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\author{Milan Kunz} \title{Matrix Combinatorics and Algebra}

\maketitle \pagenumbering{Roman} \setcounter{page}{5}
\chapter*{Preface}

Studying mathematics, you find that it has many branches and

specialties: (algebra, geometry, topology, differential and
integral calculus, combinatorics), and different theories: (number
theory, group theory, set theory, graph theory, information theory,
coding theory, special theories of equations, operators, etc.. It
seems that there is none unifying concept.

But we know only one world, we live in, only one physics, one
chemistry, one biology. There should be only one mathematics,
too.

The title of this book is "Matrix Combinatorics and Algebra".

Combinatorics is an old branch of mathematics, and its essentials

considered to be elementary, since they are based on good examples.
But it has its limitation: There exist too many identities and still
more remain to be discovered. The mind is boggled by them as Riordan
\cite{1} pointed out because there appears only disorder in
abundance. Classical combinatorics contained many branches which
separated later but which are essential for understanding it. You
will find here themes from number and group theories as
well.

Algebra is very abstract science, except for its one branch, linear
algebra. There are studied operations with vectors and matrices. And
on these notions the heart of the book is based.

I think that I found a path into the strange world of combinatorics.

It started long ago when I accidentally discovered that two famous
entropy functions H$ = -\sum p_j \log p_j$, as defined by Boltzmann
\cite{2} and Shannon \cite{3}, are two distinct functions derived
from two polynomial coefficients, contrary to generally accepted
views and the negentropy principle.

I had a feeling as Cadet Biegler \cite{4}. Remember his desperate

ejaculation: ``Jesusmarja, Herr Major, es stimmt nicht!''. Senior
officers quietly listened the lecture about coding, but the given
example did not make sense, because they had at hand another volume
than prescribed by instructions. The name of the book was "S\"unde
der V\"ater". Similarly as \v Svejk, I think, that a book should be
read from its first volume.

It was almost impossible to publish my results, because they did not

conform with accepted views. My first attempt was rejected from
reason that my explanation was ununderstable. Being angry, I wrote
its essence for a~technical journal for youth, where it was accepted
as suitable lecture for their naive readers \cite{5}. Till now, I was
not able to publish my result explicitly. The referees did not
accept my arguments. From many reasons. I was forced to continue my
research, discover new relations which proved my conception. There
are very elementary things about graph matrices which are not
explained in textbooks on their suitable place, it means at the
beginning. Thus I hope that I succeeded.

If this book were written one hundred years ago, it could save one
human life, if it were published fifty years ago, it could prevent
erroneous interpretation of the information
theory.

Mathematical equations and identities are like pieces of a puzzle.

They are arranged in a traditional way into specialties which are
studied separately. If mathematicians were unable to realize that
both entropy functions stem from an identity known paradoxically as
the Polya-Brillouin statistics which could be found in commonly used
textbooks \cite{6}, then some basic obstacles must have prevent them
to interpret their abstract definitions correctly.

When I studied the entropy problem I knew that it was a combinatorial

problem because Boltzmann himself connected the function H with a
combinatorial identity. Moreover, I correlated it intuitively with
matrices because: "I did not even know what a matrix is and how it is
multiplied," as Heisenberg \cite{7} before me. Usual explanations of
matrices did not make any sense to me.

My approach is elementary: A string of symbols (a word, a text)

\begin{itemize} \item ``explanations of matrices did not make any

sense''

is considered as a string of consecutive vectors written in bold face

letters as vectors

\item ``{\bf explanations of matrices did not make any sense}''\\ and
vectors in the string are written using the formalism

\item ${\bf j} = {\bf e}_j = (0, 0,...1_j,...0)$ \end{itemize}

as a vector column in the matrix form. I named matrices having in

each row just one unit symbol "naive". The matrices, obtained by
permutations and by finding scalar products of naive matrices with
unit vectors, are counted and results tabulated. The resulting tables
of combinatorial functions have the form of~matrices and matrix
operations as multiplication, transposition and inversion can be
performed on them. Applications of matrix operations were common
in~combinatorics as the Kronecker function $\delta_{ij}$, which is an
implicit application of inverse matrices. Riordan has given many
examples of their use. However, matrix technique was not used
systematically and combinatorial identities were not connected with
intrinsic properties of vector spaces.

Sums and differences of two naive matrices are studied in the second
part of the book. They are known as graphs. The block designs could
form the next step. They are exploited in advanced combinatorics.
Blocks have matrix form and the numbers of distinguishable blocks are
searched for. Hall \cite{8} began his book by chapters surveying
classical combinatorics before he treated block designs, but no
attempt was made to use an unified matrix technique to traditional
combinatorics and explain combinatorial problems as counting naive
blocks.

When I connected combinatorial problems with properties of countable

vector spaces, I discovered another way into the Euclidean space. I
can clear up, at least I hope so, how this space is built. Some of
its basic properties are not explained in textbooks. Either
mathematicians do not consider them important, or they simply ignore
them. Of course, a possibility exists that they keep them as hermetic
secrets unexplained to uninitiated. In any case, the Euclidean space
has very strange properties.

This book is an elementary one. Only exceptionally results of higher

mathematics are introduced, and then without proofs. Nevertheless, I
do not think that it is an easy book. It shows how complicated the
world is, that everything is connected with everything. I try to
explain some parts of combinatorics and matrix algebra in an
unconventional way. The purpose is not mathematical rigor or
practical applications but the achievement of intuitive understanding
of vector space complexity. I prefer full induction to generating
functions and the main purpose of the book is to show that the world
has not only three dimensions, we can move in. I must admit that I
myself have difficulties trying to visualize some elementary things.
Some solutions I found only after very long periods of thinking, as
if the right way were blocked by invisible obstacles.

Before we start let us make a note about the number systems.

Everybody knows the decimal one: $$0 = 10^{-\infty};\ 1 = 10^0;\ 10 =
10^1;\ 100 = 10^2\;.$$

Somebody knows the binary one:

$$0 = 2^{-\infty};\ 1 = 1^1 = 2^0;\ 10 = 2^1; \ 11 = 3;\ 100 = 4 =

2^2\;.$$

But nobody, as it seems to me, studied the unitary number system:

$$1 =1^1;\ 11 = 2 = 1^2;\ 111 = 3 = 1^3.$$

The difference is that the system starts from the first power of 1,
which is undistinguishable from its zero power

$$1 = 1^{-1} = 1^0\;.$$

Logarithm of 1 with the base of logarithm 1 is again 1, logarithm of

111 with the base of logarithms 1 is 3.

Mathematical operations in this system are simple:

addition

\begin{center} $111 + 11 = 11\ 111$ \end{center}

subtraction

\begin{center} $111 - 11 = 1$ \end{center}

Multiplication and division should be written as powers, e. g.
multiplication $(111)^{11} $, but it can be arranged as blocks
\begin{center} \begin{tabbing} \= \qquad 11 $\times$ 111 = \= 111 \\
\= \> 111 = 111\,111 \end{tabbing} \end{center}

and division

\begin{center} \begin{tabbing} \= \qquad 111\, 111 $\div$ 11 = 11 \=

11\ 11 \vline \ 1\\ \> \> 11 \= 11 \vline \ 1\\ \> \> \> 11 \vline \
1 = 111 \end{tabbing} \end{center}

We will use this system implicitly without mentioning it. There will
be some problems with notation. Not enough letters are available to
use a special one for each function. We will use some letters for
different functions without warning. Figures, tables, and equations
are indexed separately in~each chapter.

One difficulty of a systematic exposition is that you can not

understand everything completely at once. It is necessary to
introduce concepts consecutively. New knowledge modifies previous
definitions. Therefore, some topics will be treated repeatedly, when
it becomes possible to exploit newly introduced techniques. Be
patient, please, when something seems to be too unimportantly
detailed. If you really want to understand, reread the book many
times.

I have mentioned books of Riordan \cite{9} which were important for

combinatorics. Similarly should be mentioned Harary for graphs
\cite{10,11} and the~book of Cvetkovi$\breve c$, Doob and Sachs
\cite{12} for eigenvalues of adjacency matrices. Some parts of the
present book are compiled from journal articles. I wish to express
my acknowledgement especially to members of the Zagreb group
for~numerous reprints.

\tableofcontents
\listoffigures
\listoftables
\pagenumbering{arabic}
\newpage

\pagenumbering{arabic} \chapter{Euclidean, Hilbert, and Phase Spaces}

\label{Euclidean}

\section{Preliminary Notes} \label{Preliminary}

It is generally believed that we are living in a three dimensional

space with 3 possible directions and their opposites: forward and
backward, left and right, up and down. Sometimes the time is added as
the fourth dimension with specific properties. The time is
indispensable for movement. We can not move in time physically, since
it is a stream which drift away everything, but our mind can move in
time without any difficulties.

Our notion of the space is based on our book form: a point has three
coordinates corresponding to the page, line, and column numbers,
respectively\footnote{There exist polar coordinates giving positions
as on reels, too, but they are outside our study.}.
Three dimensions of a book are formed by the given convention from
a~string of symbols. Too long strings are cut into lines, too long
strings of lines are cut into pages and eventually too long sequences
of pages are cut into volumes forming the fourth dimension since we
must determine at first positions of symbols in lines. There exist
different forms of books, as for examples scrolls. Strings of symbols
can be wound on reels, or rolled up into balls, and they remain
essentially unchanged. Similarly the points of the space can be
indexed in different ways.

Books exist without any movement but when we read them, we need time
to transfer their symbols into our brain, to remember essential facts
and thoughts, to transcribe the book into our brain. The world is a
word, a~very long one, in a foreign language. We must learn, how to
understand it.

There exist one essential difference between a book and our world.
The world is moving. As if a book itself were constantly transcribed.
Some parts seem to us to be constant, but somewhere invisible
corrections are made constantly. The world is in instant a the book A,
in the next instant b the book B. All possible states of the world
form a library.

But we will analyze at first the simpler case, the unmoving text.

The three dimensions of the space are not equivalent. To move forward
is easy, backward clumsy, left or right movements, as crabs do, are
not normal, up and down we can move only in short jumps (long falls
down end dangerously). In books eyes must jump on the next line, a
page turned, a new volume opened. Increasing efforts are needed in
each step.

Mathematics abstracted these differences. The three dimensions of the

space are considered to be equivalent and orthogonal.

Our world seems to be limited by these three dimensions. We are not

able to find the fourth geometrical dimension which would be
orthogonal to the first three. This is a source of many difficulties
and misunderstandings. Mathematicians try to avoid them by concealing
decently our inabilities as a~shame.

From ancient times the ortogonality means that between two straight
lines the right angle R exists. Actually there must be always 4 R if
two lines cross $$\begin{array}{ccc} R &\vline & R \\ & \vline & \\
\hline & \vline & \\ R & \vline & R \end{array}$$

The third straight line in the plane must be either parallel to one
them, and then it crosses the other one, or it crosses both of them,
and then they form a triangle, except lines going through the cross
of the first two lines.

The most important property of right triangles is, that the squares
of their hypotenuses are equal to the sums of squares of both other
sides as on Fig. \ref{Pythagorean}

\begin{figure}
\caption{Pythagorean theorem. $a^2\ +\ b^2\ = \ c^2$}
\label{Pythagorean}
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\end{figure}

The smallest right triangle which sides are whole numbers has sides 3,
4, 5 and their squares are 9 + 16 = 25. The relation between the
sides of right triangles is known as the {\em Pythagorean theorem}.
The knowledge of right triangles was one from the first mathematical
achievements of mankind. The pyramids have square bases. Their
triangulation was very accurate due to exploitation of this
knowledge.

But similarly as we are not able to find the fourth dimension, we are
not able to decide if a set of numbers does not correspond to a set
of orthogonal straight lines which lengths are corresponding to the
given numbers. We form consecutively right triangles as on
Fig.\ref{Consecutive}

\begin{figure}
\caption{Consecutive Pythagorean addition. New vectors
are added as orthogonal to the sum of previous ones}
\label{Consecutive}
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\end{figure}

Each new line is orthogonal to the right triangle sum of all

preceding lines. Try to form a three dimensional model, putting a the
third straight line orthogonal to the plane in which the first two
lines lie. Then rotate this line in the plane the orthogonal to the
hypotenuse, folding it down till it touches the plane. Now there
there appears place for the fourth vector again orthogonal to the
hypotenuse of the first three vectors. We get the general equation

\begin{equation}
L^2\ = \ \sum m^2_j \end{equation}
\label{sum}

where $m^2_j$ stands for $n$ different abscissa and $L^2$ is the
square of the length of all $n$~abscissa. We can rotate consecutively
each vector of the plane in such a way that it forms a right triangle
with the sum of all other $(n~-~1)$ vectors, but we must not consider
simultaneously more lines or we find that they are not orthogonal as
we clearly see on Fig.\ref{Consecutive} where a series of right
triangles was drawn.

If we had at disposal more dimensions, we could decompose such a sum

into n orthogonal directions.

The sum of $n$ squares with side values (lengths) $m^2_j$ can be in
its turn decomposed into a Pythagorean triangle which squared sides a,
b, and c are

\begin{equation}
a^2 = n\overline{m}
\end{equation}

\begin{equation}
b^2 = \sum~m^2~-~n\overline{m}
\end{equation}

\begin{equation}
c^2 = \sum m^2_j,
\end{equation}
\label{mean}

respectively. $\overline{m}$ in \ref{mean} is known as the {\em

arithmetical mean}. Actually, the arithmetical mean can be identical
with one from $n$ summands. The arithmetical mean is calculated
usually by finding the sum of all $m$~values and dividing it by $n$

\begin{equation}
\overline{m} = \sum m_j/n.
\end{equation}
\label{bar}

The straight length of the side is its square root. Here the square
root of $n$ appears somewhat surprisingly, but it is the length of
the diagonal of $n$ dimensional cube. Similarly the third side of the
triangle (1.3) can be normalized by dividing it with $n$. Then we get
the value $\sigma^2$ known as the {\em dispersion}

\begin{equation}
\sigma^2 = 1/n\sum (m^2_j - n\overline{m}^2).
\end{equation}
\label{standard}

Its square root, comparable with the mean, is the {\em standard
deviation} $\sigma$. For example, take the values 1,~2,~3,~4. Their
mean is 2.5, the sum of squares $30 = 1 + 4 + 9 + 16$. The dispersion
is $1/4(30 - 4 \times 6.25) = 1.25$.

Calculating the mean and the standard deviation we need not to know
the directions of both legs, since they are determined automatically
by their lengths, as when a triangle is constructed from the known
lengths of its three sides. We draw two circles with diameters $a$
and $b$ on both ends of the side $c$. Where the circles cross, the
third vertex lies. The direction of all sides in the multidimensional space is
abstract for us.

\section{Euclidean space}
\label{Euclidean space}

The space of right triangles and never crossing parallel lines is known as the
{\em Euclidean space}. Its generalization to infinite many dimensions
$n~\rightarrow~\infty$ for the sum \ref{mean} is known as the {\em Hilbert space}.
An Euclidean space with $n$~dimensions forms a subspace in it.

Euclides based his geometry on five postulates:

1. To draw a straight line from any point to another.

2. To produce a finite straight line continuously to a straight line.

3. To describe a circle with any center and distance.

4. That all right angles are equal to each other.

5. That if a straight line falling on two straight lines makes interior angles on
the same side less than two right angles, if produced infinitely, meet on that
side on which are angles less than two right angles.

The fifth postulate is superfluous. It follows directly from applications of the

first four postulates for the following construction.

We take a square ABCD. All its right angles are according to the 4. postulate
right, and all its sides are straight lines.
We add to this square ABCD a new square CDEF and align the sides AE and BF
according to the 2. postulate.

To the obtained rectangle ABEF, we and a new square EFGH and align again the sides
AG and BH according to the 2. postulate. In such a way we continue with adding of
squares infinitely, eventually on the other shorter side of the rectangle.

In such a way we produce a pair of parallel straight lines.

There are two possibilities that the long sides of the infinite rectangle meet or
diverge. Either these long sides are not straight lines meeting the demands of the
2. postulate, or the right angles of consecutive squares did not meet the demands
of the 4. postulate.

The fifth postulate is a consequence of an application of postulates for an

infinite construction.

The problem of ortogonality is loosing its importance in the Hilbert space. If you
have a store of infinite many vectors, you can pick any two as the first ones. You
can be sure, that you find the third one which is orthogonal to the first two. So
you continue. You will be exhausted before you will be able to empty the store. Or
you can be lazy, and to use alternatively vectors with angles greater and smaller
than orthogonal. The errors will compensate.

Euclides introduced axioms into mathematics. Space and its elements are defined by
a set of propositions. A disadvantage of this approach is that we don't know a
priori which elements form the space. We will use another approach and generate
elements consecutively.

We encounter spaces of many dimensions by recognizing that we are not alone in the
space. There are other people living and many things exist in~this particular
space. Each entity has its own position in the space. Listing these positions, we
need for each object its specific line with its coordinates. In each line must be
as many coordinates as the space, entities are embedded in, has dimensions. If
there were $m$~entities in $n$~dimensional space it would be necessary to know
$mn$ coordinates, in the 3~dimensional space we need for $m$~entities
$3m$~coordinates and in 1~dimensional space still $m$~coordinates to determine
positions of all objects.

Spaces with $m$~objects are known in physics as phase spaces\footnote {The number
of objects is there given as $n$. To avoid confusion with $n$ dimensions, we use
the symbol $m$.}. They have curious properties and we can sense directly some of
them, as for example temperature and the wind velocity of a system of molecules of
air are, which correspond to mathematical notions. Each molecule has at ambient
temperature mean velocity several hundred meters per second. Impacts of tiny
molecules on walls of the container produce the pressure. Chaotic collisions of
the molecules moving in different directions lead to a stable distribution of
particle velocities. These velocities decompose into two components. One component
is formed by a part of movement which all particles in the given volume have
common. This component, the mathematical arithmetical mean, usually great only few
meters per second, as compared to the above mentioned hundred meters per second,
we feel, when we are inside it as its part, as the wind, the physical property of
the system of molecules. The other component is the dispersion from the mean
vector velocity. It is known as the thermal motion of molecules, the temperature.

We will show that all phase spaces are {\em isomorphic}. Some of their properties
do not depend on the dimensionality $n$ of the space the system of $m$~entities is
embedded, but they are given only by the number of the entities.

The phase space is thus a reality and not a mathematical construction.

Unfortunately our experience is limited by properties of the cave we are living in
as Plato wrote. It is extremely difficult to overcome this handicap and see ideal
spaces behind shadows they produce. Shadows of the outer world, our eyes project
on the wall of our scull cave (retina) are two dimensional. The third dimension we
recognize by efforts of eye muscles focusing the images on the retina. This is
done automatically. Higher dimensions we recognize by efforts of our brains or
their extensions, computers. It will take a long time, before we accommodate us
and get accustomed to the notion of the higher dimensions in the same way as our
vision is used to the three dimensions. Our visual organs were developing for
hundred millions of years. The notion of a possibility of invisible spaces was
born about 2500 years ago, study of~their properties started about 250 years ago,
and computers which made their understanding easier appeared about 50 years ago.
It takes time.

\section{Unit Vectors ${\bf e}_j$}

\label{Unit Vectors}

Now it is time to introduce the notion of the linear translation. If a

microparticle moves in the Wilson chamber (or a plane in stratosphere), it leaves
a~trace of ionized particles and molecules condensing on them. Imagine that even
an abstract point, when moving, leaves such a trace. We call it a {\em vector} and
draw it as a line with arrow showing the direction of the movement
$\longrightarrow$. To shift a point, we must apply this trace connecting both
positions of the point, the initial and the final ones, respectively. We discussed
the ortogonality and it is obvious that the vectors can be orthogonal. But we
defined ortogonality only between straight lines and thus we suppose that the
vectors are straight. Of course, motion in space need not to be limited
exclusively to the motion along straight lines but we try to keep our space as
simple as possible. We can assume, that spaces with bent vectors are isomorphic to
the space with straight vectors.

Next we introduce a special place in our $n$~dimensional space from which we will
measure all translations. This point we will call the {\em center of
the~coordinate system}. Then we define $n$~points on a sphere (circle) with its
center in the~center of the coordinate system. We accept the radius of the~sphere
as the unit length. We can imagine that the points on the sphere are the
translated center of coordinate system and we will call each vector connecting the
center of the coordinate system with the defined $n$~points on a sphere the {\em
unit vector} ${\bf e}_j$. The notation of the unit vector ${\bf e}_j$ is a row
in~round brackets with $n$~elements. In physics symbols with arrows are used as
$\vec \j$. $(n~-~1)$ elements of the vector ${\bf e}_j$ are zeroes and there is
only one unit element on the j-th place

\begin{equation}
{\bf e}_j = (0_1, 0_2,\dots, 1_j, \dots, 0_n).
\end{equation}
\label{unit}

Equal length of all unit vectors ${\bf e}_j$ in (\ref{unit}) is not an essential
condition of the existence of a vector space. We could define unit vectors ${\bf
e}_j$ in (\ref{unit}) as having different lengths, make all operations as with
vectors having equal lengths, and only then modify results according the defined
lengths. A cube which sides are not equal is a rectangular parallelepiped. Its
volume, for example, can be calculated as
\begin{itemize}
\item {side $a = 4.4$~cm}
\item {side $b = 3.9$~cm}
\item {side $c = 0.4$~cm}
\begin{itemize}
\item {volume = $4.4 \times 3.9 \times 0.4 = 6.864$.}
\end{itemize}

The other possibility is

\item {side $a = 2.2 \times$ vector ${\bf a}$ = 2~cm}

\item {side $b = 1.3 \times$ vector ${\bf b}$ = 3~cm}
\item {side $c = 0.4 \times$ vector ${\bf c}$ = 1~cm}
\begin{itemize} \item {volume $= 2.2 \times 1.3 \times 0.4 = 1.144$}
\item {volume of the parallelepiped = $2 \times 3 \times 1 = 6$}
\item {total volume $ 1.144 \times 6 = 6.864$}.
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}

Vectors which begin in other places of the space are compared with these specimen
vectors ${\bf e}_j$ beginning in the center. They are considered to be {\em
identical} with unit vectors ${\bf e}_j$, if they are {\em collinear}. Of course,
vectors can be shorter or longer, can have opposite directions, but such
differences will be remedied by algebraic means later.

Sometimes vectors do not coincide with unit vectors, but with their linear
combinations. We suppose, that the unit vectors ${\bf e}_j$ are orthogonal
by~definition.

We will subject these unit vectors to different mathematical operations. We find

their sums, differences, products and we will try even to divide them. These
operations will be done in algebraic form. But before we proceed, we must
investigate the results of vector translations on some examples, to interpret the
algebraic results correctly.

How can be two vectors added? Suppose that the center ${\bf 0}$ was at first
translated into a point $a$ by the vector ${\bf e}_a$ and then to the point with
coordinates $ab$ by the translation ${\bf e}_b$. There are another possibilities
how to reach the same point. We can at first make translation ${\bf e}_b$ and then
${\bf e}_a$. In textbooks of algebra you can find that the summation is a {\em
commutative} operation. This word means that the result of the operation does not
depend on the ordering of terms in the operation. It is true: The final position
in space does not contain information about the way, how it was reached. But there
is still another possibility how vectors can be added: Both vectors can act
simultaneously and the point is shifted directly in direction between both of them
as pulling a car by two ropes as on Fig.\ref{Vector action}

\begin{figure}
\caption{Vector action. Consecutive actions A and B and the simultaneous action S
of two vectors ${\bf a}$ and ${\bf b}$ lead to the same final position R}
\label{Vector action}
\linethickness{0.6 pt}
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55.00)(9.00,85.00)
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\put(39.00,85.00){\vector(1,0){0.2}}
\put(9.00,85.00){\line(1,0){30.00}} %\end %\vector(44.00,55.00)(74.00,55.00)
\put(74.00,55.00){\vector(1,0){0.2}}
\put(44.00,55.00){\line(1,0){30.00}} %\end %\vector(74.00,55.00)(74.00,85.00)
\put(74.00,85.00){\vector(0,1){0.2}}
\put(74.00,55.00){\line(0,1){30.00}} %\end %\vector(89.00,55.00)(89.00,85.00)
\put(89.00,85.00){\vector(0,1){0.2}}
\put(89.00,55.00){\line(0,1){30.00}} %\end %\vector(89.00,55.00)(119.00,55.00)
\put(119.00,55.00){\vector(1,0){0.2}}
\put(89.00,55.00){\line(1,0){30.00}} %\end
\put(9.00,55.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(44.00,55.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(89.00,55.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(44.00,10.00){\circle*{4.00}} %\vector(44.00,10.00)(74.00,40.00)
\put(74.00,40.00){\vector(1,1){0.2}} \multiput(44.00,10.00)(0.12,0.12){251}
{\line(0,1){0.12}} %\end \put(24.00,70.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{A}}
\put(54.00,70.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{B}}
\put(104.00,70.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{S}}
\put(55.00,35.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{R}}
\end{picture}
\end{figure}

\section{Matrices}
%\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Matrices}
\label{Matrices}

Thus we need three possibilities how to write a sum of two vectors. We must have
the opportunity to write them as consecutively acting vectors or as simultaneously
acting vectors. Simultaneously acting unit vectors can be written easily as a sum
of two unit vectors in a single row. The rule is simple, elements are added in
their places:

\begin{center}
(1, 0, 0) + (0, 1, 0) = (1, 1, 0).
\end{center}

In this notation we have already $n$ simultaneously acting vectors in a row. Thus
we must write consecutive vectors in such a sum as a column of row vectors. We get
two different columns for our examples

$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\left( \begin{array}{ccc} (1, & 0, & 0) \\
(0, & 1, & 0)
\end{array}
\right) & \qquad & \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} (0, & 1, & 0) \\ (1, & 0, & 0)
\end{array} \right)\;.
\end{array}$$

Such columns of $m$~vector-rows having in each row $n$~elements are known as {\em
matrices}. The row brackets and commas are wiped out of matrices. Notice that in a
matrix its elements are arranged in columns similarly as in rows. It is thus
possible to use the convention that a matrix is formed from $n$ consecutive
$m$~dimensional vector-columns. Since we have introduced for individual columns
the lower index $j$ going from 1~to~$n$, we can use for rows of matrices the index
$i$ going from 1~to~$m$. Remember, the index $i$ is present in texts implicitly,
as the natural order of consecutive symbols. It need not to be given explicitly.

Sometimes it is convenient to let both indices start from zero. Then they go to $
(m~-1)$ or to $(n~-1)$, respectively. It can be found one matrix index written
over the other one. But it is better to reserve the upper index for powers. When
two same symbols follow, for example ${\bf aa}$, is written shortly ${\bf a}^2$.
Doing so, we treat consecutive vectors as if they were multiplied, and the
multiplication is a {\em noncommutative} operation. The result depends on the
ordering of terms in the operation. We will not use any symbol for multiplication
of~vectors and or matrices.

We have in our examples the small round brackets in all rows of matrices within
the larger brackets used for matrices. Matrices are also bordered by double
vertical lines or they are written into a frame. We will write them sometimes
without any trimmings, but when they touch, we separate them by simple lines.

It is still necessary to consider different matrices with unit vectors:

$$\begin{array}{ccccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{cc} 0 & 0 \\
1 & 1
\end{array}
\right) & \qquad &
\left( \begin{array}{cc} 1 & 1 \\
0 & 0
\end{array}
\right) & \qquad & \left(
\begin{array}{cc} 1 & 0 \\
1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}\;.$$

Matrices with empty rows are, maybe, superfluous, since no action corresponds to
the given row, but notice that the third matrix can be obtained from the second
one by rotating the elements around to the main diagonal, or changing the row $i$
and column $j$ indices. Matrices ${\bf M}$ are transposed into matrices ${\bf
M}^{\rm T}$. A matrix with two identical unit vectors in consecutive rows can be
interpreted as two consecutive translations going in the same direction. The
resulting position in space can be obviously described by the vector $(2,~0)$. But
if we try to interpret this vector with another numbers than 0 and 1, keeping in
mind our convention that vectors in a row are simultaneous, we have some
difficulties with the interpretation of these elements. We can imagine that the
translation requires a greater force to be performed and that it has double
intensity as in music a forte. To be consistent, we can not interpret other matrix
elements than 0 and 1 simply as the length of a~vector, unless we introduce such
vectors by some algebraic operation which will make such multivectors allowed
elements in our space.

The exclusion principle exists in quantum mechanics, formulated by Pauli. It

states that in a system can not be two identical particles. From our experience we
know that in one place can not be two things simultaneously. We will apply such
principle for vectors, too. Lets limit at first on matrices having just one unit
vector ${\bf e}_j$ not only in each position but in each row. We will use the
symbol ${\bf e}_j$ not only for geometrical translations in space but also for
different objects, e.g. for letters of this book. (I write letters in rows,
therefore the text is a row of columns and each letter j must be substituted by
the corresponding unit vector-column ${\bf e}_j^{\rm T}$). Matrices having one
unit element in each row seem to be too "naive" to be studied, but we will see
that they have quite interesting properties\footnote {It was difficult to find a
name for them, because other suitable names, as primitive, elementary, were
exploited.}.

