UNIT -2 ACTUATION SYSTEMS

Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems Directional Control Valves Rotary Actuators. Mechanical
Actuation Systems Cams Gear Trains Ratchet and pal !elt and Chain Drives !earin"s.
#lectrical Actuation Systems Mechanical Sitches Solid State Sitches Solenoids Construction
and or$in" principle o% DC and AC Motors speed control o% AC and DC drives& Stepper Motors'
sitchin" circuitries %or stepper motor AC ( DC Servo motors
2.1 .PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS:
). Most o% mechatronics systems or$ *ased on motion or action *y means o% sort.
+. This motion or actuation is caused either *y a tor,ue or %orce %rom hich displacement and
acceleration can *e o*tained. To o*tain this %orce or acceleration& actuators are mainly used.
-. Actuator is a device hich provides enou"h %orce needed to start the mechatronics systems.
At the same& poer should *e supplied to the actuator to activate it.
.. The poer supplied to actuators mi"ht *e anyone o% the %olloin" %orms such as compressed
air& pressuri/ed %luid& electric poer and mechanical poer.
0. 1% compressed air is supplied to the system& it is called as pneumatic system. !ut i% pressuri/ed
%luid is supplied to %lo the system& it is called as hydraulic system. #lectrical actuator system is
ith electrical poer and mechanical system is ith mechanical poer. Amon" these& hydraulic
and pneumatic systems are ,uiet e%%ective and e%%icient ay o% "ettin" motion and action hich
can *e used in mechatronics systems.
2.1.1. Introduction to Pneu!tic S"#te#:
2luid poer technolo"y over the years has continuous development involved to the applications
o% pneumatic and hydraulic systems in several areas& li$e
3i4 Manu%acturin"&
3ii4 Process industries&
3iii4 Transportation systems& and
3iv4 5tilities.
The %luid poer systems are also used6
3i4 To carry out mechanical or$s such as linear& sivel and rotary motion %or plant e,uipment and
machinery& clampin"& shi%tin" and positionin"& pac$a"in"& %eedin" sortin"& stampin". drillin"& turnin"&
millin" and sain" etc.
3ii4 To o*tain control application such as controllin" o% plant& process and e,uipment to ta$e necessary
corrective action.
3iii4 To measure process parameter to act on necessary output.
Ad$!nt!%e# o& &'uid #"#te#:
3i4 Air is availa*le everyhere in enormous ,uantities.
3ii4 Transportin" air and hydraulic %luid ill *e easy throu"h pipe line over lar"e distances.
3iii4 Storin" o% compressed air ill *e easy in a reservoir and removed as re,uired. Hydraulic oil can *e
stored in accumulators.
3iv4 Compressed air is too sensitive ith temperature %luctuations *ut hydraulic %luids are insensitive.
3v4 Compressed air o%%ers minimal ris$ o% e7plosion or %ire.
3vi4 The construction o% components in %luid system 1S simple in construction and cheap.
Di#!d$!nt!%e#:
3i4 Good preparation o% compressed air and hydraulic %luid re,uired to remove the dirt and condensate.
3ii4 Speed %luctuation ill alays *e ith pneumatic systems.
1
3iii4 The or$in" pressure o% compressed air is limited to 8'9 *ar.
3iv4 The e7haust air ill release ith very hi"h noise there*y leadin" noise pollution.
3v4 Producin" compressed air and hydraulic %luid are e7pensive.
2.1.2. Pneu!tic #"#te#:
1n pneumatic systems& %orce is produced *y "as. 1t is mainly *y air pressure actin" on the sur%ace
o% a piston or valve. Compressed air is produced in a compressor and stored in a receiver. 2rom
compressor& it is send to valves hich control the direction o% %luid %lo. Also& %lo control valves
control the amount o% poer produced *y the cylinders. The %orce actin" on the piston is "iven *y the
e,uation6 2orce : Pressure x Area : p x A
2.1.(. )!#ic E'eent# o& Pneu!tic S"#te:
The *asic components o% a %luid poer system are essentially the same& re"ardless o% hether the
system uses a hydraulic or a pneumatic medium. A pneumatic system essentially has the %olloin"
components as shon in 2i"ure6 +.).
3i4 Compressor and Motor
3ii4 Pressure relie% valve and Chec$ valve
3iii4 Cooler& %ilter and ater trap
3iv4 Air receiver
3v4 Directional control valves
3vi4 Actuator or pneumatic cylinder
8. The %resh atmosphere air is not sent directly to the compressor to use in pneumatic systems.
2irst& it is %iltered *y %ilters. Then& %iltered atmospheric air is supplied to the compressor throu"h
Silencer to reduce noise level.
9. Then it is compressed. Pressure relie% valve is used to avoid the dama"e o% compressor due to
e7cess pressure raise in the system. Chec$ valve is a one'ay valve that allos pressuri/ed air to
enter the pneumatic system& *ut prevents *ac$%lo and loss o% pressure into the compressor hen
it is stopped.
;. The cooler is used to cool the compressed air hich is usually very hot.
<. The %ilter is used to remove contamination in the compressed air and ater trap is used to remove
ater particles. The pressuri/ed air is stored in a device called an air receiver& preventin" sur"es
in pressure and relievin" the duty cycle o% the compressor.
)=. Directional control valves are used to control %lo o% pressuri/ed air %rom the source to
the selected port. These valves can *e actuated either manually or electrically.
)). Actuator or pneumatic cylinder converts ener"y stored in the compressed air into mechanical
motion.
2
2.1.*. H"dr!u'ic S"#te#:
A hydraulic system uses %orce hich is applied at one point and transmitted to another point
usin" an incompressi*le %luid& plant e,uipment and machinery. 1n this type o% machine& hi"h'pressure
li,uid called hydraulic fluid is transmitted throu"hout the machine to various hydraulic motors and
hydraulic cylinders. The %luid is controlled directly or automatically *y control valves and distri*uted
throu"h hoses and tu*es. The popularity o% hydraulic machinery is due to lar"e amount o% poer that can
*e trans%erred throu"h small tu*es and %le7i*le hoses& and the hi"h poer density and ide array o%
actuators that can ma$e use o% this poer.
2.1.+. )!#ic E'eent# o& H"dr!u'ic S"#te:
The necessary components o% any hydraulic systems are
3i4 Hydraulic pump unit
3ii4 Control valves
3iii4 Reciprocatin" or rotary unit
1. H"dr!u'ic ,u, unit
A pump is a device in hich mechanical ener"y is converted into %luid ener"y. The pump is connected
ith the reservoir called fluid tank.
2. Contro' $!'$e#
The %lo o% pressuri/ed %luid *y a pump is controlled *y the %olloin" valves such as6
3i4 Pressure relie% valves control the %luid pressure.
3ii4 >on return valve controls the *ac$ %lo o% %luid.
3iii4 Directional control valves control the direction o% %luid.
(. H"dr!u'ic !ctu!tor or c"'inder
The actuator is the element hich converts hydraulic poer into mechanical poer. The pressuri/ed %luid
*y the pump is supplied to either rotary pump or hydraulic cylinder *ased on the type o% motion. >eeded.
Rotary pumps are used to "et rotary motion and hydraulic cylinder is used to o*tain linear motion
2.2. Basic elements of a hydraulic system
-or.in% o& /"dr!u'ic #"#te 01I2URE 2.23:
The %luid stored in the tan$ is send to the %ilter to remove dust and %orei"n particles. A%ter the
%luid is %iltered& it is suc$ed *y the pump hich is driven *y a motor. Durin" pumpin"& pressure o% the
%luid ill increase and it is released ith hi"h pressure to the accumulator throu"h non return valve. ?ne
pressure relie% valve is connected at the e7it to control the delivery pressure o% %luid. The %luid ith hi"h
pressure is supplied to the hydraulic cylinder throu"h directional control valve.
3
2.1.4. H"dr!u'ic Accuu'!tor:
A hydraulic accumulator is an ener"y stora"e device. 1t is a pressure stora"e reservoir in hich a %luid is
held under pressure *y compressed "as or a sprin" or a raised ei"ht. The main reasons that an
accumulator is used in a hydraulic system are6
i4 the pump does not need to *e so lar"e to cope ith e7tremes o% demand.
ii4 the supply circuit can respond more ,uic$ly to any temporary demand
and to smooth pulsations.
). Compressed "as accumulators are the most common type hich is
shon in 2i"ure+.-.
+. A compressed "as accumulator consists o% a cylinder ith to
cham*ers that are separated *y a totally enclosed *ladder.
-. ?ne cham*er contains hydraulic %luid and is connected to the
hydraulic line.
.. The other cham*er contains an inert "as 3mostly nitro"en4 under
pressure that provides the compressive %orce on the hydraulic %luid.
0. As the volume o% the compressed "as chan"es the pressure o% the
"as& and the pressure on the %luid& chan"es inversely.
2.1.5. H"dr!u'ic Pu,#:
1n "eneral& a pump is a device hich converts the mechanical ener"y supplied into hydraulic ener"y *y
li%tin" ater to hi"her levels. Here& hydraulic ener"y re%ers to potential and $inetic. ener"y o% a li,uid.
Hydraulic pumps are the ener"y'a*sor*in" machines. Since& it re,uires mechanical poer to drive.
@i%tin" o% ater to hi"her levels is carried out *y the various actions o% pumps such as centri%u"al action&
reciprocatin" action etc.& The sym*ol o% a pump is shon in 2i"ure+...
2.1.6.Ad$!nt!%e# o& /"dr!u'ic #"#te#:
). 1t is easy to produce and transmit hydraulic poer.
+. Hydraulic systems are uni%orm and smooth.
-. !alancin" hydraulic %orces is easier.
.. Aei"ht'to'poer ratio is less.
0. 1t is easy to maintain.
8. Systems are cheaper.
9. Hydraulic systems are sa%e and compact.
;. 2rictional resistance is less.
Di#!d$!nt!%e# o& /"dr!u'ic #"#te#:
). Manu%acturin" cost o% the system is ,uiet hi"h.
+. Hydraulic elements should *e $ept %ree %rom dirt& corrosion& rust etc.&
-. Petroleum *ased hydraulic systems more prone to %ire ha/ards.
.. Hydraulic poer is not readily availa*le as pneumatic.
B+.).<.P!C
2.1.17. Direction!' Contro' 8!'$e# 0DC8#3:
The primary %unction o% any control valve is to direct& re"ulate the %lo o% %luid and re"ulate the pressure
in various loadin" devices. 5sually& control valves are used %or sensin"& processin"& controllin" hich
involves in the %olloin" %unctions6
3i4 Controllin" the %lo *y "uidin" and directin" it to a loadin" line.
3ii4 Select the path air ta$es throu"h the system or cancellin" the si"nal in *loc$in" its path.
3iii4 Generatin" or ma$in" alert the si"nal. .
3iv4 Releasin" the air to atmosphere or return the %luid to reservoir.
3v4 Per%ormin" lo"ic control %unctions.
3vi4 Stoppin" and startin" air %lo 3on'o%% valves4&
3vii4 Sensin" cylinder positions 3limit valves4.
4
1n hydraulic systems& valves are classi%ied into the %olloin" types6
3i4 Directional control valves
3ii4 >on return valves
3iii4 2lo control valves
3iv4 Pressure control valves
3v4 Solenoid valves.
). Direction!' contro' $!'$e# 0DC8#3 are one o% the most %undamental parts in pneumatic and
hydraulic systems.
+. Directional control valves are desi"ned to direct the %lo o% %luid& at the desired time& to the point
in a %luid poer system here it ill do or$.
-. They usually consist o% a piston inside a cylinder hich is electrically controlled. The movement
o% the cylinder restricts or permits the %lo& thus it control the %luid %lo.
