THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

The real number system evolved over time by expanding the notion of what we mean by the
word number. At first, number meant something you could count, like how many sheep a
farmer owns. These are called the natural numbers, or sometimes the counting numbers.
Natural Numbers
or Counting Numbers
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
- The use of three dots at the end of the list is a common mathematical notation to
indicate that the list keeps going forever.
At some point, the idea of zero came to be considered as a number. If the farmer does not
have any sheep, then the number of sheep that the farmer owns is zero. We call the set of
natural numbers plus the number zero the whole numbers.
Whole Numbers
Natural Numbers together with zero
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .

About the Number Zero
What is zero? Is it a number? How can the number of nothing be a
number? Is zero nothing, or is it something?
Well, before this starts to sound like a Zen koan, lets look at how we
use the numeral 0. Arab and Indian scholars were the first to use zero
to develop the place-value number system that we use today. When we
write a number, we use only the ten numerals 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and
9. These numerals can stand for ones, tens, hundreds, or whatever
depending on their position in the number. In order for this to work, we
have to have a way to mark an empty place in a number, or the place
values wont come out right. This is what the numeral 0 does. Think
of it as an empty container, signifying that that place is empty. For
example, the number 302 has 3 hundreds, no tens, and 2 ones.
So is zero a number? Well, that is a matter of definition, but in
mathematics we tend to call it a duck if it acts like a duck, or at least if
its behavior is mostly duck-like. The number zero obeys most of the
same rules of arithmetic that ordinary numbers do, so we call it a
number. It is a rather special number, though, because it doesnt quite
obey all the same laws as other numbersyou cant divide by zero, for
example.
Note for math purists: In the strict axiomatic field development of the
real numbers, both 0 and 1 are singled out for special treatment. Zero is
the additive identity, because adding zero to a number does not change
the number. Similarly, 1 is the multiplicative identity because
multiplying a number by 1 does not change it.


Even more abstract than zero is the idea of negative numbers. If, in addition to not having any
sheep, the farmer owes someone 3 sheep, you could say that the number of sheep that the
farmer owns is negative 3. It took longer for the idea of negative numbers to be accepted, but
eventually they came to be seen as something we could call numbers. The expanded set of
numbers that we get by including negative versions of the counting numbers is called
the integers.
Integers
Whole numbers plus negatives
. . . 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .

About Negative Numbers
How can you have less than zero? Well, do you have a checking
account? Having less than zero means that you have to add some to it
just to get it up to zero. And if you take more out of it, it will be even
further less than zero, meaning that you will have to add even more just
to get it up to zero.
The strict mathematical definition goes something like this:
For every real number n, there exists its opposite,
denoted n, such that the sum of n and n is zero, or
n + ( n) = 0
Note that the negative sign in front of a number is part of the symbol for
that number: The symbol 3 is one objectit stands for negative
three, the name of the number that is three units less than zero.
The number zero is its own opposite, and zero is considered to be
neither negative nor positive.
Read the discussion of subtraction for more about the meanings of the
symbol .


The next generalization that we can make is to include the idea of fractions. While it is
unlikely that a farmer owns a fractional number of sheep, many other things in real life are
measured in fractions, like a half-cup of sugar. If we add fractions to the set of integers, we
get the set of rational numbers.
Rational Numbers
All numbers of the form , where a and b are integers (but b cannot be zero)
Rational numbers include what we usually call fractions
- Notice that the word rational contains the word ratio, which should remind you of
fractions.

The bottom of the fraction is called the denominator. Think of it as the denominationit tells
you what size fraction we are talking about: fourths, fifths, etc.

The top of the fraction is called the numerator. It tells you how many fourths, fifths, or
whatever.

- RESTRICTION: The denominator cannot be zero! (But the numerator can)
If the numerator is zero, then the whole fraction is just equal to zero. If I have zero thirds or
zero fourths, than I dont have anything. However, it makes no sense at all to talk about a
fraction measured in zeroths.
- Fractions can be numbers smaller than 1, like 1/2 or 3/4 (called proper fractions), or
they can be numbers bigger than 1 (called improper fractions), like two-and-a-half,
which we could also write as 5/2
All integers can also be thought of as rational numbers, with a denominator of 1:

This means that all the previous sets of numbers (natural numbers, whole numbers, and
integers) are subsets of the rational numbers.
Now it might seem as though the set of rational numbers would cover every possible case,
but that is not so. There are numbers that cannot be expressed as a fraction, and these
numbers are calledirrational because they are not rational.
Irrational Numbers
- Cannot be expressed as a ratio of integers.
- As decimals they never repeat or terminate (rationals always do one or the other)
Examples:

Rational (terminates)

Rational (repeats)

Rational (repeats)

Rational (repeats)

Irrational (never repeats or terminates)

Irrational (never repeats or terminates)

More on Irrational Numbers
It might seem that the rational numbers would cover any possible
number. After all, if I measure a length with a ruler, it is going to come
out to some fractionmaybe 2 and 3/4 inches. Suppose I then measure
it with more precision. I will get something like 2 and 5/8 inches, or
maybe 2 and 23/32 inches. It seems that however close I look it is
going to be some fraction. However, this is not always the case.
Imagine a line segment
exactly one unit long:



Now draw another line one
unit long, perpendicular to
the first one, like this:



Now draw the diagonal
connecting the two ends:

Congratulations! You have just drawn a length that cannot be
measured by any rational number. According to the Pythagorean
Theorem, the length of this diagonal is the square root of 2; that is, the
number which when multiplied by itself gives 2.
According to my calculator,

But my calculator only stops at eleven decimal places because it can
hold no more. This number actually goes on forever past the decimal
point, without the pattern ever terminating or repeating.

This is because if the pattern ever stopped or repeated, you could write
the number as a fractionand it can be proven that the square root of 2
can never be written as

for any choice of integers for a and b. The proof of this was considered
quite shocking when it was first demonstrated by the followers of
Pythagoras 26 centuries ago.

The Real Numbers
- Rationals + Irrationals
- All points on the number line
- Or all possible distances on the number line
When we put the irrational numbers together with the rational numbers, we finally have the
complete set of real numbers. Any number that represents an amount of something, such as a
weight, a volume, or the distance between two points, will always be a real number. The
following diagram illustrates the relationships of the sets that make up the real numbers.

