusRelation
. . . and the observed counterpart

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.74

Main-SequenceRelation
For R M 3/4 (average exponent), L M 3 and
4
L R2 Te

log L = 8 log Te + const,

which is the equation for the main sequence; for R=const.

one gets
log L = 4 log Te + const,
which are shallower lines.
Note also that since L M 3 but nuc M/L
nuc M 2

more massive stars are brighter, but live for a shorter time!
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.75

Central values on the main sequence:

Set = 1 and =const.
Pc P

P (x)
fP (x)

Also T

M
R,

and Tc T

M2
R4 ,

T (x)
fT (x)

Pc
Tc ,

and R M

Tc M
Pc M
c M
Tc

1
+3

4
+3

2(+5)
+3
2(3)
+3

2
3
c

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.76

Central values on the main sequence:

Central values on
main-sequence (homology results)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.77

Numerical procedure

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.78

The complete problem

m is the Lagrangian coordinate;
r, P, T, Lr are the independent variables;
Xi are the composition variables.
The four structure equations are:
r
m
P
m
Lr
m
T
t

1
=
4r 2
1 2r
Gm

=
4
4r
4r 2 t2
P
T
= n cP
+
t
t
GmT
=
4r 4 P
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.79

The complete problem. . .

For radiation,

is
rad

3
Lr P
=
16acG mT 4

In case of convection
=

For the composition we have

Xi
mi
=
t

Xi = 1

(=

ad )

rji

rik

i
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.80

The complete problem. . .

In addition: (P, T, Xi ), (P, T, Xi ), rjk (P, T, Xi ),
(P, T, Xi ), . . .

n (P, T, Xi ),

In space (mass 0 m M ): boundary value problem with

boundary conditions:
at center: r(0) = 0, Lr (0) = 0
at r = R: P and T either from P = 0, T = 0 (zero b.c.)
or from atmospheric lower boundary and:
4
Stefan-Boltzmann-law L = 4R2 Te

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.81

Central conditions
Series expansion in m around center:
r =

3
4c

1/3

m1/3

3G 4
c
P = Pc
8
3
L r = ( g + n )c m

4/3

m2/3

Stellar atmospheres (hydrostatic, grey):

optical depth: :=
pressure P (R) :=

R dr = R dr ;

gdr gR R dr
R

P =

GM 2 1

R2 3

In time, we have an initial value problem (zero-age model).

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.82

Numerical methods
Spatial problem
1. Direct integration : e.g. Runge-Kutta
2. Difference method : difference equations replace differential
equations
3. Hybrid methods : direct integration between xed
mesh-points; multiple-tting method, but the variation of
the guesses at the xed points is done via a
Newton-method

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.83

The Henyey-method
Write the equations in a general form:
Aj :=
i

j+1
j
yi y i

mj+1
i

mj
i

j+1/2

fi (y1

j+1/2

, . . . , y4

upper index: grid-point (j + 1/2 mean value); lower index:

i-th variable
Outer and inner boundary conditions:
Bi = 0

i = 1, 2

Ci = 0

i = 1, . . . , 4

where the inner ones are to be taken at grid-point N 1 and

the expansions around m = 0 have been used already.
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.84

Henyey-method (contd.)
2 + 4 + (N 2) 4 = 4N 2 equs.
for 4 N unknowns -2 b.c.
Newton-approach for corrections yi
Aj +
i
i

1
y1
1
y2
.
.
.

N
y3
N
y4

Aj
i
yi = 0
yi

B1
.
.
.
j
= A
i
.
.
.
C4
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.85

Henyey-scheme
Matrix H contains
all derivatives and
is called Henyeymatrix. It contains
non-vanishing elements only in blocks.
This leads to a particular method for
solving it (Henyeymethod).
Expresse some of corrections in terms of others, e.g.:
1
2
2
y1 = U1 y3 + V1 y4 + W1 matrix equations for Ui , Vi , Wi .
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.86

Henyey-scheme
First block-matrix j = 1, 2:

B1
1
y1
B2
1
y1
A1
1
1
y1

B1
1
y2
B2
1
y2
A1
1
1
y2

A4
1
1
y1

A4
1
1
y2

.
.
.

.
.
.

...

... 0

1
1
. . . A2
y2
.
.
.
.
.
.
A4
1
. . . y2
2

U1 V 1
U2 V 2
U3 V 3
.
.
.
.
.
.
U6 V 6

W1
W2
W3
.
.
.
W6

0
0

0
0

A1
4
y2
3

A1
4
y2
4

1
A1
1
1
2 A2
= y
y4
3

.
.
.
.
.
.

B1

B2

A1
1
.
.
.
A1
4

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.87

Henyey-scheme
2
2
In the next block, y1 and y2 are replaced as before, and the
3
3
other variables are expressed in terms of y3 and y4 . This

reduces the block of 4 equations in 8 unknowns into one of

4 unknowns. Repeat this until the last block consisting of
4 equations for 6 unknowns (2 expressed by previous coN
N
efcients). y1 , . . . , y4 . Then, the coefcient equations

of the previous block allow to calculate the corrections of

the previous block, and so on, until the rst one is reached
again. This done, the Aj can be computed again (with the
i
derivatives) and the next iteration starts.
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.88

Integration in time
Xi (t +

Xi
t) = Xi (t) +
(T (t), P (t), . . .) t
t

Improvement:
backward differencing (e.g. nuclear network)
Xi (t +

t) = Xi (t) +

rij (t)Xi (t +

t)Xj (t +

t)

done for chemical evolution, mixing, diffusion, etc.

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.89

Microphysics Equation of state,

opacities, energy generation, . . .