.. Directional control valves %or hydraulic and pneumatic systems are similar in desi"n and
operation. Hoever& there is one maDor di%%erence. The return port o% a hydraulic valve is ported
throu"h a return line to the reservoir& hile the similar port o% a pneumatic valve is usually vented
to the atmosphere. There are to common %orms o% DCVs6
3i4 Slidin" spool valve
3ii4 Rotary spool valve
3iii4 Poppet valve
0i3 S'idin% S,oo' $!'$e:
Sliding spool valve consists o% a spool inside a cast iron or steel housin" as shon in 2i"ure+.0.
The spool slides to di%%erent positions in the housin" and route the %luid *ased on the spoolEs position. The
slidin" element is also re%erred to as a piston. 2or valves ith more ports& the spool is desi"ned ith more
pistons or lands on a common sha%t.
2i"ure +.0 Slidin" Spool valve
Ahen the spool is moved to the ri"ht direction as shon in 2i"ure+.0 3a4 the inlet 3pressure supply4 and
outlet ports are open and e7haust port is closed. There%ore the actuator is pressurised and activated.
Ahen the spool is moved to the le%t direction as shon in 2i"ure+.0 3*4 the inlet port is closed and outlet
and e7haust ports is open. There%ore the actuator is deactivated. The spool position may *e actuated *y
mechanical levers& hydraulic pilot pressure& or solenoids hich push the spool le%t or ri"ht.
1n this illustration solenoid is used to activate the valve.
Ad$!nt!%e# o& #'idin% #,oo' $!'$e:
3a4 Very %le7i*le as re"ards portin" con%i"uration
3*4 Relatively strai"ht %orard manu%acture
3c4 @o inertia "ivin" "ood acceleration and deceleration
3d4 @o operatin" load
Di#!d$!nt!%e# o& #'idin% #,oo' $!'$e:
3a4 >ecessity %or precision manu%acture increases ith increasin" pressure
0ii3 Rot!r" S,oo' $!'$e:
5
The rotary spool directional control valve has a round core ith one or more passa"es or recesses
in it. The core is mounted ithin a stationary sleeve.
As the core is rotated ithin the stationary sleeve& the passa"es or recesses connect or *loc$ the
ports in the sleeve. The ports in the sleeve are
connected to the appropriate lines o% the %luid
system. 2i"ure +.8 shos the operation o% a rotary
spool valve. 2i"ure+.8 3a4 and 3c4 sho the valve in
a position to deliver %luid to another valve& hile
2i"ure+.8 3*4 shos the valve in the neutral
position ith all passa"es throu"h the valve
*loc$ed.
2i"ure +.8 Rotary Spool valve
Ad$!nt!%e# o& rot!r" #,oo' $!'$e:
3a4 Good %le7i*ility as re"ards portin" con%i"uration
3*4 Generally suita*le %or lo'cost production ith simple portin"
3c4 Hi"h %lo rate %or "iven si/e
Di#!d$!nt!%e# o& rot!r" #,oo' $!'$e:
3a4 May *e limited in pressure ratin"
3*4 Manu%acturin" cost increases ith increasin" comple7ity o% portin"
0iii3 Po,,et $!'$e:
The valve consists o% a mova*le poppet hich closes a"ainst the valve
seat *y the Sprin" %orce as shon in 2i"ure. 1n the closed position 3as in 2i"ure4&
%luid pressure on the inlet side tends to hold the valve ti"htly closed. A small
amount o% movement %rom a %orce applied to the push *utton opens the poppet
and allos %luid to %lo throu"h the outlet o% the valve.
Ad$!nt!%e# o& ,o,,et $!'$e:
3a4 Hi"h response
3*4 @o lea$a"e
3c4 #asy to manu%acture ith hi"h pressure ratin"
3d4 @o cost
3e4 Generally intensive to contaminants
Di#!d$!nt!%e# o& ,o,,et $!'$e:
3a4 Strictly limited desi"n %le7i*ility i.e. each valve is only capa*le o% to ay 2unction
2.1.11. Valve Symbols
Sym*ols are used to simpli%y the drain" and e7planation o% pneumatic systems in much the same ay as electronic
systems. The various sym*ols used to descri*e the valves in the pneumatic and hydraulic systems are as %ollos6
6
Description Sym*ol
!ased on 2unctions
#ach valve sitchin" position is represented *y a
s,uare.
The num*er o% s,uares corresponds to the num*er
o% sitchin" positions.
@ines indicate the %lo path and arros in it
represents the direction o% %lo. The vertical
don arro indicates the %luid %los into the
valve and the inclined arro indicates the %luid
%los out o% the valve.
Shut'o%% positions are identi%ied in the *o7es *y
lines dran at ri"ht an"les.
The inverted trian"le sym*ol denotes an e7haust
port.
The connections 3inlet and outlet ports4 are
shon *y lines on the outside o% the *o7. 1n
this %i"ure& the valve has %our ports. The ports
are la*elled *y a num*er or letter accordin" to their
%unction as "iven *elo6
Pressure supply or input port ) or P
?utput port + or 0 or ! or A
Hydraulic return port - or T
Pneumatic e7haust port - or 0 or R or G
)!#ed on et/od# o& !ctu!tion
General manual operation
Push *utton
@ever operated
Detent operated
2oot pedal operated
Roller operated
1dle return& roller
Sprin" operated
Solenoid operated
Direct pneumatic actuation
1ndirect pneumatic actuation 3piloted4
7
The poppet valve descri*ed previous section 3in 2i"ure +.94 has two positions:
3i4 closed and 3ii4 open and two port 3i4 inlet port and 3ii4 outlet port. There%ore it is also called +F+ valve. 1n
+F+ valve the %irst num*er represents number of ports and the second num*er represents number of switching
positions. 2rom the a*ove sym*ol description& poppet valve has to *loc$s or s,uares6 one %or open
position and other %or closed position as shon in 2i"ure +.;.
Poppet valve is actuated *y push *utton and sprin".
Similarly the slidin" spool valve descri*ed in previous section
32i"ure +.04 has three ports and to positions. There%ore it is a -F+ valve. 1t is represented as shon in
2i"ure +.<.
8
The sym*ol %or .F+ valve is shon in 2i"ure +.)=. This valve has %our
ports and to positions.
The'sym*ol %or 0F+ valve is shon in 2i"ure +.)). This valve has %ive ports
and to positions.
2i"ure +.)+ shos a simple e7ample o% an application o% valves .F- spool
valve
in a pneumatic system. This valve has %our ports and three positions.
?ne port
receives pressuri/ed %luid %rom the pump& and one routes %luid *ac$ to
the reservoir
3or to the atmosphere in pneumatic systems4. The other to ports are "enerally
re%erred to as or$ ports and route %luid to or %rom the actuator. 1n this case& one Eor$ port routes %luid to
or %rom the rod end o% the cylinder& the other routes %luid to or %rom the cap end.
The valve represented in 2i"ure +.)+ can *e shi%ted to any o% three
discrete positions. As shon& in the neutral position& all ports are
*loc$ed& so no %luid ill %lo. 1% the valve is shi%ted to the ri"ht& %luid
%rom the pump %los to the rod end o% the cylinder and causin" its
piston rod to retract. As the piston rod retracts& %luid %rom the
cylinderEs cap end %los to the reservoir. 1% the valve is shi%ted to the
le%t& %luid %los %rom the pump to the cap end o% the cylinder&
causin" the piston rod to e7tend.
As this occurs& %luid %rom the rod end o% the cylinder %los to the
reservoir. Returnin" the valve spool to the center position a"ain
*loc$s all %lo.
To port valves are used to simply turn air%lo on or o%%. Three port
valve are used as selector valves to route air to create a pilot si"nal&
to control sin"le actin" cylinders or to ma$e lo"ic %unctions. 2ive port valves are used to control dou*le&
actin" cylinders.
2.1.12. Pilot-operated Valves:
Pilot-operated valves are essential to control lar"e valves as the si/e o% the
9
solenoid re,uired as compared to the actual valve ould *e *i""er. Sometime& %or solenoid or manual
operated valves& the %orce re,uired to move the spool or poppet may *e too hi"h. There%ore& an e7ternal
pilot %luid supply %or movin" the main spool is introduced throu"h pressure port o% the main valve. 2i"ure
+.)- sho the schematic o% 0F- valve operated *y pilot valves. The dashed line in the dia"ram indicates
pilot pressure line. The pilot valves are "enerally small and can *e operated manually or *y a solenoid.
2.1.13. Directional Valve or Non-Return Valve or Cec! Valves
The directional or non'return valves allo the %lo in one direction and in the other direction the %lo is
not alloed. The *all and seat arran"ement o% a non'return valve is shon in 2i"ure +.). 3a4 and
correspondin" sym*ol o% the valve is shon 2i"ure +.). 3*4.
2.1.1*. Pre##ure Contro' 8!'$e#:
0i3 Pre##ure Re%u'!tin% 8!'$e#
). Primary %unction o% the pressure re"ulatin" valve is to
match the %lo o% %luid throu"h the re"ulator to the
demand %or %luid placed upon the system.
+. 1% the load %lo decreases& then the re"ulator %lo must decrease also. 1% the load %lo increases&
then the re"ulator %lo must increase in order to $eep the controlled pressure %rom decreasin" due
to a shorta"e o% %luid in the pressure system.
-. 1n the re"ulatin" valve shon in 2i"ure +.)0& a diaphra"m is used ith
a poppet valve to re"ulate pressure.
.. As pressure in the upper cham*er increases& the diaphra"m is pushed
upard& causin" the poppet to reduce %lo& *rin"in" the pressure *ac$
don.
0. !y adDustin" the top scre& the donard pressure on the diaphra"m
can *e increased& resumin" more pressure in the upper cham*er to
maintain e,uili*rium. 1n this ay& the outlet pressure o% the re"ulator is
controlled.
0ii3 Pre##ure Liitin% 8!'$e#
). 2i"ure+.)8 3a4 and 3*4 sho the construction o% pressure se,uence valve and the sym*ol o% the
valve respectively.
+. The pressure relie% valve is mounted at the pressure side o% the hydraulic system. 1ts %unction is to
limit the pressure in the system on an accepta*le value.
-. 1n %act a pressure relie% valve has the same construction as
a sprin" operated directional or non'return chec$
valve.
.. Ahen the system "ets overloaded the pressure relie%
valve ill open and the pump %lo ill *e leaded
directly in toG the hydraulic reservoir. The pressure in
the system remains on the value determined *y the
sprin" on the pressure relie% valve and hence the
system is sa%e"uarded a"ainst e7cessive pressure.
0iii3 Pre##ure #e9uence $!'$e#
). 2i"ure+.)9 3a4 and 3*4 sho the arran"ement o%
pressure se,uence valves in pneumatic system and the
sym*ol o% the valves respectively.
10
+. Pressure se,uence valves control the se,uence o% operation *eteen to *ranches in a circuit .
They ena*le one unit to automatically set another unit into motion.
-. This valve is similar to a relie% valve e7cept that& a%ter the set pressure has *een reached& the
se,uence valve diverts the %luid to a second actuator or motor to do or$ in another part o% the
system. 2luid is %ree to %lo into cylinder A. The %irst se,uence valve ) *loc$s the passa"e o% %luid
until the piston in cylinder A moves to the end o% its stro$e.
.. At this time& se,uence valve ) opens& alloin" %luid to enter cylinder !. This action continues until
all three pistons complete their stro$es.