An Ordered Set
The real numbers have the property that they are ordered, which means that given any two
different numbers we can always say that one is greater or less than the other. A more formal
way of saying this is:
For any two real numbers a and b, one and only one of the following three statements is true:
1. a is less than b, (expressed as a < b)
2. a is equal to b, (expressed as a = b)
3. a is greater than b, (expressed as a > b)
The Number Line
The ordered nature of the real numbers lets us arrange them along a line (imagine that the line
is made up of an infinite number of points all packed so closely together that they form a
solid line). The points are ordered so that points to the right are greater than points to the left:

- Every real number corresponds to a distance on the number line, starting at the center
(zero).
- Negative numbers represent distances to the left of zero, and positive numbers are
distances to the right.
- The arrows on the end indicate that it keeps going forever in both directions.
Absolute Value
When we want to talk about how large a number is without regard as to whether it is
positive or negative, we use the absolute value function. The absolute value of a number is
the distance from that number to the origin (zero) on the number line. That distance is always
given as a non-negative number.
In short:
- If a number is positive (or zero), the absolute value function does nothing to
it:
- If a number is negative, the absolute value function makes it positive:
WARNING: If there is arithmetic to do inside the absolute value sign, you must do it before
taking the absolute valuethe absolute value function acts on the result of whatever is inside
it. For example, a common error is
(WRONG)
The correct result is


ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF REAL NUMBERS
All the basic operations of arithmetic can be defined in terms of addition, so we will take it as
understood that you have a concept of what addition means, at least when we are talking
about positive numbers.
Addition on the Number Line
A positive number represents a distance to the right on the number line, starting
from zero (zero is also called the origin since it is the starting point). When we add
another positive number, we visualize it as taking another step to the right by that
amount. For example, we all know that 2 + 3 = 5. On the number line we would
imagine that we start at zero, take two steps to the right, and then take three more
steps to the right, which causes us to land on positive 5.

Addition of Negative Numbers
What does it mean to add negative numbers? We view a negative number as a
displacement to the left on the number line, so we follow the same procedure as
before but when we add a negative number we take that many steps to the left
instead of the right.
Examples:
2 + (3) = 1
First we move two steps to the right, and then three steps to the left:

(2) + 3 = 1
We move two steps to the left, and then three steps to the right:

(2) + (3) = 5
Two steps to the left, and then three more steps to the left:


From these examples, we can make the following observations:
1. If we add two positive numbers together, the result will be positive
2. If we add two negative numbers together, the result will be negative
3. If we add a positive and a negative number together, the result could be
positive or negative, depending on which number represents the biggest step.
Subtraction
There are two ways to define subtraction: by a related addition statement, or as adding the
opposite.
Subtraction as Related Addition
a b = c if and only if a = b + c
Subtraction as Adding the Opposite
For every real number b there exists its opposite b, and we can define subtraction as
adding the opposite:
a b = a + (b)
- In algebra it usually best to always think of subtraction as adding the opposite
Distinction Between Subtraction and Negation
The symbol means two different things in math. If it is between two numbers it
means subtraction, but if it is in front of one number it means the opposite (or
negative) of that number.
Subtraction is binary (acts on two numbers), but negation is unary (acts on only one
number).
Calculators have two different keys to perform these functions. The
key with a plain minus sign is only for subtraction:


Negation is performed by a key that looks like one of these:

Remember that subtraction can always be thought of as adding the opposite. In fact,
we could get along just fine without ever using subtraction.
Subtraction on the Number Line
Addition of a positive number moves to the right, and adding a negative moves to
the left.
Subtraction is just the opposite: Subtraction of a positive number moves to the left,
and subtracting a negative moves to the right.
- Notice that subtracting a negative is the same thing as adding a positive.
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION
Multiplication as Repeated Addition
We think of a multiplication statement like 2 3 as meaning Add two
threes together, or

3 + 3

and 4 9 as add 4 nines together, or

9 + 9 + 9 + 9.

In general, a b means to add bs together such that the number of bs is
equal to a:

a b = b + b + b + . . . + b (a times)
Multiplication with Signed Numbers
We can apply this same rule to make sense out of what we mean by a positive
number times a negative number. For example,
3 (4)
just means to take 3 of the number negative four and add them together:
3 (4) = (4) + (4) + (4) = 12
Unfortunately, this scheme breaks down when we try to multiply a negative
number times a number. It doesnt make sense to try to write down a number a
negative number of times. There are two ways to look at this problem.
One way is to use the fact that multiplication obeys the commutative law, which
means that the order of multiplication does not matter:
a b = b a.
This lets us write a negative times a positive as a positive times a negative and
proceed as before:
(3) 4 = 4 (3) = (3) + (3) + (3) + (3) = 12
However, we are still in trouble when it comes to multiplying a negative times a
negative. A better way to look at this problem is to demand that multiplication
obey a consistent pattern. If we look at a multiplication table for positive numbers
and then extend it to include negative numbers, the results in the table should
continue to change in the same pattern.
For example, consider the following multiplication table:
a b a b
3 2 6
2 2 4
1 2 2
0 2 0
The numbers in the last column are decreasing by 2 each time, so if we let the
values for a continue into the negative numbers we should keep decreasing the
product by 2:
a b a b
3 2 6
2 2 4
1 2 2
0 2 0
1 2 2
2 2 4
3 2 6
We can make a bigger multiplication table that shows many different possibilities.
By keeping the step sizes the same in each row and column, even as we extend into
the negative numbers, we see that the following sign rules hold for multiplication:
Sign Rules for Multiplication
(+)(+) = (+)
()() = (+)
()(+) = ()
(+)() = ()
Multiplication Table
Notice how the step size in each row or column remains consistent, regardless of
whether we are multiplying positive or negative numbers.
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
5 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25
4 20 16 12 8 4 0 4 8 12 16 20
3 15 12 9 6 3 0 3 6 9 12 15
2 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
1 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
2 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
3 15 12 9 6 3 0 3 6 9 12 15
4 20 16 12 8 4 0 4 8 12 16 20
5 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25