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.90

Pressure and energy

Pressure as momentum transfer area= n( ) p( ) v( )
Mean over incident angle (1/3 p v ) and particle energy :
1
P =
3

n( )p( )v( )d

relativistic case:
:= 1

v2
c2

1/2

1
P =
3

; p = mv ; = ( 1)mc2

1+

2mc2

1+

mc2

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.91

Pressure and energy

limiting cases
non-relativistic: mc2
PNR = 2 n d = 2 n
3
3
extrem-relativistic: mc2

= 2 UNR
3
PER = 1 UER
3

general relation P U (energy density)

Radiation pressure:
Prad

1
a 4
= U= T
3
3

a = 7.56 10

15

erg
cm3 K4

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.92

Equation of State - Ideal gas

R
P = nkB T = T

with = nmu ; : molecular weight, mass of particle per

mu .
Several components in gas with relative mass fractions
Xi
Xi = i n i = m u i

electrons and ions:

P = Pe +

Pi = (ne +
i

ni )kT.
i

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.93

Ionization limiting cases

Completely ionized atoms (of mass fraction Xi and charge
Zi ):
Xi (1 + Zi )
R
P = nkT = R
T = T
i

:=

Xi (1+Zi )
i
i

: mean molecular weight

Xi
i i

For a neutral gas, =

The mean molecular weight per free electron is

e :=
i

Xi Z i
i

2
=
(1 + X)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.94

Ideal gas with radiation pressure

P = Pgas + Prad
:=

Pgas
P

Furthermore

= 4(1) and
T

:=
:=
:=

ln
ln P

ln
ln T
ln
ln

(1)
T .

1
=

4 3
=

=1

T,P

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.95

. . . more derivatives
cP :=

ad

dq
dT

=
P

du
dT

+P
P

dv
dT

R 3 3(4 + )(1 ) 4 3
=
+
+
2
2

2
ln T
R
2 1
:=
=
=:
ln P ad cP
2

ad :=

d ln P
d ln

ad

1
=

ad

=: 1

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.96

. . . more relations
d ln T
3 :=
d ln
1
2
=
3 1
2 1

+1
ad

Limiting cases:
For 0, cP ,
For 1, cP

5R
2 ,

ad
ad

1/4 and ad 4/3.

2/5, and ad 5/3.

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.97

Ionization
Saha-equation (see introductory course for derivation):
ur+1 (2me )3/2
nr+1
Pe =
2
(kT )5/2 exp(r /kT ),
nr
ur
h3

with
nr : number density of atoms in ionization state r;
r ionization energy;
ur partition function (statistical weight)
Pe = ne kT the electron pressure (k = kB )

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.98

Hydrogen ionziation in Sun

n = n0 + n1 ; ne = n1 ; x :=
ne
x
Pe = Pgas ne +n = Pgas x+1

n1
n0 +n1

u1 2 (2me )3/2
x2

=
(kT )5/2 e1 /kT
1 x2
u0 Pgas
h3
u0 = 2, u1 = 1 are ground-state stat. weights; 1 = 13.6 eV.

solar surface, T = 5700 K, Pgas = 6.8 104 , x 104

in envelope Pgas = 1012 , T = 7 105 , x 0.99.

mean molecular weight: = 0 /(E +1), where E the number

of free electrons per all atoms.
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.99

Ionization prole

Illustration of ionization of hydrogen and helium within a stellar envelope. In panel (b)
the corresponding run of

ad

is shown. The

depression is due to the increase in cP due

to ionziation. Since

ad

is getting smaller,

convection will set in.

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.100

Electron degeneracy
The distribution of electrons in momentum space
(Boltzmann equation; p is momentum):
p2
4p2
f (p)dpdV = ne
exp
3/2
2me kT
(2me kT )

dpdV

Pauli-principle:
8p2
f (p)dpdV 3 dpdV
h
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.101

Completely degenerate gas

8p2
1/3
f (p) =
for p pF ne non-rel.
h3
= 0 for p > pF
EF =

p2
F
2me

2/3

ne

is the Fermi-energy; for EF me c2 , ve c

1/3

relativistic complete degeneracy and EF ne

pF

me c (non-relativistic)

Pe = 1.0036 1013
pF

5/3

me c (relativistic)

Pe = 1.2435
Pi

1015

4/3

P e = 2 Ue
3
P e = 1 Ue
3

Pe
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.102

Partial degeneracy
Finite T Fermi-Dirac statistics:
8p2
1
dpdV
f (p)dpdV = 3
E
h 1 + exp kT
=

ne
T 3/2

is the degeneracy parameter.

At constant , T 2/3 for the non-relativistic case, and
1/3 in the relativistic one.
For Fermions, the following relations are valid:
ne
Pe

8
=
h3
8
=
3h3

p2 dp
E
1 + exp kT

p3 v(p)dp
E
1 + exp kT

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.103

Partial degeneracy
. . . Ue =

8
h3

Ep2 dp
0 1+exp( E )
kT

f (p) for partially degenerate gas

with ne = 1028 cm3 and T =
1.9107 K corresponding to =
10.

The equation of state for normal stellar matter:

P = Pion +Pe +Prad

R
8
= T + 3
0
3h

a 4
p3 v(p)dp
+ T
E
3
1 + exp kT
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.104

Non-ideal effects
nite size of atoms pressure ionization
important already in Sun and low-mass stars
Coulomb interaction low density pressure reduction
important in many stars (envelopes, but also solar core)
Coulomb interaction high density crystallization
white dwarfs, neutron stars
conguration effects van der Waals gas; quantum
effects (spinspininteractions)
neutronization
neutron stars

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.105

Pressure ionization
defect of Saha-equation: P , T const. ionization
degree decreases
reason: assumption of point-like atoms
picture: atomic potentials overlap and decrease
continuum electrons are set free
effect important for rs
atomic radius and de =
distance

de
a0 < 1, where a0 classical
3 1/3 1/3
ne
mean electronic
4

calculation either with simple recipes (hard-sphere

approach) or quantum-statistical means

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.106

Electrostatic corrections
interaction parameter: thermal energy of species i
relative to Coulomb energy
(Zi e)2

di kT

1 negligible

< 1 Debye-Hckel treatment

1 Wigner-Seitz-approximation

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.107

Debye-Hckel approximation
Debye-radius rD =
( := Z/A )

mu kT
4e2

= 8.9 109

reduction of potential
Ze2
Ze2
V (r) = r exp(r/rD ) r +

T6 / cm ;

Ze2
rD

screening acts as additional energy Es =

Ze2
rD

reduction of free energy gas pressure reduction,

F
P = V T,V
non-degenerate gas Pg = nkT 1

1/2
0.032 3/2 3/2
T6

Sun: 0.5, 2 Pg = nkT [1 0.015]

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.108

Crystallization
at high and low T (white dwarfs) ions form lattice
which minimizes (Coulomb) energy
critical condition: therm. energy Coulomb-energy per
ion of charge Ze
C