2.1.1+. Proce## Contro' 8!'$e#:
The process control valves are used to control the rate o% %luid %lo o% a process control system&
%or e7ample& controllin" the rate o% %luid %lo into a tan$. The operation is *ased on a varia*le resistance
to the %lo o% %luid *y alterin" the cross section o% the pipe throu"h hich the %luid %los. A process
control valve consists o% an actuator and valve. The actuator re"ulates the pressureE o% the system here as
the valve controls the %lo o% %luid into or out o% the system. The most common %orm o% 'process control
valve actuator is pneumatic diaphra"m actuator.
Pneu!tic di!,/r!% !ctu!tor:
A simple construction o% pneumatic diaphra"m actuator is shon in 2i"ure +.);. 1t consists o% a
diaphra"m& made o% ru**er& ith the input pressure supply actin" on one side and the atmospheric
pressure actin" on the other side.
2i"ure +.);3a4 shos the condition hen the input pressure %rom the controller is lo. 1n this state& the
sprin" maintains the diaphra"m and the connected stem in the
upper position. Ahen the input pressure %rom the controller is
increased the diaphra"m moves don a"ainst the sprin" %orce
and hence the stem as ell& as shon in 2i"ure +.);3*4.
The pressure and sprin" %orce are directly proportional and the
compression o% a sprin" is linearly related to the %orce actin"
on the diaphra"m.
Con#truction !nd -or.in% ,rinci,'e o& Proce## contro'
$!'$e:
2i"ure+.)< shos a simple construction o% typical control valve usin" a pneumatic diaphra"m
actuator attached to drive the stem hich is used to control the %lo.
The operation o% pneumatic diaphra"m actuator is e7plained in the
previous section. The operation 3up and don movement4 o% diaphra"m
actuator moves the inner'valve plu" attached to the stem ithin the valve
*ody.
The si/e o% the openin" *eteen the plu" and seat varies hen the
stem and plu"s moves up and don.
The shape o% the plu" determines the amount o% actual openin" o%
the valve.
T",e# ,roce## contro' $!'$e#:
Classi%ication o% process control valves are *ased on the valve body and plug.
8!'$e :odie#:
11
The valve may *e sin"le seated 3contains one plu" ith one seatin" sur%ace4 or dou*le seated.
2i"ure +.+= shos di%%erent %orms o% valve *odies.
Sin"le seated valves& as shon in 2i"ure+.+= 3a4& have only one plu" and the %luid %los throu"h
one path in the valve. These types o% valves are recommended i% the valve is re,uired to close ti"htly.
Dou*le seated valves as shon in 2i"ure+.+= 3*4 have to plu"s and hence the %luid enterin" into the
valve splits into to streams. These types o% valves have an advanta"e o% less %orce re,uired to operate
the valve ith an accurate positionin".
P'u%#:
The relationship *eteen the stem movement and the e%%ect on the %lo rate is determined *y the shape o%
the plu". There are - *asic types o% control valve plu"s as shon in 2i"ure+.+)
.
0!3 ;uic. o,enin% ,'u% $!'$e#:
These types o% valves are used %or lar"e chan"e in %lo rate ith a small movement o% the valve stem and
act as an onFo%% control o% %lo rate.
12
0:3 Line!r contoured ,'u% $!'$e#:
1n this type& the %lo rate varies linearly ith stem position. Here& the valve alone determines the pressure
drop. There%ore the chan"e in %lo rate :
H x 3chan"e in stem displacement4 here H is the constant. The
relationship *eteen %lo rate and stem position may *e e7pressed as
0c3 E9u!' ,ercent!%e ,'u% $!'$e#:
1n this type o% plu"& %or a "iven percenta"e o% chan"es in stem
position an e,uivalent chan"e in %lo rate occurs. 1n normal
situations& this type o% valve does not shut'o%% the %lo completely and the
minimum %lo hich occurs hen the stem travels in its limit.
@et R *e ran"ea*ility *eteen the ma7imum and minimum %lo
Characteristic o% these valves *ased on the stem position and %lo rate are
shon in 2i"ure +.++
Contro' $!'$e #i<in%
The term control valve si/in" re%ers to the correct si/e o% the valve *ody. The
%olloin" e,uation is used to speci%y the si/e o% a valve in terms o% its capacity to provide %lo hen %ully open.
2.1.16.Line!r Actu!tor:
). 1t is a device that develops linear %orce and linear motion& %rom an availa*le hydraulic or
pneumatic ener"y source.
13
+. A linear actuator provides a rectilinear movement reali/ed *y the stro$e o% a rod connected to a
piston slidin" inside the cylinder.
-. The linear actuators essentially have a cylinder *arrel and a mova*le piston ith piston rod.
.. There are mainly to types o% linear actuators *ased on its operation6 sin"le actin" and dou*le
actin" cylinders. The sin"le actin" cylinder only permit the %luid on one sur%ace o% the piston and
there%ore the pressure o% is e7erted in sin"le direction. 1t has a sin"le or$ stro$eI the retract
stro$e is made *y means o% the helical sprin" incorporated ith the actuator inside a cham*er.
0. The dou*le actin" cylinders permit *oth stro$es& so that the %luid acts alternately on *oth sides o%
the piston& "eneratin" *oth the advance and retract stro$es.
0!3 Sin%'e !ctin% c"'inder#:
2i"ure+.+- shos a simple construction o% a sin"le actin" cylinder. 1n sin"le actin" cylinders& the
%luid enters and leaves in one side o% the piston and the other side is vented to
atmosphere. There%ore& a sin"le actin" cylinder can produce or$ in one
direction. The sprin" is used to return the piston to its initial position.
0:3 Dou:'e !ctin% c"'inder#:
A simple dou*le actin" cylinder linear actuator is shon in
2i"ure+.+.. 1n dou*le actin" cylinders& the %luid enters and leaves in *oth
sides o% the piston and there is no return sprin" is needed. There are to ports
used alternately& one %or supply and other %or e7haust o% air. Ahen the
%luidFair enters the cylinder %rom upper port& the piston is %orced to move
don. At the same time& the %luidFair hich is already *elo the piston returns
to. the reservoir. Ahen the %luidFair enters the cylinder %rom loer port& the
piston is %orced to move up and the %luidFair hich is already a*ove the piston
the piston returns to the reservoir. The procedure is repeated a"ain and a"ain to
per%orm the continuous movement.
2.1.1=. Rot!r" Actu!tor#:
A rotary actuator is a device that develops rotary motion& %rom an
availa*le hydraulic or pneumatic ener"y source. 1n construction terms& rotary
actuators are identical to rotary pumps. There%ore "ear& vane& lu*e and rac$ and
pinion type pumps are availa*le. ?*viously& the operatin" principle is the opposite o% pumps. 1n pumps
the e7ternal ener"y either electrical or mechanical is supplied to "enerate the hydraulicFpneumatic
pressure here as in actuators hydraulicFpneumatic pressure is supplied to "enerate the mechanical or$.
Rotary actuators produce a hi"h tor,ue output and have a limited rotary movement.
Rotary actuators can *e divided into to maDor "roups6
i4 ane actuators here the tor,ue and motion all produced in a rotary sense.
The construction limits the rotation to less than one.
ii4 !ack and pinion actuators are essentially linear actuators mechanically connected to translate the
linear %orce to produce an output tor,ue and rotational movement. This type o% actuators are capa*le o%
providin" an output motion o% one revolution or more& *ut not continuous.
All types "ive *i'directional output motion& and most produce same tor,ue in *oth senses. Also output
tor,ue is "enerally constant throu"hout the stro$e. The important advanta"e o% rotary actuators is direct
rotary output %rom a compact hydraulic device ith elimination o% lin$a"es. and lost motion associated
ith cylinderFcran$ rod arran"ements. The use o% anyone type is *ased on %our primary criteria6
3i4 or$in" tor,ue& 3ii4 *earin" load& 3iii4 $inetic ener"y& and 3iv4 the or$in" environment.
0i3 8!ne !ctu!tor#:
14
The construction o% a simple sin"le vane actuator is shon in 2i"ure+.+0 3a4. 1t consists o%6
3a4 the housin" ith inlet and outlet ports&
3*4 the vane ith central output sha%t ri"idly attached ith& and
3c4 the internal *arrier or shoe located inside the actuator and is %i7ed to the
housin".
The *arrier& sha%t and vane partition the inner space o% the actuator into
to or$in" cham*ers. The vane sin"s and rotates in a normal and reverse
direction hen the %luidFair pressure acts on it and hence the tor,ue is transmitted
to the output sha%t attached ith the vane. Sin"le vane actuators are limited in
rotation and most do not e7ceed +;=J. These actuators are made ith di%%erent
rotatin" an"les& the most common *ein" <=J& );=J& and +9=J. Vane actuators
provide hi"h tor,ue'to'si/e relationship.
1t is possi*le to modi%y the desi"n to have to vanes %i7ed to the output
sha%t );=J apart& and to %i7ed *arriers or shoes in the housin" providin" to
separate operatin" halves each ith to cham*ers as shon in 2i"ure+.+0 3*4.
#ach hal% o% the actuator is connected to the supply so that they operate in parallel.
This "ives tice the tor,ue output o% a sin"le vane actuator %or the same pressure
supply.
1% the rotation an"le re,uired is more than -8== then a vane motor can
*e used. The construction o% vane motor is shon in 2i"ure+.+8. A
vane motor consists o% num*er o% sprin" loaded vanes slotted into a
driven rotor. Sprin" loaded vane lips are held a"ainst the housin" and
the rotor is o%%set ithin the housin". The vanes are contained *y cam
rin"s as they cross inlet and outlet ports. Ahen the %luid is supplied
throu"h the inlet port the vane rotates and hence the rotor produces
the re,uired output motion.
0ii3 R!c. !nd ,inion !ctu!tor#:
The rac$ is a strai"ht set o% "ear teeth attached to the
cylinderEs piston as shon in 2i"ure+.+9. The rac$ is pushed
linearly as the piston moves. The rac$Es teeth mesh ith the circular
"ear teeth o% the piston& %orcin" it to rotate. The pinion rotates *ac$
to its ori"inal position hen %luidFair pressure is supplied to the
opposite side o% the cylinder. The ma7imum rotation o% a rac$ and
pinion actuator is limited *y its si/e. 1n practice& the ma7imum
an"le o% rotation is not more than 9+=J.
Co,!ri#on :et>een 8!ne !ctu!tor !nd R!c. !nd ,inion !ctu!tor
8!ne !ctu!tor R!c. !nd ,inion !ctu!tor
The vane sin"s and rotates in a normal and
reverse direction hen the %luidFair pressure acts on
it and hence the tor,ue is transmitted to the
sha%t attached ith the vane
The rac$ moves *ac$ and %orth hen
%luidFair pressure acts on the e7ternal
side o% the piston in a cylinder and tor,ue
is transmitted to the output sha%t via
pinion.
Vane actuators are limited in rotation and most do
not e7ceed +;=J.
These types o% actuators are capa*le o%
providin" one revolution or more.
@ess e7pensive than rac$ and pinion actuators. More e7pensive.
@ess maintenance re,uired. More maintenance re,uired.
15
Hi"h tor,ue'to'si/e. @ess tor,ue to si/e.
Kero *ac$lash is possi*le. Kero *ac$lash is not possi*le.
@ess accuracy. More accuracy.
Hi"h loads are not possi*le to apply. Hi"h loads are possi*le to apply.
Ad$!nt!%e# o& rot!r" !ctu!tor#:
) 1t provides uni%orm tor,ue in *oth directions.
+ The desi"n is simple.
- 1t is availa*le in ide ran"e o% si/es.
. Hi"h tor,ue'to'si/e ratio.
S 1t has more e%%icient operation
8 @ess maintenance is re,uired.
9 1t can also per%orm under the most adverse am*ient conditions.