***One of the useful properties of naive matrices ${\bf N}$ is that

they can be interpreted either as a string of $m$ unit vectors ${\bf
e}_j$ going from the center of~the~coordinate system to some point in
$n$ dimensional space or as a position vector in $m$ dimensional
space. To keep our convention about consecutivity and simultaneity of
vector translations, we transpose the naive matrix ${\bf N}$ into
${\bf N}^{\rm T}$. We write it as a row of the unit vectors-columns
${\bf e}_j$. The unit symbol will appear in the $j$-th row of the $n$
dimensional column instead in the $j$-th column of the $n$
dimensional row. The index system of the unit element is a convenient
mark of the length of the vector ${\bf e}_i$ that goes from the
center of coordinates in $m$ dimensional space. There is no element
which could interfere with this interpretation. But distances from
the center can be zeroes. Therefore the row indices need to be
counted from zero, subtracting one from each original index $i$. In
such an interpretation the matrices ${\bf N}^{\rm T}$ correspond to
{\em faces} (Fig. \ref{Face}).

\begin{figure} \caption{A face in 8 dimensional space. The ends of

individual vectors are connected with their neighbors by straight
lines} \label{Face} \linethickness{0.6 pt} \begin{picture}(120.00,
100.00) %\vector(50.00,50.00)(10.00,50.00) \put(10.00,50.00)
{\vector(-1,0){0.2}} \put(50.00,50.00){\line(-1,0){40.00}} %\end
\put(50.00,50.00){\circle*{4.00}} %\vector(50.00,50.00)(90.00,50.00)
\put(90.00,50.00){\vector(1,0){0.2}} \put(50.00,50.00){\line(1,0)
{40.00}} %\end %\vector(50.00,50.00)(50.00,90.00) \put(50.00,90.00)
{\vector(0,1){0.2}} \put(50.00,50.00){\line(0,1){40.00}} %\end
%\vector(50.00,50.00)(90.00,90.00) \put(90.00,90.00){\vector(1,1)
{0.2}} \multiput(50.00,50.00)(0.12,0.12){334}{\line(0,1){0.12}} %\end
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{0.2}} \multiput(50.00,50.00)(-0.12,0.12){334}{\line(0,1){0.12}}
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{\circle*{6.00}} \put(24.00,76.00){\circle*{6.00}} \put(32.00,50.00)
{\circle*{6.00}} \put(77.00,50.00){\circle*{6.00}} %\emline(77.00,
50.00)(65.00,65.00) \multiput(77.00,50.00)(-0.12,0.15){101}{\line(0,1)
{0.15}} %\end %\emline(65.00,65.00)(50.00,72.00) \multiput(65.00,
65.00)(-0.25,0.12){59}{\line(-1,0){0.25}} %\end %\emline(50.00,72.00)
(24.00,76.00) \multiput(50.00,72.00)(-0.76,0.12){34}{\line(-1,0)
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76.00)(0.12,-0.39){67}{\line(0,-1){0.39}} %\end %\vector(50.00,50.00)
(10.00,10.00) \put(10.00,10.00){\vector(-1,-1){0.2}} \multiput(50.00,
50.00)(-0.12,-0.12){334}{\line(0,-1){0.12}} %\end %\vector(50.00,
50.00)(50.00,10.00) \put(50.00,10.00){\vector(0,-1){0.2}} \put(50.00,
50.00){\line(0,-1){40.00}} %\end %\vector(50.00,50.00)(90.00,10.00)
\put(90.00,10.00){\vector(1,-1){0.2}} \multiput(50.00,50.00)(0.12,
-0.12){334}{\line(0,-1){0.12}} %\end \put(17.00,17.00){\circle{6.00}}
\put(17.00,17.00){\circle*{6.00}} \put(81.00,19.00){\circle*{6.00}}
%\emline(32.00,50.00)(17.00,17.00) \multiput(32.00,50.00)(-0.12,-0.26)
{126}{\line(0,-1){0.26}} %\end %\emline(77.00,50.00)(81.00,19.00)
\multiput(77.00,50.00)(0.12,-0.91){34}{\line(0,-1){0.91}} %\end
\put(32.00,50.00){\circle*{6.00}} \put(24.00,76.00){\circle*{6.00}}
\put(50.00,72.00){\circle*{6.00}} \put(65.00,65.00){\circle*{6.00}}
\put(77.00,50.00){\circle*{6.00}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

Drawing $m$ vectors on the paper, indexing them consecutively,

marking the length of each vector, and connecting the marks by
straight lines we get a figure suggesting a face. Each face
represents a point of the $m$ dimensional space and there are as many
faces as there are points in this space. Do you know your face? It is
formed differently in different spaces.

Only after we get acquainted with all naive matrices by counting them,
we will study their sums and differences, that means the properties
of matrices having in each row a sum or a difference of two unit
vectors. Before we move to matrix arithmetic we are going to learn,
how to operate with matrices. At first we introduce matrix
products.

\section{Scalar Products and Quadratic Forms} \label{Scalar}

Having two vectors ${\bf a}$, ${\bf b}$, we can find mutual
projections of both vectors as on Fig. \ref{Scalar
Products}.

\begin{figure} \caption{Scalar products. Both vectors are projected

on the other one} \label{Scalar Products} \linethickness{0.6 pt}
\begin{picture}(130.00,90.00) %\emline(10.00,35.00)(114.00,35.00)
\put(10.00,35.00){\line(1,0){104.00}} %\end \put(60.00,35.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} %\emline(100.00,65.00)(20.00,5.00) \multiput(100.00,
65.00)(-0.16,-0.12){501}{\line(-1,0){0.16}} %\end \put(20.00,35.00)
{\circle{4.00}} %\emline(100.00,65.00)(109.00,72.00) \multiput(100.00,
65.00)(0.15,0.12){59}{\line(1,0){0.15}} %\end %\emline(100.00,65.00)
(100.00,35.00) \put(100.00,65.00){\line(0,-1){30.00}} %\end
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%\emline(100.00,35.00)(101.00,38.00) \multiput(100.00,35.00)(0.11,
0.33){9}{\line(0,1){0.33}} %\end %\emline(20.00,35.00)(37.00,18.00)
\multiput(20.00,35.00)(0.12,-0.12){142}{\line(0,-1){0.12}} %\end
%\emline(37.00,18.00)(34.00,19.00) \multiput(37.00,18.00)(-0.33,0.11)
{9}{\line(-1,0){0.33}} %\end %\emline(37.00,18.00)(36.00,21.00)
\multiput(37.00,18.00)(-0.11,0.33){9}{\line(0,1){0.33}} %\end
\end{picture} \end{figure}

The projections are known as the {\em scalar products}. If both

vectors are orthogonal, the scalar product is ${\bf 0}$, if they are
collinear, the scalar product is, after normalization, 1. The
unnormalized scalar product of a vector with itself is known as the
{\em quadratic form}. The {\em normalization} means that the scalar
product is compared with the unit length of the projected vector. A
scalar product seems to be therefore just cosine of the angle between
both vectors. But it is not as simple as it seems to
be.

The word product is connected with the operation of {\em

multiplication}. How do we multiply two vectors? Take a vector column
${\bf v}$ and multiply it by a vector row ${\bf v}^{\rm T}$. Each
element $j$ of the column is multiplied by the matching element $i$
of the row and the products are summed into one number. For example:
$(1,~1,~1) \times (3,~1,~0)^{\rm T}$ is written in the
form

$$\begin{array}{rrr|r} & & & 3 \\ & & & 1 \\ & & & 0 \\ \hline & & &
\\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 4 \end{array}$$
The result was obtained as $1 \times 3 + 1 \times 1 + 1 \times 0 =
4$. Otherwise multiplying matching elements vertically
$$\begin{tabular}{cr} (1, 1, 1) & $\times$ \\ (3, 1, 0) & \\ \hline &
\\ (3, 1, 0) & = 4 \end{tabular}$$

Changing the row and column position, we get the same result

$$\begin{array}{rrr|r} & & & 1 \\ & & & 1 \\ & & & 1 \\ \hline & & &
\\ 3 & 1 & 0 & 4 \end{array}$$

$3 \times 1 + 1 \times 1 + 0 \times 1 = 4$. When multiplied, the

elements of one vector are weighted by the elements of other vector.
All weights in the first example were 1. I think that you already
know scalar products of vector columns with the unit vector-rows,
since they are used for finding sums of more numbers written in
columns. In the second example the weights were 3, 1 and 0,
respectively. The unit elements got different weights. Or the
operation was simply $3 + 1 + 0 =4$.

If a vector is weighted by itself, we get its {\em quadratic form}

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \begin{array}{rrr|r} & & & 1 \\ & & & 1 \\ & & &
1 \\ \hline & & & \\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 3 \end{array} & {\rm and} &
\begin{array}{rrr|r} & & & 3 \\ & & & 1 \\ & & & 0 \\ \hline & & & \\
3 & 1 & 0 & 10 \end{array} \end{array}$$

Here we have $1 \times 1 + 1 \times 1 + 1 \times 1 = 3$ and $3 \times

3 + 1 \times 1 + 0 \times 0 = 10$, respectively. Corresponding
elements of both vectors are multiplied and from products their sum
is made. You already know the result of the first example, since it
is simply a sum of $n$ units (here $n = 3$). It seems to be
elementary but it is not. Recall what was said about the Hilbert
space and analyze the scalar product of the {\em unit vector} ${\bf
J}$ with the unit vector $\bf {J}^{\rm T}$. (The unit vector ${\bf
J}$ is the vector column, the unit vector ${\bf J}^{\rm T}$ is the
vector row. All their elements are 1). The scalar product is just the
sum of vector elements, the quadratic form is the square of their
Euclidean length. If you think that we should work with square roots
of quadratic forms, imagine that the unit vector ${\bf J}$ represents
$n$~people. The quadratic form just counts these people. Should we
determine their number as $\surd {n}$ (square root from n)? We
introduced the Hilbert space and we will work with scalar products
and square forms as with basic vectors without finding
roots.

We obtained in the scalar products from two $n$ ($m$) dimensional

vectors just one number. The multiplication decreased the
dimensionality, we got just one number (scalar) determining the
length of the first vector. Therefore the product of a vector row
multiplied by a vector column from the right (natural order of both
vectors, the vector column was multiplied by a vector row from the
left) is called the {\em inner product}. There exists the {\em outer
product}. This is obtained when we change the positions of both
vectors and multiply a vector column with a vector row from the
right:

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \begin{array}{r|rrr} & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ \hline & & &

\\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ \end{array} &
\qquad & \begin{array}{r|rrr} & 3 & 1 & 0 \\ \hline & & & \\ 3 & 9 &
1 & 0 \\ 1 & 3 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ \end{array}
\end{array}$$

Here three one dimensional vector columns acted on three one

dimensional vector rows. The whole vector column was weighted by all
elements of the~vector column, and as the result matrices of
dimension $3 \times 3$ were obtained. Instead two numbers we got two
matrices, each having 9 matrix elements. The outer product matrix is
called {\em tensor}\,\footnote{Tensor is a muscle that extends a part
to which it is fixed. Tonsor is a barber.}. Notice that the elements
of both inner products appeared as diagonal elements of the outer
products. Their sum, known as the {\em trace of the matrix}, is
identical with the final form of the~inner
product.

The scalar products can be made from matrix vectors, too. Scalar
products of matrix vectors multiplied by vector-rows from the left
are just vector-rows and matrix vectors multiplied by vector-columns
from the right are just vector-columns, respectively. The
multiplication is decreasing the dimensionality of the matrix
vector:

\begin{equation} \mbox{\rm vector-row} \times {\bf M} = \mbox{\rm

vector-row} \end{equation}

\begin{equation} {\bf M} \times \mbox{\rm vector-column} = \mbox{\rm

vector-column}. \end{equation}

The vector-row is multiplied from the right consecutively by all

columns of the matrix and the result has as many places as the matrix
columns. The vector-column is multiplied from the left consecutively
by all rows of the matrix and the result has as many places as the
matrix rows.

If both vectors are matrices, the multiplication must be made for

all combinations of rows and columns. The product is again a matrix.
In the case of square matrix vectors, both products have identical
dimensions and the distinction between inner and outer space is
lost.

\section{Matrices in unit frames}

%\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Matrices in unit frames}
\label{Matrices in unit frames}

The quadratic form ${\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf J}$ counts the elements of
the unit vector $\bf {J}$. It is simultaneously an operator

\begin{equation} {\bf J}^{\rm T}(*){\bf J}. \label{product1}

\end{equation}

If we insert inside this product a matrix ${\bf M}$

\begin{equation} {\bf J}^{\rm T}({\bf M}){\bf J}\,, \label{product2}

\end{equation}

we get the sum of elements of the matrix ${\bf M}$. ${\bf J}^{\rm T}
{\bf M}$ is a $n$ dimensional vector row and ${\bf MJ}$ is $m$
dimensional vector column. The next multiplication by ${\bf J}$
(or by ${\bf J}^{\rm T}$) sums the elements of these vectors,
respectively.

When we insert in (\ref{product1}) instead ${\bf M}$ as in

(\ref{product2}) the quadratic forms $({\bf M}{\bf M})^{\rm T}$ or
$({\bf M}^{\rm T}{\bf M})$, we get the quadratic forms of the scalar
products ${\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf M}$ and ${\bf MJ}$.

We noticed that a vector column is transposed into a vector row and

the other way around. If we repeat this operation, we obtain back the
original vector form:

\begin{equation} ({\bf v}^{\rm T})^{\rm T}\ = \ {\bf v}.

\end{equation}

A matrix is transposed in such a way that all vector columns are

transposed into vector rows and the other way around. It means that
in the transposed matrix the indices $i$ and $j$ are
exchanged.

At a transposition of a product of two matrices (a vector row or

column is a matrix which has either $m = 1$ or $n = 1$, respectively)
both matrices exchange their places, thus

\begin{equation} ({\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf M}^{\rm T})^{\rm T} = {\bf MJ}\

{\rm and} \ ({\bf M}{\bf J})^{\rm T} = {\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf M}^{\rm
T}\;. \end{equation}

We obtain two quadratic forms : ${\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf M}^{\rm T}{\bf

MJ}$ and ${\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf M}{\bf M}^{\rm T}{\bf J}$. We see that
both products have the same frames ${\bf J}^{\rm T}(*){\bf J}$, which
act on a matrix product which is inside. This frame just counts
elements of the inner matrix. The quadratic forms ${\bf M}^{\rm
T}{\bf M}$ and ${\bf M}{\bf M}^{\rm T}$ are more important and
interesting than the final product, because it contains more
information.

We supposed that the original matrix ${\bf M}$ had $m$ rows and $n$
columns, both $m$ and $n$ being different. Therefore the transposed
matrix ${\bf M}^{\rm T}$ had $n$ rows and $m$ columns and was
different from the original matrix ${\bf M}$. We say that such
matrices are {\em asymmetrical}. Both quadratic forms are symmetrical
matrices. ${\bf M}^{\rm T}{\bf M}$ has $n$ rows and $n$ columns,
${\bf M}{\bf M}^{\rm T}$ has $m$ rows and $m$ columns. On~the traces
of both product matrices there are the sums of squared elements
$m_{ij}^2$ of the matrix ${\bf M}$. This is the Hilbert length of the
matrix vector and both traces which have the same length lie on a
sphere with the diameter of~the matrix vector. Off diagonal elements
of both quadratic forms form with their traces the right triangles
having both unit projections ${\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf M}$ and ${\bf
MJ}^{\rm T}$ as hypotenuses (Fig. \ref{Matrix vector system}).

\begin{figure} \caption{Matrix vector system. ${\bf M}$ -- matrix

vector, ${\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf M}$ -- matrix vector projection into
columns, ${\bf MJ}$ -- matrix vector projection into rows, $Tr({\bf
M}^{\rm T}{\bf M})$ -- trace vector, $Tr({\bf MJ})$ -- trace vector,
$\Lambda$ -- eigenvalue vector, ${\bf M}^{-1}$ -- inverse matrix
vector} \label{Matrix vector system} \linethickness{0.6 pt}
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\emline{70.00}{70.00}{115}{127.67}{33.00}{116} %\end \put(70.00,
165.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{${\bf M}$}} \put(10.00,140.00){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{${\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf M}$}} \put(150.00,140.00){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{${\bf MJ}$}} \put(50.00,150.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{Tr(${\bf
M}{\bf M}^{\rm T})$}} \put(110.00,150.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{Tr(${\bf
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\put(130.00,20.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{${\bf M}^{-1}$}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}

Both scalar products transform a matrix into a vector, row or column.

They count simply the elements in rows or columns of the matrix ${\bf
M}$. They give us the final results of all translations, ${\bf MJ}$
in the $m$ dimensional space of rows, ${\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf M}$ in $n$
dimensional space of columns. Finding these sums, we are reducing
dimensionality of the space, instead of $mn$ elements we have only
$m$ or $n$ elements, respectively. When we reduced the dimensionality
of~the~matrix space, we simplified the matrix vector, but we lost
information about original order of vectors in the matrix. And
moreover, at least in one quadratic scalar product, we joined
together different vectors. If these vectors represented different
things, we counted together apples with pears as
fruits.

The matrix vector system on Fig. \ref{Matrix vector system} is

composed from the matrix ${\bf M}$ itself and its two projections.
${\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf M}$ and ${\bf MJ}$. These projections decompose
into trace vectors, Tr(${\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf M}$) and Tr(${\bf MJ}$),
respectively. These trace vectors have an important property: They
have the same length as the matrix vector ${\bf M}$ itself. Even the
eigenvalue vector $\Lambda$ has the same length as the matrix ${\bf
M}$ and it can substitute both quadratic forms. The inverse matrix
vector ${\bf M}^{-1}$, if exist, belongs to the matrix vector system
(sometimes it can be substituted by the generalized inverse).

A matrix vector has $mn$ elements. It is simplified by its

projections into the separated spaces of rows and columns. We
disregard in this projection some properties of the matrix vector. We
are gaining some information but the price for it is loosing another
information. Finding of quadratic forms corresponds to the logical
abstraction. The most important property of both quadratic forms is
their ability to replace matrix vectors. This ability is not a~mere
mathematical construction. It is based on physical experience because
the world we live in is simply constructed in such a
way.

To conclude: {\em A matrix corresponds to an action and its quadratic

form to the result of this action}.
Both quadratic forms have this important property: They split the
space and its elements. Let the matrix ${\bf M}$ be a list of $n$
different books (with an unknown number of copies) belonging to $m$
different persons. Each row is a~catalogue of the $i$-th personal
library, each column is a list of occurrences, it registers in which
libraries the $j$-th book can be found. The quadratic form ${\bf
M}^{\rm T}{\bf M}$ is the space of $n$ books, on the diagonal there
are numbers of libraries in which each book can be found. ${\bf
M}{\bf M}^{\rm T}$ is the space of libraries but its elements are
books. Compare it with ancient sayings that there is a measure in
everything or that the measure of everything is man.

\chapter{Construction of the Vector Space} \label{Construction}

\section{Number and Vector Scales} \label{Number}

From the history of mathematics we know how carefully mathematicians

constructed the number axis, introducing consecutively natural
numbers, rational numbers, irrational numbers. It is not necessary to
remember all problems connected with the notion of continuum and with
the different axiomatic systems. The number axis forms one
dimensional space. The next steps, the formation of two, three and
more dimensional spaces were made as a audacious jump by so called
Cartesian products.

The recipe seems to be simple: Take at least two one dimensional

spaces and multiply them together. The set theory remedied some
faults but it did not connect its set spaces with the vector spaces
and both disciplines remained separated.

When we consider the natural number scale\footnote {Whole positive

numbers, zero including.}

(0) --- (1) --- (2) --- (3) --- (4) --- (5)

and compare it with a unit vector ${\bf e}_j$ scale

(0)$\longrightarrow$(1)$\longrightarrow$(2)$\longrightarrow$(3)
$\longrightarrow$(4)$\longrightarrow$(5)

we see that the only difference is, that the vector scale is oriented
and the number scale is not.

\section{Formal Operations with Vector Sets} \label{Formal}

We have introduced the unit vectors ${\bf e}_j$ in Sect. 1.2 as basic
units of our space. At first, we will allow only positive
translations corresponding to natural numbers. This means that a
matrix vector can go only forwards from the~center of coordinates and
never back. A string of consecutive vectors forms a {\em path}. All
possible paths in this space form a~{\em lattice}. We already know,
that the distinction must be made between a path and its final point,
the {\em position vector}. This distinction is the same as between
reading and mere counting words. Suppose that we have two vector
strings for example $${\bf aababac}$$

and $${\bf abcaaba}\;.$$

Both lead to the point with coordinates (4, 2, 1, 0, 0, \dots). We
will write it sometimes as $(a^4b^2c^1d^0e^0\dots)$. Such a notation
is useful at some operations as $$(a + b)^2 = a^2 + 2ab + b^2\;,
$$

where we need to distinguish the meaning of terms $2a$ and $a^2$. The
multiplier gives the number of~the~strings, the power determines the
length of~the~vector. Now it is convenient, that the base of the unit
vectors is 1. The upper indexes, having meaning as powers of the unit
vectors do not change them. When we accept that $x^0~=~$1, the zero
power vector is just a multiplier one. Thus it is not necessary to
write this 1, because it does not change the product as $a\times$ 1
$=$ 1$\times a = a$.

All vector strings ending in a point, as represented by the naive

matrices ${\bf N}$, are {\em equivalent}. There are defined
mathematical operations, which transform a naive matrix into another
equivalent matrix. If this transformation does not give identical
results, then both matrices belong to different classes. Two
equivalent naive matrices have the identical quadratic form ${\bf
N}^{\rm T}{\bf N}$ and lead to one point. For example $$ ({\bf aaba}
= ({\bf a}^3{\bf b}) = ({\bf baaa})$$

Here we have the first example how useful the introduction of

quadratic forms was. Later we formulate another equivalence classes
of naive matrices.

To be able to distinguish between $2a$ and $a^2$ (between parallel

and consecutive translations), we need the same difference also for
construction of~the~multidimensional space from the unit vectors.
Therefore, for vector sets, unit vectors, and their strings existing
{\em simultaneously}, we will use the~symbol of {\em summation} $\sum
$. For {\em consecutive} vector sets, we will use the symbol for {\em
multiplication} $\Pi $. The multiplication is transformed into the
summation on a logarithmic scale. Using the unit base of logarithms,
the number and its logarithm coincide, or do they not? For example
$${\bf aaaaa} = {\bf a}^5, \ \lg_a{\bf a}^5 = 5$$

This convention inverses the order of both operations in the space

construction. Classical way was to have two axis, say $(1 + a + a^2 +
\ldots)$ and $(1 + b + b^2 + \ldots)$ and to multiply them. As the
result we get positions points of a square

$$\begin{array}{cccc} 1 & a & a^2 &\ldots \\ b & ab & a^2b & \ldots
\\ b^2 & ab^2 & a^2b^2 & \ldots \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots
\end{array}$$

This square can be multiplied later by the third axis and the 3
dimensional cube is obtained, then the fourth axis can be applied and
so higher dimensional cubes, sometimes called hypercubes, are
obtained. We could speak about hyperplanes, hyperedges and so on, but
we will not use this prefix because it would hyperinflate our
text.

The space is constructed consecutively in layers from the sets of n

unit vectors representing n dimensional space. For example:
\begin{equation} (a + b)^0 + (a + b)^1 + (a + b)^2 + (a + b)^3 +
\dots. \end{equation}

The individual products in the sum are vector strings ending on the
lines orthogonal to the diagonal vector ${\bf I}$. The square with
the side $0-2$ is obtained from these points by truncating points
$a^3$ and $b^3$ from the incomplete layer $3$ and adding 6 strings
$a^2b^2$ from the fourth level product $(a + b)^4$:

$$\begin{array}{ccc} 1 & a & a^2 \\ b & 2ab & 3a^2b\\ b^2 & 3ab^2 &
6a^2b^2\;. \end{array}$$

The numbers at the coordinates give count of different vector strings

going to the given natural point of the square. For example 3 strings
${\bf aab}$, ${\bf aba}$, ${\bf baa}$ lead to the point with
coordinates $a^2b$. The commutative algebra is obtained from the
noncommutative one by the algebraic operation transforming vector
strings into position vectors.

\begin{figure} \caption{Two dimensional space. The unit vector ${\bf

I}_2$ is orthogonal to the plane simplexes} \label{Two dimensional
space} \linethickness{0.6pt} \begin{picture}(120.00,120.00)
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{\circle*{6.00}} \put(10.00,90.00){\circle*{6.00}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}

Vector strings created in the 2~dimensional space by the

multiplication's $(a~+~b)^m$ go to the points lying on a straight line
orthogonal to the diagonal of the complex as on Fig. \ref{Two
dimensional space}.

The sum of n~unit vectors ${\bf e}_j$ multiplied m~times is the {\em
generator} of the~vector space. When the three dimensional generator
is applied, the vector strings go to the triangle planes (Fig.
\ref{Three dimensional}).

\begin{figure} \caption{The first five 3~dimensional plane simplexes}

\label{Three dimensional} \linethickness{0.6pt}
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113.33){\line(1,0){40.00}} %\end \end{picture} \end{figure}

In higher dimensions these would be hyperplanes. Again, we truncate

their names and modestly call them simply planes in all dimensions.
But it inversely means that a line is a plane in the 2~dimensional
space and a point is a plane in the 1~dimensional space. This might
seem strange but an unlimited plane cuts its space into two parts. A
point cuts the line similarly as a line divides a 2~dimensional plane
into two parts.

Our vectors were limited only to natural numbers and therefore planes
are generated by the operator \begin{equation} [\,\sum^n_{j=1}\,{\bf
e}_j]^m \end{equation}

are the elements of the {\em natural space}. It includes its limit,
points with the coordinates $a^0b^0$, $ab^0$, $a^0b$ and so on. The
elements of the natural space are countable and are formed by the
vector strings going to points with nonnegative coordinates. We will
call the individual layers the {\em plane simplexes}. If you have
heard something about simplexes than you know that a simplex in
$n$~dimensional space should be determined by $(n~+~1)$~points and we
have just $n$ points. But remember that we speak about planes. A
plane in~$n$~dimensional space is a body\footnote{My son suggested
here to add the adjective `solid'. But a solid body is a solid body,
whereas the plain term `body' includes a code, a system, thus it is a
more abstract notion.} in~$(n~-~1)$~dimensional space and the missing
point is restored.

The planes mentioned above are orthogonal to the {\em diagonal unit
vector} ${\bf I}$. It is necessary to explain, why there are three
unit vectors: ${\bf I}$, ${\bf J}$ and ${\bf J}^{\rm T}$. We have
shown that the unit vector row ${\bf J}^{\rm T}$ and the unit vector
column ${\bf J}$ have different effects on the naive matrices ${\bf
N}$, which are basic elements of~our space, or generally on any
matrices ${\bf M}$. They transform them into vector rows or columns,
respectively. Therefore we need a new unit vector invariant to the
matrices. This vector is the unit diagonal vector ${\bf I}$. It is
the square matrix having the unit elements on the diagonal, where
both indices are equal, $i~=~j$.

When the unit diagonal matrix ${\bf I}$ multiplies any matrix either
from the left or from the right, it leaves the matrix unchanged:
\begin{equation} {\bf IM} = {\bf MI} = {\bf M}.
\end{equation}

The unit diagonal matrix ${\bf I}$ is known as the {\em identity
matrix} and was already mentioned its sophisticated formulation as
the Kronecker symbol $\delta_{ij}$, where $\delta_{ij} = 1$, if $i=j$,
and $\delta_{ij} = 0$ otherwise.

Lets continue with the construction of space using the plane

simplexes and laying consecutive layers as in an onion. The sums of
plane simplexes form the {\em plane complex}. It is determined by
three symbolical operations

\begin{equation} \sum^m_{i=0}\ [\,\sum^m_{j=1}\,{\bf e}_j]^i\,.

\end{equation} \label{multiplication}

If $m$ goes to infinity we obtain the whole natural vector space of

the given dimension.

Compare the sequence of operations with the traditional prescription

\begin{equation} \prod^n_{j=1}\,[\,\sum^m_{i=0}\,{\bf e}^i]_j

\end{equation}

and you will see that we just inverted the ordering of formal
operations. The multiplication in (\ref{multiplication}) is done by
upper index i. But we obtained another kind of space. Our space of
vector strings is {\em noncommutative}, whereas the space formed by a
lattice of points is {\em commutative}. The transition between both
spaces is made by finding of scalar products. This formal operation
corresponds to logical abstraction as it was shown in the previous
Chapter.

\section{Properties of Plane Simplexes} \label{Properties}

One and two~dimensional plane simplexes are trivial. Our

investigation starts with initial 3~dimensional plane simplexes as on
Fig. \ref{Three dimensional}. The 3~dimensional plane simplexes are
triangles with 1, 3, 6 and 10 points. Each upper simplex has $(m~+~1)
$ more points than its predecessor and it is relatively easy to
arrange them into the 3~dimensional complex. This forms the positive
cone of the 3~dimensional octagon as on Fig.\ref{Three dimensional
plane complex}.

\begin{figure} \caption{Three dimensional plane complex} \label{Three

dimensional plane complex} \linethickness{0.6pt}
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(27.33,27.67) \multiput(70.00,120.00)(-0.12,-0.26){356}{\line(0,-1)
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(140.00,60.00) \put(70.00,60.00){\line(1,0){70.00}} %\end
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{67.67}} %\end \put(57.33,50.67){\circle{6.00}} \put(43.33,40.00)
{\circle{6.00}} \put(58.00,72.67){\circle{6.00}} \put(77.33,50.00)
{\circle{6.00}} \put(27.67,27.67){\circle*{6.00}} \put(63.00,39.00)
{\circle*{6.00}} \put(98.00,49.67){\circle*{6.00}} \put(42.33,59.67)
{\circle*{6.00}} \put(56.00,89.67){\circle*{6.00}} \put(76.33,69.67)
{\circle*{6.00}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

The higher simplexes differ from lower ones not only by an addition
of a~new edge but also by increased number of strings leading to all
points except vertices.

If you compare the 3~dimensional plane simplex with the 2~dimensional

complex, the difference between them consist in the number of strings
going to different points. The origin (0, 0) gets the coordinate (0,
0, 3), points $a$, $b$ are transformed into $ac^2$ and $bc^2$,
respectively, and so on.

\begin{figure} \caption{The first three 4~dimensional plane simplexes

and the fifth one.} \label{The first five} \linethickness{0.6pt}
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159.17)(37.08,150.42) \multiput(7.08,159.17)(0.41,-0.12){73}{\line(1,
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165.83)(0.12,-0.16){282}{\line(0,-1){0.16}} %\end %\emline(83.75,
165.83)(133.33,149.17) \multiput(83.75,165.83)(0.36,-0.12)
{139}{\line(1,0){0.36}} %\end %\emline(7.50,158.75)(46.67,132.50)
\multiput(7.50,158.75)(0.18,-0.12){219}{\line(1,0){0.18}} %\end
%\emline(83.75,165.42)(150.00,120.42) \multiput(83.75,165.42)(0.18,
-0.12){376}{\line(1,0){0.18}} %\end \put(36.25,104.17)
{\circle*{6.00}} \put(112.92,155.42){\circle*{6.00}} \put(84.17,61.67)
{\circle*{6.00}} \put(107.50,6.67){\circle*{6.00}} \put(45.00,169.58)
{\circle*{6.00}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

The 4~dimensional simplexes are bodies in 3~dimensional space. They

are regular tetrahedrons. If we try to draw them on a 2~dimensional
surface, we must deform them as on Fig.\ref{The first five}, where
their edges have different lengths. And on a drawing, the inside of
the tetrahedron does not appear, unless we do not draw it in a
stereoscopical projection.

The first difficulty appears: We are not able to form from

4~dimensional planes their complex. Why? All vertices of a
tetrahedron must be in equal distances from the center of the
coordinate system. An appropriate point seems to lie inside the
tetrahedron, but the center of the tetrahedron has the coordinate
(1/4, 1/4, 1/4, 1/4). The center of the system with the coordinate (0,
0, 0, 0) can not be inside the plane, it must lie outside it. The
task of~finding this point is similar to task to locate Nirvana.
Breathing exercises do not help. Somewhat more useful is time. We
just shift the whole plane from its original place for one unit
length in our thought. Since this operation has no geometrical
coordinate, it solves the task.

Even greater obstacles must be overcome when we try to imagine a five

dimensional plane simplex as on Fig. \ref{Three projections}.