(Ze)2
rion kT

1/3

2
3 Z nion
2.7 10
T

C 100 crystallization

melting temperature
(Ze)2
Tm
c k

4
30 mu

1/3

1/3 1/3

= 2.3 103 Z 2 0

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.109

A phase diagram of hydrogen

limits: pressure ionization (rs ), degeneracy i , Coulomb interaction , radiation pressure, ionization

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.110

EOS - practical use

analytical EOS (Saha,
radiation pressure) with
some corrections
(pressure ionization)
semi-analytical:
Eggleton-FaulknerFlannery and derivates
detailed tables (MHD for Sun; OPAL for Sun and
general purposes; Saumon-Chabrier for H/He-gas at
high densities)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.111

Opacity
Thomson-scattering:
= 0.20(1 + X) cm2 g1

Electron scattering:

sc =

2
8 re
3 me mu

Compton-scattering: T > 108 :

< sc

momentum exchange

free-free transitions:

T 7/2 (Kramers formula)

bound-free transitions:

bf Z(1 + X)T 7/2

b-f for H -ion below 104 K (major source)

bound-bound transitions:

below 106 K. No simple formula.

e -conduction: c 2 T 2
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.112

Opacities practical use

complications: complex line structures, many elements,
molecules, underlying EOS, transition probabilities . . .
no on-line calculation
accurate enough
treat separately
use of pre-calculated
tables for many mixtures
Opacity Project (Sun,
atomic data); OPAL (Sun
and stars); Alexander
(low T ; molecules)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.113

Nuclear reactions
conversion of mass to energy; E = mc2
Sun: M c2 = 2 1054 erg

maximum lifetime 1013 years at L

H He conversion: (4MH MHe )c2 = 26.73 MeV

(6.4 1018 erg/gm)
rel. to rest mass: 26.73/3724 = 0.007 1011 yr

He C conversion: (3MHe MC )c2 = 7.27 MeV

lifetime (L 10 102 L ) 109 yr

fusion of heavier elements shorter burning times

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.114

Fundamental terms I
Reaction a + X Y + b (Mi : rest mass)

energy conservation:
EaX + (Ma + MX )c2 = EbY + (Mb + MY )c2
Eij : kinetic energy of i + j in center-of-mass system ij
atomic mass excess:
MAZ = (MAZ Amu )c2
or
= 931.48(MAZ /mu A) MeV

EaX + ( Ma +

MX ) = EbY + ( Mb +

MY )

Some mass excesses (in MeV):

p: 7.288; d: 13.136; 3 He: 14.931; 4 He: 2.425; 12 C: 0.0;
16 O: -4.727; 56 Fe: -60.605

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.115

Fundamental terms II
Cross section (cm2 ): probability per pair of reaction
partners for reaction to occur
number
(cm2 ) = number of of reactions/nucleus X/time
incident particles a/area/time
Reaction rate r(reactions/(cm3 s))
NX : number density of X ; Na : number density of a;
v : velocity of a relative to X ; (v): cross section (ux-,
or velocity-dependent)
In a gas, relative velocities follow a velocity distribution
(v) ( (v)dv = 1)
raX = Na NX

v(v)(v)dv Na NX v

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.116

Fundamental terms III

Correction for identical reaction partners:
raX = (1 + aX )1 Na NX v
v (reaction rate per pair of particles)

lifetime of X against reactions with a:

NX
NX
= a (X) = raX a (X) = (a (X)Na )1
t a
velocity distribution (v) (both nuclei are Maxwellian):
N1 (v1 )d3 v1 N2 (v2 )d3 v2 =

(m1 m2 )3/2
N1 N2 (2kT )3

exp

(m1 +m2 )V 2

2kT

v 2
2kT

d3 v 1 d3 v 2

V : velocity of center of mass; v : velocity relative to

c.o.m.
: reduced mass (m1 m2 /(m1 + m2 ))
r = N 1 N2

3/2

2kT

v(v) exp

v 2
2kT

4v 2 dv
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.117

Non-resonant reaction rates

Coulomb barrier: V =

1.44 Z1 Z2
R(fm)

MeV

thermal energy: kT = 8.62 108 T keV

particles with average energy cannot penetrate barrier,

but those with high enough energies are too few

Gamow: tunnel-effect; penetration probability

2Z1 Z2 e2
exp
v

cross-sections proportional to such a factor

S(E)
2Z1 Z2 e2
(E) E exp
v

this leaves S(E) as a slowly varying function to be

determined

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.118

v for non-resonant reactions

8

v =

1
2

(kT )

3
2

E
b
S(E) exp

kT
E

1
2

where b 31.28Z1 Z2 A keV ; A =

A1 A2
A1 +A2

1
2

dE

Mu

S(E): slowly for steller energies replace it by average S0 :

v =

1
2

S0
(kT )

3
2

E
b
exp

kT
E

dE

Integrand has maximum at the most effective energy

E0 =

bkT
2

2
3

1
2) 3
1.220(Z1 Z2 AT6

keV > kT !
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.119

v for non-resonant reactions

S(E) lab. measurements for T 100 keV (but
3 He(3 He, 2p)4 He at 20 keV)

extrapolated to lower energy and characterized by

dS
S(E = 0) and dE |E=0
exponential integrand in v replaced by
E0
b
exp

kT
E0
E0
with exp kT

and

4
(E0
3

b
E0
kT )1/2

E E0
exp
/2

= exp 3E0
kT
=

1
2 Z 2 AT 5 ) 6
0.75(Z1 2 6

keV

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.120

The Gamow-peak

S(E0 ): S(E0 ) +

dS
dE E0

(E E0 )

Gaussian shape for Gamow peak:

5
correction factor F ( ) = 1 + 12 + O( 2 ) ( = 3E0 /kT )
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.121

Resonant reactions
conditions:
a + X W Y + b: W is compound nucleus

quasistationary states of compound nucleus, Ei

Ei kT

angular momentum, isotopic spin and parity conserved

Consequences:
In resonances, cross section dramatically increased
Some resonances predicted
(3 8 Be + 12 C)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.122

Electron (Coulomb) shielding

effective potential: Utot (d12 ) =

Z 1 Z 2 e2
d12

+ U (d12 )

radius Rsh of shielding cloud (e and ions) larger than

interparticle distance
turning radius R0

Z 1 Z 2 e2
E0

Rsh

U (d12 ) U0 (at nuclear radius)

penetration factor in star at E = that in laboratory at

E U0
reaction rate r12 = r12 eU0 /kT

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.123

Weak screening
kT

Coulomb energy of ions (Debye-Hckel approx.)