; Good load holdin" capa*ility ith /ero dri%t.
<& ?ptional cushions can stop inertial loads.
)= Rotation can *e speci%ied to %it e7act application needs.
)) 1t ill support radial as ell as thrust loads.
2.2. MECHANICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS:
Mechanical actuation systems consists o% various mechanical elements such as lin$a"es& cams&
"ear trains& rac$ and pinion& chains& *elt drives& ratchet and pal& *earin"s etc. These elements o%ten used
in mechatronics systems to per%orm the %olloin" primary %unctions6
). Trans%ormation o% a rotary motion into a translatin" motion as in the case o% a cam and %olloer
mechanism here rotational motion o% the cam is chan"ed into translational movement o% the %olloer.
+. Trans%ormation o% rotary motion %or a lon" distance& hich is not possi*le *y usin" "ears& as in the case
o% *elt drives.
-. Trans%ormation o% rotary motion %or a medium distance ithout slippin"& hich is not possi*le *y
usin" *elt drives& as in the case o% *elt drives.
.. Trans%ormation o% linear motion into rotational motion as in the case o% rac$ and pinion mechanism.
0. @oc$in" o% rotatin" elements as in the case ratchet and pal mechanism.
8. Trans%ormation o% a motion in one direction into a motion in a direction at ri"ht an"les& as in the case o%
a *evel "ear and orm "ear drives.
9. Chan"in" the direction o% rotational speed *y increasin" or decreasin" o% one drive to another& as in the
case o% "ear trains.
;. Guidin" the rotatin" and translatin" elements ith minimum %riction as in the case o% *earin"s.
The construction& or$in" principles& types& advanta"es and disadvanta"es o% the various
mechanical actuation systems such as cams& "ear trains& ratchet and pal& *elt drives& chain drive& and
*earin"s are discussed here as sylla*us point o% vie.
2.2.1.C!#:
16
A cam is a rotatin" or oscillatin" machine element havin" a curved outline or a curved "roove. 1t
"ives a predetermined speci%ied motion to another element called the
follower hich is in contact. A "eneral e7ample is the camsha%t o% an
automo*ile hich ta$es the rotary motion o% the en"ine and translates it
into the reciprocatin" motion necessary to operate the inta$e and e7haust
valves o% the cylinders. A cam mechanism consists o% three elements6 the
cam& the %olloer& and the %rame as shon in 2i"ure +.+;. The cam is a
proDectin" part o% a rotatin" heel or sha%t. The %olloer is in direct
contact ith the cam and transmits motion to another *ody. The %rame o%
the machine supports the *earin" sur%aces %or the cam and %or the
%olloer.
The cam has a very important %unction in the operation o% many classes o% machines& especially
those o% the automatic type& such as printin" presses& shoe machinery& te7tile machinery& "ear'cuttin"
machines& and scre machines. 1n any class o% machinery in hich automatic control and accurate timin"
are paramount& the cam is an indispensa*le part o% mechanism.
2.2.2.-or.in% Princi,'e o& C! !nd 1o''o>er:
Ahen the cam turns throu"h one motion cycle& the %olloer e7ecutes a series o% events consistin"
o% rises& dells& and returns. !ise is the motion o% the %olloer aay %rom the cam centerI dwell is the
motion durin" hich the %olloer is at restI and fall is the motion o% the %olloer toard the cam center.
Ahen the cam rotates a*out its a7is& a speci%ic motion to the %olloer is o*tained hich repeats ith each
revolution o% the cam. The motion o% the cam is represented *y a "raph dran *eteen %olloer
displacement and an"le. The an"ular displacement o% the
cam is ta$en in 7'a7is hile the y'a7is represents the
an"ular or the linear displacement o% the %olloer. The
tracer point o% the %olloer rises o%% the prime circle *y the
rise. 1t ill remain %or a hile 3or4 at the same position
hich is called "dwell". Then return to the prime circle& and
also remain at rest in a second dell *e%ore repeatin" the
cycle.
1n the cam pro%ile illustrated in 2i"ure +.+<& the rise section descri*es ho ,uic$ly the %olloer
ill *e li%ted and the %all section descri*es ho ,uic$ly the %olloer ill %all. Durin" the dell section o%
the cam& the %olloer ill remain at the same level %or a si"ni%icant period o% time. So& dell o% the cam is
de%ined as the restin" period o% the %olloer ith uni%orm diameter o% the cam %or certain an"le.
2.2.(.T",e# o& C!#:
The cam may *e o% various shapes. The variety o% di%%erent types o% cam and %olloer systems
that one can choose %rom is ,uite *road. The most common types o% cams accordin" to earn shapes are
discussed here.
#i$ %ranslating or &edge orflat cams
A ed"e cam is used here the translational motion o% the ed"e is
converted into the reciprocatin" motion o% the %olloer. 2i"ure+.-= shos
the arran"ement o% the ed"e cam and the knife edge follower.
17
#ii$ Plate or disc cams
Plate or disc cams are also called radial cams. They are made o% a
thic$ plate o% the re,uired shape and si/e. As the cam rotates the %olloer
is pushed up and don. There is some e7ternal %orce pushin" the %olloer
*ac$ don& so that it remains in contact ith the cam pro%ile. 2i"ure+.-)
shos this type o% cam ith flat foot follower.
#iii$ 'ylindrical cams
This cam and %olloer system is sli"htly di%%erent to the plate cams. The cylindrical or *arrel cam
consists o% a rotatin" cylinder ith a helical 3scre shaped4 "roove in its
curved sur%ace. A %olloer ith a tapered roller end is located in the
"roove. Cylindrical cams are used hen motion has to *e transmitted
parallel to the a7is o% rotation o% the earn& As the cylinder turns& the
%olloer moves in a strai"ht line parallel to the a7is o% the rotation *arrel
cam . 2i"ure+.-+ shos this type o% cam ith oscillating follower.
#iv$ Bo( or grooved cams
A "roove is milled in the %ace o% cam discs as shon in
2i"ure+.--. As the cam rotates& a %olloer located in the "roove has its
motion "uided *y the "roove. This type o% cam is called a *o7 cam.
#v$ )nd cam
This cam has a rotatin" portion o% a cylinder as shon in
2i"ure+.-.. The %olloer translates or oscillates& hereas the cam usually
rotates. The end cam is rarely used *ecause o% the cost and the di%%iculty in
cuttin" its contour.
#vi$ 'onical cams
1n a conical cam& a %rustum o% cone has a circum%erential helical contour
cut on the outer periphery hich rotates a*out its a7is. 2i"ure+.-0 shos
the conical cam ith spherical follower hich is reciprocatin" in a
direction parallel to the cone a7is.
#vii$ *loboidal cams
Glo*oidal cams are similar in operation as that o% conical cams
*ut it has conve7 or concave sur%aces instead o% conical sur%aces. A
circum%erential contour is cut on the sur%ace o% rotation o% the cam to
ma$e motion to the %olloer. The %olloer "enerally oscillates as in
cylindrical earn.
2.2.*.T",e# o& e!rn 1o''o>er#:
18
i$ +nife edge follower
This is the simplest type& is not o%ten used due to the rapid rate o% ear. Ahen it is adopted& it is
usually %or reciprocatin" motion& runnin" in slides and there is considera*le side thrust& this *ein" a
component o% the thrust %rom the can& 2i"ure+.-= shos the knife edge follower.
ii$ ,latfoot or mushroom follower
This type o% %olloer has a %lat sur%ace to contact ith the cam. The pro*lem o% ear is not as
"reat as ith the $ni%e'ed"e %olloer& since the point o% contact *eteen the cam and %olloer ill move
across the %ace o% the %olloer accordin" to the chan"e o% shape o% the cam. 2i"ure+.-) shos this type
%olloer. These types o% %olloers are used as valve in 1C en"ines.
iii$ !oller follower
This type o% %olloer has roller attached ith it hich is in contact ith the cam and rolls over it.
This eliminates the pro*lem o% rapid ear since the slidin" e%%ect is lar"ely replaced *y a roller action.
2i"ure+.-8 3a4 shos this type %olloer.
iv$ -ffset follower
1% the line o% movement o% the roller %olloer or %lat %aced %olloer is o%%set %rom the centre o%
rotation o% the cam& the %olloer is $non as an offset follower. 2i"ure+.-8 3*4 shos this type %olloer.
v$ -scillating followers
-scillating followers are pivoted at a suita*le point on the %rame and oscillate as the cam ma$es
the rotary motion as shon in 2i"ure+.-8 3c4. There are %our types o% oscillatin" %olloers dependin"
upon. the shape o% the end o% the %olloer6
a. Spherical %aced oscillatin" %olloer
*. 2lat %aced oscillatin" %olloer
c. Roller %aced oscillatin" %olloer
d. #d"e oscillatin" %olloer
2.2.+ 2e!r Tr!in#:
A "ear train is to or more "ear or$in" to"ether *y meshin" their teeth and turnin" each other
in a system to "enerate poer and speed. 1t reduces speed and increases tor,ue. To create lar"e "ear ratio&
"ears are connected to"ether to %orm "ear trains. They o%ten consist o% multiple "ears in the train.
Gear trains consist o%6
i4 .riving gear hich is attached to the input sha%tI ii4 .riven gear / motor gear hich is attached to the
output sha%tI and iii4 0dler gears hich are interposeLLd *eteen the drivin" and driven "ear in order to
maintain the direction o% the output sha%t the same as the input sha%t or to increase the distance *eteen
the drive and driven "ears. A compound "ear train re%ers to to or more "ears used to transmit motion.
The "ears used in "ear trains may *e o% spur& helical& *evel or spiral type dependin" on the type o% motion
re,uired and applications.
A,,'ic!tion#:
19
Gear trains are used in representin" the phases o% moon on a atch or cloc$ dial& lathe machines&
automo*iles etc. 1t is also used %or drivin" a conventional to'disc lunar phase display o%% the day'o%'the'
ee$ sha%t o% the calendar.
2.2.4.2e!r#:
Gears are toothed heels used %or transmittin" motion and poer %rom one sha%t to another hen
they are not too %ar apart and hen a constant velocity ratio is desired. 1n comparison ith *elt& chain and
%riction drives& "ear drives are more compact& can operate at hi"h speeds and can *e used here precise
timin" is re,uired. Also "ear drives are used hen lar"e poer is to *e transmitted. The %orce re,uired to
hold the "ears in position is much less than in an e,uivalent %riction drive.
Ad$!nt!%e# !nd 'iit!tion# o& %e!r dri$e o$er c/!in !nd :e't dri$e#
Ad$!nt!%e#:
). Since there is no slip& so e7act velocity ratio is o*tained.
+. 1t is capa*le o% transmittin" lar"er poer than that o% the *elt and chain drives.
-. 1t is more e%%icient 3up to <<M4 and e%%ective means o% poer transmission.
.. 1t re,uires less space as compared to *elt and rope drives.
0. 1t can transmit motion at very lo velocity& hich is not possi*le ith the *elt drives.
Liit!tion#:
). The manu%acture o% "ears re,uires special tools and e,uipments.
+. The manu%acturin" and maintenance costs are comparatively hi"h.
-. The error in cuttin" teeth may cause vi*rations and noise durin" operation.
2.2.5.T",e# o& 2e!r#:
Dependin" on their construction and arran"ement& "eared devices can transmit %orces at di%%erent
speeds& tor,ues& or in a di%%erent direction& %rom the poer source.
2e!r# !re :ro!d'" c'!##i&ied !# &o''o>#:
1. C'!##i&ic!tion :!#ed on t/e re'!ti$e ,o#ition o&. t/eir #/!&t !?e#
0i3 P!r!''e' #/!&t#
E?!,'e#: Spur "ears& helical "ears& rac$ and pinion& herrin"*one "ears and internal "ears.