Its envelope composes from five four dimensional planes, tetrahedrons

having one coordinate zero:

$$\begin{array}{ccccl} a & b & c & d & 0 \\* a & b & c & 0 & e \\* a
& b & 0 & d & e \\* a & 0 & c & d & e \\* 0 & b & c & d & e\;.
\end{array}$$

In 3~dimensional space the tetrahedron sides interfere. If we draw

the~simplex as a trigonal bipyramide (Fig. \ref{Three projections} A),
we can see in one moment two tetrahedrons, say abcd and abce, having
the common side abc as the base of two trigonal pyramides, and in
other moment three tetrahedrons having a common edge de, which goes
through the bipyramide. But these are only sides of the simplex and
its inside lies between these five tetrahedrons. We must move them
aside before we come inside. It demands a concentration to enter
inside planes of higher dimensions.

Or one tetrahedron can be flattened, say abcd (Fig. \ref{Three

projections} B), and over this deformed base four tetrahedrons have
place which cover the pyramid twice, once as two tetrahedrons abce
and acde, once as two tetrahedrons abde and bcde. Into 2~dimensional
plane the 5~dimensional plane simplex is projected as the pentagram
(Fig. \ref{Three projections} C). In all cases the plane simplex is
distorted by squeezing it into the lower dimensional space. In the
ideal state all edges should have equal length.

The 5~dimensional plane simplexes of the 6~dimensional plane simplex

cover their 3~dimensional projection trice. The projection in the
form of~the~tetragonal bipyramide can be divided into two pyramides
having the common side abcd as the base, and then into four simplexes
along the axis ef as before at the 5~dimensional simplex.

Or one 5~dimensional plane simplex can be flattened into the regular

pentagon and over this base five 5~dimensional plane simplexes have
place which cover the base of the pentagonal pyramid 3 times, the
corners of~the~pentagram 4 times its center 5 times. This makes the
analysis of the 7~dimensional plane simplex difficult, since the
pentagonal bipyramide is its simplest model.

\begin{figure} \caption{Three projections of the 5~dimensional plane

simplex. A -- the bipyramide, B -- one tetrahedron side flattened, C
-- the whole simplex is flattened.} \label{Three projections}
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\put(34.44,67.41){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{B}} \put(127.41,85.19){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{C}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

Time and patience are essential when analyzing planes of higher

dimensions. Decompose them into subplanes and decrease their
dimensionality as your homework.

A conjecture outside mathematics: Multidimensional objects can appear

in lower dimensional space only changing constantly their
configurations. Thus microparticles emerge in the wave
form.

\section{Construction of the Number Scale} \label{Construction}

Until now we used only natural numbers and vectors. But we will need
fractional numbers and vectors, too. Now we are able to introduce
them because we have enough space for necessary constructive
operations.

Recall the 2 dimensional complex (Fig. \ref{Construction of the

rational}).

The position vector (1,1) goes through the plane simplex $(a + b)^1$
in a~point which has until now no name in our world. We introduce it
by finding its coordinates on both axes. This is done using parallel
lines with both axes. The new numbers are defined as the ratio of the
coordinate $a$ of the~position vector and the power of its simplex,
or as the ratio of the coordinate $b$ of the position vector and the
power of its simplex, respectively. In the example the~ratio is
1/2.

\begin{figure} \caption{Construction of the rational numbers. Vector

(1, 1) intersects the first plane simplex in the point with the
coordinate (0.5, 0.5).} \label{Construction of the rational}
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{\makebox(0,0)[lc]{a = 0.5}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}

When this operation is done with all simplexes going to infinity (or
equivalently with the infinite simplex), we obtain infinite many
points in the interval $<0,~1>$. All these points are countable by
indices i of the infinite plane. They are known as {\em rational
numbers}. The rational numbers outside the interval $<0,~1>$ are
obtained by adding the rational number and the natural number (or by
multiplying).

The infinite plane simplex itself remained at this operation

undivided, as it was in its natural state. We use again one of the
properties of the Euclidean space, namely that parallel lines never
meet and translate the fine division of rational numbers from the
first simplex onto the infinite plane (Fig. \ref{Construction of
irrational}).

New position vectors appear on it. They cross the unit simplex in
points, which all lie before the first rational number. They divide
the angle between the first countable rational vector from the
primary infinite division of~the~unit interval and therefore form a
new set of infinite many points on~the~number scale. The operation
can be repeated ad infinitum. The first set of the irrational
numbers is sufficient for representation of {\em continuum}. Its
elements are not be countable because the infinite store of numbers
is exhausted by counting the first crop of the rational numbers. The
uncountable numbers of the second crop are {\em irrational
numbers}.

\begin{figure} \caption{Construction of irrational numbers. The

vector leading to the projection of the first rational number $a$
onto the infinite plane

simplex has as the coordinate the irrational number $b$}

\label{Construction of irrational} \linethickness{0.6pt}
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\put(24.00,20.00){\line(0,1){70.00}} %\end %\emline(24.00,50.00)
(54.00,20.00) \multiput(24.00,50.00)(0.12,-0.12){251}{\line(0,-1)
{0.12}} %\end %\emline(24.00,80.00)(83.67,20.00) \multiput(24.00,
80.00)(0.12,-0.12){498}{\line(0,-1){0.12}} %\end \put(54.33,20.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} %\emline(24.00,20.00)(94.33,20.00) \put(24.00,20.00)
{\line(1,0){70.33}} %\end \put(84.00,20.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(24.00,20.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(24.00,49.67){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(24.00,80.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(54.00,49.67){\circle*{4.00}}
%\vector(24.00,20.00)(54.00,50.00) \put(54.00,50.00){\vector(1,1)
{0.2}} \multiput(24.00,20.00)(0.12,0.12){251}{\line(0,1){0.12}} %\end
\put(12.33,49.67){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1}} \put(12.00,80.00){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{$\infty$}} \put(12.00,20.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{0}} \put(39.00,
10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{a}} \put(54.00,10.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1}}
\put(24.00,10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{0}} %\vector(39.00,20.00)(39.00,
64.67) \put(39.00,64.67){\vector(0,1){0.2}} \put(39.00,20.00){\line(0,
1){44.67}} %\end %\vector(24.00,20.00)(39.00,64.67) \put(39.00,64.67)
{\vector(1,3){0.2}} \multiput(24.00,20.00)(0.12,0.35){126}{\line(0,1)
{0.35}} %\end %\vector(31.33,42.33)(31.33,20.00) \put(31.33,20.00)
{\vector(0,-1){0.2}} \put(31.33,42.33){\line(0,-1){22.33}} %\end
\put(31.33,10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{b}} \end{picture} \end{figure} We
already need such numbers which we are not able to write explicitly.
If we return to the simplex plane and try to measure the length of
the vector leading to the point (0.5, 0.5), or (1, 1), rotated onto
the axis, we will not find it between the rational numbers. Square
root from 2 ($\sqrt{2}$) is not a~rational number.

The numbers obtainable by the consecutive divisions of continuum and

eliminating the decimal point of are known as {\em aleph numbers}. In
the Euclidean space everywhere and always is true that 1 $\times$ 1 =
1. Nowhere the product is an irrational number greater or lesser than
1.

\section{Complex Numbers} \label{Complex Numbers}

We have shown that a matrix vector ${\bf M}$ can be projected onto
the unit vector row ${\bf J}^{\rm T}$ or column ${\bf J}$, and that
the quadratic forms ${\bf M}^{\rm T}{\bf M}$ and ${\bf MM}^{\rm T}$
can be separated into right triangles. This is true for matrix
vectors in which all elements are either positive or negative. If a
matrix vector contains numbers of both signs, its projections are
shorter than the matrix vector itself. Then the hypotenuse of the
right triangle (Fig. 1.2), represented by the trace of~the~quadratic
form, is longer than the outer product, where the off-diagonal
elements form the legs. The off-diagonal elements can be either
positive or negative. For example:

\begin{center} \begin{tabular}{rrrrcrrrcr} \ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ &

-3 & -2 & 1 & \vline\ & \ $\Sigma$ \\ \hline \ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\
& & & & \vline\ & \\ \ & \ & \ & 3 & \vline\ & 9 & -6 & 3 & \vline\ &
6 \\ \ & \ & \ & -2 & \vline\ & -6 & 4 & -2 & \vline\ & -4 \\ \ & \ &
\ & 1 & \vline\ & 3 & -2 & 1 & \vline\ & 2 \\ \hline \ & \ & \ & \ &
\vline\ & & & & \vline\ & \ \\ & \ & \ & \ $\Sigma$ & \vline\ & 6 &
-4 & 2 & \vline\ & 4 \\ & & & & \vline & & & & \vline & Trace = 14.
\end{tabular} \end{center}

The diagonal vector length (trace) is 14, the off-diagonal vector

length (sum off-diagonal elements) is $-$10, the outer product length
(the projection on the unit vector is 4, it means that it is shorter
than the vector itself. The~negative sum of the off-diagonal elements
indicates that their sum must be subtracted from the trace, not added
to it. This changes the construction of~the~triangle.

You have probably heard about imaginary numbers i, square roots from
the negative number $\sqrt{-1}$. When they appeared as possible
solutions of quadratic equations, mathematicians feared them as
ghosts. Only later Euler showed, how they can be exorcised by mapping
them onto a complex plane (Fig. \ref{Complex numbers}).

\begin{figure} \caption{Complex numbers. They are composed from the

real and imaginary parts} \label{Complex numbers}
\linethickness{0.4pt} \begin{picture}(110.00,100.00) %\emline(39.33,
20.00)(99.33,20.00) \put(39.33,20.00){\line(1,0){60.00}} %\end
%\emline(39.33,20.00)(39.33,80.00) \put(39.33,20.00){\line(0,1)
{60.00}} %\end %\vector(39.33,20.00)(80.66,47.33) \put(80.66,47.33)
{\vector(3,2){0.2}} \multiput(39.33,20.00)(0.18,0.12){228}{\line(1,0)
{0.18}} %\end \put(44.33,76.67){\makebox(0,0)[lc]{real}} \put(39.67,
4.67){\makebox(0,0)[lc]{imaginary}} %\vector(80.81,47.04)(39.33,47.04)
\put(39.33,47.04){\vector(-1,0){0.2}} \put(80.81,47.04){\line(-1,0)
{41.48}} %\end %\vector(80.44,47.04)(80.44,20.00) \put(80.44,20.00)
{\vector(0,-1){0.2}} \put(80.44,47.04){\line(0,-1){27.04}} %\end
\put(80.66,56.33){\makebox(0,0)[lc]{complex}} \put(9.67,47.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{$\sin \phi$}} \put(80.33,13.33){\makebox(0,0)
[rc]{$\cos \phi$}} %\circle(39.33,20.00){99.07} \multiput(39.33,69.54)
(1.59,-0.10){4}{\line(1,0){1.59}} \multiput(45.70,69.13)(0.57,-0.11)
{11}{\line(1,0){0.57}} \multiput(51.96,67.90)(0.36,-0.12){17}{\line(1,
0){0.36}} \multiput(58.01,65.88)(0.24,-0.12){24}{\line(1,0){0.24}}
\multiput(63.75,63.10)(0.18,-0.12){30}{\line(1,0){0.18}}
\multiput(69.08,59.61)(0.14,-0.12){35}{\line(1,0){0.14}}
\multiput(73.92,55.46)(0.12,-0.13){36}{\line(0,-1){0.13}}
\multiput(78.19,50.72)(0.12,-0.17){31}{\line(0,-1){0.17}}
\multiput(81.82,45.47)(0.12,-0.23){25}{\line(0,-1){0.23}}
\multiput(84.74,39.80)(0.11,-0.32){19}{\line(0,-1){0.32}}
\multiput(86.91,33.80)(0.11,-0.52){12}{\line(0,-1){0.52}}
\multiput(88.29,27.58)(0.11,-1.27){5}{\line(0,-1){1.27}}
\multiput(88.85,21.22)(-0.08,-2.12){3}{\line(0,-1){2.12}}
\multiput(88.60,14.85)(-0.12,-0.70){9}{\line(0,-1){0.70}}
\multiput(87.53,8.56)(-0.12,-0.38){16}{\line(0,-1){0.38}}
\multiput(85.66,2.47)(-0.12,-0.26){22}{\line(0,-1){0.26}}
\multiput(1.41,51.87)(0.12,0.12){37}{\line(0,1){0.12}} \multiput(5.82,
56.48)(0.15,0.12){34}{\line(1,0){0.15}} \multiput(10.78,60.48)(0.19,
0.12){28}{\line(1,0){0.19}} \multiput(16.22,63.81)(0.26,0.12)
{22}{\line(1,0){0.26}} \multiput(22.04,66.42)(0.38,0.11){16}{\line(1,
0){0.38}} \multiput(28.15,68.26)(1.02,0.12){11}{\line(1,0){1.02}}
\end{picture} \end{figure}

Now, if we have a number z in the form

\begin{equation} z = (x + iy) \ {\rm or} \ z = r(\cos \phi + i\sin

\phi)\;, \end{equation}

we can divide it into a right triangle and replace a linear vector by

a~plane vector, which is always composed from two elements, one real
and one imaginary. There are specific rules for calculating with
complex numbers and especially with matrices containing complex
numbers.

\section{Generating Functions} \label{Generating}

We have shown how a complex is constructed from its simplexes. This

technique is used intensively in combinatorics for generating
functions. A space is defined by some functional relation, usually a
sum or a product, which argument goes from 0 to $\infty$. The
generating function is evaluated with a~dummy variable, for example
$t$, and coefficients at different powers of $t$ are calculated.

Because strings ${\bf x}_a{\bf x}_b$ and ${\bf x}_b{\bf x}_a$ are
undistinguishable in the commutative process, it was considered as
impossible to formulate a generating function which would exhibit the
order of symbols in products (permutations). Nevertheless, the
enumerators are easy to find in the form

\begin{equation} \sum^n_{k=0}\ t^k/k!\;. \end{equation}

These enumerators are known as exponential generating functions.

It is possible to make different algebraic operations with generating

functions, for example to find their sums, products, etc.. The
corresponding operations are known as Cauchy and Blissard algebra's.
There are many conceptual problems connected with the convergence of
infinite series for different arguments. We simplify them by using
unit vectors and the properties of Euclidean space. Only
exceptionally, we mention some deformations of the ideal
space.

\section{Generalized Unit Vectors} \label{Generalized}

By using unit vectors ${\bf e}_j$ we narrowed the possibilities of the

calculus. The simplification has many advantages but they must be
paid for. Some formulas in next chapters are true even if ${\bf
e}_j$ is not 1 but any number. For example $(a + b + c)^k$ can be
evaluated as $(1 + 2 + 3)^k$ as well as $(2.1 + 0.1 + 5)^k$ depending
on actual values of variables. It is true even for geometrical
representations of~variables. It is possible to imagine, as if the
space were elastic and its lattice could be stretched as required.
Each specific case can be divided into a~part which is isomorphic
with the ideal case, and into the specific distortion of the unit
vectors.

\section{Trigonometric Functions} \label{Trigonometric}

We discuss shortly trigonometric functions, sinus, cosines, tangents

and cotangents. They connect values of angles in the right triangle
with ratios of legs to hypotenuse. If $\alpha is the angle the leg
$b$ and the hypotenuse $c$, its opposite side being $a$, the
definitions of trigonometric functions are

\begin{itemize} \item$\sin\, \alpha \ = a/c$ \item$\cos\, \alpha \ =

b/c$ \item$\tan\, \alpha \ = a/b$ \item$\cot\, \alpha \ = b/a = 1/tan
\alpha \item $\sin\, \alpha \ = cos \beta.$
\end{itemize}

The sides of both angles change their positions.

The formula

\begin{center} $sin^2 \alpha + cos^2 \alpha = $1 \end{center}

is in fact the Pythagorean sentence \label{Pythagorean} in the form:

\begin{center} $(a/c)^2 + (b/c)^2 = (c/c)^2$, \end{center}

or

\begin{center} $\sin^2 \alpha + \sin^2 \beta =$ 1. \end{center}

\section{Natural Numbers and Numerals}

%\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Natural Numbers and Numerals}
\label{Natural}

Two basic definitions of the natural numbers are Peano's axiomatic

one and the von Neumann's set model. Both definition are strictly
functional, they do not provide for the relations between the numbers
and the numerals as natural names of the natural numbers and their
written form, their notation.
Peano defined natural numbers by the algorithm which forms from
a~number $k$ a greater number by adding one $(k + 1)$. It is a nice
approach and we already exploited it for generating the space where
instead 1 new simplex layers were added.

The von Neumann set model generates numbers by counting sets. The
empty set \{0\} has one element, it generates 1. The set containing
\{0, 1\} has two elements, it generates 2, and so
on.

All languages I know, have numerals $k$ for numbers 0 to ten.

Numerals for 11 -- 19 are formed as (10 + $k$) for example fourteen.
Eleven and twelve are corrupted because they were used
often.

Multiplets of tens are expressed by one numeral formed as

$(k\times$ty=ten), for example forty. Hundreds and thousands are
counted separately, then only kilomultiplets of thousands (million,
$\dots$) have their own numerals. Numbers between these pivots are
expressed as linear combinations of basic numerals.

Of course exceptions exist, as mentioned 11 and 12. For example,

corruptions and exceptions of numerals appear to one hundred in
Hind\'\i. Ancient Egyptians had specific names and hieroglyphs for
decimals.

Number notations had different forms: In the primitive form, one cut
on a stick corresponded to each counted object. Egyptians introduced
specific signs for powers of 10 to $10^7$, but numerals one to nine
expressed primitively by the corresponding number of signs.
Phoenicians introduced letters for 1 -- 9, 10 -- 90 and 100 -- 900. It
shortened the notation considerably. This system has been taken over
by Hebrews and Greeks. Romans used their own system. Specific symbols
were reduced on I, V, X, L, C, D, and M and the number of necessary
symbols in one number by using a position system IV = one hand
without one, IX = two hands without one. Finally, we have
Indian-Arabic decimal position system.

The Mayan score system should be mentioned with position notation,

where zero with a numeral signified multiplication by 20
(quatre-vingt in French) and the Babylonian hexadecimal system
(German Schock, Czech kopa), where powers of three scores were
expressed by size of their symbol (compare dozen -- gross -- great
gross).

Numerals, that is the names of numbers, are generated by a modular

system which is based on our fingers. We count sets by grabbing them
with our hands and it is the natural way we speak and think about
numbers in~the~decimal system. The definition of the natural numbers
should express this fact. Therefore I propose the following
definition:

{\em The natural numbers are generated by a series of modular

operations, comparing two sets, the compared set $\{n\}$ and the
modular set $\{m\}$}.

The empty set \{0\} is for obvious reasons unsuitable as the modular
set \{m\}.
The set \{1\} as the modular set $\{m\}$ generates the natural number
0, only, since $$\{n\}\ {\rm mod}\ \{1\} \equiv 0\ .$$

The set \{2\} generates the natural numbers 0 and 1.

Using great enough modular set $\{m\}$ we obtain in one modular

operation all natural numbers. But it is inconvenient because we do
not have an unlimited store of simple symbols and numerals for them.
Therefore, a series of modular comparisons must be used which result
in a series of modular identities. The position notation leads to the
modular equalities: $$\{135\}\ {\rm mod}\ \{10\} = \ 135$$ $$\{135\}\
{\rm mod}\ \{4\} = 2013$$

The written form of the number is obtained by the series of

consecutive divisions with the modulo rests

\begin{itemize} \item 135 : 4 = 33 + 3 \item \ 33 : 4 = \ 8 + 1 \item

\ \ 8 : 4 = \ 2 + 0 \item \ \ 2 : 4 = \ 0 + 2 \end{itemize}

The resulting number modulo 4 is formed as the position combination

all modular rests written from the first one from the right to left,
where the last rest is written\footnote{ This Semitic writing was
accepted from Phoenicians.} = 2013.

Although the set \{1\} seems to be a natural base for a number system,
and the objects in sets already exist in such a form, a series of
modular comparisons with 1 gives only a series of zeroes. A division
by 1 does not decrease the digit size of a number and it does not
compress the notation. Therefore, such a~number system is
impractical. The binary system is the first
applicable.

The modular operation is essentially a mechanical one. In the first

step the line of elements is cut into rows by the given modulo. The
last line which is incomplete (it can be empty) is the result of the
modular operation

\begin{center} \begin{tabular}{lrrrr} ***** & mod & **: & ** & \ \\*
\ & \ & \ & ** & \ \\* Rest & \ & \ & * & = 1. \end{tabular}
\end{center}

One column of the complete rows is transposed into the row and
the~operation is repeated

\begin{center} \begin{tabular}{lrrl} ** & mod & **: & ** \\* Rest & &
& \ 0 = 0. \end{tabular} \end{center}

One full column obtained by the second modular operation is again

compared similarly until all elements are exhausted
$$\begin{tabular}{lccl} * & mod & **: & 0 (the number of complete
rows) \\ Rest & & & * = 1. \end{tabular}$$

The result is the binary notation ***** = 101. The third modular
operation was in fact the division by the second power of 2, the
third rest gives the~number of fours in the original set. In the
binary notation, they are determined by their third position from the
last digit giving the number of $1 = 2^0$. A number of a smaller
modulo is simultaneously a number of a greater modulo. The binary
number four looks like the decadic number hundred (4 = 100)
.

Two natural numbers are equal if they are obtained from the same set
$\{n\}$, and comparable if they are determined using the same modular
set $\{m\}$.

Compared with The von Neumann set model, where joined sets \{\{0\},
\{1\}\} produce the number 2, here the generating set \{2\} covers
the numbers 0 and 1.

The advantages of the proposed definition are obvious: It connects

the~natural numbers with the cardinal numerals by the algorithm which
shows how the names and notations of~the~natural numbers are formed
from the~numerals. It is logical: Numbers which are described in
natural languages by~combinations of the cardinal numerals are the
natural numbers.

\chapter{Linear Operators} \label{Linear Operators}

\section{Introduction} \label{Introduction 3}

Vectors are operators which shift a point on another place in a

space. In this chapter special operators will be discussed which act
on sets of points or on sets of vectors as if they were one point or
a solid body. Some of these operations were already mentioned but now
they will receive more systematic treatment. Nevertheless, some
important properties of operators will become clear only later, after
graph operators will be introduced and exploited to obtain practical
results.

The operators can be divided into {\em additive}, as vector

translations are, and {\em multiplicative}, as scalar products are.
Another aspect of classification is possible depending on how many
matrices or vectors are affected. The operation can proceed inside
one matrix, or one matrix operator can act onto another vector or
matrix. Remember that a vector row or a vector column are matrices
with just one row or column, respectively.

\section{Transposing and Transversing} \label{Transposing and

transversing}

Transposition of matrix vectors was already defined. It changes

simply the row indices $i$ and column indices $j$ of all matrix
elements

\begin{equation} {\bf M}^{\rm T} \rightarrow {\rm m}^{\rm T}_{ij} =

{\rm m}_{ji}\; \end{equation}

If ${\bf M}^{\rm T} = {\bf M}$ the matrix is {\em symmetrical}. This

property has important consequences for other properties of matrices.
It is interesting that the transposition changes the ordering of
terms in matrix products:

\begin{equation} ({\bf ABC})^{\rm T} = {\bf C}^{\rm T}{\bf B}^{\rm

T}{\bf A}^{\rm T}\;. \end{equation}
A conceptual problem is connected with transpositions. We accepted
the convention that rows of a matrix mean ordering in time, the
consecutiveness, whereas columns are ordered in space as orthogonal
vectors. Transposition changes this ordering. But remember a book.
All words exist simultaneously, we are only forced to read them
consecutively. The similar function has time in vector space but it
is not conventional time which is measured by clock. All matrix
elements exist simultaneously in all instants. Otherwise we would
need another algebra.

The second operation introduced here, {\em transvesing}, is not used

in textbooks but we need it to prove simply without calculations some
combinatorial identities. The transversing changes the ordering of
both indices, that means rows and columns are counted backwards. If
transposing rotates matrix elements around the main diagonal $m_{11}
\longrightarrow m_{nn}$, transversing rotates them around the
diagonal (its name will be transversal) $m_{1n} \longrightarrow
m_{n1}$ (Fig. \ref{Transposing}). We look on the matrix's most
distant corner as its starting point.

\begin{figure} \caption{Transposing (A) and transversing (B) of

matrices} \label{Transposing} \linethickness{0.6pt}
\begin{picture}(140.00,90.00) \put(10.33,20.00){\framebox(39.67,40.00)
[cc]{}} \put(79.67,20.00){\framebox(40.33,40.33)[cc]{}} %\emline(5.00,
65.00)(60.00,10.00) \multiput(5.00,65.00)(0.12,-0.12){459}{\line(0,-1)
{0.12}} %\end %\emline(69.67,10.00)(125.00,65.00) \multiput(69.67,
10.00)(0.12,0.12){459}{\line(1,0){0.12}} %\end %\bezvec{184}(50.00,
9.67)(70.33,-1.00)(60.00,20.00) \put(60.00,20.00){\vector(-1,2){0.2}}
\bezier{184}(50.00,9.67)(70.33,-1.00)(60.00,20.00) %\end
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{\vector(1,3){0.2}} \bezier{180}(79.67,9.67)(60.67,-1.00)(69.67,20.00)
%\end \put(30.00,70.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{A}} \put(100.00,70.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{B}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

\section{Translating and Permuting} \label{Translating and permuting}

We translate a sentence from a language into another, or we translate

it as a block from a place in a file in another place. Similarly we
can translate vectors, or their strings. Now we must find techniques
to express different kinds of translations in an abstract way.
Essentially there are two possibilities how such translations can be
achieved. The operators can be additive or
multiplicative.

The additive operator is formulated as a difference. We take two

states of a matrix vector, the original ${\bf M}_1$ and the final
${\bf M}_2$ and the searched operator ${\bf S}$ is just their
difference:

\begin{equation} {\bf S}= {\bf M}_2 - {\bf M}_1 \;. \end{equation}

For example

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf N}_1 \\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{ccc} 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1
\end{array} \right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf N}_2 \\ \\
\left( \begin{array}{ccc} 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 &
0 & 1 \end{array} \right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf S} \\
\\ \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 1 & -1 & 0 \\ -1 & 0 & 1 \\ -1 & 1 & 0
\\ 0 & 0 & 0 \end{array} \right) \end{array} \end{array}$$

It looks trivial but a special branch of mathematics, graph theory,

studies only these operators and vectors orthogonal to them.
According to our convention, a row shifts one symbol into another. It
corresponds to coding a~message, in transposed form it grimaces faces
shown on Fig. \ref{Face}.

Each row of an operator ${\bf S}$ is the difference of two unit

vectors ${\bf e}_j$. The negative ${\bf e}_a$ is going from the
vertex $a$ back to the center and the path through the space
continues by the vector ${\bf e}_b$ to the vertex $b$. The resulting
simultaneous translation is a vector going directly from the vertex
$a$ to the vertex $b$ without touching the center (Fig.
\ref{Representation}).

\begin{figure} \caption{Representation of arcs and edges as vector

sums or differences} \label{Representation} \linethickness{0.6pt}
\begin{picture}(160.00,100.00) %\vector(20.00,70.00)(20.00,20.00)
\put(20.00,20.00){\vector(0,-1){0.2}} \put(20.00,70.00){\line(0,-1)
{50.00}} %\end %\vector(20.00,70.00)(70.00,70.00) \put(70.00,70.00)
{\vector(1,0){0.2}} \put(20.00,70.00){\line(1,0){50.00}} %\end
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{0.2}} \multiput(20.00,70.00)(0.12,-0.12){414}{\line(1,0){0.12}}
%\end \put(10.00,47.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{$-{\bf e}_a$}} \put(45.00,
80.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{${\bf e}_b$}} \put(37.67,58.67){\makebox(0,0)
[lc]{arc $({\bf e}_b - {\bf e}_a)$}} \put(20.00,70.00)
{\circle{10.00}} \put(70.00,20.00){\circle{10.00}} \put(90.00,70.00)
{\circle{10.00}} %\emline(90.00,70.00)(140.00,20.00) \multiput(90.00,
70.00)(0.12,-0.12){412}{\line(1,0){0.12}} %\end \put(140.00,20.00)
{\circle{10.00}} %\vector(90.00,20.00)(140.00,70.00) \put(141.00,
70.00){\vector(1,1){0.2}} \multiput(90.00,20.00)(0.12,0.12)
{417}{\line(1,0){0.12}} %\end \put(100.00,20.00){\makebox(0,0)
[lc]{$({\bf e}_a + {\bf e}_b)$}} \put(101.00,70.00){\makebox(0,0)
[lc]{edge $(a + b)$}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

The unit vectors ${\bf e}_j$ are {\em primary} vectors, their sums or
differences ${\rm s}_{ij}$ are {\em secondary} vectors. Their space
is bent in angle $45^0$ to the primary space. To each sum $(i + j)$
belong two differences, $(i - j)$ and $(j - i)$.

The operator ${\bf S}$ is a string of such secondary vectors. These

vectors form edges of the plane simplex $n^1$. They do not go from
the center to some point of the space, but they change a vector
string into another one going to~the~same simplex. Since both vector
strings are continuous paths, the operator that translates one into
another lies on a surface in the n~dimensional space (Fig.
\ref{Difference of two vector strings}).

\begin{figure} \caption{Difference of vector strings {\bf A} and {\bf

B} forms the surface {\bf S}} \label{Difference of two vector
strings} \linethickness{0.6pt} \begin{picture}(90.00,100.00)
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\end{picture} \end{figure}

The sum of two unit vectors $({\bf e}_j + {\bf e}_i)$ is orthogonal
to the difference $({\bf e}_j - {\bf e}_i)$ and the corresponding
matrices ${\bf G} = {\bf N}_1 + {\bf N}_2$ differ from matrices ${\bf
S}$ only by positive signs relating both unit vector strings. Since
each consecutive element in the string is orthogonal, the ${\bf G}$
represent vectors orthogonal to~the~operators ${\bf S}$. Matrices
${\bf G}$ are linear vectors orthogonal to the surface
of~the~operator ${\bf S}$. They form a secondary vector space, which
is not complete, as we will see in the second part of this
book.

The first multiplicative operators allowed to form our space, are

determined by properties of a special class of naive matrices ${\bf
N}$, which have one unit symbol not only in each row but also in each
column. These matrices ${\bf P}$ are known as the {\em unit
permutation matrices}. The unit diagonal matrix ${\bf I}$ belongs to
them. All permutation matrices are square matrices and they form
groups S$_n$ of permutation matrices with $n$ rows and columns. When
a~matrix is multiplied with a permutation matrix from the right, this
operation changes the ordering of columns of the multiplied matrix.
For example

$$\begin{tabular}{rrrrcrrrr} \ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0
\\ \ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ \ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\
& 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\ \ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ \hline
& & & & \vline\ & & & & \\ 1 \ & 0 & 0 & 0 & \vline\ & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0
\\ 1 \ & 0 & 0 & 0 & \vline\ & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 \ & 1 & 0 & 0 &
\vline\ & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & \vline\ & 0\ & 0\ & 0\ & 1
\end{tabular}$$

The first column appears as the second one in the product since
the~matrix ${\bf P}$ has 1 in the second column in the first row. The
last (zero) column is similarly shifted on the first place by the
last unit element in the first column.