potential around nucleus: V1

rD =

kT
4e2 N0

1/2

Z2 close to Z1

;=

U0
kT

enhancement f 1
1954)

eZ1
d

exp rd
D

(Z 2 +Z)XZ
Z
AZ
1
2

= 0.188Z1 Z2
U0
kT

1
2

3
2
T6

(weak screening; Salpeter

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.124

Strong screening
Coulomb energy of ions

kT

pure electron cloud around ion

electrostatic energy of cloud U =
RZ =
U0
kT

3Z
4ne

1
2

5
3

5
3

9
10 (Ze)
RZ

5
3

= 0.205[(Z1 + Z2 ) Z1 Z2 ]

1
3

1
T6

for stellar astrophysics mostly unimportant!

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.125

Reaction types
1. standard reactions:
(p, ), (, p) (photo-disintegration)
(n, ), (, n)
(, ), (, )
(p, n), (n, p)
(, n), (n, )
(, p), (p, )
e - (e !) and + (e ) -decay and -capture

2. multiple-particle reactions: 3-process

3. ion-ion reaction:

12 C(12 C, )24 Mg

or 12 C(12 C, p)23 Ne

4. URCA-process:
e + (Z, A) (Z 1, A) + e (Z, A) + e + e (A odd)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.126

Reaction rate sources

Caughlan & Fowler (ADNDT 40, 283, 1988): Z 14;
NA v ; Q-value and factor for inverse reaction
NA v N1 : interaction rate/second (reciprocal of
lifetime)
NA v NA N1 N2 /(1 + 12 ): reactions/(g sec)
NA v NA N1 N2 /(1 + 12 ) 1.6022 106 Q6 : energy
generation in erg/(g sec)
t-formulae like (p(p, + )d):
NA v =
4.01E-15/T9(2/3)*DEXP(-3.380/T9(1/3))*
(1.+0.123*T9(1/3)+1.09*T9(2/3)+0.938*T9)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.127

Reaction rate sources

Adelberger et al. (Rev. Modern Physics, 70, 1265,
1998): update on solar reaction rates (i.e. hydrogen
burning) attempt to dene recommendable standard
NACRE (Angulo et al., Nuc. Phys. A 656, 3, 1999)
individual sources for selected reactions (e.g.
22 Ne(p, )23 Na from El Eid & Champagne 1995)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.128

Hydrogen burning
pp-chains:

Energy per completion: 26.20 (ppI), 25.67 (ppII), 19.20 MeV

(ppIII).
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.129

pp-chains reactions - I
1. p(p, + e )d

1.442 MeV; E = 0.263 MeV

2
rpp 2 XH ; p (H) 1010 yrs
pep-reaction p(pe , e )d:
1/2
rpep = 5.51 105 (1 + X)T6
(1 + 0.02T6 )rpp
2. d(p, )3 He
d(p, )3 He favored over d(d, )4 He
dD
dt

H2
pp 2

pd HD

D equilibrium abundance:

D
H e

pp
2pd

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.130

pp-chains reactions - II
3. 3 He(3 He, 2p)4 He
equation for 3 He-abundance:
d3 He
(3 He)2
= pd HD 233
dt
2
H2
(3 He)2
d3 He
= pp
233
dt
2
2
3 He

achieves equilibrium value:

3 He

=
e

pp
233

1/2

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.131

ppI-chain in equilibrium
equation for 4 He-abundance:
d4 He
(3 He)2
= 33
= r33
dt
2

rst step: 3H 3 He + at rate rpp liberates 6.936 MeV

(-0.262 for )
(3H 3 He) = 1.069 105 rpp erg g1 sec1
second step: 23 He 4 He liberates 12.858 MeV
total energy is sum:
or

(3 He

ppI

in equilibrium)

= 1.069 105 rpp + 2.060 105 r33

d4 He
dt

rpp
2 ; ppI

= 2.099 105 rpp

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.132

pp-chains reactions - III

4. 3 He(4 He, )7 Be competitive reaction to ppI -termination
5. 7 Be(e , )7 Li
7 Be-neutrinos (Homestake experiment);
E = 0.80 MeV
followed (immediately) by 7 Li(p,4 He)4 He (ppII -chain)
6. 7 Be(p, )8 B
about 103 as frequent as e -capture
followed by decay 8 B 8 Be + + 2 4 He (0.8 sec)

ppIII -chain; B- (Kamiokande); E = 7.2 MeV

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.133

pp-chains reactions - IV
7. ppI vs. ppII and ppIII
4 He is only catalyst to allow 3 He and p to produce
another 4 He
energy/reaction therefore the same in ppII and
ppIII except for -losses
7 Li and 7 Be in few years in eqilibrium
4 He and H equations are then:
d4 He
(3 He)2
= 33
+ 34 3 He4 He
dt
2
dH
H2
(3 He)2
= 3pp
+ 233
34 3 He4 He
dt
2
2
branching between subcycles T -dependent
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.134

CNO-cycle

14 N (p, )15 O

slowest reac-

tion;
qCNO 25M eV ;
C & O 14 N .

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.135

CNO-cycle remarks
12 C/13 C

3 . . . 6 (solar: 90)

at low T : C N

Equivalent cycles involving Na and Mg exist and

operate partially at higher temperature ( 5 107 K).
(p,)
21

(p,)
22

Ne

25

Na

Mg

(+) (+)
21

Na NeNa

22

23

Ne

(p,)

27

Al

Si

(+) (+)
25

Ne

(p,) (p,)
20

(p,)
26

Al MgAl

26

Mg

(+)

(p,) (p,)
24

Na

(p,)

27

Mg

(p,)

28

Al

Si

(p,)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.136

Hydrogen-shell abundance prole

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.137

pp or CNO?

2
XH
XH XCN
pp

CN

With increasing temperature, the CNOcycle becomes more

dominant.