0ii3 Inter#ectin% #/!&t#
#7amples6 !evel "ears and spiral "ears.
0iii3 Non-,!r!''e'@ non-inter#ectin% #/!&t#
Examples: Aorm& hypoid and spiral "ears.
2. C'!##i&ic!tion :!#ed on t/e ,o#ition o& teet/ on t/e >/ee'
3i4 Strai"ht "ears
3ii4 Helical "ears
3iii4 Herri"*one "ears
3iv4 Curved teeth "ears
(. C'!##i&ic!tion :!#ed on t/e t",e o& cont!ct :et>een #ur&!ce# o& t/e %e!r
3i4 #7ternal "earin"
3ii4 1nternal "earin"
3iii4 Rac$ and pinion
!ut %rom our o*Dective point o% vie& "ears are *roadly classi%ied in to %our "roups& vi/.& spur& helical&
*evel& orm "ears and rac$'and'pinion.
1. Spur gears:
20
1n spur "ears& the teeth are strai"ht and parallel to the a7is o% the heel as shon in 2i"ure+.-9
3a4. The "earin" so %ormed is called spur "earin". They are used to transmit rotary motion *eteen
parallel sha%ts. Spur "ears are the simplest and most common type o% "ear.
2. He'ic!' %e!r#
Helical "ears are simple modi%ication o% spur "ears. A helical "ear has teeth in the %orm o% heli7
around the "ear as shon in 2i"ure +.-93*4. The an"led teeth en"a"e more "radually than do spur "ear
teeth. This causes helical "ears to run more smoothly and ,uietly than spur "ears. The use o% helical "ears
is most common in automo*iles& tur*ines and hi"h'speed applications.
.ouble helical gears1 also $non as herrin"*one "ears& overcome the pro*lem o% a7ial thrust
presented *y Esin"leE helical "ears *y havin" teeth that set in a EVE shape. #ach "ear in a dou*le helical "ear
can *e thou"ht o% as to standard *ut mirror ima"e helical "ears stac$ed. This cancels out the thrust since
each hal% o% the "ear thrusts in the opposite direction. 2i"ure +.-93*4 shos this type o% "ear.
(. )e$e' %e!r#
!evel "ears are %ormed *y cuttin" teeth alon" the elements o% %rustum o% a cone. That is& the pitch
sur%aces in the *evel "ears are truncated cone& one o% hich rolls over the other& as shon in 2i"ure+.-9
3d4. !evel "ears are used to transmit poer *eteen to intersectin" sha%ts. !evel "ears are commonly
used in automotive di%%erentials. Ahen teeth %ormed on the cones are strai"ht& the "ears are $non as
straight bevel and hen inclined& they are $non as spiral or helical bevel. 2ero bevel gears have teeth
hich are curved alon" their len"th& *ut not an"led.
*. -or %e!r#
A orm is a "ear that resem*les a scre. 1t is a $ind o% helical "ear& *ut its heli7 an"le is usually
somehat lar"e 3i.e.& somehat close to <=J4 and its *ody is usually lon" in the a7ial direction and
there%ore& it is loo$in" li$e scre. A orm is usually meshed ith an ordinary loo$in"& dis$'shaped "ear&
hich is called the Norm "earN& or the Norm heelN. The prime %eature o% a orm'and'"ear set is that it
allos the attainment o% a hi"h "ear ratio ith %e parts& in a small space.
+. R!c. !nd ,inion
A rac$ is a toothed *ar or rod that can *e thou"ht
o% as a sector "ear ith an in%initely Elar"e radius o%
curvature as shon in 2i"ure+.-; 3a4. Tor,ue can *e
converted to linear %orce *y meshin" a rac$ ith a
pinion6 the pinion turnsI the rac$ moves in a strai"ht line.
Such a mechanism is used in automo*iles to convert the
rotation o% the steerin" heel into the le%t'to'ri"ht
motion o% the tie rod3s4.
21
4. E?tern!' %e!rin%
1% to "ears are meshed e7ternally ith each other as shon in
2i"ure+.-< 3a4& they are called e(ternal gears. The lar"er one o% these
to "ears is called a "ear and the smaller one is called pinion. Due to
e7ternal contact *eteen to "ears& the rotation o% the to "ears ill
*e opposite to each other.
5. Intern!' %e!rin%:
1% to "ears are meshed internally ith each other as shon in
2i"ure +.-<3*4& they are called internal gears. The outer one is called
annular wheel and inner one is called a pinion. 1n this case& the
rotation o% to "ears is alays in the same direction.
2.2.6T",e# o& 2e!r Tr!in#:
). Simple "ear train
+. Compound "ear train
-. #picyclic "ear train
.. Reverted "ear train
1. Si,'e %e!r tr!in
The most common o% the "ear train is the "ear pair
connectin" parallel sha%ts. The teeth o% this type can *e spur& helical
or herrin"*one. The an"ular velocity is simply the reverse o% the tooth ratio. The main limitation o% a
simple "ear train is that the ma7imum speed chan"e ratio is )=6). 2or
lar"er ratio& lar"e si/e o% "ear trains is re,uired.
2. Co,ound %e!r tr!in
Compound "ear train is pre%erred hen lar"e velocity ratio
re,uired. 1% more than one "ear is connected to the same sha%t called
compound gears. 1n 2i"ure the "ears !and C are arran"ed in the same
sha%t and hence it is a compound "ear. As compared to simple "ear train
here the intermediate "ears have less space *eteen the input and output
sha%t& in a compound "ear train the intermediate "ears are also use%ul %or
increasin" or decreasin" the "ear ratio o% the arran"ement. The "ears
arran"ed in the same sha%t i.e. "ear !and C ill have same an"ular
velocity
(. Re$erted %e!r tr!in
A reverted "ear train is a special case o% compound "ear train. 1n
reverted "ear train& at least one "ear o% hich rotates %reely on the sha%t
on hich it is mounted& so that its speed is di%%erent %rom that o% its sha%t.
Assumin" no idler "ears are used& a reverted "ear train can *e reali/ed
only i% the num*er o% teeth on the input side o% the train adds up to the
same as the num*er o% teeth on the output side o% the train.
22
*. P'!net!r" %e!r tr!in or E,ic"c'ic %e!r tr!in
1n epicyclic "ear tram& minimum one heel a7is revolves around
another %i7ed a7is. This type o% "ear train consists o% several components.
The "ear placed at the center is called as sun gear1 and the "ear hich
rolls over the sun "ear is called planet gears. The arm is also called&
planet carrier. Sometimes a *i" internal "ear is meshed ith the planet
"ear hich is called as ring gear. The rin" "ear rolls on the planet "ear
and the planets revolve and roll around the sun "ear. Ahen the arm A is
%i7ed& the "ears !and C rotate a*out their on a7is and constitute a
simple gear train. 1% the "ear C is %i7ed& the arm ill *e rotatin" a*out the
a7is o% the "ear C& the "ear ! ill also move around "ear C Ore%er 2i"ureP.
1n this arran"ement& "ear ! is called an epicyclic gear or planet gear
hich rolls around "ear C. Gear C hich rotates in its on %i7ed centre is
called a sun gear.
The %olloin" are the advanta"es and applications o% the planetary "ear train6
i4 The "ear ratios are hi"h %or the same si/e. .
ii4 This "ear train is suita*le %or automatic transmission in automo*iles.
iii4 Suita*le in *icycles %or *oth manual as ell as automatic paddlin" control.
2.2.17. R!tc/et !nd P!>':
A heel provided ith suita*ly shaped teeth& receivin" an intermittent circular motion %rom an
oscillatin" or reciprocatin" mem*er& is called a ratchet wheel. 1n a ratchet and pal mechanism& the
ratchet is *ased on a heel that has teeth cut out o% it and a pawl that %ollos as the heel turns. A simple
%orm o% ratchet mechanism is shon in 2i"ure +..- here A is the ratchet heel& and B is an oscillatin"
lever carryin" the driving pawl1 C. Ahen arm B moves countercloc$ise& pal C ill %orce the heel
throu"h a %ractional part o% a revolution dependent upon the motion o% B. Ahen the arm moves *ac$
3cloc$ise4& pal C ill slide over the points o% the teeth hile the heel remains at rest *ecause o% %i7ed
pal D& and ill *e ready to push the heel on its %orard 3countercloc$ise4 motion as *e%ore. The
amount o% *ac$ard motion possi*le varies ith the pitch o% the teeth. This motion could *e reduced *y
usin" small teeth& and the %ittin" is sometimes used *y placin" several pals side *y side on the same
a7is& the pals *ein" o% di%%erent len"ths. The contact sur%aces o% heel and pal should *e inclined so
that they ill not tend to disen"a"e under pressure. This means that
the common normal at contact point should pass *eteen the pal
and the ratchet'heel centers. 1% this common normal should pass
outside these limits& the pal ould *e %orced out o% contact under
load unless held *y %riction. 1n many ratchet mechanisms& the pal is
held a"ainst the heel durin" motion *y the action o% a sprin". The
usual %orm o% the teeth o% a ratchet heel is that shon in the
2i"ure+...& *ut in %eed mechanisms such as used on many machine
tools it is necessary to modi%y the tooth shape %or a reversi*le pal so
that the drive can *e in either direction.
Ratchet and pal mechanisms are very use%ul devices& %or e7ample& they are used in mechanical cloc$s&
heavy ei"ht li%tin" mechanisms& turnstiles& spanners& indin" "ear& renches& Dac$s& %reeheel
mechanism o% *icycles& etc.
23
2.2.11. )e't Dri$e:
A *elt is a looped strip o% %le7i*le material& used to mechanically lin$ to or more rotatin" sha%ts.
!elt drive is a method o% trans%errin" rotary motion *eteen to sha%ts. A *elt drive includes one pulley
on each sha%t and one or more continuous *elts looped over the to pulleys. They may *e used as a
source o% motion& to e%%iciently transmit poer& or to trac$ relative movement. 1n a to pulley system& the
*elt can either drive the pulleys in the same direction& or the *elt may *e crossed& so that the direction o%
the sha%ts is opposite. As a source o% motion& a conveyor *elt is one application here the *elt is adapted
to continually carry a load *eteen to points.
The motion o% the drivin" pulley is trans%erred to the driven pulley via the %riction *eteen the *elt and
the pulley and hence slip may occur. The tor,ue transmitted is due to the di%%erences in tension under
hich the *elt is runnin". 1n a *elt drive& one side o% the *elt is under more tension than the other hich is
$non as the tight side hereas the other o% the *elt havin" less tension is $non as slack side.
Ad$!nt!%e# o& :e't dri$e:
i4 #asy& %le7i*le e,uipment desi"n& as tolerances are not important.
ii4 1solation %rom shoc$ and vi*ration *eteen driver and driven system.
iii4 Driven sha%t speed conveniently chan"ed *y chan"in" pulley si/es.
iv4 !elt drives re,uire no lu*rication.
v4 Maintenance is relatively Econvenient
vi4 Very ,uiet compared to chain drives& and direct spur "ear drives.
T",e# o& :e't dri$e#:
3. -pen belt drive
An open *elt drive& as shon in 2i"ure & is used hen the sha%ts are arran"ed parallel and
desi"ned to *e rotated in the same direction.
2. 'rossed belt drive
A crossed *elt drive& as shon in 2i"ure+..8 & is used hen the driven pulley is to *e rotated in
the opposite direction to that o% the drivin" pulley. The poer transmittin" capacity o% a crossed *elt drive
is more than an open *elt drive as the an"le o% rap o% *elt
around the pulley is more. Hoever& at a point
here the *elt crosses& it ru*s a"ainst each other and there is
e7cessive ear and tear.