The multiplication from the left changes the ordering of rows of the
multiplied matrix. For example

$$\begin{tabular}{rrrrcrrrr} \ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0
\\ \ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ \ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\
& 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ \ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ \hline
& & & & \vline\ & & & & \\ 0 \ & 1 & 0 & 0 & \vline\ & 1 & 0 & 0 &
0\\ 0 \ & 0 & 1 & 0 & \vline\ & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 \ & 0 & 0 & 1 &
\vline\ & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \vline\ & 1\ & 0\ & 0\ & 0
\end{tabular}$$

\begin{figure} \caption{Symmetry group ${\rm S}_3$. A -- the identity,

all elements remain on their places; B, C, D -- reflections, pair of
elements interchange their places; E, F -- rotations, three elements
exchange their places in cycles} \label{Symmetry group $S_3$}
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On Fig. \ref{Symmetry group $S_3$}, where the effects of 6

permutation matrices of the group $S_3$ on a three dimensional plane
simplex are depicted, we can see the effect of~such multiplication of
columns. The unit diagonal matrix leaves the simplex unchanged, two
matrices rotate it along its center and three matrices change
the~positions of only two vertices as the triangle were mirrored
along the plane orthogonal to the corresponding edge (or rotated
along an axis lying in~the~plane). These are {\em symmetry
operations}. They will be studied later in more
detail.

All permutation matrices with n rows and columns are obtained as

consecutive rotations and form the cycle group S$_n$. They rotate
vectors in cycles and after given number of repeated operations the
vectors return back to their original position.

\section{Inverse Elements} %\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Inverse

Elements} \label{Inverse Elements}

When we have a number, say 5, we can define its inverse element again
by two modes, additive and multiplicative. Similar elements can be
defined for vectors.

\begin{figure} \caption{Additive and multiplicative balancing of

numbers} \label{Additive} \linethickness{0.4pt}
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\put(100.33,70.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{2}} \put(19.33,30.00){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{$\log{1/3}$}} \put(40.00,30.00){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{$\log{1/2}$}} \put(60.00,30.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{$\log{1}$}}
\put(80.00,30.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{$\log{1}$}} \put(100.00,30.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{$\log{3}$}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

The inverse operation to addition is subtraction. The number 5 was

obtained from 0 by adding 5 and we restore the original situation by
subtracting 5: $5 + (-5) = 0$. The inverse additive element of 5 is
$(-5)$ and the inverse additive element of $(-5)$ is 5. We can
imagine these numbers on a balance (Fig. \ref{Additive}). Additive
inverses are just vector collinear with the parent vectors, having
equal length but opposite direction. They are formed by changing sign
of the vector.

Now we can consider the inverse element for the multiplication

operation:

$$a \times a^{-1} = a^0 = 1\;.$$

When we apply the logarithmic scale we get

$${\log a} + {\log a^{-1}} = {\log 1} = 0\;.$$

From it we find that $a = 1/a$. On the number scale, the inverses of

numbers greater than 1 are in the range (0,1), which seems to be
unbalanced, see Fig. \ref{Additive}, but it is balanced on the
logarithmic scale.

It seems that it is easy to find the inverse vectors to

vectors-columns (or vector-rows). They must give the unit scalar
product, for example:

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \begin{tabular}{rrrcr} & & & \vline & 3 \\ & & &
\vline & 1/2 \\ & & & \vline & 1 \\ \hline & & & \vline & \\ 1/6 & 1
& 0 & \vline & 1 \end{tabular} & \qquad & \begin{tabular}{rrrcr} & &
& \vline & 1/6 \\ & & & \vline & 1 \\ & & & \vline & 0 \\ \hline & &
& \vline & \\ 3 & 1/2 & 1 & \vline & 1 \end{tabular} \end{array}$$

But such inverses have one essential disadvantage: They are not
unique. There exist infinite many such inverses which balance each
vector-column (or each vector-row), therefore they are {\em
undetermined}, for example another suitable solution is:

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \begin{tabular}{rrrcr} & & & \vline & 3 \\ & & &
\vline & 1/2 \\ & & & \vline & 1 \\ \hline & & & \vline & \\ 1/9 &
2/3 & 1/3 & \vline & 1 \end{tabular} & \qquad &
\begin{tabular}{rrrcr} & & & \vline & 1/9 \\ & & & \vline & 2/3 \\ &
& & \vline & 1/3 \\ \hline & & & \vline & \\ 3 & 1/2 & 1 & \vline & 1
\end{tabular} \end{array}$$

If we try to find a left (right) inverse for a matrix, its rows must
be left (right) inverses for corresponding columns (rows), but
simultaneously zero vectors for other columns (rows). In the given
case the zero

is again undetermined:

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \begin{tabular}{lrrcr} & & & \vline & 3 \\ & & &
\vline & 1/2 \\ & & & \vline & 1 \\ \hline & & & \vline & \\ 1 & 0 &
-3 & \vline & 0 \\ -4/3 & 2 & 3 & \vline & 0 \end{tabular} & \qquad &
\begin{tabular}{rrrcrr} & & & \vline & 1 & -4/3 \\ & & & \vline & 0 &
2 \\ & & & \vline & -3 & 3 \\ \hline & & & \vline & \\ 3 & 1/2 & 1 &
\vline & 0 & 0 \\ & & & & & \end{tabular} \end{array}$$

Another difficulty with inverse elements of vectors is, that one can
not find a right inverse to a vector-column (left inverse to a
vector-row):

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \begin{tabular}{rcrrr} & \vline & ? & ? & ? \\ &

\vline & ? & ? & ? \\ & \vline & ? & ? & ? \\ \hline & \vline & & &
\\ 3 & \vline & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 1/2 & \vline & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & \vline &
0 & 0 & 1 \end{tabular} & \qquad & \begin{tabular}{rrrcrcr} & & & & &
& \\ & & & & & & \\ & & & \vline & 3 & 1/2 & 0 \\ \hline & & & \vline
& & & \\ ? & ? & ? & \vline & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ ? & ? & ? & \vline & 0 & 1
& 0 \\ ? & ? & ? & \vline & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{tabular} \end{array}$$

There were 1/3 as the first inverse element ${\rm m}^{-1}_{ij}$, but
it can not be nullified in following rows of the first column. For
its nullification we needed some nonzero elements in the second and
third columns of the left matrix. For matrix vectors we can, at least
sometimes, find matrices which transform all their vector columns
into a diagonal matrix. One vector column does not have any inverse
from the right, but their system has. Which properties a matrix must
have for being inversifiable will be shown later. If a matrix has
inverses both from the left and from the right, then both inverses
are identical and there exist only one inverse which action is equal
from both sides. This is the true inverse of the given
matrix.

We could search inverses trying haphazardly suitable vectors. Better

is to use some verified algorithms, which will be introduced later.

A matrix having the inverse is {\em regular} or {\em nonsingular}.

Nonsingular matrices have none zero eigenvalues and eigenvectors and
singular matrices have at least one zero eigenvalue and eigenvector.
The {\em eigenvector} is a vector in~which all elements are
multiplied, if the vector is multiplied by the given matrix, by the
same value which is called {\em eigenvalue}. For example
$$\begin{tabular}{ccccccc} & & & \vline & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ & & & \vline &
1 & -2 & 0 \\ & & & \vline & 1 & 1 & -1 \\ \hline & & $\Pi$ & \vline
& 0 & 3 & -1 \\ \hline & & & \vline & & & \\ 1 & -1 & 0 & \vline & 0
& 3 & 1 \\ -1 & 2 & -1 & \vline & 0 & -6 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 & 1 & \vline &
0 & 3 & -1 \end{tabular}$$

The first column is the zero eigenvector, all values in its column
product are zero, and the second eigenvector eigenvalue is 3, the
eigenvalue of the last eigenvector is 1. There is yet another
condition on eigenvectors, see the next Section.

Some nonsingular matrices are easily recognizable. If a matrix has

all nonzero elements below or over the diagonal and all diagonal
elements are unit elements, then it is nonsingular. The inverse in
this case can be simply found by a technique known as the {\em
principle of inclusion and exclusion}. Suppose that k rows were
already balanced. In the next row the scalar products of~vector rows
with the inverse matrix columns ( multiplication from the right is
supposed) will be unbalanced by some value. We must add or subtract
as many elements to it for obtaining zero off-diagonal elements. For
example (zero symbols are omitted)

$$\begin{tabular}{ccccccc} & & & \vline & 1 & & \\ & & & \vline & -2
& 1 & \\ & & & \vline & 1 & -2 & 1 \\ \hline & & & \vline & & & \\ 1
& & & \vline & 1 & & \\ 2 & 1 & & \vline & & 1 & \\ 3 & 2 & 1 &
\vline & & & 1 \\ \end{tabular}$$

Here the second row balances are $1 \times 2 - 2 \times 1 = 0$, and
$1 \times 1 = 1$. In detail, the problem of inverse matrices will be
treated in Chapt. 16.

\section{Diagonalization of Matrices} \label{Diagonalization of

Matrices}

An inverse matrix transforms a matrix ${\bf M}$ into the diagonal

unit matrix ${\bf I}$ but there is still another form of
diagonalization. This operation demands a simultaneous action of two
matrices from both sides of the matrix which has to be diagonalized
\begin{equation} {\bf L}({\bf M}){\bf R }= \Delta({\bf M}).
\end{equation}

$\Delta({\bf M})$ is a diagonal matrix which has all off-diagonal

elements zero. The matrix in the brackets is the source of the
diagonal elements.

The product ${\bf MM}^{-1}$ were an example of a matrix

diagonalization where one from diagonalizing matrices is the unit
diagonal matrix ${\bf I}$. It is required from diagonalizing matrices
that the action of a matrix ${\bf L}$ from the left were balanced by
the multiplication by a matrix ${\bf R }$ from the right. The
diagonalization matrices form a frame for the matrix ${\bf
M}$.

Imagine, that you observe the matrix as between two polarizing

filters. When the filters rotate, the view clears or becomes dark,
but at one position the filter is transparent. Such transparency of
matrices we look for. Both diagonalizing matrices function as
polarizing filters, they decrease off-diagonal elements and increase
diagonal ones. A diagonal matrix is transparent since diagonal
elements are not obscured with the off-diagonal ones. Recall Fig.
\ref{Matrix vector system}. The obtained diagonal matrix is
equivalent to the matrix of ${\bf M}$

The especially useful effect is obtained, when the product of both

diagonalizing matrices ${\bf L}$ and ${\bf R }$ is the unit diagonal
matrix

\begin{equation} {\bf LR} = {\bf I}\;, \end{equation}

or equivalently when their action does not change the unit diagonal
matrix in their frame:

$${\bf LIR } = {\bf I}\;.$$

Then, if moreover

\begin{equation} {\bf L} = {\bf R}^{\rm T}\;, \end{equation}

we say that these matrices are {\em eigenvectors} of the given

matrix. The diagonal matrix obtained as the result of such a
multiplication is known as the matrix of {\em eigenvalues}. The sum
of eigenvalues is equal to the trace of the diagonalized matrix and
the diagonal matrix of eigenvalues is equivalent to the matrix vector
of the diagonalized matrix.

The vector set used for finding of eigenvalues gives the diagonal
matrix, but not the unit matrix ${\bf I}$:

$$\begin{tabular}{ccccccc} & & & \vline & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ & & & \vline &
1 & -2 & 0 \\ & & & \vline & 1 & 1 & -1 \\ \hline & & & \vline & & &
\\ 1 & 1 & 1 & \vline & 3 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 &-2 & 1 & \vline & 0 & 6 & 0
\\ 1 & 0 &-1 & \vline & 0 & 0 & 2 \\ \end{tabular}$$

The eigenvectors must be now normalized by dividing with square roots

of 1/3, 1/6 and 1/2, respectively. The normalized eigenvectors are

$$\left( \begin{array}{ccc} \sqrt{1/3} & \sqrt{1/6} & \sqrt{1/2} \\

\sqrt{1/3} & \sqrt{-4/6} & \sqrt{0} \\ \sqrt{1/3} & \sqrt{1/6} &
\sqrt{-1/2} \end{array} \right)$$

The eigenvalues and eigenvectors are not an abstract mathematical

construction, but a result of practical experience. Eigenvalues are
known from physical and technical sciences. Eigenvectors are known as
factors when used in the Chapt. 15.

\section{Matrix Arithmetic} \label{Matrix Arithmetic}

Sums and differences of vectors were already discussed. It is

important to examine arithmetic of matrices more thoroughly, because
in textbooks you can find different restrictions on how matrices can
be combined.

Arithmetical operations with matrices are limited usually to matrices

of identical dimensions, having equal number of rows and columns. It
is a~too rigid rule. Before a less strict rule will be introduced, we
inspect all possible cases, how matrices can be related, if their
indices obtain their true values, as if two documents are compared
and ordered (Fig.\ref{Matrix addition}).

\begin{figure} \caption{Matching of matrices according their indices}

\label{Matching of matrices} \linethickness{0.6pt}
\begin{picture}(140.00,120.00) \put(10.00,80.00){\framebox(20.00,
20.00)[cc]{{\bf A}}} \put(30.00,70.00){\framebox(10.00,10.00)
[cc]{{\bf B}}} \put(10.00,40.00){\framebox(20.00,20.00)[cc]{{\bf A}}}
\put(10.00,30.00){\framebox(20.00,10.00)[cc]{{\bf B}}} \put(50.00,
40.00){\framebox(20.00,20.00)[lt]{{\bf A}}} \put(60.00,30.00)
{\framebox(20.00,20.00)[rb]{{\bf B}}} \put(50.00,80.00)
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{\framebox(10.00,20.00)[cc]{{\bf B}}} \put(90.00,10.00)
{\framebox(30.00,30.00)[lt]{{\bf A}}} \put(100.00,10.00)
{\framebox(20.00,20.00)[cc]{{\bf B}}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}

The row indices go in each matrix from 1 till $m$, the column indices
go in each matrix from 1 till $n$. This is internal counting.
Similarly as Jewish, Christian and Islamic epochs, sets of indices in
compared matrices can be unequal, or one set be the same, or both
sets can match. Thus the rule of matrix arithmetic for addition and
subtraction of matrices is simply addition and subtraction of
individual matrix elements according the rule:

\begin{equation} {\rm if}\ {\bf A} \pm {\bf B }= {\bf C}, \; {\rm

then}\ {\rm a}_{ij} \pm {\rm b}_{ij} = {\rm c}_{ij}\;.
\end{equation}

\begin{figure} \caption{Matrix addition and subtraction

possibilities} \label{Matrix addition} \linethickness{0.6pt}
\begin{picture}(150.00,70.00) \put(10.00,30.00){\framebox(20.00,20.00)
[cc]{{\bf A}}} \put(30.00,30.00){\framebox(20.00,20.00)[cc]{{\bf B}}}
\put(60.00,30.00){\framebox(20.00,20.00)[cc]{{\bf A}}} \put(60.00,
10.00){\framebox(20.00,20.00)[cc]{{\bf B}}} \put(100.00,30.00)
{\framebox(28.00,20.00)[cc]{${\bf A} + {\bf B}$}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}

The difficulty is based on the question, what to do with unknown

matrix elements. If they are zero, the results can be as on Fig.
\ref{Matrix addition}. Before the~arithmetical operation is done, one
or both matrices are completed to equal dimensions by adding zero
elements in missing rows and columns. The cases of arithmetical
operations in blocks is known as the direct sum or difference of
matrices. If unknown matrix elements are not zero, the operations lead
to errors.

Essentially the same conditions hold for matrix multiplication's. We

have explained the effect of permutation matrices and scalar products
of vectors. If we multiply a matrix by a vector column from the right,
the row elements ${\bf v}$ of the matrix multiply all elements of
the column. If elements of ${\bf v}$ are smaller than 1, they shorten
all elements of this column, if elements of ${\bf v}$ are greater
than 1, they increase them. Two simultaneous processes occur at
multiplication: the elements of matrix rows are weighted and summed,
or if vector elements are negative, they are subtracted.
Multiplication from the left has the transposed effect. The
multiplication of a matrix by a vector transforms the matrix into the
vector. Usually, it is defined otherwise, a matrix transforms a
vector into an another.

A simultaneous multiplication of a matrix by a vector row from the

left and by a vector column from the right, transforms the matrix
into one element. If both vectors are unit vectors ${\bf J}^{\rm T}$
and ${\bf J}$, they just sum the matrix elements.

It is useful to define also a {\em direct product} of two matrices.

To distinguish it from the scalar product, it is written with the
multiplication sign $\times$: $${\bf C }= {\bf A}\times{\bf B}\;
.$$

In the direct product only elements of both matrices having both

indices identical are multiplied:

$${\rm c}_{ij} = {\rm a}_{ij} {\rm b}_{ij}\;.$$

It is the same as if both matrices were $nm$~dimensional diagonal

vectors and components of their scalar product were found:

$$\begin{array}{ccccc} \left( \begin{array}{cc} 3 & 2 \\ 2 & 1 \\

\end{array} \right) & \times & \left( \begin{array}{cc} 1 & -3 \\ 5 &
3 \\ \end{array} \right) & \ = & \left( \begin{array}{cc} 3 & -6 \\
10 & 3 \\ \end{array} \right) \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{cccc} \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 3 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 &

2 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 2 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{array} \right) &
\left( \begin{array}{cccc} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 &-3 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 &
5 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 3 \end{array} \right) & \ = & \left(
\begin{array}{cccc} 3 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 &-6 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 10& 0
\\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 3 \end{array} \right) \end{array}$$

Similarly can be explained the matrix addition. Both matrices are

decomposed into $nm$~dimensional diagonal vectors and the sums
found:

$$\begin{array}{ccccc} \left( \begin{array}{cc} 3 & 2 \\ 2 & 1 \\

\end{array} \right) & $\ + $ & \left( \begin{array}{cc} 1 & -3 \\ 5 &
3 \\ \end{array} \right) & \ = & \left( \begin{array}{cc} 4 & -1 \\ 7
& 4 \\ \end{array} \right) \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{ccccc} \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 3 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0

& 2 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 2 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{array} \right) & \
+ & \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & -3 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 &
0 & 5 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 3 \end{array} \right) & \ = & \left(
\begin{array}{cccc} 4 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 7 & 0
\\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 4 \end{array} \right) \end{array}$$

\section{Normalization of matrices} \label{Normalization of matrices}

We have discussed the problem of simultaneous action of more vectors

or vectors having another intensity than 1. This can be sometimes
solved by normalization of vectors. The aim of this shaping of
vectors and matrices is to make them comparable. The normalization of
vectors is done by eigenvectors, which must give the unit diagonal
matrix ${\bf I}$. We introduced unit vectors ${\bf e}_j$. A row
vector is comparable with the unit vector if it has the same length.
The Euclidean length is the criterion, therefore a vector is
normalized if its elements are divided by the square root of its
Euclidean length. For example, the vector $(2,1,1,0)^{\rm T}$ is
normalized by dividing it with $\sqrt 6$. The length of its scalar
product is then 1. A matrix vector is normalized by multiplying it by
square root diagonal matrices from both sides. Here we have two
possibilities. Either we normalize only diagonal elements or all rows
and columns. For the normalization, the matrix must be symmetrical.
By normalization of diagonal elements, the matrix vector is oriented
in direction of the unit vector ${\bf I}$. This has some consequences
on properties of such normalized matrices.

\section{Matrix Roots} \label{Matrix Roots}

We defined scalar products and quadratic forms of vectors and matrix

vectors. Now we formulate the problem backwards: a matrix ${\bf M}$
has roots if it can be decomposed into a product of transposed
matrices. For example, the unit diagonal matrix has many
roots:

$$\begin{array}{cccc} \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 &

0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{array} \right) & \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 0 & 1
& 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{array} \right) & \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} 0 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 \end{array}
\right) & \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0
& 1 \end{array} \right) \end{array}$$

The unit diagonal matrix forms root to itself, since we can not
distinguish forms

\begin{equation} {\bf I} = {\bf I}^2 = {\bf I}^{-1} = {\bf I}^{\rm

T}{\bf I} = {\bf I}{\bf I}^{\rm T}\;. \end{equation}

Its roots are symmetrical permutation matrices and asymmetrical

permutation matrices. Moreover there are matrices with negative signs,
since $(-1)\times(-1) = 1$. Our effort to find the natural space is
somewhat complicated by this fact but we already introduced complex
numbers and so we can find the root even for the matrix of the last
example\footnote{The roots of permutation matrices can be compared to
quarks in physics: Elementary particles are split into their
components.}. It is simultaneously the fourth root from ${\bf I}_3$.
Then there are eigenvectors to all nonsingular matrices. Our efforts
to generate space by an supervised way is going out of
control.

\chapter{Partitions} \label{Partitions}

\section{Preliminary Notes} \label{Preliminary Notes}

Partitions of a natural number m into n parts were introduced into

mathematics by Euler. The analytical formula for finding the number
of partitions was derived by Ramanudjan and Hardy \cite{[12]}.
Ramanudjan was a mathematical genius from India. He was sure that it
was possible to calculate the number of partitions exactly for any
number m. He found the solution in cooperation with his tutor, the
English mathematician Hardy. It is rather complicated formula derived
by higher mathematical techniques. We will use only simple recursive
methods for different relations between partitions.

Steve Weinberg in his lecture \cite{[13]} about importance of

mathematics for physics mentioned that partitions got importance for
theoretical physics, even if Hardy did not want to study practical
problems. But partitions\footnote{Boltzmann used this notion for
splitting $m$ quanta of energy between $n$ particles. He called
partitions complexions \cite{[2]}.} had importance for physics before
Hardy's time even if Hardy and Weinberg did not know it.

A partition splits a number $m$ into $n$ parts which sum is equal to
the~number $m$, say 7:\ \ 3, 2, 1, 1. A partition is an ordered set.
Its objects, {\em parts} are written in a row in decreasing order: $$
m_{j-1} \geq m_j \geq m_{j+1}\;.$$

If you look on a string of parts, you see that it is a

$n$~dimensional vector row $p = (3, 2, 1, 1)$. From a partition
vector, another vectors having equivalent structure of elements, for
example. $r = (1, 2, 1, 3)$, are obtained by permuting, simple
changing of ordering of vector elements. The partitions are useful
for ordering of plane simplexes points. A partition vector is
obtainable from a~vector-string as the scalar product with the unit
vector-row ${\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf N}$ and ordering the vectors.

All unit permutations of a vector have the same length. Therefore

different partitions form bases for other vectors composed from the
same parts. Vectors belonging to the same partition are connected
with other points of~the~three dimensional simplex by circles. In
higher dimensions the circles become spheres and therefore we will
call a partition the {\em partition orbit} or simply orbit.

The number of vectors in partitions will be given as $n$, the size of

the first vector as $m_1$. The bracket $(m,n)$ means all partitions
of the number $m$ into at most $n$ parts. Because we write a
partition as a n~dimensional vector we allow zero parts in a
partition to fill empty places of the vector. It is a certain
innovation against the tradition which will be very useful. But it is
necessary to distinguish strictly both kinds of partitions, with
zeroes and without them.

\section{Ferrers Graphs} \label{Ferrers}

\begin{figure} \caption{Ferrers graphs construction. New boxes are

added to free places} \label{Ferrers Graphs} \linethickness{0.6pt}
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{0.2}} \multiput(90.33,113.00)(-0.12,-0.12){84}{\line(-1,0){0.12}}
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-2){0.2}} \multiput(60.33,83.00)(-0.12,-0.21){187}{\line(0,-1){0.21}}
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-1){0.2}} \put(70.00,83.00){\line(0,-1){29.67}} %\end %\vector(80.00,
93.00)(113.33,63.00) \put(113.33,63.00){\vector(1,-1){0.2}}
\multiput(80.00,93.00)(0.13,-0.12){251}{\line(1,0){0.13}} %\end
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{\vector(-1,-4){0.2}} \multiput(100.00,93.00)(-0.12,-0.72)
{56}{\line(0,-1){0.72}} %\end \end{picture} \end{figure}

Ferrers graphs are used in the theory of partitions for many proofs
based simply on their properties. Ferrers graphs are tables (see Fig.
\ref{Ferrers Graphs}) containing $m$ objects, each object in its own
box. The square boxes are arranged into columns in nonincreasing
order $m_j \geq m_{j+1}$ with the sum

\begin{equation} \sum^n_{j=1} m_j = \sum^{\infty}_{k=0}n_km_k =m \;.

\end{equation}

If partitions contain equal parts, it is possible to count them

together using the index k and their number $n_k$.

It is obvious that a Ferrers graph is a matrix ${\bf F}$ which has

its unit elements arranged consecutively in initial rows and columns.
When compared with naive matrices, Ferrers graphs look like squeezed
naive matrices ${\bf N}$ in which all unit elements were compressed
to the row baseline (it is up in matrices) by eliminating empty
elements:
$$\begin{array}{ccccc} \begin{array}{c} ${\bf N}$ \\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1
\\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 \end{array} \right) \end{array} &
\leftrightarrow & \begin{array}{c} {\bf N}_2 \\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0
\\ 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{array} \right) \end{array} &
\rightarrow & \begin{array}{c} {\bf F} \\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \end{array}
\right)\\ \\ \\ \\ \end{array} \end{array}$$

Introducing Ferrers graphs as matrices, we come necessarily to the

notion of {\em restricted partitions}. The parts of a partitions
cannot be greater than the~number of rows of the matrix and
the~number of parts greater than the~number of its
columns.

\begin{figure} \caption{Truncation of partitions by restrictions of

rows and columns} \label{Truncation} \linethickness{0.4pt}
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(20.00,80.00) \put(20.00,19.67){\line(0,1){60.33}} %\end
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{\line(1,0){7.00}} %\end %\emline(20.00,65.00)(25.00,65.00)
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(57.00,19.67) \put(57.00,32.67){\line(0,-1){13.00}} %\end
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(66.00,20.00) \put(66.00,23.33){\line(0,-1){3.33}} %\end
%\emline(68.00,22.00)(68.33,19.67) \multiput(68.00,22.00)(0.11,-0.78)
{3}{\line(0,-1){0.78}} %\end \put(10.00,69.67){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{m}}
\put(9.67,51.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{M}} \put(47.33,10.00){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{N}} \put(70.33,10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{n}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}

The geometrical interpretation of restrictions was given in Chapt. 2.

The part $m_{max}$ determines the side of a cube, $n$ its dimension,
see Fig. \ref{Truncation}.

A sophistication of the notation distinguishes the partitioned number

M and the number of rows $m$. The unrestricted number of partitions
p(M) is equal to the number of restricted partitions. When
restricting conditions are loose then $m \geq M$ and $n \geq
M$:

\begin{equation} p(M)_{unrestricted} = p(M,M,M)\;. \end{equation}

We write here first the number of rows $m$, then the number of parts
$n$, and last the sum of unit elements (the number of filled boxes)
M.

An important property of restricted partitions is determined by

transposing Ferrers graphs ${\bf F} \rightarrow {\bf F}^{\rm
T}$:

\begin{equation} p(m, n, M) = p(n, m, M)\;. \end{equation}

The partitions are conjugated. The number of partitions into exactly

$n$~parts with the greatest part $m$ is the same as the number of
partitions into $m$ parts having the greatest part $n$.

A Ferrers graph can be subtracted from the matrix containing only

unit elements (defined as ${\bf JJ}^{\rm T}$) and the resulting
matrix transposed (Tr), for example

$$\begin{array}{ccccc} \left( \begin{array}{cc} 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 1

\end{array} \right) & - & \left( \begin{array}{cc} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0
\end{array} \right) & = & \left( \begin{array}{cc} 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 1
\end{array} \right) \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \left( \begin{array}{cc} 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 1

\end{array} \right)^{\rm Tr} & = & \left( \begin{array}{cc} 1 & 1 \\
1 & 0 \end{array} \right) \end{array}$$

The relation between the number of restricted partitions of two

different numbers is obtained

\begin{equation} p(m, n, M) = p(n, m, mn - M) \end{equation}

This identity was derived by an operation very useful for acquiring

elements of partition schemes (see next Chapt.) and restricted
partitions of all kinds. A restricted partition into exactly $n$
parts, having $m$ as the greatest part, has $(m + n - 1)$ units
bounded by elements forming the first row and column of the
corresponding Ferrers graph (Fig. \ref{Ferrers Graphs}). Only $(M - m
- n + 1)$ elements are free for partitions in the restricted frame
$(m-1)$ and $(n-1)$. Therefore

\begin{equation} p(m, n, M) = p(m-1, n-1, M-m-n+1) \end{equation}

For example: p(4,3,8) = p(3,2,2) = 2. The corresponding partitions

are 4,3,1 and 4,2,2; or 2,0 and 1,1; respectively. This formula can
be used for finding all restricted partitions. It is rather easy when
the difference $(M-m-n+1)$ is smaller than the restricting values $m$
and $n$ or at least one from the restricting values. The row and
column sums of partially restricted partitions having the~other
constrain constant, where either $n$ or $m$ can be 1 till $M$
are:
\begin{equation} p(m, *, M) = \sum_{j=1}^M \ p(m, j, M)
\end{equation}

\begin{equation} p(*, n, M) = \sum_{i=1}^M \ p(i, n, M)

\end{equation}

Before we examine restricted partitions in more detail, tables of

unrestricted and partially restricted partitions will be
introduced.

\section{Partition Matrices} \label{Partition Matrices}

Partially restricted partitions can be obtained from unrestricted

partitions by subtracting a row of $n$ units or a column of $m$
units. This gives us the~recursive formula for the number of
partitions as a sum of two partitions

\begin{equation} p(*, N, M) = p(*, N-1, M-1) + p(*, N, M-N-1)

\end{equation}

All partitions into exactly $N$ parts are divided into two sets. In
one set are partitions having in the last column 1, their number is
counted by the~term $p(*,N-1,M-1)$ which is the number of partitions
of the number $(M-1)$ into exactly $(N-1)$ parts to which 1 was added
on the n~th place and in other set are partitions which have in the
last column 2 and more. They were obtained by adding the unit row
${\bf J}^{\rm T}$) with $n$ unit elements to the~partitions of $(M -
N)$ into $N$ parts.

A similar formula can be deduced for partitions of $M$ into at most

$N$~parts. These partitions can have zero at least in the last column
or they are partitioned into $n$ parts exactly:

\begin{equation} p(*, *=N, M) = p(*, *=N-1, M) + p(*, *=N, M-N)

\end{equation}

The term p(*, *=N-1, M) are partitions of $M$ into $(N - 1)$ parts
transformed in partitions into $N$ parts by adding zero in the n-th
column, the~term p(*, *=N, M-N) are partitions of $(M - 1)$ into $N$
parts to which the~unit row was added.