For math purists, heres the real reason:
The Real Reason
It should be obvious that the presentation of the rules of arithmetic
given here is just a collection of motivational arguments, not a
formal development. The formal development of the real number
system starts with the field axioms. The field axioms are
postulated, and then all the other properties follow from them. The
field axioms are
1. The associative and commutative laws for addition and
multiplication
2. The existence of the additive and multiplicative identities
(0 and 1)
3. The existence of the additive inverse (opposites, or
negatives) and the multiplicative inverse (the reciprocal)
4. The distributive law
All of these are essential, but the distributive law is particularly
important because it is what distinguishes the behavior of
multiplication from addition. Namely, multiplication distributes
over addition but not vice-versa.
The rules of arithmetic like a negative times a negative gives a
positive are what they are because that is the only way the field
axioms would still hold. For example, the distributive law requires
that
2(3 2) = (2)(3) + (2)(2)
We can evaluate the left side of this equation by following the
order of operations, which says to do what is in parentheses first,
so
2(3 2) = 2(1) = 2.
Now for the distributive law to be true, the right side must also be
equal to2, so
(2)(3) + (2)(2) = 2
If we use our sign rules for multiplication then it works out the
way it should:
(2)(3) + (2)(2) = 6 + 4 = 2

Notation for Multiplication
We are used to using the symbol to represent multiplication in arithmetic, but
in algebra we prefer to avoid that symbol because we like to use the letter x to
represent a variable, and the two symbols can be easily confused. So instead, we
adopt the following notation for multiplication:
1. Multiplication is implied if two quantities are written side-by-side with no
other symbol between them.
Example: ab means a b.
2. If a symbol is needed to prevent confusion, we use a dot.

Example: If we need to show 3 times 5, we cannot just write them next
to each other or it would look like the number thirty-five, so we write
3 5.
- We can also use parentheses to separate factors. 3 times 5 could be written as
3(5) or (3)5 or (3)(5).
Division
There are two ways to think of division: as implying a related multiplication, or as
multiplying by the reciprocal.
Division as Related Multiplication
The statement 12 3 = 4 is true only because 3 4 = 12. A division problem is
really asking the question What number can I multiply the divisor by to get the
dividend?; and so every division equation implies an equivalent multiplication
equation. In general:
a b = c if and only if a = b c
This also shows why you cannot divide by zero. If we asked What is six divided
by zero? we would mean What number times zero is equal to six?, but any
number times zero gives zero, so there is no answer to this question.
Multiplicative Inverse (The Reciprocal)
For every real number a (except zero) there exists a real number denoted by
1/a such that
a(1/a) = 1
- The number 1/a is called the reciprocal or multiplicative inverse of a.
- Note that the reciprocal of 1/a is a. The reciprocal of the reciprocal gives you back
what you started with.
This allows us to define division as multiplication by the reciprocal:
a b = a (1/b)
This is usually the most convenient way to think of division when you are doing
algebra.
Notation for Division
Instead of using the symbol to represent division, we prefer to write it
using the fraction notation:

Sign Rules for Division
Because division can always be written as a multiplication by the reciprocal,
it obeys the same sign rules as multiplication.
If a positive is divided by a negative, or a negative divided by a positive, the
result is negative:

but if both numbers are the same sign, the result is positive:

POSITIVE INTEGER EXPONENTS
Meaning
3
2
= 3 3

3
3
= 3 3 3

In general x
n
= x x x . . . x (n factors of x)

x is the base, and n is the exponent (or power)
Rules
Product of Different Powers: a
m
a
n
=

a
m + n

- IMPORTANT: all the numbers must have the same bases (the same a)
Example: (4
2
)(4
3
) = 4
5


This is easy to see if you write out the exponents:

(4
2
)(4
3
) = (4 4) (4 4 4) = 4 4 4 4 4 = 4
5


WARNING: Do not attempt to use this rule for addition:

4
2
+ 4
3
is NOT 4
5
. In fact there is no way to
simplify x
n +
x
m
if n and m are different powers.
Power Raised to a Power:

Example: (4
2
)
3
= 4
6


This is also easy to see if you expand the exponents:

(4
2
)
3
= (4
2
)(4
2
)(4
2
)
= (4 4) (4 4) (4 4)
= 4 4 4 4 4 4
= 4
6


There are more rules for combining numbers with exponents, but this is
enough for now.

ORDER OF OPERATIONS
When we encounter an expression such as 3 + 15 3 + 5 2
2+3
, it makes quite a difference
how we choose which operations to perform first. We need a set of rules that would guide
anyone to one unique value for this kind of expression. Some of these rules are simply based
on convention, while others are forced on us by mathematical logic. In the chapter on the
Properties of Real Numbers, you will see how the distributive law is consistent with these
rules. The universally agreed-upon order in which to evaluate a mathematical expression is as
follows:
1. Parentheses from Inside Out
By parentheses we mean anything that acts as a grouping symbol, including
anything inside symbols such as [ ], { }, | | and . Any expression in the
numerator or denominator of a fraction or in an exponent are also considered
grouped and should be simplified before carrying out further operations.

- If there are nested parentheses (parentheses inside parentheses), you work
from the innermost parentheses outward.
2. Exponents
Also other special functions such as log, sin, cos, etc.
3. Multiplication and Division, left to right
The left-to-right order does not matter if only multiplication is involved, but it matters for
division.
4. Addition and Subtraction, left to right
The left-to-right order does not matter if only addition is involved, but it matters for
subtraction.
Example: Going back to our original example, 3 + 15 3 + 5 2
2+3

Given: 3 + 15 3 + 5 2
2+3

The exponent is an implied grouping,
so the 2 + 3 must be evaluated first:
= 3 + 15 3 + 5 2
5

Now the exponent is carried out: = 3 + 15 3 + 5 32
Now the multiplication and division,
left to right, using 15 3 = 5 and
5 32 = 160: = 3 + 5 + 160
Now the addition, left to right: = 168
Calculator Note: Most modern calculators know the order of operations, and
you can enter expressions pretty much as they are written. Some older calculators will
carry out each operation as soon as its key is pushed, which can result in the
operations being carried out in the wrong order. Try some examples if you are not
sure how your calculator behaves.
For example, if you enter
3 + 4 5 =
The correct answer should be 23, because the multiplication should be performed
before the addition, giving 3 + 20. But if your calculator carries out the 3 + 4 before
getting to the 5, it will show a result of 35 because it will see it as 7 5.
Calculator Note: Use the parenthesis keys to force grouping. If you are
evaluating an expression such as

the denominator needs to be simplified before doing the division. If you enter it into
your calculator as 4 3 + 5, it will evaluate the 4 3 first, and then add 5 to the
result, giving the incorrect answer of 6.3333. To make it perform the addition first,
use parentheses:
4 (3 + 5) = 0.5
In our example problem above, the 2 + 3 in the exponent is an implied grouping,
and you would need to use parentheses. To enter that expression in your calculator,
you would enter it as
3 + 15 3 + 5 2 ^ (2 + 3) =
(on some calculators the exponent button is labeled ^ , while on others it is
labeled y
x
)