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.138

Helium burning 3-process

No stable isotopes with A = 5, 8
3 particle process unlikely
Salpeter: 3 is two-step process
8 Be

breakup lifetime of 1016 sec

equilibrium
8 B +4

4 He +4

He

He 12 C +

Be;

He
8 Be

109

resonance in 12 C! (predicted: Hoyle, measured: Fowler)

T -separation: no simultaneous p- and -processes

at T 108 ,

40
T8 ! (pp 3 7, CNO 15)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.139

Helium burning further reactions

12 C(, )16 O:

uncertain by factors 3; C -production!

Q(12 C 16 O) = 7.161 MeV

16 O(, )20 Ne

Q(16 O 20 Ne) = 4.73 MeV

at higher temperatures further -captures

( -elements: Mg, Si, S, Ca, Sc, Ti; Supernovae II)
Q(20 Ne 24 Mg) = 9.31 MeV

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.140

Carbon burning I
1.

12 C

+12 C (at 6 7 108 K)

many resonances in compound nucleus 24 Mg
many energetically interesting reaction channels:
24 Mg + (13.93 MeV) !
23 Na + p (2.238 MeV) !!
20 Ne + (4.616 MeV) !!
23 Mg + n (-2.605 MeV)
16 O + 2 (-0.114 MeV) !
liberated particles buildup of 16 O, -elements, etc.
complicated nucleosynthesis begins

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.141

Carbon burning II
2.

12 C

3.

+16 O: Coulomb-barrier too high

16 O

+16 O: (at 1 109 K)

similar channels as for 12 C +12 C:
32 S + (16.539 MeV)
31 P + p (7.676 MeV)
28 Si + (9.593 MeV)
31 S + n (1.459 MeV)
24 Mg + 2 (-0.393 MeV)
high energy losses (plasma) dominate over
nuclear energy production!

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.142

Beyond carbon burning

Photo-disintegration (T 8 108 K)
similar to ionization (but now nuclear instead of
atomic forces to be overcome by radiation bath)
20 Ne + 16 O +
implies that C-burning products might be destroyed
later at higher T!
. . . afterwards rearrangement of nuclei abundances at
increasing temperatures by emission and capture of
particles until 56 Fe (max. in binding energy/nucleon);
controlled by photodisintegration of 28 Si

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.143

Burning- and life-times

burning times:
H : 1010 (yrs)
He : 108
C : 104
.
. : .
.
.
.
Si : hrs

lifetimes for Z
mass (M )
0.6
1.0
1.6
2.0
3.0
5.0
9.0
15.0
20.0
40.0
100.

= 0.004, Y = 0.240:
H-burn. He-burn.
5.3 1010
1.3 108
7.0 109
1.1 108
1.5 109
1.2 108
8.3 108
2.5 108
3.1 108
6.1 107
1.0 108
9.4 106
3.3 107
2.0 107
1.4 107
8.9 105
9.8 106
6.6 105
5.0 106
4.3 105
3.1 106
2.7 105
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.144

Plasma neutrino emission

Stellar plasma emits neutrinos, which leave star without
interaction and lead to energy loss L .
Processes are:

1. Pair annihilation: e + e+ + at T > 109 K.

2. Photoneutrinos: + e e + + (as Compton

scattering, but with -pair instead of ).

3. Plasmaneutrinos: pl + ; decay of plasma state pl

4. Bremsstrahlung: inelastic nucleuse scattering, but

emitted photon replaced by a -pair.

5. Synchroton neutrinos: as synchroton radiation, but

again a photon replaced by a -pair.

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.145

Regions of plasma-neutrino processes

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.146

The Standard Solar Model

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.147

A low-mass main-sequence star

Sun in main-sequence phase
hydrogen fusion in stellar center
standard test case for theory
solar neutrino problem
helioseismology

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.148

Solar quantities
Quantity

value

accuracy

1.4959 1013 cm

108

source

triangulation;
radar & laser

1.989 1033 g

103

Keplers 3rd law

6.955 1010 cm

3 105

angular diameter

2.74 104 cm/s2

3.846 1033 erg/s

104

5779 K

4.5 K

Stefan-Boltzmann

Z/X = 0.0245

0.0010

photosph.;meteor.

Te
X

Z/X = 0.0230
Z

solar constant

(new measurements)

O = 0.49, C = 0.30
N = 0.05, F e = 0.07

X&Y
t

X = 0.713 Y = 0.270
4.57 109 yrs

solar models
0.03 109

meteorites

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.149

Interlude on star formation

Proto-stars contract along Hayashi-line
fully convective homogeneous
heat up (virial theorem)

energy lost taken from contraction( g )

Lr
m

= T S
t

nally hydrogen burning starts

M < 0.08 M brown dwarfs

stellar structure theory when star contracts on thermal

timescale
Tc 105 K and T (R) 3000 K; lg L/L 3
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.150

Pre-MS evolution
During the contraction:
106 yrs: Tc 6 105 K
deuterium burning
107 yrs: Tc 8 106 K
CN-equilibrium
3 107 yrs; pp-chain

pp-nuclei in equilibrium
abundances (3 He)
4 107 yrs: g 0 and L =
n dm (ZAMS)
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.151

Evolution on the main-sequence

The Sun at its present age:
Xc (t ) = 0.36 (50% of
fuel)

from t = 0:
L = 0.68L &
Te = 5600 K
Tc & Pc increased by
7% & 30%.
n:

98% pp-chain; 2%
CNO-cycle

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.152

Solar neutrino production

The neutrino ux as produced within the solar core as a function of relative radius
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.153

The solar neutrino problem

Solar neutrinos - predicted and measured

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.154

Solutions that dont work

Nuclear solution:
reactions quite accurately known
no-solar-modelargument: no combination of
neutrino source uxes can match all
Astrophysical solution:
solar structure from seismology accurately known
T as predicted
non-standard models do not t seismic structure
no-solar-model argument
particle physics solution

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.155

Neutrino oscillations
extensions of standard model for particle physics allow
massive neutrinos
avour changes (e , , ) are possible

in vacuum and in presence of matter

(MikheyevSmirnovWolfensteineffect)

in nuclear reactions only e are created (charged

current)
depending on m2 and mixing angle sin2 2 in detector
certain fraction of other avours arrive
radiochemical detectors: only e measurable decit
electron scattering detectors: neutral charge cross
section much smaller decit

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.156

Neutrino oscillation solutions

10-3
LMA

10-4

m2 [eV2]

10-5
SMA

10-6
10-7

LOW

10-8
10-9
10-4

10-3

10-2
sin22

10-1

100

m2 [eV2]

10-9

10-10

10-11
0.2

VO

0.4

0.6
sin22

0.8

1.0

Condence regions in MSWparameter space for 2-avour

oscillations
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.157

Helioseismology
Sun oscillates in > 105 eigenmodes
characterized by mode numbers n
(radial), l (angular), and m (longitudinal)
measured by Doppler-observations of
lines
frequencies of order mHz (5-min.
oscillations)
differences of order Hz days to
months of observations
relative accuracy achieved 105 !