4.5. Belt drive with idler pulleys
Ahen the motion o% one sha%t is to *e transmitted to
to or more sha%ts& and all are arran"ed in parallel& a *elt drive ith a num*er o% idler pulleys& as shon
in 2i"ure+..9 & is used. The pulley hich is %ree to rotate on its a7is is $non as an idler pulley.
Sometimes& an open *elt drive cannot *e used due to small
an"le o% lap on the smaller pulley. 1n this case also& an idler
pulley can *e used to increase the an"le o% lap and hence o*tain
hi"her velocity ratio.
24
T",e# o& :e't#
Thou"h there are many types o% *elts used no'a'days& the %olloin" are important types o% *elts6
3. ,lat belt
2lat *elt has rectan"ular cross'section as shon in 2i"ure+..; 3a4. 1t can transmit poer over lon"
distances *eteen pulley centreQs& *ut not more than ; m apart. !ecause %lat *elts tend to slip toards the
hi"her side o% the pulley& pulleys ere made ith a sli"htly conve7 or NcronedN sur%ace 3rather than %lat4
to $eep the *elts centered. The %lat *elt also tends to slip on the pulley %ace hen heavy loads are applied
and there%ore it can produce the e%%iciency o% <;M ma7imum.
2. - belt
A V'*elt is trape/oidal in cross section as shon in 2i"ure +..;3*4. The "roove on the rim o% the
pulley o% a v'*elt drive is made deeper to ta$e the advanta"e o% the ed"e action. The *elt does not touch
the *ottom o% the "roove. V'*elt drive has a *etter tor,ue transmittin" capacity as compared to the %lat
*elt drive. Also& a multiple v'*elt system& usin" more than one *elt on a sin"le pulley& can *e used to
increase the poer transmittin" capacity.
4. !ound belt
This *elt is a circular in cross section as shon in 2i"ure+..; 3c4. 1t is used ith "rooved pulleys.
The *elt is "ripped on its sides as it *endsE don in the "roove reducin" the chances o% slippin". Circular
*elt drives are& usually& pre%erred %or lon" centre distances *eteen the sha%ts.
6. %iming belt
Timin" *elts have teeth cut on its inner sur%ace as shon in 2i"ure+..; 3d4 . 1t re,uires toothed
heels li$e "ears. The teeth cut on the *elt %it into the "rooves on the heel . A timin" *elt ena*les
positive drive since it does not stretch or slip and transmits poer at a constant velocity ratio. 1t is
e7tensively used in lo poer applications.
2.2.1(C/!in Dri$e:
Chain drive is a ay o% transmittin" mechanical poer %rom one place to another ith constant
velocity ratio. The poer is conveyed *y a roller chain. $non as the drive chain& passin" over a sproc$et
"ear ith the teeth o% the "ear meshin" ith the holes in the lin$s o% the chain. The "ear is turned& and this
pulls the chain puttin" mechanical %orce into the system. 1t is o%ten used to convey poer to the heels o%
a vehicle& particularly *icycles and motorcycles. 1t is also used in a ide variety o% machines *esides
vehicles.
Sometimes& the poer is output *y simply rotatin" the chain hich can *e used to li%t or dra"
o*Dects. 1n other situations& a second "ear is placed and the poer is recovered *y attachin" sha%ts or hu*s
to this "ear. Thou"h drive chains are o%ten simple oval loops& they can also "o around corners *y placin"
more than to sproc$ets alon" the chainI sproc$ets that do not put poer into the system or transmit it out
are "enerally $non as idler-wheels. !y varyin" the diameter o% the input and output sproc$ets ith
respect to each other& the transmission ratio can *e altered& the pedals o% a *icycle can spin all the ay
around more than once %or every rotation o% the "ear that drives the heels.
25
The main %actor %or desi"n roller chain is preventin" slippin"
*eteen the distances o% sha%ts centers. 1n order to avoid slippin"&
steel chains are used. The chains are made up o% num*er o% ri"id
lin$s hich are hin"ed to"ether *y pin Doints in order to provide the
necessary %le7i*ility %or rappin" round the drivin" and driven
heels. These heels have proDectin" teeth o% special pro%ile and %it
into the correspondin" recesses in the lin$s o% the chain as shon in
2i"ure+..<. The sproc$ets and the chain are thus constrained to move& to"ether ithout slippin" and
ensures per%ect velocity ratio.
Ad$!nt!%e#:
). As no slip ta$es place durin" chain drive& hence per%ect velocity ratio is o*tained.
+. Since the chains are made o% metal& there%ore they occupy less space in idth than a *elt or rope drive.
-. 1t may *e used %or *oth lon" as ell as short distances.
.. 1t "ives hi"h transmission e%%iciency 3upto <; percent4.
0. 1t "ives lesser load on the sha%ts.
8. 1t has the a*ility to transmit motion to several sha%ts *y one chain only.
9. 1t transmits more poer than *elts.
;. 1t permits hi"h speed ratio o% ; to )= in one step.
<. 1t can *e operated under adverse temperature and atmospheric conditions
Di#!d$!nt!%e#:
). The production cost o% chains is relatively hi"h.
+. TheE chain drive needs accurate mountin" and care%ul maintenance& particularly lu*rication and
slac$ adDustment.
-. The chain drive has velocity %luctuations especially hen unduly stretched.
2.2.1* )e!rin%#:
A *earin" is a device to allo constrained relative motion *eteen to or more part s& typically
rotation or linear movement. The *earin"s are used in variety o% machine elements to "uide and allo the
relative motion *eteen the parts ith minimum %riction and ma7imum accuracy.
Types o% !earin"s
!earin"s may *e classi%ied *roadly accordin" to the motions they allo and accordin" to their
principle o% operation as ell as *y the directions o% applied loads they can handle.
!ased on the directions of applied loads the *earin"s are classi%ied as radial and thrust *earin"s.
The *earin" hich is used to provide radial support to the rotatin" sha%t is called radial bearing. 1n
addition to radial loads& they carry su*stantial thrust loads at hi"h speeds& in either direction. !all *earin"s
are the most idely used radial *earin"s. The *earin" hich is used to support very lar"e thrust loads i.e.
alon" the a7is o% the sha%t is called thrust bearings. They cannot ta$e much radial load and are mostly
used %or lo'speed applications.
The most common types o% *earin"s *ased on their principle of operation are6
). Plain Dournal *earin"
+. Rollin" element *earin"6
-. 2luid *earin"
.. Ma"netic *earin"
Plain 7ournal bearing
1n plain Dournal *earin" ru**in" sur%aces are usually provided with lubricant. This is the simplest
type o% *earin"& idely used& relatively hi"h %riction& su%%ers %rom stiction in some 8applications. Some
bearings use pumped lubrication and *ehave similarly to %luid *earin"s. At hi"h speeds li%e can *e very
short.
26
!olling element bearing
!all or rollers are used to prevent or minimi/e ru**in". 1t is used %or hi"her loads than plain
*earin"s ith loer %riction.
,luid bearing
2luid is %orced *eteen to %aces and held in *y ed"e seal. 1t can %ail ,uic$ly due to "rit or dust
or other contaminants.
9agnetic bearing
2aces o% *earin" are $ept separate *y ma"nets. 1t needs considera*le poer. Maintenance is %ree.
2.2.14. P'!in Aourn!' )e!rin%#:
A Dournal *earin" sometimes is also re%erred as a
friction bearing hich is a simple *earin". 1t consists o% a
shaft hich is also called as 7ournal hich rotates in the
bearing ith a layer o% lu*ricatin" oil separatin" the to
parts throu"h %luid dynamic e%%ects. The *earin" is
"enerally a simple polished hollo cylinder& made o%
hite metal& lead *ased *a**it& tin *ased *a**it& leaded
*ron/e& copper lead alloy& "un metal& phosphor *ron/e&
aluminum alloy& nylon etc.& in hich the Dournal rotates
ith lu*ricant %illin" the "ap. Rather than Dust reducin"
%riction *eteen the contact sur%aces& the lu*ricant should
*e thic$ enou"h so that the sur%aces do not come in
contact at all hile rotation. 1% oil is used& it is "enerally
%ed into a hole in the *earin" under pressure& as it is done %or the most heavily'loaded *earin"s in an
automo*ile en"ine. Sometimes the *earin"s may *e used dry ithout lu*rication hen the *earin"s are
made o% plastics such as nylon or PT2#.
T",e# o& Bourn!' :e!rin%:
Plain Dournal *earin"s are classi%ied accordin" to the nature o% lu*rication under hich it operates.
These *earin"s may *e hydro'dynamically lu*ricated or hydrostatically lu*ricated. The di%%erence
*eteen hydrostatic and hydrodynamic %orces is in the ay the pressure that supports the *earin" is
initially and su*se,uently maintained.
3. :ydrostatic lubrication
1n a hydrostatic lu*rication& the pressure is alays present
at a desira*le value and is achieved *y an e7ternal pump hich
%orces lu*ricant into the system. The pump provides a ma"nitude
o% pressure that aims to supplement the pressure hich is created
*y the *earin"s rotation& i% any. This pressure ma$es the
separation o% Dournal and *earin" %illed ith oil durin" rotation as
shon in 2i"ure+.0). .
27
2. H"drod"n!ic 'u:ric!tion:
1n a hydrodynamic lu*rication& the pressure in the oil %ilm is maintained *y the rotation o% the
sha%t itsel%. Hydrodynamic lu*rication is also called as full-film lubrication. Hydrodynamic *earin"s
re,uire much "reater care in desi"n and operation than hydrostatic *earin"s. They are also much more
prone to initial ear *ecause lu*rication does not occur until there is rotation o% the sha%t. At lo
rotational speeds the lu*rication may not attain complete separation *eteen Dournal and *earin". As a
result& hydrodynamic *earin"s are o%ten aided *y secondary *earin"s hich support the sha%t durin" start
and stop periods& protectin" the %ine tolerance machined sur%aces o% the Dournal *earin". 2i"ure+.0+ shos
mechanism o% hydrodynamic lu*rication.
(. So'id &i' 'u:ric!tion:
1n solid %ilm lu*rication& a thin %ilm o% solid lu*ricants such as he7a"onal or %la$e "raphite&
moly*denum disulphide& and metal sulphide are coated on the inner sur%ace o% the *earin". Solid and dry
%ilm lu*ricants %orm a dry layer or coatin" that e7cludes moisture and reduces %riction& *indin"& and ear.
Solid lu*ricants maintain a lo coe%%icient o% %riction up to .=== C and are availa*le in poder& spray
a*le coatin"& and solid machina*le %orms. Aa7& para%%inE and stearate compounds are suita*le %or some
lu*rication& anti'corrosive and anti'static applications.
*. )ound!r" '!"er 'u:ric!tion:
Sometimes the %olloin" %actors may prevent the *uilt'up o% a %ilm thic$ enou"h %or %ull' %ilm or
hydrodynamic lu*rication.
3i4 1nsu%%icient sur%ace area
3ii4 A drop in the velocity o% the movin" sur%ace
3iii4 A lessenin" in the ,uantity o% lu*ricant supplied to a *earin"
3iv4 An increase in the *earin" load
3v4 An increase in the lu*ricant temperature resultin" in decrease in viscosity.
At this time the contact sur%aces may *e separated *y lu*ricant %ilms o% thin layer hich adheres to the
*earin" sur%ace.