FRACTIONS
FRACTIONS, ALSO CALLED RATIONAL NUMBERS, ARE
NUMBERS OF THE FORM , WHERE A AND B ARE INTEGERS
(BUT B CANNOT BE ZERO).
THE BOTTOM NUMBER IS CALLED THE DENOMINATOR. THINK OF
IT AS THE DENOMINATION: IT TELLS YOU WHAT SIZE UNITS YOU
ARE TALKING ABOUTFOURTHS, FIFTHS, OR WHATEVER.
THE TOP NUMBER IS THE NUMERATOR. IT TELLS YOU HOW
MANY OF THOSE UNITS YOU HAVE. FOR EXAMPLE, IF I HAVE 3
QUARTERS IN MY POCKET, THEN I HAVE THREE-FOURTHS OF A
DOLLAR. THE DENOMINATION IS QUARTERS (FOURTHS), AND I
HAVE THREE OF THEM: 3/4.
IMPROPER FRACTIONS
ORDINARILY WE THINK OF FRACTIONS AS BEING BETWEEN
ZERO AND ONE, LIKE 3/4 OR 2/3. THESE ARE CALLED PROPER
FRACTIONS. IN THESE FRACTIONS, THE NUMERATOR IS
SMALLER THAN THE DENOMINATORBUT THERE IS NO
REASON WHY WE CAN NOT HAVE A NUMERATOR BIGGER THAN
THE DENOMINATOR. SUCH FRACTIONS ARE CALLED IMPROPER.
WHAT DOES AN IMPROPER FRACTION LIKE 5/4 MEAN? WELL, IF
WE HAVE 5 QUARTERS OF SOMETHING THEN WE HAVE MORE
THAN ONE WHOLE OF THAT SOMETHING. IN FACT, WE HAVE
ONE WHOLE PLUS ONE MORE QUARTER (IF YOU HAVE 5
QUARTERS IN CHANGE, YOU HAVE A DOLLAR AND A QUARTER).
MIXED NUMBER NOTATION
ONE WAY OF EXPRESSING THE IMPROPER FRACTION 5/4 IS AS
THE MIXED NUMBER , WHICH IS READ AS ONE AND ONE-
FOURTH. THIS NOTATION IS POTENTIALLY CONFUSING AND IS
NOT ADVISED IN ALGEBRA.
ONE CAUSE OF CONFUSION IS THAT IN ALGEBRA WE USE THE
CONVENTION THAT MULTIPLICATION IS IMPLIED WHEN TWO
QUANTITIES ARE WRITTEN NEXT TO EACH OTHER WITH NO
SYMBOLS IN BETWEEN. HOWEVER, THE MIXED NUMBER
NOTATION IMPLIES ADDITION, NOT MULTIPLICATION. FOR
EXAMPLE, MEANS 1 PLUS ONE-QUARTER, AND 3 1/2 =3 +1/2.
IT IS POSSIBLE TO DO ARITHMETIC WITH MIXED NUMBERS BY
TREATING THE WHOLE NUMBER PARTS AND THE FRACTIONAL
PARTS SEPARATELY, BUT IT IS GENERALLY MORE CONVENIENT
IN ALGEBRA TO ALWAYS WRITE IMPROPER FRACTIONS. WHEN
YOU ENCOUNTER A PROBLEM WITH MIXED NUMBERS, THE
FIRST THING YOU SHOULD DO IS CONVERT THEM TO IMPROPER
FRACTIONS.
CONVERSION
MIXED NUMBER TO IMPROPER FRACTION

A. MULTIPLY THE INTEGER PART WITH THE BOTTOM OF THE
FRACTION PART.
B. ADD THE RESULT TO THE TOP OF THE FRACTION.
THE GENERAL FORMULA IS

IMPROPER FRACTION TO MIXED NUMBER
1. DO THE DIVISION TO GET THE INTEGER PART
2. PUT THE REMAINDER OVER THE OLD DENOMINATOR TO
GET THE FRACTIONAL PART.
MULTIPLYING, REDUCING, AND DIVIDING FRACTIONS
EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS
EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS ARE FRACTIONS THAT HAVE THE
SAME VALUE, FOR EXAMPLE

ETC.
ALTHOUGH ALL THESE FRACTIONS ARE WRITTEN
DIFFERENTLY, THEY ALL REPRESENT THE SAME QUANTITY.
YOU CAN MEASURE A HALF-CUP OF SUGAR OR TWO QUARTER-
CUPS OF SUGAR, OR EVEN FOUR EIGHTH-CUPS OF SUGAR, AND
YOU WILL STILL HAVE THE SAME AMOUNT OF SUGAR.
MULTIPLY BY A FORM OF ONE
A FRACTION CAN BE CONVERTED INTO AN EQUIVALENT
FRACTION BY MULTIPLYING IT BY A FORM OF 1. THE NUMBER 1
CAN BE REPRESENTED AS A FRACTION BECAUSE ANY NUMBER
DIVIDED BY ITSELF IS EQUAL TO 1 (REMEMBER THAT THE
FRACTION NOTATION MEANS THE SAME THING AS DIVISION). IN
OTHER WORDS,
ETC.
NOW IF YOU MULTIPLY A NUMBER BY 1 IT DOES NOT CHANGE
ITS VALUE, SO IF WE MULTIPLY A FRACTION BY ANOTHER
FRACTION THAT IS EQUAL TO 1, WE WILL NOT BE CHANGING
THE VALUE OF THE ORIGINAL FRACTION. FOR EXAMPLE,

IN THIS CASE, 2/3 REPRESENTS EXACTLY THE SAME QUANTITY
AS 4/6, BECAUSE ALL WE DID WAS TO MULTIPLY 2/3 BY THE
NUMBER 1, REPRESENTED AS THE FRACTION 2/2.
MULTIPLYING THE NUMERATOR AND DENOMINATOR BY THE
SAME NUMBER TO PRODUCE AN EQUIVALENT FRACTION IS
CALLED BUILDING UP THE FRACTION.
REDUCED FORM
NUMERATOR AND DENOMINATOR HAVE NO COMMON FACTORS
PROCEDURE:
1. WRITE OUT PRIME FACTORIZATION OF NUMERATOR AND
DENOMINATOR
2. CANCEL ALL COMMON FACTORS
THIS PROCEDURE IS J UST THE OPPOSITE OF BUILDING UP A
FRACTION BY MULTIPLYING IT BY A FRACTION EQUIVALENT TO
1.