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.158

p-modes
if restoring force is pressure (sound waves) p-modes
propagation depends on sound speed prole, which
increases inwards
outer turning point: steep -gradient at photosphere
inner turning point: mode-dependent

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.159

Solar structure from p-modes

frequencies of standing waves depend on , P , g , 1
with structure equations on and 1 =

ln P
ln

ad

inversion returns sound speed c(r) and density

errors: measured frequencies, inversion method,
reference model
seismic model comparison with theoretical model

forward comparison (model predictions for ) also

possible)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.160

Sound speed comparison

(cSSM cseis )/cseis ) for three current Standard Solar Models and the uncertainty of the seismic sound speed prole
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.161

Helioseismology: results
solar sound speed prole to 3 103 (0.2 r/R 0.8)
and < 1 102 everywhere

depth of convective envelope: rbcz = 0.713 0.001 R

(SSM: 0.713 R )
present surface helium content: Y = 0.246 0.002
(SSM: 0.245)
solar radius (seismic determination):
R = (695.508 0.026) 106 m

central temperature known to better than 1%

exclusion of all non-standard models

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.162

Helioseismology: solar rotation

From SOHO/GOLF-data:

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.163

The Standard Solar Model

full evolutionary sequence from pre-MS or zero-age MS
to solar age
unknown parameters: initial Y , Z , MLT
xed parameters: M , t
quantities to be matched: (Z/X) , Te (t ), L
independently predicted quantities: rbcz , Y (t ), c(r)
input physics: standard (OPAL & EOS; Adelberger
reaction rates; particle diffusion [sedimentation])
references: Bahcall & Pinsonneault (1998, 2001),
Christensen-Dalsgaard et al. (1996), Schlattl & Weiss
(1999)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.164

The solar structure

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.165

Envelope structure
The temperature gradients in the outermost layers:

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.166

The Sun as a laboratory

Solar structure well known deviations from SSM result in
incompatibilities use as test for non-standard or
uncertain physics.
Examples:
determine the solar age
test overshooting from convective envelope
limit additional energy loss by axions
nd decits in EoS (relativistic electrons)
test non-Salpeter electron screening
limit uncertainties in nuclear reactions

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.167

Evolution of low-mass stars

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.168

ZAMS-star properties
The (zero-age) main sequence is the place of stars in core
hydrogen burning with mass being the parameter along it.
Radius increases with mass. Zero age = homogeneous
composition (idealization)
Homology relations:
L

M 3 4

and R

pp-chain (for M

4
+3

1
+3

1.5M ), R 0.15 M 0.5

CNO-cycle R 0.6 M 0.8

central values
Tc M

4
+3

Pc M

2(5)
+3

c M

2(3)
+3

2
3

T c c

Central temperature , but density with mass!

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.169

Brown dwarfs
stars that can never be
stabilized by H-burning
estimate: H-burning
temperature
Tc 5 106 K; from
homology ( 4):
MBD < M (Tc, /Tc )2
0.1 M
numerical result:
MBD 0.075 M
rst
detection
on
grounds of 7 Li-presence
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.170

Interlude on Li
very fragile element; burnt via 7 Li(p, )4 He at
T 2 106 K
primordial abundance [Li] = 2.2 (109.8 of H)
meteoritic (pre-solar) abundance [Li] = 3.3
solar photosphere abundance [Li] = 1.2 not explained
by SSM; T at rbcz not high enough
less massive stars deeper convective zones more
burning
at M 0.4 M completely convective complete
burning of 7 Li
at M

0.06 M even Tc < 2 106 K 7 Li reappears!

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.171

Fully convective VLMS

VLMS: M/M

0.7M

very cool LMS become

fully (almost
adiabatically) convective
convective core due to
3 He +3 He-reactions
internal
structure
strongly
dependent
on outer b.c. atmospheres
radiative zone limits

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.172

VLMS - HRD
characteristic
S-shape due to
H2 -dissociation ( ad )
and onset of
degeneracy (constant
radius track)
M Lrelation important for interpretation
of N (MV ) mass
budget
HRD from M = 0.09 0.7 M

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.173

Comparison with observations

done both for eld

stars (solar Z ) and
clusters
important ingredients:
EoS (non-ideal effects), atmospheres,
colour
transformations
VLMS and the CMD of NGC6397

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.174

Normal low-mass stars

M

0.8 M still on MS

M 0.8 M (at age of universe) leave MS (turn-off)

found in Globular Clusters and Halo

metal-poor stars: relative overabundance of O and

other -elements w.r.t. Fe of [/Fe] 0.3 0.4

M 1.5 M (a few Gyr) in disk and open clusters

(around solar metallicity)

convective envelope below 1.2

convective core above 1.1
(CNO-burning!)

M1 /M

M2 /M

1.4

1.3

end of MS: transition to thick thin H-shell (always

CNO)
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.175

Low-mass stars: Evolution

MS and lower RGB evolution; inuence of composition

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.176

Evolution up the Red Giant Branch

H-shell develops within former core (X < X(t = 0))
continuously deepening outer convective envelope,
reaching into former core rst dredge-up
approaching H-shell nally pushes back convective
envelope

when reaching point of deepest convective extent

increased H-supply shell lights up L vertical
loop in HRD bump in observed luminosity function

mass loss on upper RGB; according to Reimers formula

dM
13 L
= 4 10
dt
gR

(M yr1 )

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.177

The rst dredge-up

accompanied by
small He-enrichment
of envelope
in eld stars: larger effects than predicted
additional deep mixing necessary

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.178

The RGB-bump

useful as distance indicator, check for theory

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.179

Core evolution on RGB

H-shell advances at Mc =

L
X0 q

increasing He-core mass

7
L Mc (shell homology)

core degenerate isothermal at Tc = Tsh

core contracting; shell and envelope expanding

small heating effect due to contracting material from
shell
high core density plasma- -emission T -inversion;
hottest point slightly below shell
when Tmax 108 K He-ignition
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.180