2.2.15.Ro''in% E'eent )e!rin%#:
Rollin" element *earin"s minimi/e %riction *y removin" any possi*le slidin" *eteen *earin"
sur%aces and replacin" all contacts ith rollin" inter%aces. They su*stitute *alls or rollers %or a
hydrodynamic or hydrostatic %luid %ilm to carry loads ith reduced %riction. They utili/e a separator to
space the hardened rollin" elements apart. The rollin" element *earin" is also called as antifriction
bearing since the %riction is ne"li"i*le as compared to the Dournal
*earin".
A rollin" element *earin" has %our parts 3i4 outer race&
3ii4 inner race& 3iii4 rollin" element and 3iv4 retainin" ca"e or
separator. 1n rollin" element *earin" the *alls or rollers are held
in position *eteen inner and outer races *y the retainin" ca"e
hich is used to $eep the *alls or rollers separately and there*y
28
preventin" them %rom ru**in" a"ainst each other as shon in 2i"ure+.0-. 1% the *alls are inserted *eteen
the outer and inner races it is called ball bearing hereas in roller bearing rollers are inserted.
!all *earin"s use spherical shaped *alls as rollin" elements. !all *earin"s can support *oth radial
3perpendicular to the sha%t4 and a7ial loads 3parallel to the sha%t4. 2or li"htly'loaded *earin"s& *alls o%%er
loer %riction than rollers. !all *earin"s can operate hen the *earin" races are misali"ned.
Roller *earin"s use cylinders o% sli"htly "reater len"th than diameter. Roller *earin"s typically
have hi"her radial load capacity than *all *earin"s& *ut a lo a7ial capacity and hi"her %riction under
a7ial loads. 1% the inner and outer races are misali"ned& the *earin" capacity o%ten drops ,uic$ly hen
compared to either a *all *earin" or a spherical roller *earin".
T",e# o& :!'' :e!rin%#:
3. .eep groove ball bearing ;,igure2.<6 #a$=
This is the most common type o% *earin" and idely used. A deep-groove radial *earin" is one in
hich the race dimensions are close to the dimensions o% the *alls that run in it . Deep'"roove *earin"s
have "ood radial load carryin" capacity and moderate a7ial load capacity.
2. ,illing-notch or ,illing-slot ball bearing ;,igure2.<6#b$=
A filling-notch radial *earin" is one in hich the inner and outer races are notched so that hen
they are ali"ned& *alls can *e slipped in the slot in order to %ill the *earin". 1t has hi"her radial load
carryin" capacity than deep "roove *earin"s and has poor a7ial load capacity.
4. Angular contact ball bearing ;,igure2.<6 3 c$=
An an"ular contact *all *earin" uses a7ially asymmetric
races. An a7ial load passes in a strai"ht line throu"h the
*earin"& hereas a radial load ta$es an o*li,ue path that
tends to ant to separate the &races a7ially. So the an"le o%
contact on the inner race is the same as that on the outer
race. An"ular contact
*earin"s *etter supports *oth the radial and a7ial loads.
6. .ouble row ball bearing ;,igure2.<6 #d$=
Dou*le ro *all *earin"s have to ros o% *alls and are
made ith either radial or an"ular contact *eteen the *alls
and races. These *earin"s are a*le to ithstand hi"her radial
loads and thrust loads in either directions compared to sin"le
ro *earin"s.
<. Self-aligning ball bearing ;,igure2.<6 3 e$=
Sel%'ali"nin" *all *earin"s are constructed ith the inner rin" and *all assem*ly contained ithin
an outer rin" that has a spherical raceay. This construction allos the *earin" to tolerate a small an"ular
misali"nment resultin" %rom de%lection or improper mountin". These *earin"s are a*le to ithstand
moderate radial loads and %airly poor a7ial loads.
>. %hrust1 grooved race ball bearing ;,igure2.<6#f$=
These *all *earin" uses side'*y'side races. An a7ial load is transmitted directly throu"h the
*earin"& hile a radial load is poorly'supported& tends to separate the races& and anythin" other than a
small radial load is li$ely to dama"e the *earin".
29
T",e# o& ro''er :e!rin%#:
3. Straight roller bearings ;,igure2.<< #a$=
Strai"ht roller *earin"s use cylinders o% sli"htly "reater len"th than diameter. These *earin"s have
hi"her radial load capacity than *all *earin"s o% same si/e& *ut a lo a7ial capacity and hi"her %riction
under a7ial loads. 1% the inner and outer races are misali"ned& the *earin" capacity o%ten drops ,uic$ly
hen compared to a *all *earin".
2. %aper roller bearings ;,igure2.<< #b$=
Tapered roller *earin"s use conical rollers that
run on conical races. Most roller *earin"s only ta$e
radial loads& *ut tapered roller *earin"s support *oth
radial and a7ial loads& and "enerally can carry hi"her
loads than *all *earin"s due to "reater contact area. 2or
e7ample& the heel *earin"s o% most cars& truc$s& *uses&
and so on.
4. ?eedle roller bearings ;,igure2.<< #c$=
>eedle roller *earin"s use very lon" and thin cylinders. ?%ten the ends o% the rollers taper to
points and these are used to $eep the rollers captive& or they may *e hemispherical and not captive *ut
held *y the sha%t itsel% or a similar arran"ement. Since the rollers are thin& the outside diameter o% the
*earin" is sli"htly lar"er than the hole in the middle.
2.2.16.Se'ection o& )e!rin%#:
The selection o% *all and roller *earin"s %or a "iven installation depends upon the %olloin"
%actors.
3i4 The load'carryin" capacity and the nature o% the load.
3ii4 The speed o% sha%t in r.p.m.&
3iii4 The type o% service under "iven conditions such as temperature& humidity& dustiness& acidity& etc.
3iv4 The anticipated li%e o% the *earin".
3v4 Ma"nitude and direction o% loads.
3vi4 The proportion o% thrust to radial load. A%ter considerin" the a*ove %actors& "enerally *all *earin"s
are suita*le %or small machines runnin" at hi"h speeds hile roller !earin"s are suita*le %or machines to
*e
placed under heavy loads.
). Deep "roove or An"ular Contact !all !earin"s are suita*le here comparatively heavy thrust loads are
to *e carried at hi"h speeds.
+. Sel% ' Ali"nin" !all !earin"s and Spherical Roller !earin"s are suita*le %or such parts as are apt to *e
su*Dected to permanent *endin" or arpin" and %luctuatin" misali"nment occurs *eteen sha%t and
*earin" housin".
-. Cylindrical roller !earin"s are suita*le %or those sha%ts hich have *een alloed to move %reely
lon"itudinally ithin certain limits& and %or %ar lar"er and heavily loaded applications.
.. Taper Roller !earin"s are suita*le here radial and thrust loads or any com*ination o% *oth are
re,uired to *e handled and in dealin" ith heavy composite loads as in case o% automo*ile parts.
0. Thrust !all !earin"s are suita*le %or arran"ements put under li"ht a7ial loads.
8. !all !earin"s ith pressed ca"es hich are li"ht in ei"ht and have hi"h elasticity are suita*le at
normal speed.
30
2.(.ELECTRICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS:
An actuator hich can receive electrical ener"y %or motion is $non as electrical actuator.
#lectrical actuator system consists o% %olloin"&
Actu!tor#:
1% the heater is used& then& some device is used to ?> or ?22 the heater . 1n this situation& actuator is
needed. >o& e can see a*out electrical actuators. Some types o% electrical actuators are "iven *elo.
3i4 Solenoid&
3ii4 #lectrical motors&
3iii4D.C motor&
3iv4 A.C motor&
3v4 Stepper motor&
3vi4 Mechanical sitches& and 3vii4 Solid state sitches.
2.(.1.So'enoid:
A solenoid is a device hich is used to convert an electrical si"nal into mechanical motion usually in a
strai"ht line.
Fig. 2.57 Solenoid
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There are to maDor parts in the solenoid vi/.
3i4 Coil& and
3ii4 Mova*le iron core.
The coil may *e A.C or D.C& hich hen ener"i/ed& pulls the core inside it and this result in the
mechanical motion o% the core.
The amount o% %orce *y hich the core is pulled depends on the amount o%
current %loin" in the circuit and the num*er o% coils.
1t consists o% coil and plun"er. The plun"er is a %ree standin" one or it is sprin" loaded. The coil has some
volta"e or current ratin". 1t is A.C or D.C.
#lectrical ratin"& plun"er push 3or4 pull %orce& hen it is e7cited *y the speci%ied volta"e are "iven in the
solenoid speci%ications. The %orce is "iven in >etons 3or4 Hilo"rams unit.
Solenoid is used i% lar"e sudden %orce is to *e applied to per%orm some Do*. 2i"ure +.0< shos one o% the
applications. Here& a solenoid is used to chan"e the "ears. Control si"nal is applied at the input o% the
ampli%ier *loc$. The ampli%ied output is "iven to SCR. SCR is used to activate the solenoid coil. So& "ears
o% a +' position transmission are chan"ed.
2.(.2.E'ectric!' Motor#:
1t is a device used to convert electrical input into mechanical rotations. !ased on the speed&
startin" tor,ue& rotational tor,ue& si/e and style o% the motor ill *e varied. 1n the drive o% a conveyor
system& electrical motors are used as actuators. This is one o% the e7amples. 1n various applications o%
process control& electrical motors are used as actuators.
2.(.(.D.C Motor:
The device hich converts the electrical ener"y to mechanical ener"y is called motor. The D.C
motors are used idely in modem control systems and as a %inal control element in positional or speed
control systems.
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'onstruction:
The 2i"ure+.8= shos the *asic principle o% D.C motor. The ma"netic %ield is produced *y the permanent
ma"net or the electroma"net and it %orms the stator. The coil o% ire acts as the rotor. 1n conventional
D.C motor& several coils o% ire are mounted in slots on a cylinder o% ma"netic material called armature.
The armature is mounted on *earin" and is %ree to rotate. 1t is connected to source o% D.C current throu"h
a sitch mounted on the sha%t and it is called as commutator.
&orking:
Ahen the current %los throu"h the armature conductors placed in the ma"netic %ield& it ill
e7perience a %orce and it causes it to rotate. As the armature rotates& the commutator reverses the current
in each coil as it moves *eteen the %ield poles. As the commutators are split1 the current direction
throu"h coil reverses each time and the rotational tor,ue is present all the time and the coil continues to
rotate.
2.3.3.1. Permanent "a#net D.C "otor:
Consider a permanent ma"net D.C motor "ivin" a constant value o% %lu7 densit y. Consider an armature
conductor o% len"th @ and it carriers a current 1
2.(.(.2T",e# o& D.C Motor# 0D.C otor# >it/ &ie'd coi'#3
The D.C motors ith %ield coils are classi%ied as
Series ound motor&
Shunt ound motor&
Compound motor& and
Separately e7cited motor.
#i$ Series wound motor:
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The armature and %ield coils are in series. The motor e7erts& hi"hest startin" tor,ue and has
"reatest no load speed. At li"ht loads& the motor ill run at hi"h speed. The reversal o% polarity o% supply
has no e%%ect on direction o% rotation o% motor.
#ii$ Shunt wound motor:
The armature and %ield coils are in parallel. The motor has lo startin" tor,ue and "ood speed
re"ulation. Shunt motors are idely used *ecause o% "ood speed re"ulation and the direction o% rotation is
reversed *y reversin" the armature or %ield supplies.
#iii$ 'ompound motor:"
The compound mN'otor has to %ield indin"s one in series and another in parallel ith
armature.
This type o% motor com*ines the %eature o% series and shunt motor and is used to "et hi"h startin" tor,ue
and "ood speed re"ulation.
#iv$ Separately e(cited motor:
This motor is considered to *e a special case o% shunt motor and has separate control over
armature and %ield currents.