Prime Factors
A number is prime if it has no whole number factors other than 1 times
itself, that is, the number cannot be written as a product of two whole
numbers (except 1 times itself).
Example: 6 is not prime because it can be written as 2 3
Example: 7 is prime because the only way to write it as a product of
whole numbers is 1 7
- The first few prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, . . .
- There are an infinite number of prime numbers (the list goes on forever).
Any non-prime number can be decomposed into a product of prime
numbers
Example: 4 = 2 2
Example: 12 = 2 2 3
The Branching Method
This method works well for larger numbers that might have many factors.
All you need to do is think of any two numbers that multiply to give your
original number, and write them below it. Continue this process for each
number until each branch ends in a prime number. The factors of the
original number are the prime numbers on the ends of all the branches.
Example: Factor the
number 60


60 = 2 2 3 5

Notes
1. Notice how I started with the smallest numbers: first 2s, then 3s, and so on. This
is not required but it keeps the result nicely in order.
2. If a number is even, then it is divisible by 2.
3. If a number ends in 0 or 5, then it is divisible by 5.
4. If the digits of a number add up to a number divisible by 3, then the number is
divisible by 3. In this example 15 gives 1 + 5 = 6, which is divisible by 3, and
therefore 15 is divisible by 3.
5. Large numbers with large prime factors are notoriously hard to factorit is
mainly just a matter of trial and error. The public-key encryption system for
sending secure computer data uses very large numbers that need to be factored
in order to break the code. The code is essentially unbreakable because it would
take an enormous amount of computer time to try every possible prime factor.


MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS
MULTIPLY NUMERATORS AND DENOMINATORS
EXAMPLE:



AND REDUCE RESULT IF NEEDED


CANCELING COMMON FACTORS FIRST MAKES MULTIPLICATION
EASIER
IF YOU DONT REDUCE THE FACTORS BEFORE MULTIPLYING,
THE ANSWER WILL HAVE TO BE REDUCED.
EXAMPLE:

REMEMBER THAT CANCELING ALWAYS LEAVES A 1 BEHIND,
BECAUSE YOU ARE REALLY DIVIDING THE NUMERATOR AND
THE DENOMINATOR BY THE SAME NUMBER.
ADDING AND SUBTRACTING FRACTIONS
ADD NUMERATORS WHEN DENOMINATORS ARE THE
SAME

IF THE DENOMINATORS ARE NOT THE SAME, MAKE THEM
THE SAME BY BUILDING UP THE FRACTIONS SO THAT THEY
BOTH HAVE A COMMON DENOMINATOR.
ANY COMMON DENOMINATOR WILL WORK, BUT THE
ANSWER WILL HAVE TO BE REDUCED IF IT IS NOT THE LEAST
COMMON DENOMINATOR.
THE PRODUCT OF ALL THE DENOMINATORS IS ALWAYS A
COMMON DENOMINATOR (BUT NOT NECESSARILY
THE LEAST COMMON DENOMINATOR).
LEAST COMMON DENOMINATOR (LCD)
BY INSPECTION
THE SMALLEST NUMBER THAT IS EVENLY DIVISIBLE BY ALL THE
DENOMINATORS
IN GENERAL
THE LCD IS THE PRODUCT OF ALL THE PRIME FACTORS OF ALL
THE DENOMINATORS, EACH FACTOR TAKEN THE GREATEST
NUMBER OF TIMES THAT IT APPEARS IN ANY SINGLE
DENOMINATOR.
- EXAMPLE:
-

FACTOR THE DENOMINATORS:




ASSEMBLE LCD:


NOTE THAT THE THREE ONLY APPEARS ONCE, BECAUSE IT IS
ONLY NEEDED ONCE TO MAKE EITHER THE 12 OR THE 15:


NOW THAT YOU HAVE FOUND THE LCD, MULTIPLY EACH
FRACTION (TOP AND BOTTOM) BY WHATEVER IS NEEDED TO
BUILD UP THE DENOMINATOR TO THE LCD:


THEN ADD THE NUMERATORS AND REDUCE IF NEEDED (USING
THE LCD DOES NOT GUARANTEE THAT YOU WONT HAVE TO
REDUCE):




DECIMALS
DECIMALS ARE REALLY J UST FRACTIONS
DECIMAL NOTATION IS J UST A SHORTHAND WAY OF
EXPRESSING CERTAIN FRACTIONS, NAMELY THOSE FRACTIONS
WITH DENOMINATORS THAT ARE POWERS OF 10. FOR EXAMPLE,
CONSIDER THE NUMBER
2.345
BECAUSE OF THE PLACE-VALUES OF THE DECIMAL DIGITS, THIS
REALLY MEANS

CONVERTING DECIMALS TO FRACTIONS
BECAUSE ALL THE DENOMINATORS ARE POWERS OF 10, IT IS
VERY EASY TO ADD THESE FRACTIONS BY FINDING A COMMON
DENOMINATOR. IN THIS EXAMPLE, THE COMMON DENOMINATOR
IS 1000, AND WE GET

THIS SUGGESTS A GENERAL RULE FOR CONVERTING A
DECIMAL NUMBER TO ITS FRACTION FORM:
- PUT ALL THE DIGITS OVER THE DENOMINATOR THAT
CORRESPONDS TO THE LAST DECIMAL PLACE VALUE.
IN THE NUMBER 2.345, THE LAST DECIMAL PLACE VALUE IS THE
THOUSANDTHS PLACE, SO WE PUT THE DIGITS 2345 OVER THE
DENOMINATOR 1000.
OF COURSE WE WOULD USUALLY WANT TO REDUCE THE
RESULTING FRACTION TO ITS SIMPLEST FORM. IN THIS CASE