To formulate both recursive formulas more precisely, an apparently

paradoxical partition must be defined at first: $$p(0,0,0) = 1\;
.$$

What it means? A partition of zero into zero number of parts. This

partition represents the empty space of dimension zero. This
partition is justified by its limit. Using our generating function we
write $n = 0$ and find its limit:

\begin{equation} \lim{0^0} = \lim_{x\rightarrow\infty}\;(1/x)^0 =

1/x^0 = 1\;. \end{equation}

We get two following tables of partitions

\begin{table} \caption{Partitions into exactly $n$ parts}

\label{Partitions into Exactly $n$ Parts}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|} \hline n & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 &
$\Sigma$ \\ \hline m=0 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 \\ 1 & & 1 & & & & & & 1
\\ 2 & & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\ 3 & & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & 3 \\ 4 & & 1 &
2& 1 & 1& & & 5 \\ 5 & & 1 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & 7 \\ 6 & & 1 & 3 & 3 &
2 & 1 & 1 & 11 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

\begin{table} \caption{Partitions into at most n parts}

\label{Partitions into at Most n Parts} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|}
\hline n & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\ \hline m=0 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 &
1 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 2 & & 1 & 2 & 2 & 2 & 2 &
2 \\ 3 & & 1 & 2 & 3 & 3 & 3 & 3 \\ 4 & & 1 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 5 & 5 \\ 5
& & 1 & 3 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 7 \\ 6 & & 1 & 4 & 7 & 9 & 10& 11 \\ \hline
\end{tabular} \end{table}

Table 4.2 is obtained from the Table 4.1 as partial sums of its rows,
it means, by multiplying with the unit triangular matrix ${\bf T}^T$
from the right. The elements of the matrix ${\bf T}^{\rm T}$
are

\begin{equation} h_{ij} = 1\ {\rm if}\ j \geq i\;\ h_{ij} = 0 {\rm

if}\ j > i\;. \end{equation}

On the other hand, the Table 4.1 is obtained from the Table 4.2 by
multiplying with a matrix ${\bf T}^{\rm -T}$ from the right. The
inverse elements are

\begin{equation} h_{ii}^{-1} = 1\;,\ h_{i,i+1}^{-1} = -1\;,\ h_{ij} =

0\;, {\rm otherwise}\;. \end{equation}

Notice, that the elements of the Table 4.2 right of the diagonal
remain constant. They are equal to the row sums of the Table 4.1.
Increasing the number of zeroes does not change the number of
partitions.

\begin{figure} \caption{Limiting of partition orbits. The lowest

allowed part r shifts the plane simplex} \label{Limiting}
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(40.00,40.00) \put(40.00,40.00){\vector(1,1){0.2}} \multiput(20.00,
20.00)(0.12,0.12){167}{\line(0,1){0.12}} %\end %\emline(20.00,80.00)
(80.00,20.00) \multiput(20.00,80.00)(0.12,-0.12){501}{\line(0,-1)
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{\line(1,0){4.00}} %\end %\emline(40.00,22.00)(40.00,18.00)
\put(40.00,22.00){\line(0,-1){4.00}} %\end \put(10.00,40.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{r}} \put(10.00,20.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{0}}
\put(40.00,10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{r}} \put(20.00,10.00){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{0}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

When we multiply Table 4.1 by the matrix ${\bf T}^{\rm T}$ again, we
obtain partitions having as the smallest allowed part the number 2.
The effect of these operators can be visualized on the 2~dimensional
complex, the operators shift the border of counted orbits (Fig.
\ref{Limiting}). The operator ${\bf T}^{\rm T}$ differentiates
n~dimensional complexes, shifting their border to positive numbers
and cutting lover numbers. Zero forms the natural base
border.

\section{Partitions with Negative Parts} \label{Partitions with

Negative Parts}

Operations with tables of partitions lead to a thought, what would

happen with partitions outside the positive cone of nonnegative
numbers. Thus let us allow the existence of negative numbers in
partitions, too\footnote{The negative parts can be compared in
physics with antiparticles. Since an annihilation liberates energy,
it does not annihilate it, the energy of the Universe is infinite.
Speculations about existence of antiworlds, formed only by
antiparticles balancing our world, can be formulated as doubt if the
Universe is based in the~natural cone of the space.}.

If the number of equal parts $n_k$ is written as the vector row under
the vector formed by the~number scale, the number of partitions is
independent on shifts of the number scale, see Table 4.3. Partitions
are always derived by shifting two vectors, one 1 position up, the
other 1 position down. Each partition corresponds to a vector. If we
write them as columns then their scalar product with the number scale,
forming the vector row ${\bf m}^{\rm T}$, gives constant sum:

\begin{equation} {\bf m}^{\rm T}{\bf p} = \sum_{k \geq r}\; m_k n_k =

m\;. \end{equation}

There is an inconsistency in notation, elements of the vector ${\bf

p}$ are numbers of vectors having the same length and the letter $n$
with an index $k$ is used for them. For values of the number scale
the letter $m$ is used with the common index $k$ which goes from the
lowest allowed value of parts $r$ till the highest possible value.
The index $k$ runs to infinity but all too high values $n_k$ are
zeroes.

\begin{table} \caption{Partitions as vectors} \label{Partitions as

Vectors} \begin{tabular}{|l|r|rrrrr|lr|} \hline Parameter & r & & & &
& & & \\ \hline Vector {\bf m } & -2 & -1 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & {\bf mp
}= & -5 \\ & -1& 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & & 0 \\ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 &
& 5 \\ & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & & 10 \\ & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 &&
15 \\ \hline & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & & \\ \hline Vector p & 4 & & &
& & 1 & & \\ & 3 & 1 & & & 1 & & & \\ & 3 & & 1 & 1 & & & & \\ & 2 &
2 & & 1 & & & & \\ & 2 & 1 & 2 & & & & & \\ & 1 & 3 & 1 & & & & & \\
& 1 & 2 & 2 & & & & & \\ & & 5 & & & & & & \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}

Using different partition vectors and different vectors {\bf m } get

as examples:

\begin{eqnarray*} (4 \times -2) + (1 \times 3) = -5\, \\ (3 \times -1)

+ (1 \times 0) + (1 \times 3) =\> 0\, \\ (3 \times 0) + (1 \times 2)
+ (1 \times 3) =\> 5\, \\ (2 \times 1) + (1 \times 2) + (2 \times 3)
=\, 10\, \\ (1 \times 2) + (3 \times 3) + (1 \times 4) =\, 15.
\end{eqnarray*}

The parameter $r$ shifts the table of partitions, its front rotates
around the~zero point. If $r$ were $-\infty$, then $p(-\infty, 1) =
1$ but $p(-\infty, 2)$ were undetermined, because a sum of a finite
number with an infinite number is again infinite. The parameter $r$
will be written to a partition as its upper index to show that
different bases of partitions are differentiating plane
simplexes.

\section{Partitions with Inner Restrictions} \label{Partitions with

Inner Restrictions}

Partitions were classified according to the minimal and maximal

allowed values of parts, but there can be restrictions inside the
number scale, it can be prescribed that some values are be forbidden.
It is easy to see what this means: The plane simplex has holes, some
orbits cannot be realized and its $(n -1)$ body is thinner than the
normal one.

It is easy to find the number of partitions in which all parts are

even. It is not possible to form an even partition from an uneven
number, therefore:

\begin{equation} p_{\rm even}(2n) = p_{\rm unrestricted}(n)\;.

\end{equation}

A more difficult task is finding the number of partitions in which

all parts are odd. Other rejected partitions contain mixed odd and
even parts. The~relation between different partitions is determined
as

\begin{equation} p_{\rm unrestricted}(n) = p_{\rm odd}(n) + p_{\rm

even}(n) + p_{\rm mixed}(n)\;. \end{equation}

The corresponding lists are given in Table 4.4

\begin{table} \caption{Odd, even, and mixed partitions} \label{Odd,

Even, and Mixed Partitions} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrr|r|r|r|r|}
\hline & \multicolumn{9}{|c|}{Number of odd partitions}&
\multicolumn{4} {|c|}{ Sums}\\ \hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 &
8 & 9 & Odd & Even & Mixed & p(m) \\ \hline m=1 & 1 & & & & & & & & &
1 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\ 2 & & 1 & & & & & & & & 1 & 1 & 0 & 2 \\ 3 & 1 & & 1
& & & & & & & 2 & 0 & 1 & 3 \\ 4 & & 1 & & 1 & & & & & & 2 & 2 & 1 &
5 \\ 5 & 1 & & 1 & & 1 & & & & & 3 & 0 & 4 & 7 \\ 6 & & 2 & & 1 & & 1
& & & & 4 & 3 & 4 & 11 \\ 7 & 1 & & 2 & & 1 & & 1 & & & 5 & 0 & 10 &
15 \\ 8 & & 2 & & 2 & & 1 & & 1 & & 6 & 5 & 11 & 22 \\ 9 & 1 & & 3 &
& 2 & & 1 & & 1 & 8 & 0 & 22 & 30\\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}

Notice how the scarce matrix of odd partitions is made from Table
4.1. Its elements, except the first one in each column, are shifted
down on cross diagonals. An odd number must be partitioned into an
odd number of odd parts and an even number into even number of odd
parts. Therefore the~matrix can be filled only in half. The
recurrence is given by two possibilities how to increase the number
$m$. Either we add odd 1 to odd partitions of~$(m - 1)$ with exactly
$(j - 1)$ parts or we add $2j$ to odd numbers of partitions of $(m -
2j)$ with exactly $j$ parts. The relation is expressed as

\begin{equation} o(i,j) = p[(i+j)/2,j]\;. \end{equation}

Partitions with all parts unequal are important, because their

transposed Ferrers graphs have the greatest part odd, when the number
of parts is odd, and even, when the number of parts is even. For
example

$$\begin{tabular}{rrrr} 10 & & & \\ & 9,1 & & \\ & 8,2 & & \\ & 7,3 &
7,2,1 & \\ & 6,3 & 6,3,1 & \\ & & 5,4,1 & \\ & & 5,3,2 & \\ & & & 4,3,
2,1 \end{tabular}$$

The partitions with unequal parts can be tabulated as in Table 4.5.

Notice that the difference of the even and odd columns partitions is
mostly zeroes and only sometimes $\pm 1$. The importance of this
phenomenon will be explained later. The number of partitions with
unequal parts coincide with the partitions which all parts are
odd.

\begin{table} \caption{Partitions with unequal parts}

\label{Partitions with unequal parts} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrr|c|c|}
\hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & $\Sigma$ & Difference ($n_{odd} - n_{even})
$ \\ \hline m=1 & 1 & & & & 1 & 1 \\ 2 & 1 & & & & 1 & 1 \\ 3 & 1 & 1
& & & 2 & 0 \\ 4 & 1 & 1 & & & 2 & 0 \\ 5 & 1 & 2 & & & 3 & -1 \\ 6 &
1 & 2 & 1 & & 4 & 0 \\ 7 & 1 & 3 & 1 & & 5 & -1 \\ 8 & 1 & 3 & 2 & &
6 & 0 \\ 9 & 1 & 4 & 3 & & 8 & 0 \\ 10 & 1 & 4 & 4 & 1 & 10 & 0 \\ 11
& 1 & 5 & 5 & 1 & 12 & 0 \\ 12 & 1 & 5 & 7 & 2 & 15 & 1 \\ \hline
\end{tabular} \end{table}

The differences are due to Franklin blocks with growing minimal parts
and growing number of parts (their transposed notation is used),
which are minimal in that sense that their parts differ by one, the
shape of corresponding Ferrers graphs is trapeze:

$$\begin{array}{ccccc} \begin{array}{c} (1)\\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{ccc} 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 \end{array} \right)\\ \\
\left( \begin{array}{ccccc} 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \end{array} \right) \end{array} & \quad &
\begin{array}{c} (1 1) \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 1 & 1 & 1 & 1
\\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \end{array} \right)\\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{cccccc} 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0
\\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \end{array} \right) \end{array} & \quad &
\begin{array}{c} 1, 2\\ \\ 5, 7 \\ \\ \\ 12, 15 \\ \\ \\ \end{array}
\end{array}$$

\section{Differences According to Unit parts} \label{Differences

according to unit parts}

We have arranged restricted partitions according to the number of

nonzero parts in Table 4.1. It is possible to classify partitions
according the number of~vectors in the partition having any value.
Using value 1, we get another kind of partition differences as in
Table 4.6.

\begin{table} \caption{Partitions According to Unit Parts}

\label{Partitions According to Unit Parts}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|} \hline n & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\
\hline m=0 & 1 & & & & & & \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & \\ 2 & 1 & 0 & 1 &
& & & \\ 3 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & & & \\ 4 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & & \\ 5 &
2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & \\ 6 & 4 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 1\\ \hline
\end{tabular} \end{table}
The elements of the table are:

\begin{equation} p_{i0} = p(i) - p(i - 1),\ p_{ij} = p_{i-1 , j-1}\ ,

{\rm otherwise}\;. \end{equation}

Table 4.6 is obtained from the following Table 4.7 of rows of

unrestricted partitions by multiplying it with the matrix ${\bf
T}^{-1}$. The zero column of the Table 4.6 is the difference of two
consecutive unrestricted partitions according to $m$. To all
partitions of $p(m-k)$ were added k ones. The partitions in the~zero
column contain only numbers greater than 1. These partitions can not
be formed from lower partitions by adding ones and they are thus a
difference of the partition function according to the number $n_1$.
Since Table 4.6 is composed, it is the product of two matrices, its
inverse is composed, too.

\section{Euler Inverse of Partitions} \label{Euler Inverse of

Partitions}

If we write successive partitions as column or row vectors as in

Table 4.7, which elements are

\begin{equation} p_{ij} = p(i - j + 1)\;, \end{equation}

we find rather easily its inverse matrix which is given in the second
part of~the same Table.

\begin{table} \caption{Partitions and their Euler inversion}

\label{Partitions and their Euler inversion}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrc|rrrrrr|} \hline &
\multicolumn{6}{|c}{Partition table}& \qquad & \multicolumn{6}
{|c|}{Euler inversion} \\ \hline j & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & & 0 & 1
& 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\ \hline i=0 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 & & & & & \\ 1 & 1
& 1 & & & & & & -1 & 1 & & & & \\ 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & -1 & -1 & 1
& & & \\ 3 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & 0 & -1 & -1 & 1 & & \\ 4 & 5 & 3 &
2 & 1 & 1 & & & 0 & 0 & -1 & -1 & 1 & \\ 5 & 7 & 5 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 &
& 1 & 0 & 0 & -1 & -1 & 1 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

The nonzero elements in the first column of the Euler inversion (and
similarly in the next columns which are only shifted down one row)
appear at indices, which can be expressed by the Euler identity
concerning the coefficients of expansion of

\begin{equation} (1 - t)(1 - t^2)(1 - t^3)... = 1 + \sum_{i =

1}^\infty\; (-1)^i\; [t^{3i^2 - i)/2} + t^{3i^2 + i)/2}]\;.
\end{equation}

For example the last row of the partition Table \ref{Partitions and
their Euler inversion} is eliminated by multiplying it with the Euler
inversion as: $$(7 \times 1) + (5 \times -1) +( 3 \times -1) + (2
\times 0) + (1 \times 0) + (1 \times 1) = 0.$$

When $i = 1$, there is the pair of indexes at t 1, 2 with negative

sign; for $i = 2$ the pair is 5, 7; for $i = 3$ the pair is $-12,
-15$ and so on. These numbers are the distances from the base
partition. The inverse matrix becomes scarcer as $p(m)$ increases, as
it was already shown in Franklin partitions above. All inverse
elements are $-1,0,1$. The nonzero elements of the Euler polynomial
are obtained as sums of the product

\begin{equation} \prod_{i=1}^\infty \; (1 - t^i)\;. \end{equation}

This is verified by multiplying several terms of the infinite

product. If we multiply the Euler polynomial with its inverse
function

\begin{equation} \prod_i=1^\infty (1 - t^i)^{-1}\;, \end{equation}

we obtain 1. From this relation follows that partitions are generated

by the~inverse Euler function which is the {\em generating function}
of partitions. Terms $t^i$ must be considered as representing unequal
parts.

The Euler function has all parts $t^i$ different. We have constructed
such partitions in Table 4.5. If the coefficient at $t^i$ is obtained
as the product of~the~even number of $(1 - t^i)$ terms then the sign
is positive, and if it is the result of~the~uneven number of~terms
then the sign is negative. The coefficients are determined by the
difference of the number of partitions with odd and even number
of~unequal parts. This difference can be further explained according
to Franklin using Ferrers graphs.

All parts in $p(n)$ having as at least one part equal to 1 are

obtained from $p(n-1)$. The difference $p(n) - p(n)$ is due to some
terms of $p(n-2)$. We must add to each partition of $p(n-2)$ 2,
except all partitions of $p(n-2)$ containing 1. These must be either
removed or used in transposed form using transposed Ferrers graphs,
since big parts are needed. One from the pair of conjugate partitions
is superfluous. These unused partitions must be subtracted. For
example for $p(8)$:

$$\begin{array}{cccccc} 6; & 1^6; & \qquad & Formed:& 8; & 62; \\

\underline{51};& 21^4;& & & 53; & \\ 42; & 2^21^2;& & & 44;& 2^4; \\
\underline{33};& 2^3; & & & 3^22; & \\ 41^2;& \underline{31^3}; & & &
42^2; & \\ \underline{321}; & & & & & \end{array}$$

Leftovers (underlined above):

\begin{center} p(1) + 5: 51; \qquad p(3) + 3: 33; 321; 31

\end{center}

are obtained by subtracting the largest part from corresponding

partition. Two must be added to the subtracted part. We get p(8-5)
and p(8-7) as the~corrections.

\section{Other Inverse Functions of Partitions} \label{Other Inverse

Functions of Partitions}

We already met other tables of partitions which have inverses because

they are in lower triangular form. The inverse to the Table 4.1 is
Table 4.8.

\begin{table} \caption{Inverse matrix to partitions into n parts}

\label{Inverse matrix to partitions into n parts}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|} \hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\
\hline m=1 & 1 & & & & & \\ 2 & -1 & 1 & & & & \\ 3 & 0& -1 & 1 & & &
\\ 4 & 1 & -1 & -1 & 1 & & \\ 5 & 0 & 1 & -1 & -1 & 1 & \\ 6 & 0 & 1
& 0 & -1 & -1 & 1 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

The inverse to Table 4.6 is Table 4.9.

\begin{table} \caption{Inverse matrix of unit differences}

\label{Inverse matrix of unit differences}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|} \hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\
\hline m=1 & 1 & & & & & \\ 2 & 0 & 1 & & & & \\ 3 & -1 & 0 & 1 & & &
\\ 4 & -1 & -1 & 0 & 1 & & \\ 5 & -1 & -1 & -1 & 0 & 1 & \\ 6 & 0 &
-1 & -1 & -1 & 0 & 1 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

Whereas the columns of the Table 4.8 are irregular and elements of
each column must be found separately, columns of the Table 4.9 repeat
as they are only shifted in each column one row down, similarly as
the elements of~their parent matrix are. They can be easily found by
multiplying the matrix of~the~Euler function (Table 4.7) by the
matrix ${\bf T}$ from the left.

\section{Partition Orbits in m Dimensional Cubes} \label{Partition

Orbits in m Dimensional Cubes}

Restricted partitions have a geometric interpretation: They are

orbits of n~dimensional plane complices truncated into cubes with the
sides $(m -1)$ as on Fig. 4.3.

We can count orbits even in cubes. It is a tedious task if some

special techniques are not applied, since their number depends on the
size of the~cube. For example for the 3~dimensional space we get
orbits as in Table 4.10.

\begin{table} \caption{Orbits in 3 dimensional cubes} \label{Orbits

in 3 dimensional cubes} \begin{tabular}{|r|c|c|c|c|} \hline Edge size
& 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 \\ \hline m=0 & 000 & 000 & 000 & 000 \\ 1 & & 100 &
100 & 100 \\ 2 & & 110 & 200; 110 & 210; 110 \\ 3 & & 111 & 210; 111
& 300; 210; 111 \\ 4 & & & 220; 211 & 310; 220; 211 \\ 5 & & & 221 &
320; 311; 221 \\ 6 & & & 222 & 330; 321; 222 \\ 7 & & & & 331; 322 \\
8 & & & & 332 \\ 9 & & & & 333 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}

The Equation 4.3 can be applied for cubes. It shows their important
property, they are symmetrical along the main diagonal, going from
the center of the coordinates, the simplex $n^0$ to the most distant
vertex of the cube in~which all $n$ coordinates are $(m-1)$. The
diagonal of~the~cube is represented on Table 4.10 by $k$ indices.
Moreover, a cube is convex, therefore

\begin{equation} M \leq mn/2 \ {\rm then} \ p(m,n,M) \geq p(m,n,M-1)

\end{equation}

and if

\begin{equation} M \geq mn/2 \ {\rm then} \ p(m,n,M) \leq p(m,n,M-1)

\end{equation}

Here we see the importance of restricted partitions. From Table 4.10,

we find the recurrence, which is given by the fact that in a greater
cube the~lesser cube is always present as its base. New orbits which
are on its enlarged sides are added to it. But it is enough to know
orbits of one enlarged side, because the other sides are formed by
these orbits. The enlarged side of a~n~dimensional cube is a $(n - 1)
$~dimensional cube. The recurrence relation for~partitions in cubes
is thus

\begin{equation} p(m,n,M) = p(m-1,n,M) + p(m,n-1,M) \end{equation}

This recurrence will be explained later more thoroughly.

\section{Generating Functions of Partitions in Cubes}

\label{Generating functions of partitions in cubes}

The generating function of partitions is simply the generating

function of~the~infinite cube in the Hilbert space, which sides have
different meshes:

\begin{equation} {\rm Parts\ 1:}\; (1 + t_1^1 + t_1^2 + \dots\;

t_1^{\infty}) \end{equation}

\begin{equation} {\rm Parts\ 2:}\; (1 + t_2^1 + t_2^2 + \dots\;

t_2^{\infty}) \end{equation}

and so on till

\begin{equation} {\rm Parts}\ \infty:\; (1 + \dots\; t^1_{\infty})

\end{equation}

When the multiplication's for all parts are made and terms on
consecutive plane simplexes counted, we get:

\begin{equation} 1 + t_1^1 + [t_2^1 + t_1^2] + [t_3^1 + \dots\;.

\end{equation}

The generating function of restricted partitions is obtained by

canceling unwanted (restricted) parts. Sometimes the generating
function is formulated in an inverse form. The infinite power series
are replaced by the differences $(1 - t_k^{-1})$. This is possible if
we consider $t$ to be only a dummy variable. For example, the
generating function of the partitions with unequal unrepeated parts
is given by the product

\begin{equation} u(t) = \prod_{k=1}^\infty (1 - t_k)\;.

\end{equation}

The mesh of the partition space is regular, it covers all numbers.

The number of partitions is obtained by recursive techniques. But it
is a very complicated function, if it is expressed in one closed
formula, as the Ramanudjan-Hardy function is. The partitions form a
carcass of the space. We will be interested, how the mesh of
partitions is filled into the space which all axes have unit mesh and
which contains also vector strings.

\chapter{Lattices of Orbits} \label{Lattices of Orbits}

\section{Partition Schemes} \label{Partition Schemes}

Multidimensional plane simplexes are complicated objects and it is

necessary to find tools how to analyze them. To draw them is
impossible, as it was mentioned, because their parts are layered in
our 3 dimensional world over themselves.

We already classified orbits in plane simplexes according to the

number $k$ of nonzero parts. This number shows the dimensionality of
subsimplices, their vertices, edges, and (k-1)~dimensional bodies.
Lately we introduced the~number of unit vectors as a tool
differentiating the simplex. Now we arrange partitions as two
dimensional tables. These tables will be called {\em partition
schemes}.

\begin{figure} \caption{Lattice of partition orbits (7, 7)}

\label{Lattice of Partition} \linethickness{0.4pt}
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Analyzing a 7~dimensional plane simplex with $m = 7$, we can start

with its 3 dimensional subsimplices (Fig. 5.1). We see that they
contain points corresponding to partitions: 7,0,0; 6,1,0; 5,2,0; 4,3,
0; 5,1,1; 4,2,1; 3,3,1; 3,2,2. The points corresponding to partitions
are connected with other points of~the~simplex by circles. In higher
dimensions the circles become spheres and this is the reason why we
call a partition an {\em orbit}. The other points on each orbit have
only different ordering of the same set of the
coordinates.

\begin{table} \caption{Partition scheme (7,7)} \label{Partition

scheme (7,7)} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|} \hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4
& 5 & 6& 7 & $\Sigma$ \\ \hline m = 7 & 1& & & & & & & 1 \\ 6 & & 1 &
& & & & & 1 \\ 5 & & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\ 4 & & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & 3
\\ 3 & & & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & 4 \\ 2 & & & & 1 & 1 & 1& & 3 \\ 1 & & & &
& & & 1 & 1 \\ \hline $\Sigma$ & 1 & 3 & 4 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 11 \\
\hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

Arranging partitions into tables (Table \ref{Partition scheme (7,7)})

, the column classification is made according to the number of
nonzero parts of partitions. Another classifying criterion is needed
for rows. This will be the length of the longest vector $m_1$. From
all partition vectors having the same dimensionality the longest
vector is that one with the longest first vector. It dominates them.
But there can exist longer orbits nearer to the surface of the
simplex with a lesser number of nonzero parts. For example, vector (4,
1,1) has equal length as (3,3,0) but vector (4,1,1,1,1) is shorter
than (3,3,2,0,0). Such an arrangement is on Table 5.1. Orbits with
three nonzero parts lie inside the 3 dimensional simplex, with two
nonzero parts lie on its edges. Orbits with four nonzero parts are
inside tetrahedrons, it is on a surface in the fourth dimension.
There exist these partitions: 4,1,1,1; 3,2,1,1; 2,2,2,1. Similarly
columns corresponding to higher dimensions are
filled.

The rows of partition schemes classify partitions according to the

length of the first and longest vector ${\bf e}_1$. It can be shown
easily that all vectors in~higher rows are longer than vectors in
lover rows in corresponding columns. In the worst case it is given by
the difference

\begin{equation} (x + 1)^2 + (x - 1)^2 > (2x)^2\;. \end{equation}

A three dimensional plane simplex to be can be considered as a

truncated 7~dimensional simplex and complete the columns of the Tab.
5.1 by the corresponding partitions and we get a crossection through
the 7 dimensional plane. The analysis is not perfect, an element is
formed by two orbits, but nevertheless the scheme gives an insight
how such high dimensional space looks like. We will study therefore
properties of partitions schemes thoroughly.

The number of nonzero vectors in partitions will be given as $n$, the

size of~the~first vector as $m$. Zeroes will not be written to spare
work. The bracket $(m,n)$ means all partitions of the number $m$ into
at most $n$ parts. Because we write a partition as a vector, we allow
zero parts to complete the partition as before.

\section{Construction of Partition Schemes} \label{Construction of

partition schemes}

\begin{table} \caption{Partition scheme m = 13} \label{Partition

Scheme m = 13} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|rrrrrrr|} \hline n & 1 & 2 &
3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 & 10 & 11& 12 & 13 \\ \hline m=13& 1 & & &
& & & & & & & & & \\ 12 & & 1& & & & & & & & & & & \\ 11 & & 1& 1 & &
& & & & & & & & \\ 10 & & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & \\ 9 & & 1 & 2
& 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & \\ 8 & & 1 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & \\ 7
& & 1 & 3 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & \\ \hline 6 & & & * & * & * & *
& 1 & 1 & & & & & \\ 5 & & & * & * & * & * & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & \\ 4 &
& & & * & * & * & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & \\ 3 & & & & & * & * & 3 & 2 &
2 & 1 & 1 & & \\ 2 & & & & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\ 1 & & & &
& & & & & & &

& 1 \\ \hline $\Sigma$ & 1 & 6 & 14 & 18 & 18 & 14 & 11 & 7 & 5 & 3&
2 & 1 & 1 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

A partition scheme is divided into four blocks. Diagonal blocks

repeat the~Table 4.1 (the left upper block), the right lower one is
written in the transposed form for $n > m/2$. Odd and even schemes
behave somewhat differently, as can be seen on Tables 5.2 and 5.3

\begin{table} \caption{Partition scheme m = 14} \label{Partition

Scheme m = 14} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|rrrrrrrr|} \hline n & 1 & 2
& 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 & 10 & 11& 12 & 13& 14 \\ \hline m=14& 1
& & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ 13 & & 1 & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ 12 &
& 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & & & \\ 11 & & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & &
\\ 10 & & 1 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & \\ 9 & & 1 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1
& & & & & & & & \\ 8 & & 1 & 3 & 3 & 2 & 1& 1 & & & & & & & \\ 7 & &
1 & 3 & 4 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & \\ \hline 6 & & & * & * & * & *
& 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & \\ 5 & & & 2 & * & * & * & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & &
& \\ 4 & & & & 3 & * & * & 4 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1& & & \\ 3 & & & & & 2 &
* & 3 & 3 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & \\ 2 & & & & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 &
1 & 1 & \\ 1 & & & & & & & & & & & & & & 1 \\ \hline $\Sigma$ & 1 &
7& 16 & 23 & 23 & 20 & 15 & 11 & 7 & 5 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1\\ \hline
\end{tabular} \end{table}

In the left lower block nonzero elements indicated by asterisks * can

be placed only over the line which gives sufficient great product
$mn$ to place all units into the corresponding Ferrers graphs and
their sums must agree not only with row and column sums, but with
diagonal sums, as we show below. This can be used for calculations of
their numbers, together with rules for~restricted
partitions.

The examples show three important properties of partition schemes:

\begin{itemize} \item Partition schemes are symmetrical according to

their transversals, due to the conjugated partitions obtained by
transposing Ferrers graphs. \item The upper left quarter (transposed
lower right quarter) contain elements of the Table 4.1 of partitions
into exactly $n$ parts shifted one column up. \item The schemes have
form of the matrix in the lower diagonal form with unit diagonal.
Therefore, they have inverses. It is easy to find them, for example
for $n=7$ (Table \ref{Partition scheme (7,7) and its inversion}).
\end{itemize}

The partitions in rows must be balanced by other ones with elements

of~inverse columns. The third column includes or excludes 331 and 322
with 3211 and $31^4$; $2^31$ and $2^21^3$ with $2\times 21^5$,
respectively.

\begin{table} \caption{Partition scheme (7,7) and its inversion}

\label{Partition scheme (7,7) and its inversion}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|crrrrrrr|} \hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 &
6 & 7 &\qquad &1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 \\ \hline m = 7 & 1 & & & &
& & & & 1 & & & & & & \\ 6 & & 1 & & & & & & & & 1 & & & & & \\ 5 & &
1 & 1 & & & & & & & 0 & 1 & & & & \\ 4 & & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & 0 &
-1 & 1 & & & \\ 3 & & & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 & -1 & -1 & 1 & & \\ 2
& & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & -2 & 2 & 0 & -1& 1 & \\ 1 & & & & & & & 1 &
& & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

\section{Lattices of Orbits} \label{Lattices of orbits}

Partition orbit is a sphere which radius $r$ is determined by the

Euclidean length of the corresponding vector: $r = (\sum p^2_j)$.
Radiuses of some partition orbits coincide, for example $r(3,3,0)^2 =
r(4,1,1)^2 = (18)$. It is thus impossible to determine distances
between orbits using these radii (Euclidean distances) since
the~distance between two different orbits cannot be
zero.