Luminosity Function
3.3
M30

2.8

Log n

2.3

1.8

1.3
Z=0.0005 t=16 Gyr
Z=0.0005 t=14 Gyr
Z=0.0002 t=14 Gyr

0.8

0.3
0.2

1.2

2.2

3.2

4.2

5.2

6.2

Mv

luminosity functions test stellar evolution

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.181

Core Helium Flash

core develops independent of envelope
Mc at ash almost constant (Mc, 0.49 M )
luminosity at ash Ltip constant distance indicator

complex, almost dynamical behaviour; timescales down

to hours
He-ignition off-center: if degenerate conditions
low-mass star (M 2.3 2.5 M )

nuclear energy into heating, not expansion runaway

stops when T high enough for degeneracy lifted; then

core expansion

star settles on Horizontal branch/Red Giant Clump with

non-degenerate He-burning core and H-burning shell
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.182

Core Helium Flash

mixing of H into C-rich He-layers during ash possible!

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.183

Core Helium Flash

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.184

Horizontal Branch
after He-ash: same Mc
same L horizontal

Te determined by total (i.e.

envelope) mass

distribution due to mass loss,

but not understood
rst HB parameter:
composition (metal-poor
blue HB)
second parameter: unknown;
age?

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.185

Past the HB. . .

He-shell burning (2
shells) Asymptotic
Giant Branch (see
intermediate-mass
stars)
and/or extinction of
H-shell crossing of
HRD at constant L
white dwarf
The solar evolution from ZAMS to WD

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.186

Globular Clusters
Globular Clusters are excellent for test and use of stellar
evolution theory:
very populous well-dened CMD-branches
all stars at same distance

homogeneous composition (rst order)

They can be used for
age determination
distance scale calibration (tip RGB; bump; HB)
calibration of theory (MLT ; colour transformations;
diffusion; . . . )
detecting new effects (deep mixing; rotation)
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.187

GC Age determinations
Need:
metallicity [Fe/H]; [/Fe]
distance (RR Lyr;
MS-tting to local
subdwarfs; . . . )
reddening
appropriate isochrones
TO-brightness age

Or:
age from relative
changes of CMD-branches

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.188

GC Ages: Comments
Problem: at high ages changes less sensitive to age
( VTO = 0.1mag t 1.5 Gyr)

Open clusters: younger; Y0 uncertain; fewer stars (no

RGB)
but some have Hipparcos-distances!
tting of isochrones: quality is illusion of accuracy
(colour transformation)
latest results: oldest galactic GC are 12 Gyr;
-enhancement, new EoS, new opacities (from solar
model!) necessary; diffusion?

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.189

Salaris & Weiss results

Examples: M68 in (V I); ages for the largest GC sample ever

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.190

Evolution of intermediate-mass stars

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.191

General features
2.5 M/M < 8: early evolution differs from
M 1.3M stars

mass range 1.3 < M/M < 2.5: properties of both

groups
convective core and radiative envelope on the MS (for
M > 1.3M ); electron scattering opacity becoming
important
hydrogen-burning via CNO-cycle; XZCNO T 18

rapid transition from MS to RGB (so-called Hertzsprung

gap in HRD)
helium core remains non-degenerate
non-violent ignition of He at center
double-shell burning phase with degenerate C/O-core
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.192

Post-MS core evolution

Virial theorem applied to isothermal helium-core:
Mc

Eg =

Gm
dm = [4r 3 P ]Mc
0
r

Mc
0

P
3 dm

with (i.G.; T = Tc )
Mc
0

P
R
3 dm = 2Ei 3 Tc Mc

R
GMc
3
3 T c Mc C g
4Rc Pc = 0

Rc

Here we have replaced Eg by an approximation with a

structure constant Cg .
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.193

Post-MS core evolution

It follows that
2
2
3R Tc Mc Cg G Mc
T c Mc
Mc
Pc =

= C 1 3 C2 4 , C1 , C2 > 0
3
4
4 Rc
4 Rc
Rc
Rc

For xed Mc , Tc , search the maximum, i.e.

Pc
Rc M ,T
c c

= 0.

This yields
2187R4
Tc4
Tc4
Pc =
4 2
2 C 3 G3 4 M 2
1024 g
Mc
c

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.194

Schnberg-Chandrasekhar mass
Envelope pressure Pe Tc4 /M 2 independent of Rc .
If maximum of Pc < Pe , no solution in equilibrium core
contracts on a thermal timescale.
critical Schnberg-Chandrasekhar mass q := Mc /M :
qSC = 0.37

e
c

numerical value for solar-type stars is 0.08.

If q > qSC degenerate (additional pressure source) or nonisothermal (by contraction energy) core.

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.195

Hertzsprung-gap
Consequences:
1. after MS, cores of intermediate-mass stars contract on
thermal timescale
2. envelope expands (why?) and gets cooler
3. fast crossing of HRD gap

4. convection starts

5. further expansion via radius increase at constant Te

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.196

Evolution of 5 M -star

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.197

Helium-burning phase
Helium ignites under non-degenerate conditions
M

3 4 M ignition during RGB ascent clump

higher mass (M > 4M ): excursion to higher Te loop

through Cepheid-strip
loops depend on detailed structure
end of core helium burning: helium-burning shell
around C/O core and double-shell phase
asymptotic return to RGB: Asymptotic Giant Branch
(AGB)
second dredge-up event

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.198

AGB-phase
Double-shell phase reached for M > 0.8 M ;
intermediate-mass stars are prototype
special features: thermal pulses, nucleosynthesis of
rare elements (s-process); strong mass-loss
for 0.6 < Mc /M < 0.9: L/L = 5.92 104 (Mc 0.495)
Thermal pulses
runaway events in helium shell
duration: few hundred years
interpulse time: few thousand years
strong luminosity variations in shell
variable convective zones
dynamical phase possible

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.199

Thermal instability of helium shell

1. assume shell expands a little bit, e.g. due to a small
T -uctuation or an increase in Y
2. if shell is very thin, the increase in thickness
3. change of mean radius of shell,
because the shell is very thin

dr
r ,

dD
D

is

however is almost 0,

4. pressure in shell depends (hydrostatic equilibrium) on

pressure exerted from the envelope
dr
r

5.