2.(.(.*.)ru#/'e## Per!nent M!%net D.C Motor#:
The commutator and the *rushes su%%er %rom ear and produce spar$s o%ten hen they contact. Hence
*rushless permanent ma"net D.C motor is desi"ned. 1n conventional D.C motor& the ma"net is %i7ed and
the current carryin" conductors are made to move. 1n the *rushless permanent ma"net D.C motor& the
current carryin" conductors are %i7ed and the ma"net moves. The rotor isa %errite or ceramic permanent
ma"net.
The *asic %orm is shon in the 2i"ure +.9=. The current to the stator coil is sitched
electronically and it is controlled *ased on the position o% the rotor so that there are %orces alays actin"
on the ma"net causin" it to rotate in the same direction.
Advantages:
3i4 #ntire circuit is availa*le in 1.C. %orm.
3ii4 @o maintenance is su%%icient.
3iii4 Relia*ility is "ood.
3iv4 Hi"h speed
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2.(.*.A.C Motor:
The a*ove 2i"ure+.9+ shos the classi%ication o% the alternatin" current motors. The sin"le phase
motors are used %or lo poer re,uirements hile polyphase motors are used %or hi"h poers. 1nduction
motors are cheaper than synchronous motor and are thus very idely used. @et us see a*out the induction
motors and the synchronous motors in detail.
2.(.*.1.Sin%'e-,/!#e S9uirre' C!%e Induction Motor:
'onstruction:
1t consists o% #0 s,uirrel ca"e rotor and it is made o% copper or aluminum *ars and it %its into slots in end
rin"s to %orm complete electrical circuits. There are no e7ternal electrical
connections to the rotor. The stator has a set o% indin"s.
&orking:
Ahen an alternatin" current passes throu"h the stator indin"s& an alternatin"
ma"netic %ield is produced.
Due to electroma"netic induction& e.m.%.Qs are induced in the conductors present
in the rotor and hence current %los in the rotor.
The motor is not sel% startin". Hence a num*er o% methods are used to ma$e the
motor sel% startin". ?ne method is to use an au7iliary startin" indin" to "ive rotor an initial push.
The rotor rotates at the speed determined *y the %re,uency o% alternatin" current applied to the stator.
Thus %or a constant %re,uency supplied& the ma"netic %ield ill alternate at this %re,uency. This speed o%
rotation o% ma"netic %ield is $non as synchronous speed.
The rotor di%%ers %rom this %re,uency o% rotation& a*out )M to -M and this di%%erence is termed as slip.
Advantages:
There are no e7ternal electrical connections to the rotor.
.isadvantages:
3i4 The motor is not sel% startin". Special modi%ications are necessary to "et them to start rotation.
3ii4 A.C motors do not have a hi"h startin" tor,ue or convenient methods o% speed control.
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2.(.*.2.T/ree P/!#e Induction Motor#:
1t is similar to sin"le phase induction motor *ut the stator has three indin"s located
)+== apart and are connected to three lines o% supply.
The ma"netic %ield can *e considered to rotate round the stator poles *ecause the
three phases reach their ma7imum current at di%%erent times.
As a result& it completes one %ull rotation in one %ull cycle o% the current.
The direction o% rotation can *e chan"ed *y interchan"in" any to o% line
connections.
Ad$!nt!%e:
The motor is sel% startin".
2.(.*.(.S"nc/ronou# Motor#:
The stator is similar to that o% induction motor *ut the rotor has a permanent
ma"net.
As the ma"netic %ield produced *y stator rotates the rotor rotates ith it.
Aith one pair o% poles per supply4 the ma"netic %ield rotates throu"h -8== in one
cycle o% supply. The %re,uency o% rotation is e,ual to the %re,uency o% supply.
The motor is not sel% startin". The motors are used hen a precise speed is
re,uired.
Ad$!nt!%e#:
3i4 Cheaper&
3ii4 More ru""ed&
3iii4 Relia*le and
3iv4 Maintenance %ree.
Di#!d$!nt!%e:
The speed control is di%%icult and comple7 hen compared ith D.C motors.
2.(.+.Ste,,er Motor:
The stepper motor is a device that produces rotation throu"h e,ual an"les hen di"ital pulses are supplied
as input.
1n other ords& the stepper motor trans%orms the electrical pulses in to e,ual increments o% rotary sha%t
motion.
2.(.+.1.8!ri!:'e Re'uct!nce Ste,,er Motor:
'onstruction:
The rotor is made up o% so%t steel and it is cylindrical in shape ith %our poles.
5sually the num*er o% poles on the rotor is less than .num*er o% poles on the stator. The stator poles have
indin"s and it is sitched *y means o% electronic sitchin" device.
The %unction o% the sitchin" device is to sitch the control indin"s in the stator o% stepper motor
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&orking:
Ahen current is sitched to a pair o% indin"s in stator& a ma"netic %ield is
produced. The lines o% %orce pass %rom stator poles to nearest set o% poles .on the
rotor.
The rotor ill move until the rotor and stator lineup. This is termed as position
o% minimum reluctance. This motor "enerally "ives step an"les o%9.0J or )0J.
2.(.+.2.Per!nent M!%net Ste,,er Motor:
'onstruction:
The stator has %our poles. #ach pole is ound ith a %ield indin"& the coils
on opposite pair o% poles *ein" in series.
The rotor is a permanent ma"net and hen current is sitched to a pair o%
stator poles& the rotor ill move to lineup ith it.
&orking:
Thus %or the currents "iven in the situation shon in 2i"ure+.9;& the rotor
moves to .0J position.
1% the current is sitched so that the polarities are reversed& the rotor ill
move a %urther .0< in order to line up a"ain. Thus *y sitchin" currents
throu"h the coils& the rotor rotates *y .0J steps.
Aith this type o% motor& step an"le o% ).;J& 9.0J& )0J& -=J -.J or <=J can *e
Achieved
2.(.+.(. H":rid Ste,,er Motor:
1t com*ines theI %eatures o% *oth the varia*le reluctance and permanent
ma"net motors.
'onstruction:
The permanent ma"net is encased in iron caps hich are cut to have teeth.
&orking:
The rotor sets itsel% in minimum reluctance position i% a pair o% stator coils is
ener"i/ed. 1n this stepper motor& step an"les o% =.<J and ).;J are achieved.
Applications:
Hi"h'accuracy positionin" applications. #7ample in computer hard disc drives.
Advantages:
3i4 These stepper motors com*ine the %eatures o% *oth varia*le reluctance and
permanent ma"net motors.
3ii4 Minimum step an"le can *e achieved.
.isadvantage:
Ahen it is connected ith microprocessor output port& it is must to include
protection to avoid dama"e to microprocessor.
2.(.4. Mec/!nic!' S>itc/e#:
Mechanical sitches are elements hich are o%ten used as sensors to "ive inputs to systems. The
electrical relay is an e7ample o% a mechanical sitch used in control systems as an actuator.
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2.(.4.1.Re'!"#:
Relays are electrically operated sitches in hich
chan"in" a current in one electrical circuit sitches a
current ?> or ?22 in another circuit. The relay is
shon in the 2i"ure hen there is a current throu"h the
solenoid o% the relay. A ma"netic %ield is produced
hich attracts the iron armature& moves the push'rod&
and so closed the normally open 3>?4 sitch contacts
and opens the normally closed 3>C4 sitch contacts.
Relays are o%ten used in control systems& the output
%rom the controller is a relatively small current and a
much lar"er current is needed to sitch ?> or ?22 the
%inal correction element.
2.(.5.So'id St!te S>itc/e#:
There are a num*er o% semiconductor *ased solid state sitches li$e diodes.
Thyristors& !ipolar transistors and poer M?S2#TS.
2.(.5.1.Diode#:
Diode characteristics are shon in the 2i"ure . The semiconductor diode conducts in only one direction.
Durin" the %orard *ias condition& i.e.& the anode is connected to the positive terminal and cathode is
connected to the ne"ative terminal o% the *attery& the diode is sitched ?>. Durin" the reverse *ias
condition the diode is sitched ?22.
2or e7ample& the A.C si"nal is applied to the input o% the
semiconductor diode& durin" the positive cycle& the diode is in
%orard *iased. So it is in ?> condition. 2or the ne"ative hal%
cycle& it is in ?22 condition.
2.(.5.2.T/"ri#tor#:
The thyristor or Silicon Controlled Recti%ier 3SCR4 is a three
terminal %our layer thyristor. 1n addition to an anode& and a cathode&
the SCR has a "ate terminal. The "ate terminal is used to %ire& *ut
not open& an SCR. SCR are opened *y reducin" current %lo *elo
holdin" current. SCR can or$ as an ?>'?22 sitch. A short )us. Pulse o% control current applied to the
"ate ill sitch the SCR into conduction. Droppin" cathode to anode current *elo the holdin" current
turns the SCR ?22.
Applications of S'!:
3i4 Motor speed control
3ii4 @i"ht dimmin" control
3iii4 Phase control
3iv4 Heater control
3v4 !attery char"er
3vi4 1nverter
3vii4 Recti%ier poer supply
3viii4 Relay control
are some o% the applications o% SCR.
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2.(.5.(.TRIAC:
1t is a three terminal device& hich can conduct in either direction&
hen tri""ered either *y positive or a ne"ative pulse irrespective o%
the polarity o% the volta"e across its main terminals. Triac *ehaves
li$e to SCREs connected in parallel *ut in opposite directions& ith
a common "ate terminal. The triacs are availa*le ith current
ratin"s upto +0A and volta"e ratin"s upto 0==volts. 1ts sym*ol is
shon in
*elo.
Applications of triac:
Some o% the applications are "iven *elo
3i4 Motor speed control&
3ii4 Phase control&
3iii4 Heater control&
3iv4 @i"ht dimmin" control&
3v4 Static sitch to turn A.C poer ?> and ?22.
2.(.5.*.)i,o'!r Tr!n#i#tor#:
!ipolar transistor come in to to %orms& the npn and the pnp and its sym*ol is shon in the 2i"ure 3a4 and
2i"ure 3*4.
2or the npn transistor& the main current %los at the collector and out at the emitter& a controllin" si"nal
*ein" applied to the *ase. The pap'transistor has the main current %loin" at the emitter and out at the
collector& a controllin" si"nal *ein" applied to the *ase.
Transistor or$s in three operatin" re"ions. They are active re"ion& cuto%% re"ion and saturation re"ion.
The input terminal is %orard *iased and the output terminal is reverse *iased& the transistor or$s in the
active re"ion.
9.@S+.=& 9.@S+.) 1e the *u%%er 1C. The a*ove circuit shos ho a *u%%er is used hen transistor
sitchin" is used to control a D.C motor *y ?>'?22 sitchin".
Advantage:
Hi"her %re,uencies o% sitchin" are possi*le ith !RT than ith thyristor.
.isadvantage:
The poer handlin" capacity is loer than that o% thyristors.
2.(.5.+.MOS1ETS:
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M?S2#TS 3Metal ?7ide 2ield #%%ect Transistor4 come in to types& the n'channel and p'channel& The
2i"ure 3a4 ( 3*4 shos the sym*ol.
M?S2#T is a unipolar device& *ecause the current conduction
ta$es place only
*y the maDority carriers. Here the "ate volta"e is the controllin"
si"nal. 1% the "ate
volta"e is more ne"ative& then the M?S2#T is sitched ?22.
1% the "ate volta"e is
more positive then the M?S2#T is sitched ?>. The
characteristics o% the
M?S2#T are shon in the 2i"ure.
Advantages:
3i4 Very hi"h %re,uency sitchin" is possi*le ith M?S2#T.
3ii4 1t is very simple to inter%ace ith microprocessor compared ith !RT.
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