We have shown in Sect 4.4 that one orbit can be obtained from another
by shifting just two vectors, one up and other down on the number
scale. We can imagine that both vectors collide and exchange their
values as two particles of the ideal gas exchange their energy. If we
limit the result of such an exchange to 1 unit, we can consider such
two orbits to be the nearest neighbor orbits. The distance inside
this pair is $\sqrt{2}$. We connect them in~the scheme by a~line.
Some orbits are thus connected with many neighbor orbits, other have
just one neighbor, compare with Fig. 5.1. Orbits (3,3,0) and (4,1,1)
are not nearest neighbors, because they must be transformed in~two
steps: $$(3,3,0) \leftrightarrow ((3,2,1) \leftrightarrow (4,1,1)$$
or

$$(3,3,0) \leftrightarrow (4,2,0) \leftrightarrow (4,1,1)\;.$$

Partition schemes are generally not suitable for construction of

orbit lattices, because at $m=n > 7$ there appear several orbits on
some table places. It is necessary to construct at least
3~dimensional lattices to show all existing connections. For
example:

$$\begin{array}{ccccc} (5,2,1) & \leftrightarrow & (4,3,1) &

\leftrightarrow & (3,3,2) \\ & \searrow \nwarrow & \updownarrow &
\swarrow \nearrow & \\ & & (4,2,2) & &
\end{array}$$

Sometimes stronger condition are given on processes going at

exchanges, namely, that each collision must change the number of
empty parts, as if they were information files which can be only
joined into one file or one file separated into two or more files, or
as if a part of a file transferred into an~empty file. Here also the
nearest neighbor is limited on unifying of just 2 files or splitting
a file into two (Fig.\ref{Lattice of file partitions}). In this case
the path between two orbits must be longer, for example:

$$(3,3,0) \leftrightarrow (6,0,0) \leftrightarrow (4,2,0)

\leftrightarrow (4,1,1)$$

or

$$(3,3,0) \leftrightarrow(3,2,1) \leftrightarrow(5,1,0)

\leftrightarrow(4,1,1)\;.$$

\begin{figure} \caption{Lattice of file partitions. A file can be

split into two new ones or two files can be combined into one}
\label{Lattice of file partitions} \linethickness{0.6pt}
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\put(45.00,80.00){\line(1,0){10.00}} %\end %\emline(70.00,70.00)
(80.00,70.00) \put(70.00,70.00){\line(1,0){10.00}} %\end \put(105.67,
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(125.33,70.00) \multiput(120.00,74.67)(0.14,-0.12){39}{\line(1,0)
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In a lattice it is possible to count the number of nearest

neighbors. If we investigate the number of one unit neighbors or
connecting lines between columns of partition schemes, we obtain an
interesting Table \ref{Right Hand One-unit Neighbors of Partition
Orbits}.

\begin{table} // \caption{Right hand one-unit neighbors of partition

orbits} \label{Right Hand One-unit Neighbors of Partition Orbits} //
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|} \hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 &
$\Sigma$ \\ \hline m=2 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\ 3 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\
4 & 1 & 2 & 1 & & & & 4 \\ 5 & 1 & 3 & 2 & 1 & & & 7 \\ 6& 1 & 4 & 4
& 2 & 1 & & 12 \\ 7 & 1 & 5 & 6 & 4 & 2 & 1& 19 \\ \hline D(7-6) & 0
& 1 & 2 & 2 & 1& 1 & 7\\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}

The number of right hand neighbors is the sum of two terms. The right
hand diagonal neighbors exist for all $p(m,n-1)$. We add 1 to all
these partitions and decrease the largest part. Undetermined remain
right hand neighbors in rows. Their number is equal to the number of
partitions $p(m-2)$. To each partition $p(m-2, n-1)$ are added two
units, one in the n~th column, the second in the (n-1)~the
column.

\begin{figure} \caption{Neighbor lattices between plane simplexes}

\label{Neighbor lattices between plane simplexes}
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The number of right hand neighbors $P(n)$ is the sum of the number
of~unrestricted partitions

\begin{equation} P(n) = \sum_{k=0}^{n-2}\;p(k)\;. \end{equation}

To find all neighbors, we must add neighbors inside columns. The

number of elements in columns is the number of partitions into
exactly $n$ parts $p(m,n)$, the difference of each column must be
decreased by 1 but there exist additional connections, see Fig.
5.2.

These connections must be counted separately. The resulting numbers

are already known. The construction of partition schemes gives the
result which is known as Table 4.1 read from the diagonal to the
left.

The other interpretation of right hand one-unit neighbors of

partitions is the plane complex as on Fig. \ref{Neighbor lattices
between plane simplexes}. Vectors connect nearest neighbors in
layers.

\section{Diagonal Differences in Lattices} \label{Diagonal

Differences in Lattices}

In lattices, we can count orbits on side diagonals going

consecutively parallel to the main diagonal. They count orbits having
the form $[n - k]^k$. Their Ferrers graphs have a L
form

$$\begin{array}{cccc} x & x & x & x \\ x & & & \\ x & & & \\ x & & &
\end{array}$$

Side diagonal elements counts partitions which have in this layer

smaller number of units, the other are inside this base.

The corresponding Table is 5.5.

\begin{table} \caption{Diagonal differences of partitions}

\label{Diagonal Differences of Partitions}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrr|r|} \hline k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7
& 8 & 9 & $\Sigma$ \\ \hline n= 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 2 &
& & & & & & & & 2 \\ 3 & 3 & & & & & & & & & 3 \\ 4 & 4 & 1 & & & & &
& & & 5 \\ 5 & 5 & 2 & & & & & & & & 7 \\ 6 & 6 & 3 & 2 & & & & & & &
11 \\ 7 & 7 & 4 & 4 & & & & & & & 15 \\ 8 & 8 & 5 & 6 & 3 & & & & & &
22 \\ 9 & 9 & 6 & 8 & 6 & 1 & & & & & 30 \\ 10 & 10 & 7 & 10 & 9 & 6
& & & & & 42 \\ 11 & 11 & 8 & 12 & 12 & 11 & 2 & & & & 56 \\ 12 & 12
& 9 & 14 & 15 & 16 & 9 & 2 & & & 77 \\ 13 & 13 & 10 & 16 & 18 & 21 &
16 & 7 & & & 101 \\ 14 & 14 & 11 & 18& 21& 26 & 23 & 18 & 4 & & 135
\\ 15& 15 & 12& 20& 24& 31 & 30 & 29 & 12 & 3 & 176 \\ \hline
\end{tabular} \end{table}

The initial $k$ column values have these analytical forms:

\begin{itemize} \item 1n counts elements in n columns (rows) having
the form $(n - k)1^k$, $k = 0$ -- $(n -1)$; \item 1(n-3) counts
elements in (n - 2) columns (rows) obtained from the basic partition
2,2 by adding units in the first row and column; \item 2(n-5) counts
elements in (n - 2) columns (rows) obtained from the basic
partitions 3,3 and 2,2,2 by adding units in the first row and column;
\item 3(n-7) counts elements in (n - 2) columns (rows) obtained from
the basic partitions 4,4; 3,3,2, and 2,2,2,2 by adding units in the
first row and column; \item 5(n-9) + 1. On this level appears the
partition 3,3,3 where elements start to occupy the third L layer;
\item 7(n-11) + 2. \end{itemize}

The values in brackets are the numbers for partitions which lie
inside the L frame having $(2k-1)$ units. At higher diagonal layers
appear these possibilities to add new elements later. Partitions 4, 4,
4 and 3, 3, 3, 3, for $n=12$, are counted in the seventh layer. For
$n=13$, the layer counts seven partitions:

$$\begin{array}{ccccc} 5,5,3; & & \\ 5,4,4; & & \\ & 4,4,4,1; & \\ &
4,4,3,2; & \\ & 4,3,3,3; & \\ & & 3,3,3,3,1; \\ & & 3,3,3,2,1.
\end{array}$$

\section{Generalized Lattices} \label{Generalized lattices}

\begin{figure} \caption{Nearest neighbors in 00111 lattice}

\label{Nearest Neighbors in 00111 Lattice} \linethickness{0.5pt}
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(87.33,45.33) \multiput(126.00,90.00)(-0.12,-0.14){323}{\line(0,-1)
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90.00)(-0.20,-0.12){364}{\line(-1,0){0.20}} %\end %\emline(125.33,
89.67)(43.00,80.00) \multiput(125.33,89.67)(-1.02,-0.12){81}{\line(-1,
0){1.02}} %\end %\emline(125.33,90.00)(70.00,99.00) \multiput(125.33,
90.00)(-0.73,0.12){76}{\line(-1,0){0.73}} %\end %\emline(70.00,99.00)
(42.67,80.33) \multiput(70.00,99.00)(-0.18,-0.12){156}{\line(-1,0)
{0.18}} %\end %\emline(42.67,80.33)(54.00,46.33) \multiput(42.67,
80.33)(0.12,-0.36){95}{\line(0,-1){0.36}} %\end %\emline(54.00,46.33)
(87.33,46.33) \put(54.00,46.33){\line(1,0){33.33}} %\end
%\emline(87.33,46.33)(98.00,79.33) \multiput(87.33,46.33)(0.12,0.37)
{89}{\line(0,1){0.37}} %\end %\emline(98.00,79.33)(70.00,99.00)
\multiput(98.00,79.33)(-0.17,0.12){164}{\line(-1,0){0.17}} %\end
%\emline(70.00,99.33)(89.33,105.00) \multiput(70.00,99.33)(0.40,0.12)
{48}{\line(1,0){0.40}} %\end \end{picture} \end{figure}

The notion of lattices will be used also for possible transformations

of points having specific properties among themselves, for example
between all 10 permutations of a 5~tuple composed from 3 symbols of
one kind and 2 symbols of another kind. When the neighbors differ
only by one exchange of the position of only anyone pair of two kinds
symbols we obtain lattice as on Fig. \ref{Nearest Neighbors in 00111
Lattice}. Each from three unit symbols has two possibilities to
change 0 into 1. Rearrange these ten points as a simple triangle. The
simultaneous exchange of two pairs (or two consecutive changes of one
pair give a pattern as on Fig.~\ref{Petersen graph}, known as the
Pettersen graph.

\begin{figure} \caption{Petersen graph. Adjacent vertices are in

distances 4} \label{Petersen graph} \linethickness{0.5pt}
\begin{picture}(140.00,160.00) %\emline(70.00,130.00)(70.00,99.67)
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(14.00,90.00) \multiput(70.00,130.00)(-0.17,-0.12){334}{\line(-1,0)
{0.17}} %\end %\emline(14.00,90.00)(35.00,22.33) \multiput(14.00,
90.00)(0.12,-0.38){176}{\line(0,-1){0.38}} %\end %\emline(35.00,22.33)
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\put(70.00,99.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(13.67,90.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(125.67,89.67){\circle*{4.00}} \put(42.33,79.67){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(97.67,79.67){\circle*{4.00}} \put(53.67,46.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(87.00,45.67){\circle*{4.00}} \put(104.67,22.67){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(35.00,22.33){\circle*{4.00}} \put(70.00,140.00){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{10001}} \put(75.00,105.00){\makebox(0,0)[lc]{01010}} \put(25.00,
91.00){\makebox(0,0)[lc]{01100}} \put(115.00,91.00){\makebox(0,0)
[rc]{00110}} \put(30.00,70.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{10010}} \put(100.00,
70.33){\makebox(0,0)[lc]{01001}} \put(32.33,46.00){\makebox(0,0)
[lc]{10100}} \put(108.67,46.00){\makebox(0,0)[rc]{00101}} \put(35.00,
10.00){\makebox(0,0)[lc]{00011}} \put(105.00,10.00){\makebox(0,0)
[rc]{11000}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

\begin{figure} \caption{Lattice of the three dimensional unit cube}

\label{Lattice of the three dimensional unit cube}
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{\framebox(20.00,10.00)[cc]{000}} \put(40.33,50.00){\framebox(20.00,
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(90.33,40.00) \put(90.33,50.00){\line(0,-1){10.00}} %\end
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\multiput(30.33,50.00)(0.48,-0.12){84}{\line(1,0){0.48}} %\end
%\emline(70.33,50.00)(60.33,40.00) \multiput(70.33,50.00)(-0.12,-0.12)
{84}{\line(-1,0){0.12}} %\end \end{picture}
\end{figure}

Lattices are formed by vertices of n~dimensional cubes. The nearest

vertices differ only by one coordinate. The lattices of the
3~dimensional cube is on Fig. \ref{Lattice of the three dimensional
unit cube}. Compare lines of the graphs with a real 3~dimensional
cube and try to imagine the 4~dimensional cube (Fig. \ref{Four
dimensional cube}).

\begin{figure} \caption{Four dimensional cube projection. One 3

dimensional cube is twisted $45^0$} \label{Four dimensional cube}
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(70.00,55.00) \multiput(90.00,50.00)(-0.48,0.12){42}{\line(-1,0)
{0.48}} %\end %\emline(50.00,50.00)(55.00,70.33) \multiput(50.00,
50.00)(0.12,0.48){42}{\line(0,1){0.48}} %\end %\emline(50.00,90.00)
(70.00,85.00) \multiput(50.00,90.00)(0.48,-0.12){42}{\line(1,0)
{0.48}} %\end \put(70.00,120.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(50.00,90.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(90.00,90.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(70.00,84.67)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(20.00,70.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(54.67,70.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(84.67,70.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(120.33,70.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(50.00,50.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(70.00,55.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(90.00,50.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(70.00,20.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(10.00,10.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(130.00,10.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

A classical example of relation lattices is Aristotle's attribution

of four properties: {\bf warm}, {\bf cold}, {\bf dry}, and {\bf
humid} to four elements: fire, air, water and earth, respectively. It
can be arranged in a form

$$\begin{array}{ccccc} air & & {\bf humid} & & water \\ \\ & {\bf
warm} & 0 & {\bf cold} & \\ \\ fire & & {\bf dry} & & earth\;.
\end{array}$$

The elements have always only two properties. The properties adjacent
vertically and horizontally exclude themselves. Something can not be
simultaneously warm and cold, or humid and dry\footnote { More
precisely, it is necessary to draw a borderline (point zero) between
these properties. Depending on its saturation, water vapor can be dry
as well as wet.}.

\chapter{Erasthothenes Sieve and its Moebius Inversion}

\label{Erasthothenes Sieve and its}

\section{Divisors of m and Their Matrix} \label{Divisors of m and

their matrix}

In this chapter an important notion will be introduced, the {\em

divisor}. A number $k$ is a divisor of the number $m$ if $m\ \equiv
0\ {\rm mod} \ k$, it means $m$ is identical with 0 when divided with
$k$. Or otherwise, $m = kn$, number $m$ splits into $n$ equal parts
$k$. It follows that each number has at least two divisors, the
number 1, which leaves the number unchanged and the number itself,
when the division gives 1 as the result. If only these two divisors
exist, such a number is called the {\em prime}.

It is possible to find prime numbers $p$ by the Erasthothenes sieve.

This algorithm works like a sieve. A number put on the first column
of the sieve falls through its columns. If it gets the diagonal
without meeting a divisor, it is a prime. The divisors j represented
by units in divisor rows of corresponding columns work as meshes in a
sieve. Thus the Erasthothenes sieve is a matrix which elements are
$$e_{ij} = 1\;,$$ if the number j is the divisor of the number i, and
$$e_{ij} =0\;,$$ otherwise. On Table 6.1 is the Erasthothenes sieve
with its Moebius inverse function.

\begin{table} \caption{Erasthothenes sieve and its Moebius inversion}

\label{Erasthothenes } \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|crrrrrrr|} \hline &
\multicolumn{7}{|c|}{Erasthothenes sieve}& &\multicolumn{7}
{c|}{Moebius inversion}\\ \hline j & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7&\qquad
& 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 \\ \hline i=1& 1 & & & & & & & & 1 & & &
& & & \\ 2& 1 & 1 & & & & & & & -1 & 1 & & & & & \\ 3& 1& 0 & 1 & & &
& & & -1 & 0 & 1 & & & & \\ 4& 1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & 0 & -1 & 0 & 1
& & & \\ 5& 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & & & & -1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & & \\ 6& 1
& 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 & & & 1 & -1 & -1 & 0 & 0 & 1 & \\ 7& 1 & 0 & 0 &
0 & 0 & 0 & 1& & -1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}

The divisors form a regular pattern, they are in all rows $i\ \equiv
0\ {\rm mod}\ j$. The prime numbers become scarcer, as the matrix
grows, but it is always possible to find another prime number $p(n)$
as the product of all n previous prime numbers \begin{equation} p(n)
= \prod^n_{j=1}\; p_j +1\;. \end{equation}

This equation does not generate all prime numbers. Between $p(2)=3$
and $p(3)=7$ is $p=5$.

The row sums of the Erasthothenes sieve $({\bf EJ})$ are the numbers
of divisors. They appear on the diagonal of the quadratic form ${\bf
EE}^{\rm T}$ of the matrix ${\bf E}$. They are known as the {\em
Euler function} $\sigma^0\;(n)$. This function is related with
logarithms of divisors. If we use as the base of logarithms the
number $n$ itself, we get (except n = 1)

\begin{equation} \sigma^0 (n) = 2\sum \lg (d|n) \end{equation}

or for any base of logarithms

\begin{equation} \sigma^0 (n) = 2\sum \lg (d|n)/\lg n \end{equation}

The divisors appear in pairs, $d_id_j = n$, except the lone divisor
which~is the~square root of $n$. The sum of logarithms with the base
$n$ is thus only a~half of the number of divisors of~the~number $n$.
The sum of divisors values $\sigma^1 (n)$ sometimes gives twice the
number itself as $2\times6 = 6+3+2+1$ or $2\times28 = 28+14+7+4+2+1$.
Such numbers are known as the {\em perfect numbers}.

\section{Moebius Inversion of the Erasthothenes Sieve} \label{

Moebius inversion of the Erasthothenes sieve}

In Table 6.1 the Moebius function was shown as the inverse matrix
${\bf E}^{-1}$. The~elements of its first column are

\begin{itemize} \item $e^{-1}_{i1} = 1, {\rm if} i = 1\;,$ or in the

case of the product of an even number of prime numbers; \item
$e^{-1}_{i1} = -1$, if i is a prime number or a product of an odd
number of prime numbers and \item $e^{-1}_{i1} = 0$, if i is product
of higher powers of prime numbers as 4= 2 in~the~Table 6.1.
\end{itemize}

These elements appear in other columns on places, where the ratio

$i/j$ is a whole number, otherwise there are zeroes. The unit
elements are scarcer in~higher columns.

The Moebius inversion is the classical example of the combinatorial

{\em inclusion and exclusion principle}. Some objects are counted in
their combinations twice or more times and then these overbalanced
parts are subtracted in other combinations for obtaining the true
value. We formulated this principle by~a~sophisticated technique of
matrix products. This technique can be applied to all matrices which
have the unit diagonal and all nonzero elements under or on the
diagonal. The unit matrix ${\bf I}$ is subtracted from such a matrix
and then the difference is multiplied with itself till all nonzero
elements disappear (at most $n$ times). For example

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \begin{array}{c} \\ ({\bf E}- {\bf I})\\ \\

\left( \begin{array}{cccc} 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 &
0 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \end{array} \right) \end{array} &
\begin{array}{c} \\ ({\bf E}-{\bf I})^2\\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{cccc} 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0
\\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \end{array} \right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c}
\\ ({\bf E}-{\bf I})^3\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 0 & 0 & 0 & 0
\\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \end{array} \right)
\end{array} \end{array}$$

Developing the product $({\bf E }- {\bf I})^k$ when it is equal

${\bf 0}$, the unit diagonal matrix is expressed as

\begin{equation} \sum_{i=1}^n\; (-1)^i { n \choose k }\;{\bf E}^i =

{\bf I} \end{equation}

Multiplying both sides by ${\bf E}^{-1}$ and eliminating ${\bf

E}^{-1}{\bf E} = {\bf I}$ we get
\begin{equation} {\bf E}^{-1} = \sum_{i=1}^n\; (-1)^{i-1} { n \choose
k }\;{\bf E}^{i-1}\;. \end{equation}

Objects ${ n \choose k }$ looking as one column matrices in both

equations are known as binomial coefficients. They count all
possibilities how to choose $k$ objects from $n$ objects. The inverse
matrix ${\bf E}^{-1}$ is a sum of positive and negative multiples of
positive powers ${\bf E}^k$. It sounds quite occult.

\section{Divisor Functions} \label{Divisor Functions}

The number of divisors $\sigma^0(n)$ and the sum of divisors values

are rather irregular functions. Their sequence and consecutive sums
of $\sigma^0(n)$ are

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrrrr|} \hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 &

7 & 8 & 9 & 10 & 11 \\ \hline $\sigma^0(n)$ & 1 & 2 & 2 & 3 & 2 & 4 &
2 & 4 & 3 & 4 & 2 \\ $\sigma^1 (n)$ & 1 & 3 & 4 & 7 & 6 & 12 & 8 & 15
& 13 & 16 & 12 \\ $\sum[\sigma^0(n)]$ & 1 & 3 & 5 & 8 & 10 & 14 & 16
& 20 & 23 & 27 & 29 \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

The sums $\sum[\sigma^0(n)]$ are obtained as traces of corresponding

matrix products of~growing Erasthothenes sieves ${\bf EE}^{\rm T}$,
or simply by counting elements of the matrix ${\bf
E}$:

\begin{equation} \sum[\sigma^0 (n)] = \sum_{j=1}^n\;[n/j]\;,

\end{equation}

where [n/j] means the whole part of the given ratio. Therefore the
sum $\sum[\sigma^0(n)]$ has as a limit the product $n\sum_{j=1}^n\;
n/j$. For example $$\sum[\sigma^0(3)] = 5 < 3(1 + 1/2 + 1/3) = 11/2\;
.$$

If we arrange the elements of traces ${\bf E}^{\rm T}{\bf E}$ (this

is the second quadratic form of the Erasthothenes sieve), or by
counting consecutively elements in columns of~the~matrix ${\bf E}$
into a table and find its inverse, than its row sums give the values
of the Moebius function (Table \ref{Erasthothenes Sieve Diagonal
Values}).

\begin{table} \caption{Erasthothenes sieve diagonal values and their

Moebius inversions} \label{Erasthothenes Sieve Diagonal Values}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|rrrrrrr|r|} \hline &
\multicolumn{7}{|c|}{ Diagonal values}& $\;\Sigma\;$ &\multicolumn{7}
{|c|}{Moebius inversion} & $\;\Sigma\;$ \\ \hline j & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &
5 & 6 & 7& & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & \\ \hline i=1 & 1 & & & & &
& & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 2 & 1 & & & & & & 3 & -2 & 1 & & & &
& & -1 \\ 3 & 3 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 5 & -1 & -1 & 1 & & & & & -1 \\ 4 &
4 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & 8 & 1 &-1 &-1 & 1 & & & & 0 \\ 5&5 & 2 & 1 & 1
& 1 & & & 10 & -1 & 0 & 0 &-1 & 1 & & & -1 \\ 6&6 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 1
& & 14 & 2 & 0 &-1 & 0 &-1 & 1 & & 1 \\ 7&7 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 &
16 & -1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 &-1 & 1 & -1 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}

The row elements of the previous matrix ${\bf M}$ are ${\bf J}^{\rm
T}{\bf E}$, thus the Moebius function is ${\bf M}^{-1}{\bf J}$.
A still more important function is the sum of the divisor values. It
can be expressed as the matrix product having in the frame ${\bf E}(*)
{\bf E}^{\rm T}$ the diagonal matrix of indices $\Delta(j)$. ${\bf
E}\Delta(j)$ is the matrix of divisor values. The sums of~divisor
values $\sigma^1 (n)$ are the diagonal elements of the matrix ${\bf
E}\Delta(j){\bf E}^{\rm T}$:

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf E}\Delta(j) \\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{cccc} 1 & & & \\ 1 & 2 & & \\ 1 & 0 & 3 & \\ 1 & 2 & 0
& 4 \end{array} \right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf
E}\Delta(j){\bf E}^{\rm T} \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 1 & 1& 1
& 1 \\ 1 & 3 & 1 & 3 \\ 1 & 1 & 4 & 1 \\ 1 & 3 & 1 & 7 \end{array}
\right) \end{array} \end{array}$$

The number of divisors $j$ which also gives ratios $n/d$ is obtained
as another matrix product:

\begin{equation} \Delta(j){\bf E}[\Delta(j)]^{-1} \end{equation}

The rows of ${\bf E}$ are multiplied by the corresponding index $i$
and the columns are divided by the corresponding index $j$. The
elements of the matrix product are $e_{ij} = i/j$, if $i\ \equiv\ 0\
{\rm mod}\ j$, and $e_{ij} = 0$ otherwise.

$$\left( \begin{array}{ccccc} 1 & & & & \\ 2 & 1 & & & \\ 3 & 0 & 1 &
& \\ 4 & 2 & 0 & 1 & \\ 5 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{array} \right)\;.$$

If we multiply this matrix by the inverse ${\bf E}^{-1}$, we get the

matrix which elements count the numbers of those numbers between 1
and $n$ that are divided by the given divisor, provided, that they
were not already divided by~a greater divisor. Thus the row sums of
the table are always $n$.

\begin{table} \caption{Numbers of numbers divided by the given

divisors} \label{Numbers of numbers divided by the given divisors}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrr|r|} \hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7
& 8 &$\Sigma$ \\ \hline m=1& 1 & & & & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 1 & 1 & & & &
& & & 2 \\ 3 & 2 & 0 & 1 & & & & & & 3 \\ 4 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & & & & &
4 \\ 5 & 4 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & & & & 5 \\ 6 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 & &
& 6 \\ 7 & 6 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & & 7 \\ 8 & 4 & 2 & 0 & 1 & 0 &
0 & 0 & 1 & 8 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

For example 1 in the sixth row divides 1,5; 2 divides 2,4; 3 and 6
divide themselves and 4 and 5 are not divisors.

This inverse function has again the table form (see Table
\ref{Inverse function of numbers of numbers}).

\begin{table} \caption{Inverse function of numbers of numbers}

\label{Inverse function of numbers of numbers}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrr|r|} \hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7
& 8 & $\Sigma$ \\ \hline m=1& 1 & & & & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & -1 & 1 & & &
& & & & 0 \\ 3 & -2 & 0 & 1 & & & & & & -1 \\ 4 & -1 & -1 & 0 & 1 & &
& & & -1 \\ 5 & -4 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & & & & -3 \\ 6 & 2 & -2 & -1 & 0
& 0 & 1 & & & 0 \\ 7 & -6 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & & -5 \\ 8 & -1 &
-1 & 0 & -1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & -2 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
It is necessary to find elements $d_{i1}^{-1}$ of the first column,
since in further columns are only the elements of the first column
diluted by zeroes as in~the~basic matrix. It is obvious that the
elements $(1 - p)$ must appear in prime rows, there are zeroes in the
following columns. Values for i = 4, 6 show, that powers of prime
numbers are just products of these elements. Value 2 in the sixth row
is interpreted as $(-1)\times(-2)$, the product of two divisors. To
check it, we try to find the solution for 30, the product of three
prime divisors

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrrr|r|} \hline Divisors & 1 & 2 & 3 & 5 & 6

& 10 & 15 & 30 & $\Sigma$\\ \hline Divided numbers $d_{i1}$ & 8 & 8 &
4 & 2 & 4 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 30\\ $d_{i1}^{-1}$ & 1 & -1 & -2 & -4& 2 & 4
& 8 & -8 & \\ \hline $d_{i1}d_{i1}^{-1}$ & 8 & -8 & -8 & -8 & 8 & 8 &
8 & -8 & 0 \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

where $d_{30}^{-1} = -8 = -1\times-2\times-4$, or $-4\times2$, if we

express 30 as $5\times6$.

Another division function is the function $\varphi(n)$. This function

counts the~numbers, which are not divisible by the divisors of $n$
except 1. They are

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|ccccccc|} \hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7

\\ \hline $\varphi(n)$ & 1 & 1 & 2 & 2 & 4 & 2 & 6 \\ \hline Counted
numbers & 1; & 1; & 1,2; & 1,3;& 1 -- 4; & 1,5; & 1 -- 6 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$

The values $\varphi(n)$ appeared as elements in the first column

Table \ref{Inverse function of numbers of numbers}. It was shown that
$\varphi(n)$ are easily found as the product

\begin{equation} \varphi(n) = n\prod_{p=2}^n\;(1- 1/p) \end{equation}

where $p$ are prime numbers that are divisors of $n$. The ratio $n/p$
is split from the number $n$ by each inverse of the prime number
$1/p$. The sum counts all subtracted parts from the total $n$. The
function $\varphi(n)$ of the product of~two numbers is simply the
product of the values for each number

\begin{equation} \varphi(nm) = \varphi(n)\varphi(m)\;. \end{equation}

The following relation is very interesting

\begin{equation} \sum_{n_{d|n}} \varphi(d) = n\;. \end{equation}

For example for $n = 6$: $\varphi(1) + \varphi(2) + \varphi(3) +

\varphi(6) = 1 +1 +2 +2 = 6$.

\section{Relation Between Divisors and Partitions} \label{Relation

Between Divisors and Partitions}

The reason why the Erasthothenes sieve was introduced, is its

involvement in~counting of partitions. In each unrestricted plane
simplex are $p(m)$ partitions of the number $m$. The sum of their
parts is $m\times p(m)$. This product is obtained from the
Erasthothenes sieve, if this is multiplied from the left by the
diagonal matrix $\Delta$ of unrestricted partitions written in the
decreasing order: $p(i) = p(m-i)$ and from the right by the diagonal
matrix $\Delta$ of indices $i$. For example

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \left( \begin{array}{ccccc} 5 & & & & \\ & 3 & &
& \\ & & 2 & & \\ & & & 1 & \\ & & & & 1 \end{array} \right) & \left(
\begin{array}{ccccc} 1 & & & & \\ 1 & 1 & & & \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & & \\ 1 &
1 & 0 & 1 & \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{array} \right) & \left(
\begin{array}{ccccc} 1 & & & & \\ & 2 & & & \\ & & 3 & & \\ & & & 4 &
\\ & & & & 5 \end{array} \right) \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{cc} = & \begin{array}{c} \left( \begin{array}{ccccc}

5 & & & & \\ 3 & 6 & & & \\ 2 & 0 & 6 & & \\ 1 & 2 & 0 & 4 & \\ 1 & 0
& 0 & 0 & 5 \end{array} \right) \\ \hline

\begin{array}{ccccc} 12 & 8 & 6 & 4 & 5 \end{array} \end{array}

\end{array}$$

The sum of elements of the product is $35 = 5 \times 7$. The

partition $p(5)$ was obtained from values of parts added to lower
simplexes which were counted. Ones are counted in the first column.
They were added to $p(m-1)$ partitions. But this set contains
simultaneously all ones from lower partitions enlarged by such a way
in lower steps, till one representing p(1). In the second column two
is added to 3 partitions of 3. One of them, (2,1) already contained
one 2, when this partition was obtained from $p(1)$. Similarly, other
numbers are counted in following columns.