REPEATING FRACTIONS
THE ONLY TIME THIS METHOD DOES NOT WORK IS FOR
REPEATING FRACTIONS. WE KNOW THAT 1/3 =0.3333333... BUT
HOW COULD WE GO FROM 0.3333333... BACK TO 1/3? THERE IS
NO LAST DECIMAL PLACE BECAUSE THE DECIMALS REPEAT
FOREVER. FORTUNATELY, THERE IS A SIMPLE TRICK FOR THIS:
PUT THE REPEATING DIGIT OVER A DENOMINATOR OF 9.
SO WE SEE THAT IN THE CASE OF 0.3333333...., THE REPEATING
DIGIT IS 3, AND WE MAKE THE FRACTION 3/9, WHICH REDUCES
TO 1/3.
IF THERE IS A GROUP OF MORE THAN ONE DIGIT THAT
REPEATS,
- PUT THE REPEATING GROUP OF DIGITS OVER AS MANY 9S
AS THERE ARE DIGITS.
FOR EXAMPLE, IN THE FRACTION

WE SEE THAT THE GROUP OF DIGITS 15 REPEATS, SO WE PUT
15 OVER A DENOMINATOR OF 99 TO GET

O ONE WARNING: THIS ONLY WORKS FOR THE REPEATING
FRACTION PART OF A NUMBER. IF YOU HAVE A NUMBER LIKE
2.33333..., YOU SHOULD J UST WORK WITH THE DECIMAL PART
AND REJ OIN IT WITH THE WHOLE PART AFTER YOU HAVE
CONVERTED IT TO A FRACTION.
O IRRATIONAL NUMBERS LIKE P OR HAVE NON-
REPEATING DECIMALS, AND SO THEY CANNOT BE WRITTEN AS
FRACTIONS. YOU CAN, HOWEVER, ROUND THEM OFF AT SOME
POINT AND PRODUCE AN APPROXIMATE FRACTION FOR THEM.

Why This Trick Works
If you have learned enough algebra to follow these steps, it is not difficult to see
why this works. Lets start with the simple example 0.3333333... Since we already
know that the answer is 1/3, we can concentrate on the procedure, not the answer.
Let
x = 0.3333333...
Multiply both sides by 10 to get
10x = 3.33333...
Notice that the decimal part (.33333) is still the same. In fact, it is the very thing
that we called xin the first place, so we can say that
10x= 3 + x
Now solve for x:

This method will also work for repeating fractions that contain a group of repeating
digits, but you have to multiply by a higher power of 10 in order to make the
decimal portion stay the same as it was before. For example, suppose we had
0.345345345....
Let
x = 0.345345345....
Multiply both sides by 1000 to get
1000x = 345.345345345....
Notice that the decimal part is still the same. In fact, it is still the thing that we
called x in the first place, so we can say that
1000x = 345 + x
Now solve for x:



CONVERTING FRACTIONS TO DECIMALS
WE KNOW THE DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS FOR SOME COMMON
FRACTIONS WITHOUT HAVING TO THINK ABOUT IT: 1/2 =0.5,
3/4 =0.75, ETC. BUT HOW DO WE ARRIVE AT THESE NUMBERS?
REMEMBER THAT THE FRACTION BAR MEANS THE SAME THING
AS DIVISION.
- TO CONVERT A FRACTION TO A DECIMAL, DO THE
DIVISION.
FOR EXAMPLE,

YOU CAN DO THE DIVISION WITH A CALCULATOR OR BY HAND
WITH LONG DIVISION.
ROUNDING
- LOOK ONLY ONE DIGIT TO THE RIGHT
- 5S OR HIGHER ROUND UP (THERE IS SOME DISPUTE
ABOUT THIS RULE, BUT IT IS GOOD ENOUGH FOR MOST
PURPOSES)

Rounding 5s
Why round fives up? The number 3.5 is exactly halfway between 3.0 and 4.0, so it
makes just as much sense to round it down as it does to round it up.
Most of the time there is no harm in using the always round fives up rule. This is the
rule that the United States Internal Revenue Service advises you to use on your taxes,
and who is going to argue with them?
Sometimes, though, it can cause problems. Suppose you are adding a very large
number of values that have all been rounded by this rule. The sum that you get will be a
little bit bigger than it ought to be. This can be a very serious problem in computer
programs. When thousands or even millions of additions are being performed, the
accumulated roundoff error can be quite large.
One way of dealing with this problem is the even-odd rule. This rule says that:
- If the five is the last significant digit and the round-off digit (the one to the left
of the 5) is odd, round up.
- If the five is the last significant digit and the round-off digit is even, dont round
up.
Actually, you could reverse even and odd in this rule. All that matters is that about half
the time you will be rounding up on a 5, and half the time down.
The reason it matters that the five is the last significant digit is because if there are any
other non-zero digits past the five then you must round up, because the part that you are
chopping off is more than 50% of the roundoff place-value. For example, suppose you
want to round 3.351 to the nearest tenth. The decimal part represents the fraction
351/1000, which is 1/1000 closer to 400/1000 than it is to 300/100. Therefore you
would always round this up to 3.4.