1 envelope does not feel any change in the

gravitational potential, and Pe stays constant

6.

< 0 but dP = 0, for ideal gas

dT
T

> 0 heating

7. runaway until pressure is changing, too, or excessive

energy carried away (convection)
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.200

A thermal pulse

The event of a thermal pulse in

a 5M star (Pop. II). The rst
panel (a) shows the location of
the two shells and the convective regions; the second (b) the
stellar luminosity, the third (c)
the luminosity produced in Hand He-shell, (d) Te and (e) the
stellar radius. The time axis has
a varying scale.
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.201

Luminosity during TPs

4.5

3.5

3
805

Thermal pulses in a 2.5M

806

807

star over the whole AGB evolution

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.202

Mass loss on the AGB

M = const evolution until Mc 1.4M

but: White Dwarf masses 0.6M

mass loss along AGB; up to 90% of mass lost!

M increase for high L; superwind: 104 M /yr

Wind mechanism: radiative acceleration of dust forming

in atmosphere

M = L /(Te M )

ejected envelope expanding around star

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.203

The post-AGB HRD

AGB- and post-AGB evolution of a 2M

star.

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.204

The post-AGB phase

Me < 102 : envelope contracts

former core rapidly crosses HRD at constant L to high

Te , illuminating circumstellar shell with UV-photons
timescale: few 104 yrs

at Te 2 104 K UV- ionize circumstellar shell

(Planetary Nebula)
later: H-shell extinguishes
WD cooling sequence reached
possibly late thermal pulse in post-AGB phase

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.205

Third dredge-up
AGB-stars show s-process elements (rare earths)
enriched
process: thermal neutron captures (no
Coulomb-barrier!); s for slow (compared to -decays)
needs large n-ux
Two n-sources:
13

C(, n)16 O

and

22

Ne(, n)25 Mg

Mechanism:
TP: outer convective zone reaches He-rich layers
below H-shell
during pulse (intershell convection) He-layers
enriched in C
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.206

Nucleosynthesis on the AGB

formation of C-stars; observed even at low L

third dredge-up also mixes protons into the hot He-shell

13 C source
12

16

C(p, )13 N( + )13 C

(p, )14 N
(, n)16 O

O(p, )17 F( + )17 O

(p, )14 N
(, n)20 Ne

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.207

Nucleosynthesis on the AGB

or: H-shell converts C and O mostly into 14 N
14 N

gets mixed into the He-shell, where

14

N(, )18 F( + )18 O(, )22 Ne(, n)25 Mg

calculations: 3rd dredge-up, proton injection, and

s-process more likely obtained, if
pulse number is high
Z is low
non-standard convection (overshooting,
semiconvection) is used
Example:
110 Cd

+n

e 115
111 Cd + n . . .115 Cd In + n

...
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.208

A different nal evolution

. . . for M

6M :

if mass high enough and M fails to remove envelope

Mc = MCH 1.44 M reached

collapse and heating

C/O-core reaches C-burning ignition temperature

(T 6 108 K)

core highly degenerate (similar to He-ash conditions,

but more extreme)
thermal runaway supernova explosion

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.209

Evolution of massive stars

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.210

General features
ignition of carbon in non-degenerate C/O-core
M 8M
at M 100 M vibrational instability due to
-mechanism (positive feedback from nuclear reaction
T -dependence) disruption
extended convective cores on MS; overshooting

radiation pressure; electron scattering; relatively low

(20 M : c 6.5)
mass loss strong and important (WR-stars: stellar
winds uncovering core during MS-phase)
nuclear burning stages from H- to Si-burning
Fe-cores; -disintegration dynamical instability
ad > 4/3) core collapse supernova
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.211

HRD of massive stars - I

Y = 0.285, Z = 0.02
(Limongi et al. 2000): no
mass loss, no overshooting, semiconvection during He-burning

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.212

HRD of massive stars - II

Y = 0.28, Z = 0.02
(Maeder, 1981): moderate mass loss, no overshooting

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.213

HRD of massive stars - III

Y = 0.285, Z = 0.02
(de Loore & Doom):
parametrized mass loss &
overshooting

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.214

Convective cores

Canonical onvective
core sizes as function of mass and
metallicity (Mowlavi
et al., 1998); moderate overshooting =
0.2 HP

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.215

Overshooting
large convective cores with high velocities and negative
temperature excess above Schwarzschild-boundary
extension of convective core due to overshooting
changes structure and increases fuel reservoir
extended lifetimes and broader main-sequence bands

from observations: canonical MS-bands too narrow

overshooting needed
inclusion: mostly parametric (fractions of HP );

mass mSch m=0.25 m= 1.0

20
9
11
14
40
24
26
31
80
58
61
68
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.216

Semiconvection
after end of main-sequence phase; previous dying
convective core and above chemical gradients and
convection semiconvection
crucial for understanding of SN1987A

20 M

SN1987A progenitor evolution Left: Schwarschild-criterion; different physical aspects.

Right: Ledoux criterion; innitely slow semiconvective mixing

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.217

Convection zones evolution

convective
zones
until
beginning
of
core
carbon
burning
03/2002 Stellar Structure p.218

Mass loss
Observational evidence:
Wolf-Rayet stars CNO-burning products at surface
no red supergiants envelope lost before red
blue-to-red ratios mass loss explains
spectroscopy
Inuence:
total mass
core evolution
HRD-evolution
Inclusion: parametrized or ab-initio-calculations
Interaction with effect of overshooting

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.219

Mass loss on MS

Stellar mass at end

of MS (Mowlavi et al.,
1998), mass loss according to de Jager et
al. + Kudritzki (solid) or
2x the same (dashed)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.220

Mass loss parametrization

1. function of L only: log M = m + n log L or M = N L/c2

2. of more stellar parmeters:

log M = m + n log L + p log R q log M

3. example:

log(M ) = 1.24 log L + 0.16 log M + 0.81 log R 14.02

(de Jagers et al., 1989)

4. for WR-stars: log(M ) = 107 M 2.5 ( = 0.6 1.0)

(Langer, 1989)

5. metallicity dependence (Kudritzki et al.): M Z 1/2

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.221

Central evolution

Tc vs. c for massive

stars during subsequent nuclear burning stages (Limongi
et al.)

03/2002 Stellar Structure p.222