This product of 3 matrices can be inserted into the frame ${\bf

J}^{\rm T}(*){\bf J}$ which sums up the elements of the framed
matrix. The insert in the frame is:

\begin{equation} {\bf J}^{\rm T}{\Delta}[p(m-i)]{\bf E}\ \times\

{\Delta}(i){\bf J}\; \end{equation}

Consecutive vectors form matrices in lower and upper triangular form

and products of 3 matrices are replaced by a product of only 2
matrices:

$$\begin{tabular}{rrrrr|rrrrr} & & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ & & & &
& & 2 & 2 & 2 & 2 \\ & & & & & & & 3 & 3 & 3 \\ & & & & & & & & 4 & 4
\\ & & & & & & & & & 5 \\ \hline & & & & & & & & & \\ 1 & & & & & 1 &
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 2 & 1 & & & & 2 & 4 & 4 & 4 & 4 \\ 4 & 1 & 1 & & & 4
& 6 & 9 & 9 & 9 \\ 7 & 3 & 1 & 1 & & 7 & 13 & 16 & 20 & 20 \\ 12 & 4
& 2 & 1 & 1 & 12 & 20 & 26 & 30 & 35 \end{tabular}$$

The left matrix counts the numbers $n_k$ in the partitions, the right
matrix weights them as $m_k$.

The diagonal elements $mp(m)$ can be decomposed into another pairs

of~vectors and so another product of 2 matrices exists having
identical diagonal. The left matrix is the matrix of successive
partitions (Table 4.8), the right matrix is the matrix of sums of
divisors $\sigma^1(i)$, written similarly as the~matrix of successive
partitions, but in upper triangular form, in columns

\begin{equation} {\bf S}: s_{ij} = \sigma^1(i)\ {\rm if}\ i \leq j,

s_{ij} = 0, \ {\rm otherwise}\;. \end{equation}
$$\begin{tabular}{rrrrr|rrrrr} & & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ & & & &
& & 3 & 3 & 3 & 3 \\ & & & & & & & 4 & 4 & 4 \\ & & & & & & & & 7 & 7
\\ & & & & & & & & & 6 \\ \hline & & & & & & & & & \\ 1 & & & & & 1 &
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & & & & 1 & 4 & 4 & 4 & 4 \\ 2 & 1 & 1& & & 2
& 5 & 9 & 9 & 9 \\ 3 & 2 & 1& 1 & & 3 & 9 & 13 & 20 & 20 \\ 5 & 3 &
2& 1 & 1 & 5 & 14 & 22 & 29 & 35 \\ \end{tabular}$$

The numbers $mp(m)$ appear again on the diagonal of the product. This
elementary relations can be expressed in a formal abstract form. We
write the generating function of unrestricted partitions

\begin{equation} P(x) = \sum_{m=1}^\infty\;p(m)\;q^m \end{equation}

and find its derivation

\begin{equation} dP(x) = \sum_{m=1}^\infty\;mp(m)\;q^{m-1}\;.

\end{equation}

The partition function $P(x)$ is represented in the rows of the left

matrix. The difference $dP(x)$ appears on the diagonal of the
product. When we find the ratio of both matrices the result can be
formulated as

\begin{equation} d\lg[P(x)] = dP(x)/P(x) = \sum_{m=1}^\infty\;

\varphi(m)q^m\;. \end{equation}

The ratio $dP(x)/P(x)$ is the difference of the logarithm of the

function $P(x)$. Divisor sums are thus the differences of the
logarithmic measure of~the~generating function of partitions. It
relates divisor and partition functions and it was used for finding
of the asymptotic behavior of the $p(m)$ function.

\section{Zeroes in partitions} \label{Zeroes in partitions}

If the sum of values of all parts of the plane simplex is $mp(m)$, we

can find also the number of zeroes in all parts $n_0(m)$. These
numbers form the first column in the table which counts the number of
all parts classified according to their values (Table 6.2)

\begin{table} \caption{Numbers of parts in partitions} \label{Numbers

of parts in partitions} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|} \hline n & 0 &
1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\ \hline m=0 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 1 & 2 & 1 & & & & & 4 \\ 3 & 3 & 4 & 1
& 1 & & & & 9 \\ 4 & 8& 7 & 3 & 1 & 1 & & & 20 \\ 5 & 15& 12 & 4 & 2
& 1 & 1 & & 35 \\ 6 & 31 & 19 & 8 & 4 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 66 \\ \hline
\end{tabular} \end{table}

Matrix elements of the Table 6.2, except its first column, are
obtained as the partial result of the matrix product used for finding
the sum of values of~parts in partitions with equation 5.3. They are
elements of products of two matrices $\Delta[p(m-i)] {\bf E}$. The
first column is in its turn again a matrix product of the matrix of
partitions into exactly $n$ parts (Table 4.2) and the matrix
of~positive $(j -i)$ elements, and the unit vector column ${\bf J }$,
which sums the~row values of the intermediate product. It is easy to
explain this relation: In each partition, when $m$ splits into
exactly $n$ parts, there are $(m - n)$ zeroes. For example for $m =
4: 8 = 3\times1 +2\times2 +1\times1 +0\times1$. The number of~zeroes
is balanced by other numbers. This leads to the simple form of some
elements of inverse matrix $$m^{-1}_{i0} = (1-i)\;.$$

\chapter{Groups of Cyclic Permutations} \label{Groups of Cyclic

Permutations}

\section{Notion of Cyclic Permutations} \label{Notion of Cyclic

Permutations}

Lets suppose that we have $n$ objects labeled by an index, arranged

in natural order, and we change their positions. It is convenient to
describe this operation of {\em permutation} in two lines, one
corresponding to the starting position, the second one giving the
final position. E.g.

\begin{itemize} \item Start 0:\qquad 1 \qquad 2 \qquad 3 \qquad 4

\qquad 5 \qquad 6

\item Step 1: \qquad 2 \qquad 3 \qquad 1 \qquad 5 \qquad 4 \qquad 6

The first three objects are permuted in a {\em cycle of length 3}, the
first object appeared after the third one, next two objects form a
cycle of length 2, they exchanged their places, and the last object
remained in its place. By~repeating the procedure we obtain
permutations 2 to 6: \item Step 2: \qquad 3 \qquad 1 \qquad 2 \qquad
4 \qquad 5 \qquad 6

\item Step 3: \qquad 1 \qquad 2 \qquad 3 \qquad 5 \qquad 4 \qquad 6

\item Step 4: \qquad 2 \qquad 3 \qquad 1 \qquad 4 \qquad 5 \qquad 6

\item Step 5: \qquad 3 \qquad 1 \qquad 2 \qquad 5 \qquad 4 \qquad 6

\item Step 6: \qquad 1 \qquad 2 \qquad 3 \qquad 4 \qquad 5 \qquad 6

\item Step 7: \qquad 2 \qquad 3 \qquad 1 \qquad 5 \qquad 4 \qquad 6

\end{itemize}

The string returns in the 6~th step into the initial order and a new
cycle starts in the 7~th step.

The index labeling objects is the column index $j$. The position
in~the~permutation is labeled by the row index $i$ at the element
$1_{ij}$. Thus permutations are isomorphic with matrices. The
starting position, corresponding to the diagonal unit matrix ${\bf
I}$, can be considered as the zero order. The last element remained
in all steps in its original position and the first three elements
returned to their positions twice and two elements made three turns.
The~length of the total cycle is the product of individual
cycles:$3\times2\times1 = 6$. The elements belonging to the same
cycles are usually written in brackets: $(2,3,1)(5,4)(6)$.

The number of elements $n$ splits into $k$ cycles, $k$ going from 1
to $n$. The~cycle structure is described by {\em partition
orbits}.

We could map the cycle changes by the additive operators ${\bf S}$
having $-1_{ij}$ for the leaving object j, $1_{ij}$ for the becoming
object j, zero rows for unmoved objects (+1 and -1 appear on the same
place). This operator was introduced in Chapt. 3 and in more detail
will be studied in Chapt. 12. Now we will study the {\em
multiplication operators} ${\bf P}$. Their matrices, {\em unit
permutation matrices}, are naive, they have in each row only one unit
element and moreover they have only one unit element in each column.
The matrices ${\bf P}$ are simultaneously notations of permutations,
since their row unit elements $p_{ij}$ correspond to indexes (or
equivalently to alphabetical symbols) $j$.

Using multiplicative operators, permutations are the results of

multiplication's of the row vectors by the unit permutation matrix
${\bf P }$ from the right and column vectors by the multiplication
with the unit permutation matrix ${\bf P}$ from the left. Different
steps can be written as powers of these matrices ${\bf P}^i$.
The~unit diagonal matrix is ${\bf I }= {\bf P }^0 \;.
$

\begin{figure} \caption{Cycle of permutation matrices. Positive

powers become negative ones} \label{Cycle of permutation matrices}
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-0.12){234}{\line(0,-1){0.12}} %\end %\vector(60.00,60.00)(24.33,
44.00) \put(24.33,44.00){\vector(-2,-1){0.2}} \multiput(60.00,60.00)
(-0.27,-0.12){134}{\line(-1,0){0.27}} %\end \put(60.00,110.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{${\bf P}^{-1}$}} \put(95.00,95.00){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{${\bf I}$}} \put(110.00,60.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{${\bf P}^1$}}
\put(95.00,25.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{${\bf P}^2$}} \put(13.00,38.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{${\bf P}^k$}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}

The last but one power of any permutation matrix is its inverse (Fig.
\ref{Cycle of permutation matrices}). It is rather easy to find this
matrix, because it is identical with the transposed matrix ${\bf
P}^{\rm T}$:

\begin{equation} {\bf P}^{n-1} = {\bf P}^{-1} = {\bf P}^{\rm T}\;.

\end{equation}

The set of all permutation matrices ${\bf P }$, with $n$ rows and $n$
columns, represents all possible permutations. A special class of
permutation matrices are the symmetrical ones, which
have

\begin{equation} {\bf P } = {\bf P}^{-1} = {\bf P}^{\rm T}\;.

\end{equation}

Such matrices have all unit elements either on the diagonal, or

otherwise they form cycles of the length 2. These permutations are
known as {\em convolutions}. We will show a surprisingly simple
technique for their generating.

\section{Young Tables} \label{Young Tables}

\begin{figure} \caption{Sequence of Young tables} \label{Sequence of

Young tables} \linethickness{0.6pt} \begin{picture}(160.00,100.00)
\put(60.00,70.00){\framebox(10.00,10.00)[cc]{1}} \put(45.00,50.00)
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\put(90.00,50.00){\framebox(10.00,10.00)[cc]{2}} \put(6.00,25.00)
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10.00)[cc]{3}} \put(70.00,15.00){\framebox(10.00,10.00)[cc]{3}}
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-3){0.2}} \multiput(45.00,40.00)(-0.12,-0.18){34}{\line(0,-1){0.18}}
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{\vector(2,-3){0.2}} \multiput(100.00,50.00)(0.12,-0.18){84}{\line(0,
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{\vector(-2,-3){0.2}} \multiput(80.00,50.00)(-0.12,-0.19){81}{\line(0,
-1){0.19}} %\end \end{picture} \end{figure}

We will reconstruct the sequence of the Ferrers graphs, finding all

ways they can be formed from lower graphs by adding one new element.
To do this the~order, each box was added to a smaller Ferrers graph
enlarging it into the~larger Ferrers graph, is indexed. Equivalent
boxes will have different indices, because they can be reached in
different steps. Such labeled Ferrers graphs are known as Young
tables (Fig. \ref{Sequence of Young tables}).

Young tables are connected with permutations by the following

algorithm:

\begin{itemize} \item {1} If a greater index follows a lesser one, it

is written in the next free column of the Young table. \item {2}. If
a lesser index follows a greater one in a permutation, it replaces it
in its column of the Young table and shifts it down to the next row.
For example: \end{itemize}

$$\begin{array}{lllllll} 3412 & \rightarrow & 3\ 4 & \rightarrow & 1\

4 & \rightarrow & 1\ 2\;. \\ & & & & 3 & & 3\ 4 \end{array}$$

The third element 1 jumps in the first column and shifts 3 down, then
2 shifts 4 down. Or:

$$\begin{array}{lllllllll} 4231 & \rightarrow & 4 & \rightarrow & 2 &

\rightarrow & 2\ 3 & \rightarrow & 1\ 3\;. \\ & & & & 4 & & 4 & & 2\\
& & & & & & & & 4 \end{array}$$

One property of the algorithm seems to be disadvantageous but this

property only reproduces relations between permutations. It allows an
asymmetric permutation matrix to be decomposed differently according
to its rows and columns. But both Young tables belong to the same
type of Ferrers graphs. For example: $$\begin{array}{|rrrrrrr|c|}
\hline & & & & & & & $\Sigma$\\ \hline 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 4
\\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 6 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 2 \\
0 & 0 & 0& 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 5 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 7 \\ 1 &
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 3 \\ \hline
6 & 3 & 7 & 1 & 4 & 2 & 5 & \\ \hline \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{cccc} Columns & \begin{array}{ccc} 1 & 2 & 5 \\ 3 & 4

& \\ 6 & 7 & \end{array} & Rows & \begin{array}{ccc} 1 & 3 & 7 \\ 2 &
5 &\\ 4 & 6 & \end{array} \end{array}$$
Remember that convolutions have symmetrical matrices and that then
column and row readings are identical. A permutation matrix or a
Young table is always a product of two permutation matrices or Young
tables of~the~same type. They can be identical in case of
convolutions, but mostly they differ in rows and columns,
as

$$\begin{array}{ccc|ccc} & & & \ 1& 0 & 0 \\ & & & 0 & 0 & 1 \\ & & &
0 & 1 & 0 \\ \hline & & & & & \\ 0 & 1& 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 0& 0 & 1
& 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0& 1 & 0 & 1& 0 \end{array}$$ $$(a,c,b)\times(b,a,c) =
(c,a,b)$$

A relation there appears between the number of partitions orbits $p(n)

$, the number of Young tables $Y(n)$, and the number of permutation
matrices $P(n)$.

The Young tables are formed from Ferrers graphs by a recursive

algorithm. If we use for the number of Young tables corresponding to
a Ferrers graph with an index $k$ the notation $y(k)$, then $y^0(k) =
1$, and we have the relation between the number of partitions $p(n)$
and the number of Young tables $Y(n)$. Similarly, if we square all
y(k), we obtain all permutations of $n$ elements.
Therefore

\begin{equation} \sum y^0(k) = p(n)\;; \sum y(k) = Y(n)\;; \sum y^2(k)

= P(n) = n! \end{equation}

Here $n!$ means $n$~{\em factorial}. It is a product of successive

natural numbers:

\begin{equation} \prod_{k=1}^n\;k = n!\;. \label{factorial}

\end{equation}

We will explain this function later, when we will look for other
formulas determining the number of permutations. Before then we will
study convolutions. Here an example is given how equation
(\ref{factorial}) works:

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|ccccccc|r|} \hline Partition: & 5 & 4,1& 3,2& $3,

1^2$ & $2^21$ & $2,1^3$ & $1^5$ & $\Sigma$ \\ \hline $y^0(k)$ & 1 & 1
& 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 7 \\ $y^1(k)$ & 1 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 5 & 4 & 1 & 26
\\ $y^2(k)$ & 1 & 16 & 25 & 36 & 25 & 16 &1 & 120 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$

\section{The Number of Convolutions} \label{The Number of

Convolutions}

The number of convolutions is the number of all possible connections

in~a~telephone network. We classify all convolutions according to the
number of~elements which remain on their places, that means
unconnected. It is easy to fill in the following
table

\begin{table} \caption{Distribution of convolutions}

\label{Distribution of convolutions} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|}
\hline On diagonal & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\ \hline
n=0 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 1 & 0 & 1 &
& & & & 2 \\ 3 & 0 & 3 & 0 & 1 & & & & 4 \\ 4 & 3 & 0 & 6 & 0 & 1 & &
& 10 \\ 5 & 0 & 15 & 0 & 10 & 0 & 1 & & 26 \\ 6 & 15 & 0 & 45 & 0 &
15 & 0 & 1 & 76 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

The recurrence of the table elements is

\begin{equation} y_{00} = 1\;; y_{ij} = (i - 1)y_{i-2,j} + y_{i-1,

j-1}\;. \end{equation}

The inverse table has the same elements, only the signs of elements
which indices i differ from indices j by the value $(4k + 2)$ are
negative. Their recurrence is

\begin{equation} y_{00}^{-1} = 1\;; y_{ij}^{-1} = (1 - i)y_{i-2,j} +

y_{i-1,j-1}\;. \end{equation}

All convolution matrices are obtained in two ways. Either by adding 1

to the last place of diagonal. These convolutions are counted by the
term $y_{i-1,j-1}$. Or the unit element is added in the last row
off-diagonal position. It is inserted between existing columns into a
new one. Then an unit element must simultaneously added in the last
column into a new row, $i=j$. There are $(n - 1)$ off diagonal places
where it is possible to form a new convoluted pair to j already
existing pairs in a matrix of convolutions. This new pair occupies
two rows and columns and therefore it is formed in matrices with $(n
- 2)$ rows and columns. It does not increase the number of elements
on~the~diagonal, so it increases the number of elements in the same
column.

A similar recurrence is applied to the row sums counting the total

number of convolutions

\begin{equation} Y(n) = (n - 1)Y(n - 2) + Y(n - 1) \end{equation}

It is possible to determine the elements of the Table

\ref{Distribution of convolutions} directly, because they are
calculated according to the formula

\begin{equation} y_{ij} = i !/j!t!2^t \end{equation}

\label{convolutions}

where $t = (i - j)/2$ is the number of cycles of length 2. This

formula contains 3 factorials. The term $2^t$ equilibrates the string
of $t$ divisors. Notice, that equation (\ref{convolutions}) counts
together Young tables of different formats, they must have only the
same number of columns. Still another expression of~the~number of
convolutions is a formal binomial equation

\begin{equation} Y(n) = (1 + y_i)^n \end{equation}

where the terms in the first column of the Table 7.1 $y_{k0}$ are
considered as powers of $y^k$ when the sum $(1 + y)$ is multiplied
with itself. For example $$(1 + y)^6 = 1\times1 + 6\times0 +
15\times1 + 20\times0 + 15\times3 + 6\times0 +1\times15 = 76\;
.$$

The convolutions counted by these terms have no elements on the main

diagonal and are obtained by multiplying odd numbers. They are {\em
odd factorials}, since they are obtained by consecutive
multiplication's of odd numbers:
$1\times3\times5\times7\times9\times11\times 13\times15\times$ and so
on.

\section{Factorial and Gamma Function} \label{Factorial and Gamma

Function}

The number of all permutation matrices $P(n)$ is determined easily by

counting possibilities of arrangements of the units in rows and
columns in a permutation matrix. In the first row there are n
possibilities, in the second row one column is blocked by the element
of the first row. The second row element can not be in the same
column. The possibilities decrease regularly. In each row $(n - i)$
remaining places are free. These possibilities are independent and
therefore they multiply for all rows. We get the factorial

\begin{equation} P(n) = n\times(n-1)\times\dots\times2\times1 =

\prod_{j=1}^n\; j = n! \end{equation}

The factorial function has an interesting property. If $p$ is a prime

number, then $(p -1)!\ {\rm mod}\ p = (p - 1)$ and simultaneously $(p
-2)!\ {\rm mod}\ p = 1$. The factorial is divisible by all its
factors, say $b$. If the modular value were different, say $a$, then
this value could be chosen in such a way that $a + b = p$. The
factorial were divisible by the prime number greater than its factors,
which is impossible. For example: $p =7,\ 720\ {\rm mod}\ 7 \equiv 6;
\ 120 \ {\rm mod}\ 7 \equiv 1$.

The factorial function is defined for natural numbers, zero

including. We complete its definition by the term 0! = 1. We already
did something similar, defining the empty partition.

Combinatorial functions are defined for counting objects, which must

be whole. There can emerge questions, what is a object, or an animal,
or a~man, when they start to correspond to their definitions and when
they are something different. In mathematics, such small differences
can be expressed by numbers. In higher mathematics the factorial
function is only the special case of the {\em gamma function},
defined by Euler as

\begin{equation} \Gamma(z+1) = z\Gamma(z) \end{equation}

When $\Gamma(1) = 1$, then $$\Gamma(2) = 1\Gamma(1) =1,$$ $$\Gamma(3)

= 2\Gamma(1) = 2,$$

and $$\Gamma(4) = 3\Gamma(3) = 6\;.$$

Therefore $$\Gamma(n+1) = n!\;.$$

Drawing the graph of the gamma function, we can interpolate it for

any real number. The gamma function is defined by the
integral\footnote{e in the integral is the base of the natural
logarithms. Logarithms can be decadic $\lg a$, binary $\lb a$,
natural $\ln a$, or with any base b $\log_b
a$}.

\begin{equation} \Gamma(z+1) = \int_0^\infty x^z e^{-x}dx\;.

\end{equation}
We will not deal with problems connected with evaluation of such
integrals, and we introduce the function e in the next chapter. Now
we accept only the result giving for

\begin{equation} \Gamma(1/2) = \sqrt\pi. \end{equation}

\begin{figure} \caption{Plot of the function $\Gamma(n)$} \label{Plot

of the function Gamma} \linethickness{0.6pt} \begin{picture}(140.00,
160.00) %\emline(20.00,20.00)(120.00,20.00) \put(20.00,20.00){\line(1,
0){100.00}} %\end %\emline(20.00,20.00)(20.00,140.00) \put(20.00,
20.00){\line(0,1){120.00}} %\end \put(20.00,40.00){\circle{4.00}}
\put(30.00,37.67){\circle{4.00}} \put(40.00,40.00){\circle{4.00}}
\put(60.00,60.00){\circle{4.00}} \put(80.00,140.00){\circle{4.00}}
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70.00)(70.00,89.33) \bezier{204}(70.00,89.67)(76.33,109.33)(80.33,
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\put(80.00,10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{3}} \put(10.00,40.00){\makebox(0,
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{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{3}} \put(9.67,100.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{4}}
\put(9.33,120.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{5}} \put(9.00,140.00){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{6}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

From it, other $n/2$ values of the gamma function are calculated
easily which fits excellently in holes between factorials to plot one
smooth function (Fig. \ref{Plot of the function Gamma}).

When we interpolate the gamma function to negative values: $$\Gamma(1)

= 0\Gamma(0)$$

we get $$\Gamma(0) = \Gamma(1)/0 = \infty$$ $$\Gamma(0) = (-1)

\Gamma(-1)$$ $$\Gamma(-1) = \Gamma(0)/(-1) = -\infty\;.$$

The gamma function oscillates for consecutive negative numbers from

$+\infty$ to $-\infty$. The functional relation is no more solid but
it behaves as the~see at~storm. The world of mathematical functions
is not symmetrical to the sign inversion, similarly as our physical
world, where antiparticles are rare events which annihilate
immediately.

The Euler gamma function can be used for finding approximations

of~the~factorial function for large n. The Stirling approximation
is

\begin{equation} n! = n^n e^{-n} \sqrt{2\pi n}\;. \end{equation}

\label{Stirling approximation}

\section{Index of cyclic permutations} \label{Index of cyclic

permutations}

After this transgression, we now return to permutations finding

formulas to determine the numbers of each cycle structure. The cycle
structure forms an orbit of permutations and the sum over all orbits
gives the factorial. A~partition orbit counts all permutations of a
cycle $s_k$ of the length $k$. If there are more cycles of equal
length, their lengths $s_k$ multiply. This gives the terms $s_k^tk$,
where $t_k$ is the number of cycles $s_k$. Different cycles of equal
length are permuted between themselves with each other when their
elements interchange. This interchanges are counted by partial
factorials $t_k!$. The index of cyclic permutations
is

\begin{equation} n!/\prod n_k!s_k^tk\;. \end{equation}

For example for n = 4: $$\begin{tabular}{|l|l|c|c|} \hline Orbit &

Cycle index & Value & \\ \hline 4 & $4!/1!^4$ & 6 & One cycle of
length 4\\ 31 & $4!/1!^1!3!^1$ & 8 & One cycle of length 3, one cycle
of length 1\\ 22 & $4!/2!2$ & 3 & Two cycles of length 2\\ 211 &
$4!/1!^!2!^1$ & 6 & One cycles of length 2, two cycles of length 1\\
1 & $4!/4!^1$ & 1 & Four cycles of length 1\\ \hline $\Sigma$ & & 24
& \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

\section{Permutation Schemes} \label{Permutation Schemes}

We introduced orbit schemes and now we have the first opportunity to

use them for calculating partial sums of cyclic indices. These
partial sums are known as different {\em combinatorial identities}.
At first, we will arrange partition schemes according to the number
of cycles in permutations and the length of~the~longest cycle k. For
example for $n = 6$ we get

\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|} \hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\

\hline $k=6$ & 120 & & & & & \\ 5 & & 144 & & & & \\ 4 & & 90 & 90 &
& & \\ 3 & & 40 & 120 & 40 & & \\ 2 & & & 15& 45 & 15 & \\ 1 & & & &
& & 1 \\ \hline $\Sigma$& 120 & 274& 225 & 85 & 15 & 1 \\ \hline
\end{tabular} \\

The row sums of consecutive schemes give the Table 7.2. Its elements
are known as the {\em Stirling numbers of the first kind}. Their name
suggests that there are more kinds of Stirling numbers. They are
related by many ways as we will see later.

\begin{table} \caption{Stirling numbers of the first kind}

\label{Stirling numbers of the first kind}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|} \hline t & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 &
$\Sigma$\\ \hline n=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\ 3
& 2 & 3 & 1 & & & & 6 \\ 4 & 6 & 11 & 6 & 1 & & & 24 \\ 5 & 24 & 50 &
35 & 10 & 1 & & 120 \\ 6 & 120 & 274 & 225 & 85 & 15 & 1 & 720 \\
\hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

The recurrence of Stirling numbers is

\begin{equation} s_{ij} = (n - 1)s_{i-1,j} + s_{i-1,j-1}\;.

\end{equation}

The formula was explained by describing how permutation matrices

${\bf P}_{n-1}$ are enlarged with the new row and column. We have $(n
- 1)$ off-diagonal positions in the last row which split $(n - 1)$
dimensional permutation matrices and prolong some existing cycle but
do not change their number. Then the~unit element can be added on the
diagonal but this operation increases the~number of cycles of unit
length. In this way we obtain the intermediate sums of~several cycle
indices directly without changes of all corresponding orbits.
Remember that these sums correspond to vertices, edges, surfaces and
generally n~dimensional subsimplices of the surface simplex. But here
they split only one original orbit in the center of the plane simplex
or the central orbit in~the~cube (Fig. \ref{Central orbit in the 3
dimensional cube with the sides 0-2}).

\begin{figure} \caption{Central orbit in the 3 dimensional cube with

the sides 0-2. Lines connect points with distances 2} \label{Central
orbit in the 3 dimensional cube with the sides 0-2}
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86.67){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{acb}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}

\section{Rencontres Numbers} \label{Rencontres Numbers}

Another possibility to count permutations is to use the number of

unit cycles, this is to determine the unit elements on the main
diagonal of the unit permutation matrices, known as {\em unmoved
elements}. The counts of partitions can be obtained according to the
number of ones in partitions. Using this technique for tabulating
permutation indices, we obtain the column sums known as the {\em
rencontres numbers}. They are shown in the Table \ref{Rencontre
numbers}.

\begin{table} \caption{Rencontre numbers} \label{Rencontre numbers}

\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|} \hline s & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 &
$\Sigma$ \\ \hline n=0 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & & 1
\\ 2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\ 3 & 2 & 3 & 0 & 1 & & & & 6 \\ 4 & 9
& 8 & 6 & 0 & 1 & & & 24 \\ 5 & 44 & 45 & 20 & 10 & 0 & 1 & & 120 \\
6 & 265 & 264 & 135 & 40 & 15 & 0 & 1 & 720 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}

The recurrence is somewhat surprising; the rencontres numbers are

obtained from the zero column by multiplying it with binomial
coefficients
\begin{equation} r_{ij} = { i \choose j }r_{i-j,0} \end{equation}
\label{rij}

Compare this with the Table 4.6 of partitions ordered according to

the~number of unit parts. Now these parts are just combined with
other parts. The~elements of the Table \ref{Rencontre numbers} are
obtained as terms of a somewhat complicated expression

\begin{equation} n! = 1 + (1 -1/1!)n + (1 -1/1! +1/2!)n(n-1) + \dots

\end{equation}

which can be formulated as

\begin{equation} n! = \sum_{k=0}^n\;( -1/k!)^k(n)_k\;. \end{equation}

\label{Sigma}

For example: $4! = 1 + 0 + 1/2\times12 + 2/6\times24 + 9/24\times24.$

Now it is necessary at least to explain, that the binomial

coefficient ${ i \choose j }$ is a ratio of 3 factorials $i!/j!(i-j)
!$. How a binomial coefficient is obtained, we will see later. Here
we give an example how the 5-th row of the Table \ref{Rencontre
numbers} are obtained by equation (\ref{Sigma}): $1\times44 +
5\times9 + 10\times2 + 10\times1 + 5\times0 +1\times1 = 120$.

The rencontres numbers $r_{i0}$ count permutations matrices with $i$

rows and columns having no unit elements on the diagonal (no unmoved
object). These matrices are combined with the diagonal unit matrices
${\bf I}$ with $(i-j)$ rows and columns in all possible ways counted
by the binomial coefficient.