EXAMPLE: ROUND 11.3826 TO THE NEAREST HUNDREDTH.
SOLUTION: THE HUNDREDTHS PLACE IS WHERE THE 8 IS. WE
LOOK ONE DIGIT TO THE RIGHT AND SEE A 2, SO WE DO NOT
ROUND UP, LEAVING US WITH 11.38.
EXAMPLE: ROUND 11.3826 TO THE NEAREST THOUSANDTH.
SOLUTION: THE THOUSANDTHS PLACE IS WHERE THE 2 IS. WE
LOOK ONE PLACE TO THE RIGHT AND SEE A 6, SO WE ROUND
THE 2 UP, GETTING 11.383.
TROUBLE WITH 9S.
IF THE DIGIT YOU ARE ROUNDING UP IS A 9, THEN ROUNDING IT
UP WILL MAKE IT A 10, WHICH IS TOO BIG FOR ONE PLACE.
WHAT HAPPENS IS THAT THE EXTRA 1 GETS ADDED TO THE
PLACE TO THE LEFT.
EXAMPLE: ROUND 3.49721 TO THE NEAREST HUNDREDTH.
SOLUTION: THE HUNDREDTH PLACE HAS A 9 IN IT. ONE STEP
TO THE RIGHT IS A 7, SO WE HAVE TO ROUND UP. THIS MAKES
THE 9 INTO A 10, BUT WE REALLY CANT WRITE THE NEW
NUMBER AS 3.4(10). INSTEAD, THE EXTRA 1 MOVES ONE PLACE
TO THE LEFT AND IS ADDED TO THE 4, GIVING US 3.50.
- IT CAN HAPPEN THAT THE PLACE TO THE LEFT
CONTAINS ANOTHER 9, IN WHICH CASE THE EXTRA 1
WILL CAUSE IT TO BECOME A 10, WHICH PUSHES THE 1
STILL FURTHER ON TO THE NEXT PLACE TO THE LEFT.
EXAMPLE: ROUND 75.69996217 TO THE NEAREST TEN-
THOUSANDTH
SOLUTION: THE TEN-THOUSANDTHS PLACE IS THE LAST 9 IN
THE NUMBER, AND THE PLACE TO ITS RIGHT IS A 6, WHICH
MEANS WE ROUND UP. THIS MAKES THE 9 INTO A 10, LIKE
THIS:
75.699(10)
BUT OF COURSE WE CANNOT PUT A 10 IN THAT PLACE, SO THE
1 MOVES TO THE LEFT AND GETS ADDED TO THE 9 THERE,
MAKING IT INTO A 10:
75.69(10)0
THIS LEAVES US WITH THE SAME PROBLEM, A 10 IN ONE
DECIMAL PLACE, SO THE EXTRA 1 MOVES ONE MORE STEP TO
THE LEFT, TURNING THAT 9 INTO A 10:
75.6(10)00
WELL, WE STILL HAVE THE SAME PROBLEM, SO WE MOVE THE
1 YET ANOTHER STEP TO THE LEFT, WHERE IT ADDS ON TO
THE 6, FINALLY LEAVING US WITH AN ACCEPTABLE ANSWER:
75.7000
IN GENERAL,
THE EXTRA 1 MIGRATES TO THE LEFT UNTIL IT FINDS A
RESTING-PLACE.
THIS MEANS THAT THE 1 MOVES TO THE LEFT UNTIL IT CAN BE
ADDED TO A DIGIT LESS THAN 9, OR UNTIL IT FALLS OFF THE
END AS A NEW DIGIT OUT IN FRONT.
EXAMPLE: ROUND 999.96 TO THE NEAREST TENTH.
THE DIGIT TO THE RIGHT OF THE TENTHS PLACE IS A 6, SO WE
HAVE TO ROUND UP. BUT WHEN WE ROUND UP THE 9 IT
BECOMES A 10, FORCING THE ONE TO BE ADDED TO THE LEFT.
UNFORTUNATELY, WE FIND ANOTHER 9 THERE AND THE
PROCESS IS REPEATED FOR EACH OF THE 9S UNTIL WE
REACH THE LEADING 9, WHICH BECOMES A 10 RESULTING IN
1000.0
ARITHMETIC WITH DECIMALS
ALTHOUGH CALCULATORS HAVE MADE IT MUCH EASIER TO DO
ARITHMETIC WITH DECIMAL NUMBERS, IT IS NICE TO KNOW
THAT YOU CAN STILL DO IT WITHOUT A CALCULATOR.
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
TO ADD OR SUBTRACT DECIMAL NUMBERS, YOU USE THE
FAMILIAR COLUMN METHOD THAT YOU LEARNED BACK IN
GRADE SCHOOL. TO USE THIS METHOD, THE PLACE VALUES OF
THE TWO NUMBERS MUST BE LINED UP. THIS MEANS THAT THE
DECIMAL POINTS MUST BE LINED UP, AND YOU CAN FILL IN
WITH ZEROS IF ONE NUMBER HAS MORE DECIMAL PLACES
THAN THE OTHER.

EXAMPLE:

5.46 +11.2

BECOMES:


MULTIPLICATION
TO MULTIPLY TWO DECIMAL NUMBERS, YOU CAN USE THE
COLUMN METHOD J UST AS YOU WOULD WITH WHOLE
NUMBERS. YOU IGNORE THE DECIMAL POINTS AS YOU CARRY
OUT THE MULTIPLICATION, AND THEN YOU PUT THE DECIMAL
POINT IN THE RESULT AT THE CORRECT PLACE. THE PRODUCT
WILL HAVE THE NUMBER OF DECIMAL PLACES AS THE TOTAL
NUMBER OF DECIMAL PLACES IN THE FACTORS. IN THE
FOLLOWING EXAMPLE, THE FIRST FACTOR HAS 2 DECIMAL
PLACES AND THE SECOND FACTOR HAS 1 DECIMAL PLACE, SO
THE PRODUCT MUST HAVE 3 DECIMAL PLACES:


DIVISION
YOU CAN DIVIDE DECIMAL NUMBERS USING THE FAMILIAR (?)
TECHNIQUE OF LONG DIVISION. THIS CAN BE AWKWARD,
THOUGH, BECAUSE IT IS HARD TO GUESS AT PRODUCTS OF
DECIMALS (LONG DIVISION, YOU MAY RECALL, IS BASICALLY A
GUESS-AND-CHECK TECHNIQUE). IT CAN BE MADE EASIER BY
MULTIPLYING BOTH THE DIVIDEND AND DIVISOR BY 10S TO
MAKE THE DIVISOR A WHOLE NUMBER. THIS WILL NOT CHANGE
THE RESULT OF THE DIVISION, BECAUSE DIVISION IS THE SAME
THING AS FRACTIONS, AND MULTIPLYING BOTH THE
NUMERATOR AND DENOMINATOR OF A FRACTION BY THE SAME
NUMBER WILL NOT CHANGE THE VALUE OF THE FRACTION. FOR
EXAMPLE, CONSIDER

THIS IS THE SAME AS THE FRACTION , WHICH IS
EQUIVALENT TO THE FRACTION , OBTAINED BY
MULTIPLYING THE NUMERATOR AND DENOMINATOR BY 10.
THUS

,

WHICH CAN BE ATTACKED WITH LONG DIVISION:


PERCENTS
Percent means per hundred, so
,
or x hundredths.
- A percent is just a fraction
However, it is a fraction with a denominator of 100, not just any fraction. When we write the
percent, we are just writing the numerator of the fraction. The denominator of 100 is
expressed by the percent symbol %. Remembering that the percent symbol means over
one-hundred can prevent a lot of confusion.
% means /100
To convert a percent to a decimal
- Divide the percentage by 100 (or move the decimal point two places to the left).
Since , the decimal equivalent is just the percentage divided by 100. But dividing
by 100 just causes the decimal point to shift two places to the left:


To convert a decimal to a percent
- Multiply the decimal number by 100 (or move the decimal point two places to
the right).
Since x% = x/100, it is also true that 100 x% = x. Another way to look at is to consider that in
order to convert a number into a percent, you have to express it in hundredths. Recall that the
hundredths place is the second place to the right of the decimal, so this is the digit that gives
the units digit of the percent. Of course, all this means is that you move the decimal point two
places to the right.
WARNING: If you just remember these rules as move the decimal two places to the left
and move the decimal two places to the right, you are very likely to get them confused. If
you accidentally move the decimal in the wrong direction it will end up four places off from
where it should be, which means that your answer will be either ten-thousand times too big or
ten-thousand times too small. This is generally not an acceptable range of error. It is much
better to remember these rules by simply remembering the meaning of the percent sign,
namely that % means /100. If you just write the problem that way, you should be able
to see what you need to do in order to solve it.
Converting between percents and their decimal equivalents is so simple that it is usually best
to express all percents in decimal form when you are working percent problems. The decimal
numbers are what you will need to put in your calculator, and you can always express the
result as a percent if you need to.
Calculator note: Some calculators have a percent key that essentially just divides by 100,
but it can do other useful things that might save you a few keystrokes. For instance, if you
need to add 5% to a number (perhaps to include the sales tax on a purchase), on most
calculators you can enter the original number and then press + 5 % = . Just make sure you
understand what it does before you blindly trust it. What it is doing in this example is
multiplying the original number by 0.05 and then adding the result onto the original number.
You should be able to work any percent problem without using this key, but once you
understand what is going on it can be a convenient short-cut.
To convert a percent to a fraction
- Put the percentage over a denominator of 100 and reduce
Writing a percent as a fraction is very simple if you remember that the percent is the
numerator of a fraction with a denominator equal to 100.
Examples:



In this last example, the first fraction has a decimal in it, which is not a proper way to
represent a fraction. To clear the decimal, just multiply both the numerator and the
denominator by 10 to produce an equivalent fraction written with whole numbers.
To convert a fraction to a percent
- Divide the numerator by the denominator and multiply by 100
To write a fraction as a percent you need to convert the fraction into hundredths. Sometimes
this is easy to do without a calculator. For example, if you saw the fraction
,
you should notice that doubling the numerator and the denominator will produce an
equivalent fraction that has a denominator of 100. Then the numerator will be the percent that
you are seeking:

With other fractions, though, it is not always so easy. It is not at all obvious how to convert a
fraction like 5/7 into something over 100. In this case, the best thing to do is to convert the
fraction into its decimal form, and then convert the decimal into a percent. To convert the
fraction to a decimal, remember that the fraction bar indicates division:

The approximately equal to sign ( ) is used because the decimal parts have been rounded
off. Because it is understood that approximate numbers are rounded, we will not continue to
use the approximately equal sign. It is more conventional to just use the standard equal sign
with approximate numbers, even though it is not entirely accurate.
Working percent problems
In percent problems, just as in fraction problems, the word of implies multiplication:
x percent of a number means x% times a number
Example: What is 12% of 345?
12% is 12/100, which we can express in decimal form as 0.12. 12% of 345 means
12% times 345, or

Notice how it is easier to just move the decimal over two places instead of explicitly
dividing by 100.
We solve a problem like this by translating the question into mathematical symbols,
using x to stand for the unknown what and that the of means times:

Example: What percent of 2342 is 319?
Once again we translate this into mathematical symbols:

Solving this equation involves a little bit of algebra. To isolate the x% on one side of
the equation we must divide both sides by 2342:

The calculator tells us that
x% = 0.1362
Now the right-hand side of this equation is the decimal equivalent that is equal to x%,
which means that x = 13.62, or
319 is 13.62% of 2342
If that last step confused you, remember that the percent symbol means over 100, so
the equation
x% = 0.1362
really says

or
x = 100(0.1362)
x = 13.62
Example: 2.4 is what percent of 19.7?
Translating into math symbols:

Solving for x:
2.4 = x% (19.7)

x% = 0.1218
x = 12.18
So we can say that 2.4 is 12% of 19.7 (rounding to 2 significant figures)
Example: 46 is 3.2% of what?
Translating into math symbols:

Solving for x:
46 = 3.2% (x)
46 = 0.032x

x = 1437.5
Therefore, we can say that 46 is 3.2% of 1400 (rounding to 2 significant figures).
Notice that in the second step the percentage (3.2%) is converted into its decimal form
(0.032).


PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBERS
The following table lists the defining properties of the real numbers (technically called
the field axioms). These laws define how the things we call numbers should behave.

Addition Multiplication
Commutative
For all real a, b
a + b = b + a
Commutative
For all real a, b
ab = ba
Associative
For all real a, b, c
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
Associative
For all real a, b, c
(ab)c = a(bc)
Identity
There exists a real number 0
such that for every real a
a + 0 = a
Identity
There exists a real number 1
such that for every real a
a 1 = a
Additive Inverse
(Opposite)
For every real number a there
exist a real number, denoted
(a), such that
a + (a) = 0
Multiplicative Inverse
(Reciprocal)
For every real
number a except 0 there exist
a real number, denoted ,
such that
a = 1
Distributive Law
For all real a, b, c
a(b + c) = ab + ac, and (a + b)c = ac + bc
The commutative and associative laws do not hold for subtraction or division:
a b is not equal to b a
a b is not equal to b a
a (b c) is not equal to (a b) c
a (b c) is not equal to (a b) c
Try some examples with numbers and you will see that they do not work.
What these laws mean is that order and grouping don't matter for addition and multiplication,
but they certainly do matter for subtraction and division. In this way, addition and
multiplication are cleaner than subtraction and division. This will become important when
we start talking about algebraic expressions. Often what we will want to do with an algebraic
expression will involve rearranging it somehow. If the operations are all addition and
multiplication, we don't have to worry so much that we might be changing the value of an
expression by rearranging its terms or factors. Fortunately, we can always think of
subtraction as an addition problem (adding the opposite), and we can always think of division
as a multiplication (multiplying by the reciprocal).
You may have noticed that the commutative and associative laws read exactly the same way
for addition and multiplication, as if there was no difference between them other than
notation. The law that makes them behave differently is the distributive law, because
multiplication distributes over addition, not vice-versa.. The distributive law is extremely
important, and it is impossible to understand algebra without being thoroughly familiar with
this law.
Example: 2(3 + 4)
According to the order of operations rules, we should evaluate this expression by first doing
the addition inside the parentheses, giving us
2(3 + 4) = 2(7) = 14
But we can also look at this problem with the distributive law, and of course still get the same
answer. The distributive law says that