The rencontres numbers $r_{i0}$ are known also as {\em subfactorials},

because they produce factorials by the following equation which terms
were determined by \ref{rij}, Now they are inserted as formal powers
of subfactorials $r^i = r_i$:

\begin{equation} n! = (r_i + 1)^n \end{equation}

It is possible to formulate equation (\ref{Sigma}) also in the matrix

form as the~direct product

\begin{equation} \Delta(n!) = {\bf R}\times{\bf B}, \end{equation}

where ${\bf R}$ is the matrix of subfactorials in rows and ${\bf B }$

is the matrix of~binomial coefficients. Inverting the formal powers
we have $r(n)_0 = (k!^n - 1)$. Inserting $(k!)^n = n!$ we obtain the
formula

\begin{equation} n! - { n \choose 1 }(n-1)! + { n \choose 2 }(n-2)! -

\dots \pm { n \choose n }(n-n)! =(k!)^n \end{equation}

This becomes for $n$ going to infinity

\begin{equation} n![1 - 1 + 1/2! - 1/3! + \dots] \approx n^n/e^n\;,

\end{equation}

where $e$ is the base of natural logarithms. This approximate formula

gives the rough Stirling approximation for factorials of large
numbers. Compare with the exact formula (\ref{Stirling approximation})
.

We should mention still another formal notation for subfactorials. It

is the notation of the theory of finite differences\footnote{This
will be explained in Sect. 9.4.}.

\begin{equation} r_0(n) = [E - 1]^n0! = \Delta^n0!\;. \end{equation}

Here $\Delta^n$ is not a diagonal matrix but a difference of the n-th

degree, or $n$ times repeated difference of the basic state $E$.

We rencontres the rencontres numbers again in Chapt. 14.

There exists still another recurrence for subfactorials

\begin{equation} r_{n0} = nr_{n-1,0} + (-1)^n \end{equation}

for example $5\times9 - 1 = 44$; $6\times44 + 1 = 245$. When we

return to the partition scheme in Table 7.3 and reclassify
permutations without unit cycles according to the number of cycles,
or when we delete from the original scheme (Table 7.2) all
permutations with unit cycles, we obtain the Table \ref{Adjoined
Stirling numbers of the first kind} of~the~adjoined Stirling numbers
of the first kind.

\begin{table} \caption{Adjoined Stirling numbers of the first kind}

\label{Adjoined Stirling numbers of the first kind}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrr|r|} \hline j & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & $\Sigma= r$\\
\hline i=0 & 1 & & & & 1 \\ 1 & & 0 & & & 0 \\ 2 & & 1 & & & 1 \\ 3 &
& 2 & & & 2 \\ 4 & & 6 & 3 & & 9 \\ 5 & & 24& 20 & & 44 \\ 6 & & 120&
130 & 15 & 265 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

The recurrence is

\begin{equation} a_{i+1,j} = i[a_{ij} + a_{i-1,j-1}]\;.

\end{equation}

The recurrence is justified again by possibilities to insert a new

element to existing cycles. Either we can insert it into an existing
cycle or a new cycle can be formed. It is simpler to formulate this
for $(i + 1)$ matrices. There we have in $(i + 1)$ dimensional matrix
$i$ off-diagonal possibilities to insert a~new element to existing
cycles. Or we can add a new 2 dimensional cycle to matrices with $(i
- 1)$ rows with the same number of possibilities.

\section{Euler Numbers} \label{Euler Numbers}

We have not exhausted all possibilities of classifying permutations.

Another statistics counts the number of {\em segments} of a
permutations in which its elements are arranged according to their
natural order as increasing indices. For example a permutation
(357168942) is split into four segments 357/1689/4/2. The
recurrence of this statistics, known as Euler numbers, is:

\begin{equation} e_{11} = 1\;; e_{ij} = je_{i-1,j} + (i - j + 1)

e_{i-1,j-1}\;. \end{equation}
If we give the i-th element to the end of each segment, the number
of~segments remains unchanged. If we put it in the first place, we
increase the~number of segments. Similarly, if we put it inside an
existing segment this is then split into two segments. There are
$(i - j)$ places inside segments. An~alternative explanation is that
this statistics counts elements of permutation matrices, which are
over the main diagonal. Here the index $j$ goes from 0 to $(n-1)$.
The corresponding matrix is Table \ref{Euler Numbers}.

\begin{table} \caption{Euler numbers} \label{Euler numbers}

\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|} \hline j & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 &
$\Sigma$ \\ \hline i=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 1& 1 & & & & & 2 \\ 3
& 1 & 4 & 1 & & & & 6 \\ 4 & 1 & 11 & 11 & 1 & & & 24 \\ 5 & 1 & 26 &
66 & 26 & 1 & & 120 \\ 6 & 1 & 57 & 302 & 302 & 57 & 1 & 720 \\
\hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

A question: How the inverse function of the Euler numbers can be

interpreted?

\section{Mac Mahon Numbers} \label{Mac Mahon Numbers}

Till now we have counted permutations as objects. Now we will

determine their moments, expressed by the number of inversions in a
permutation. They are counted by zero elements over unit elements
which are below the main diagonal as in the example, where 4 on the
first place has 3 inversions and 3 on the second place only 2

$$\left( \begin{array}{cccc} x & x & 1 & 0 \\ x & x & 0 & 1 \\ x & 1

& 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \end{array} \right)\;.$$

Permutations classified according to this method give the Mac Mahon

numbers as in Table \ref{Mac Mahon numbers}.

\begin{table} \caption{Mac Mahon numbers} \label{Mac Mahon numbers}

\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrrrr|} \hline k & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6
& 7 & 8 & 9 & 10 \\ \hline n=1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & & \\ 2 & 1 & 1 &
& & & & & & & & \\ 3 & 1 & 2 & 2 & 1 & & & & & & & \\ 4 & 1 & 3 & 5 &
6 & 5 & 3 & 1 & & & & \\ 5 & 1 & 4 & 9 & 15 & 20& 22 & 20 & 15 & 9 &
4 & 1 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

Notice that here the parameter $k$ does not end at the number $n$ but
continues to~the~value $n(n-1)/2$. It is as if we counted these
values on~the~diagonal of a square. The maximal moment $k$ is just
the sum of values $(i-1)$ where $i$ is going from 1 to
$n$

\begin{equation} \sum_{i=1}^n\;(i - 1) = { n \choose 2 }\;.

\end{equation}

The distribution of moments is symmetric and therefore the matrix

elements are related as

\begin{equation} m_{ik} = m_{i,[i(i-1)/2]-k}\;. \end{equation}

The recurrence of Mac Mahon numbers $m_{ij}$ is

\begin{equation} m_{ij} = \sum_{k=0}^n\;(m-k,n-1)\;;\ m_{10} = 1

\end{equation}
or for the $k \leq i$:

\begin{equation} m_{ij} = m_{i-1,j} + m_{i,j-1}\;. \end{equation}

If we add to a lesser permutation matrix the unit element on the last

diagonal place, it does not change the sum of displacements. It yields
the term $m_{i-1,j}$. Matrices counted by the term $m_{i,j-1}$ are
sums of elements of previous rows which moments are increased by
adding a new element into the corresponding column. They have the
required dimensionality. Their moments are increased by permutations
of the last element into the first column.

\section{Spearman Correlation Coefficient} \label{Spearman

Correlation Coefficient}

\begin{figure} \caption{24 permutations of the string {\bf abcd}.

They are divided into four sets beginning by the capitals. Arrange
the remaining three symbols and draw all permutations on the sphere}
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(80.00,87.33) \multiput(90.00,70.00)(-0.12,0.21){84}{\line(0,1)
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\end{figure}

The sum of differences of positions of all objects permuted as

compared to the basic unit permutation is always 0. These differences
can be either positive or negative. The sum of squared differences
must be necessarily positive. These differences of positions can be
treated as distances in the cubes (see Fig. \ref{Central orbit in the
3 dimensional cube with the sides 0-2}) for the three dimensional
case and Fig. \ref{24 permutations} where the four dimensional case
is drawn).

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrr|l|} \hline Reference point:\ & 1 & 2 & 3 &

4 & 5 & $\Sigma$ \\ Permutation point: & 5 & 2 & 4 & 3 & 1 & \\
\hline (2-1) & 4 & 0 & 1 & -1 & -4 & 0 \\ \hline Squares & 16& 0 & 1
& 1 & 16 & 34\\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

If we divide obtained values by the largest possible sum of squares

which is 40 for $n=5$, we obtain values going from 0 to 1 which
characterize permutations and are known as the {\em Spearman
correlation coefficient}. It is used for evaluation of probability of
obtained rank statistics.

\section{Reduced groups of cyclic permutations} \label{Reduced groups

of cyclic permutations}

Till now we have worked with permutations which were read from one
side, only. Most of our symbols determine from which side they must
be read (with some exceptions as W, A, T, 8, and other symmetric
symbols are). Imagine now, that a permutation is represented by a
string of colored beads as

\begin{center} (red)-(blue)-(white)-(green)-(yellow) \end{center}

If we find such a string accidentally, we can not tell from which

side we should read it. The result is that we can not distinguish a
half of permutations as: $$123 \leftrightarrow 321;\ 213
\leftrightarrow 312;\ 132 \leftrightarrow 231\;.
$$

The name of such a group, which is undistinguishable by readings from

both sides is the {\em dihedral}.

Still more complicated situation is if the string of colored beads

forms a~necklage. Then we can not find neither the reading direction
neither the~beginning of a permutation. Thus we have
undistinguishable permutations: $$ (123-231-312)\leftrightarrow
(213-132-321)\;.$$

From problems connected with these reduced groups, we mention only

the task of {\em menages}: $n$ married couples should be seated at a
round table in~such a way that a woman should seat between 2 males
but not alongside her husband. For $n = 4$ there are 2 seating orders
(Fig. \ref{Menage problem}).

\begin{figure} \caption{Menage problem. Two sitting plans for four

couples} \label{Menage problem} \linethickness{0.6pt}
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{9}{\line(-1,0){0.40}} \multiput(44.03,20.07)(-0.93,-0.10)
{4}{\line(-1,0){0.93}} \multiput(40.31,19.67)(-1.24,0.10){3}{\line(-1,
0){1.24}} \multiput(36.59,19.95)(-0.40,0.11){9}{\line(-1,0){0.40}}
\multiput(32.98,20.91)(-0.24,0.11){14}{\line(-1,0){0.24}}
\multiput(29.61,22.52)(-0.16,0.12){19}{\line(-1,0){0.16}}
\multiput(26.59,24.71)(-0.12,0.12){22}{\line(0,1){0.12}}
\multiput(24.02,27.42)(-0.12,0.18){17}{\line(0,1){0.18}}
\multiput(21.99,30.56)(-0.12,0.29){12}{\line(0,1){0.29}}
\multiput(20.57,34.01)(-0.11,0.52){7}{\line(0,1){0.52}} \put(19.80,
37.66){\line(0,1){3.73}} \multiput(19.71,41.40)(0.12,0.74){5}{\line(0,
1){0.74}} \multiput(20.31,45.08)(0.11,0.32){11}{\line(0,1){0.32}}
\multiput(21.57,48.60)(0.12,0.20){16}{\line(0,1){0.20}}
\multiput(23.45,51.82)(0.12,0.13){21}{\line(0,1){0.13}}
\multiput(25.90,54.65)(0.15,0.12){20}{\line(1,0){0.15}}
\multiput(28.81,56.98)(0.22,0.12){15}{\line(1,0){0.22}}
\multiput(32.11,58.74)(0.36,0.11){10}{\line(1,0){0.36}}
\multiput(35.67,59.87)(1.08,0.12){4}{\line(1,0){1.08}} %\end
%\circle(110.00,40.00){40.67} \multiput(110.00,60.34)(1.24,-0.11)
{3}{\line(1,0){1.24}} \multiput(113.72,59.99)(0.40,-0.11){9}{\line(1,
0){0.40}} \multiput(117.31,58.98)(0.24,-0.12){14}{\line(1,0){0.24}}
\multiput(120.66,57.32)(0.16,-0.12){19}{\line(1,0){0.16}}
\multiput(123.65,55.08)(0.11,-0.12){22}{\line(0,-1){0.12}}
\multiput(126.17,52.33)(0.12,-0.19){17}{\line(0,-1){0.19}}
\multiput(128.15,49.16)(0.11,-0.29){12}{\line(0,-1){0.29}}
\multiput(129.52,45.69)(0.12,-0.61){6}{\line(0,-1){0.61}} \put(130.24,
42.02){\line(0,-1){3.73}} \multiput(130.26,38.29)(-0.11,-0.61)
{6}{\line(0,-1){0.61}} \multiput(129.61,34.61)(-0.12,-0.32)
{11}{\line(0,-1){0.32}} \multiput(128.29,31.12)(-0.11,-0.19)
{17}{\line(0,-1){0.19}} \multiput(126.36,27.92)(-0.12,-0.13)
{21}{\line(0,-1){0.13}} \multiput(123.88,25.13)(-0.15,-0.11)
{20}{\line(-1,0){0.15}} \multiput(120.92,22.85)(-0.22,-0.11)
{15}{\line(-1,0){0.22}} \multiput(117.60,21.14)(-0.40,-0.12)
{9}{\line(-1,0){0.40}} \multiput(114.03,20.07)(-0.93,-0.10)
{4}{\line(-1,0){0.93}} \multiput(110.31,19.67)(-1.24,0.10)
{3}{\line(-1,0){1.24}} \multiput(106.59,19.95)(-0.40,0.11)
{9}{\line(-1,0){0.40}} \multiput(102.98,20.91)(-0.24,0.11)
{14}{\line(-1,0){0.24}} \multiput(99.61,22.52)(-0.16,0.12)
{19}{\line(-1,0){0.16}} \multiput(96.59,24.71)(-0.12,0.12)
{22}{\line(0,1){0.12}} \multiput(94.02,27.42)(-0.12,0.18){17}{\line(0,
1){0.18}} \multiput(91.99,30.56)(-0.12,0.29){12}{\line(0,1){0.29}}
\multiput(90.57,34.01)(-0.11,0.52){7}{\line(0,1){0.52}} \put(89.80,
37.66){\line(0,1){3.73}} \multiput(89.71,41.40)(0.12,0.74){5}{\line(0,
1){0.74}} \multiput(90.31,45.08)(0.11,0.32){11}{\line(0,1){0.32}}
\multiput(91.57,48.60)(0.12,0.20){16}{\line(0,1){0.20}}
\multiput(93.45,51.82)(0.12,0.13){21}{\line(0,1){0.13}}
\multiput(95.90,54.65)(0.15,0.12){20}{\line(1,0){0.15}}
\multiput(98.81,56.98)(0.22,0.12){15}{\line(1,0){0.22}}
\multiput(102.11,58.74)(0.36,0.11){10}{\line(1,0){0.36}}
\multiput(105.67,59.87)(1.08,0.12){4}{\line(1,0){1.08}} %\end
\put(40.00,70.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{a}} \put(70.00,40.00){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{b}} \put(40.00,10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{c}} \put(10.00,40.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{d}} \put(110.00,70.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{a}}
\put(140.00,40.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{b}} \put(110.00,10.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{c}} \put(80.00,40.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{d}}
\put(60.33,60.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{C}} \put(60.33,19.33){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{D}} \put(19.33,19.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{A}} \put(19.00,60.33)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{B}} \put(89.67,60.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{C}}
\put(130.33,60.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{D}} \put(130.33,19.67)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{A}} \put(89.33,19.67){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{B}}
\end{picture} \end{figure}

The menage numbers M(n) are:

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|} \hline n & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6

\\ \hline M(n)& 2 & -1 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 13 & 80 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$

The negative value at $n = 1$ is necessary for complying with the

recurrent relation:

\begin{equation} (n - 2)U_n = n(n - 2)U_{n-1} + nU_{n-2} +4(-1)

^{n+1}\;. \end{equation}

For example: $3U_5^6 = 15\times2 + 5\times1 + 4(-1) = 39;\ U_5^6 =

13$.

\section{Groups of Symmetry} \label{Groups of Symmetry}

Till now we have supposed that vectors are defined in

multidimensional space and that the number of permutations is
determined by the dimensionality of~the~space. It is possible to
define groups which are only isomorphic with some groups $S_n$ of
cyclic permutations. As an example we introduce the group of 6
matrices with 2 rows and columns, which is isomorphic with
$S_3$:

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf I }\\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{cc} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 \end{array} \right) \\ \\ {\bf A }\\
\\ \left( \begin{array}{cc} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 \end{array} \right)
\end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf D } \\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{cc} -1/2 & \sqrt 3/2 \\ \sqrt 3/2 & 1/2 \end{array}
\right) \\ \\ {\bf G }\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cc} -1/2 & -\sqrt
3/2 \\ \sqrt 3/2 & -1/2 \end{array} \right) \end{array} &
\begin{array}{c} {\bf E } \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cc} -1/2 &
-\sqrt 3/2 \\ \sqrt 3/2 & -1/2 \end{array} \right) \\ \\ {\bf P } \\
\\ \left( \begin{array}{cc} -1/2 & \sqrt 3/2 \\ \sqrt 3/2 & 1/2
\end{array} \right) \end{array} \end{array}$$

If we multiply by these 2~dimensional matrices a vector-row from the

right (or a vector-column from the left) its Euclidean length remains
constant but not the sum of their elements. The effect of these
matrices can be shown on the unit circle. Operators ${\bf I }$ and
${\bf A }$ are mutually orthogonal, the other matrices rotate vectors
for $(2/3)\pi$, that is for 120 degrees, 0.5 being $\cos 60~^0$,
$\sqrt 3/2 = 0.866 = 30~^0$. .

Instead of cycles of different lengths, new symmetry elements appear

in~the~three dimensional geometry.

There are {\em rotation axes}. If a figure has $k$ dimensional

rotation axis, it has $k$ equivalent positions and returns to its
original position after $k$ translations which rotate it around the
axis.

The other kind of symmetry elements is the {\em reflection plane}

which reflects a figure as a double sided mirror.

These basic symmetry elements combine in different ways and they

systems are known under different names.

\section{Vierer Gruppe} \label{Vierer Gruppe}

One system of 4 unit permutation matrices $4\times4$ is:

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf I }\\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{cccc} 1 & & & \\ & 1 & & \\ & & 1 & \\ & & & 1
\end{array} \right) \\ \\ {\bf A } \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} &
1 & & \\ 1 & & & \\ & & & 1 \\ & & 1 & \end{array} \right)
\end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf B }\\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{cccc} & & 1 & \\ & & & 1 \\ 1 & & & \\ & 1 & &
\end{array} \right) \\ \\ {\bf C } \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} &
1 & & \\ & & 1 & \\ & & & 1 \\ 1 & & & \end{array} \right)
\end{array} \end{array}$$

If we imagine that these matrices permute vertices of a square

labeled a, b, c, and d, then ${\bf I }$ is the identity, which
leaves the positions of corners square unchanged, ${\bf A }$ and
${\bf C }$ reflect according to the planes perpendicular with
the~sides of the square and ${\bf B }$ rotates the corners the square
around the~center. The group contains all possible products of~these
four matrices.

With the group of these 4 matrices such groups of matrices are

isomorphic, which are obtained by multiplying the unit permutation
matrices ${\bf P}$ from the~left by a suitable matrix and from the
right by its inverse \begin{equation} {\bf UPU}^{-1} = {\bf P}_a\;;\
{\bf UU}^{-1} = {\bf I}\;. \end{equation}

Using Hadamard matrices we get another group of four matrices

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf I }\\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{cccc} 1 & & & \\ & 1 & & \\ & & 1 & \\ & & & 1
\end{array} \right)\\ \\ {\bf A } \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 1
& & & \\ & 1 & & \\ & & -1 & \\ & & & -1 \end{array} \right)
\end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf B }\\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{cccc} 1 & & & \\ & -1 & & \\ & & 1 & \\ & & & -1
\end{array} \right) \\ \\ {\bf C } \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 1
& & & \\ & -1 & & \\ & & -1 & \\ & & & 1 \end{array} \right)
\end{array} \end{array}\;.$$

Notice, that corresponding matrices in both groups have identical

traces, which are known as {\em characters of the group}.

\chapter{Naive Matrices in Lower Triangular Form} \label{Naive

Matrices in Lower Triangular Form}

\section{Another Factorial Function} \label{Another Factorial

Function}

Before we study all naive matrices ${\bf N}$, we will deal at first
with the naive matrices in the {\em lower triangular form} which form
a subgroup of naive matrices. The remaining naive matrices can be
obtained from them by permuting columns with the unit permutation
matrices ${\bf P}$ from right. Recall that naive matrices ${\bf N}$
have one unit element in each row. If a matrix is in the lower
triangular form then all its nonzero elements must be on or below the
main diagonal. Similarly, if a matrix is in the upper triangular form,
then all its nonzero elements must be on or over the main diagonal.
From all permutation matrices ${\bf P}$ only the {\em identity
matrix} ${\bf I }$ has the triangular form. But it exists
simultaneously in both triangular forms as all diagonal matrices
do.

There is only one place in the first row of the lower triangular form
for the unit element, two places are in the second row and always one
place more in each consecutive row for the unit element. This
situation is just opposite to the construction of permutation
matrices. There the possibilities, of placement of the unit element
decreased in every row. Nevertheless both approaches give the same
result. Therefore there are n! naive matrices in the lower triangular
form (or in the case of transposed naive matrices ${\bf N }^{\rm T}$
in the upper triangular form). The transposed naive matrices can be
mapped onto points with natural coordinates in m~dimensional
cubes.

If we leave the first column as a dummy variable (indexed as zero

column) for the center of the coordinate system: ${\bf e}_{0j} = 1$,
the naive matrices in~the~lower triangular form can be compared with
terms of the formal multiplication

\begin{equation} (1)(1 + a)(1 + a + b)(1 + a +\dots) = \prod_{j=1}^n\;

(\sum_{j=1}^n\; {\bf e}_j)\;. \end{equation}

All transposed matrices ${\bf N}$ are placed in m~dimensional

rectangular parallelepiped which sides are $0,1,2,3,..,(n-1)$. With
these matrices all classifications as with the permutation matrices
will be repeated. Matrices with $m$~rows form in these parallepides
factorial plane simplexes. Compare them with the~generating function
of partitions, explained in Sect. 4.10, where the~number of elements
also decreased but from other reasons.

\section{Decreasing Order Classification} \label{Decreasing Order

Classification}

In the preceding Chapter d Young tables were introduced and compared

with the convolutions having cycles of length 1 and 2, only. The
Young tables correspond to naive matrices which partial column sums
are always ordered in the decreasing order:

\begin{equation} \sum_{i=1}^k\;n_{ij} \geq \sum_{i=1}^k\;n_{i,j+1}\;.

\end{equation}

For example two naive matrices $n=3$ are excluded by this rule:

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} ${\bf A}$ \\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{ccc} 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 \end{array}
\right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} ${\bf B}$ \\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{array}
\right)\;. \end{array} \end{array}$$

${\bf A}$ is excluded since $b^2 > a$, ${\bf B}$ is excluded since $c
> b^0$.

\section{Stirling Numbers of the First Kind} \label{Stirling Numbers

of the First Kind}

These numbers count the naive matrices classified according to the

number $k$ of elements on the main diagonal

\begin{equation} s_{nk} = (n - 1)s_{n-1,k} +s_{n-1,k-1}\;.

\end{equation}

There are $(n - 1)$ places under the diagonal in the n~th row which
can be added to each naive matrix with $k$ elements on the main
diagonal without changing $k$. This multiplies the first term.

If we add $1_{nn}$, we increase the number of elements on the main

diagonal counted by the second term. See Table 7.2.

This is not all what can be said about the Stirling numbers of the
first kind. If we multiply the Stirling numbers of the first kind
directly with powers $2^{j-1}$ we get a table which row sums are
equal to the half of the higher factorial $(i+1)!/2$ as
in

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrr|r|} \hline & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & $\Sigma$

\\ \hline m=1& 1 & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 1 & 2 & & & & 3 \\ 3 & 2 & 6 & 4
& & & 12 \\ 4 & 6 & 22 & 24 & 8 & & 60 \\ 5& 24 & 100 & 140 & 80 & 16
& 360 \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

When we multiply the Stirling numbers with powers $2^(i-j)$, then

the~row sums give $(2i - 1)!/i!2^i$ or the products of $m$ odd
numbers $1\times3\times5\times\dots$. The~factorial is depleted of
even numbers.

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrr|r|} \hline & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & $\Sigma$

\\ \hline m=1 & 1 & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 2 & 1 & & & & 3 \\ 3 & 8 & 6 & 1
& & & 15 \\ 4 & 48 & 44 & 12 & 1 & & 105 \\ 5 & 384 & 400 & 140 & 20
& 1 & 945 \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

If the columns are multiplied with column $\pm$ signs alternatively,

then in the first case the row sums are zero, except $m=2$, and in
the second they give lower odd factorials\footnote{This is given
without a proof. The proof will be shown later.}.

\section{Euler Polynomials} \label{Euler Polynomials}

The Euler numbers (Table 7.5) classify naive matrices according to

the number $k$ of nonzero columns. We can add the new element in the
last row into $k$~already occupied columns or we can put it into $(n
- k)$ unoccupied columns. It is clear that the index $k$ can not be
here 0, as it was convenient at permutation
matrices.

The Euler numbers are just the beginning of a series of polynomials

$E_n(r)$ where $r = 1$. The Euler polynomial $E_n(2)$ is obtained by
multiplying each previous column, except the first one, by powers of
2 as if elements of naive matrices in columns had signs $\pm$ and all
combinations of signs were acceptable and finding the differences of
the consecutive columns. The resulting numbers are given in the Table
8.1 which elements are differences of the matrix, obtained by
multiplying the matrix of the Euler numbers with the matrix of~m-th
powers of 2:

$$\begin{tabular}{rrrr|rrrrr|rrrrr} & & & & \ & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \ & 1
& -1 & & \\ & & & & & & 2 & 2 & 2 & & & 1 & -1 & \\ & & & & & & & 4 &
4 & & & & 1 & \\ & & & & & & & & 8 & & & & & 1 \\ \hline 1 & & & & &
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & &1 & & & \\ 1 & 1 & & & & 1 & 3 & 3 & 3 & &1 & 2 & &
\\ 1 & 4 & 1 & & & 1 & 9 & 13 & 13 & &1 & 8 & 4 & \\ 1 & 11 & 11 & 1
& & 1 & 23 & 67 & 75 & &1 & 22 & 44 & 8 \\ \end{tabular}$$

\begin{table} \caption{Euler polynomials $E_n(2)$} \label{Euler

polynomials $E_n(2)$} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|} \hline k & 1 & 2
& 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\ \hline n=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 1 &
2 & & & & & 3 \\ 3 & 1 & 8 & 4 & & & & 13 \\ 4 & 1 & 22 & 44 & 8 & &
& 75 \\ 5 & 1 & 52 & 264 & 208 & 16 & & 541 \\ 6 & 1 & 114 & 1208 &
2416 & 912 & 32 & 4683 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}

The row sums of the Table 7.1 are interesting. They are generated
directly by the formal equation

\begin{equation} [1 + E(k)]^m = 2E(m) \end{equation}

where $E(k)^i = E(i)$ and $E(0) = 1$. Then

\begin{equation} 2E(1) = { 1 \choose 0 }E(0) + { 1 \choose 1 }E(1)\;,

\end{equation}

from it E(1) = 1 and so on. These numbers will appear later many
times, as differences of complete plane simplexes, but here they
appear as an~extension of the factorial simplexes or as the product
of the matrix of the Euler numbers with the diagonal matrix of powers
$2^{j-1}$.
\section{Mac Mahon Numbers} \label{Mac Mahon Numbers}

This statistics (Table 7.6) counts naive matrices according their

moments (or counting empty spaces in all rows to the first unit
element) which are obtained by multiplying naive matrices by the
diagonal matrix with indices $\Delta(j - 1)$. The recurrence is
obtained from lesser matrices by repeating $n$~times terms of the
next to the last row of the table of Mac Mahon numbers with equal or
increased moments. If the unit element in the last row is placed in
the first column the moment remains the same, and it is increased to
$(n-1)$ if it is placed in the n-th column. From each matrix with
$(n-1)$ rows $n$ new matrices are produced. Their moments are counted
as for example for $n = 5$:

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrrrr|} \hline Moments: & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 &

4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 &10 \\ \hline 4 rows and columns & 1 & 3 & 5 & 6
& 5 & 3 & 1 & & & & \\ Term 6 & & & & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1\\ Term
5 & & & & & & 3 & 3 & 3 & 3 & 3 & \\ Term 4 & & & & & 5 & 5 & 5 & 5 &
5 & & \\ Term 3 & & & & 6 & 6 & 6 & 6 & 6 & & & \\ Term 2 & & & 5 & 5
& 5 & 5 & 5 & & & & \\ Term 1 & & 3 & 3 & 3 & 3 & 3 & & & & & \\ Term
0 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 &1 & & & & & & \\ \hline Mac Mahon numbers & 1 & 4
& 9 &15& 20 &22 &20 &15 &9 & 4 & 1 \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

This scheme gives automatically the factorials.

\section{Stirling Numbers of the Second Kind} \label{Stirling Numbers

of the Second Kind}

When we look at the sequence $aac$, we see that in its matrix the
column $b$ is missing. We excluded such strings as faulty Young
tables or convolutions, but the strings as $abb$ were also not
allowed, where $b$ appeared twice, and $a$ only once. There is a
difference in these two cases: If not all columns are occupied
successively, we jump in the space over some positions. Therefore we
will now count all naive matrices in the lower triangular form with
successively occupied columns. Their recurrence is

\begin{equation} s_{11} = 1;\ s_{ij} = js_{i-1,j} + s_{i-1,j-1}

\end{equation}

It is possible to place a new element into $j$ already occupied

columns and there is only one possibility, how to increase the number
of occupied columns. In this way we obtain a table of numbers that
are known as the {\em Stirling numbers of the second kind} (Table
\ref{Stirling numbers of the second kind}).

\begin{table} \caption{Stirling numbers of the second kind}

\label{Stirling numbers of the second kind}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|} \hline j & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 &
$\Sigma$ \\ \hline n=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\
3 & 1 & 3 & 1 & & & & 5 \\ 4 & 1 & 7 & 6 & 1 & & & 15 \\ 5 & 1 & 15 &
25 & 10 & 1 & & 52 \\ 6 & 1 & 31 & 90 & 65 & 15 & 1 & 203 \\ \hline
\end{tabular} \end{table}

Stirling numbers of the second kind are inverses of~the Stirling

numbers of~the~first kind. Similarly Stirling numbers of~the~first
kind are inverses of the Stirling numbers of the second kind. The
inverse is obtained when one from the two matrices ( Table 7.2
and Table 8.2) is multiplied with alternating signs $(-1)^{i-j}$.

Stirling found numbers bearing his name when he compared powers

of~any number $t$ with its {\em factorial moments} $(t)_k$ defined by
the products

\begin{equation} (t)_k = t(t - 1)...(t - k + 1)\;. \end{equation}

Stirling numbers of the first kind transform sums and differences of

powers into factorial moments as in: $(4)_3 = 24 = 2\times4 -
3\times16 + 1\times64$. The Stirling numbers of the second kind
invert sums of factorial moments into powers as in : $4^3 = 64 =
1\times 4 + 3\times12 + 1\times 24$. Here $t$ can substitute rational
(irrational) numbers.

The row sums of Stirling numbers of the second kind, which count
naive matrices in the lower triangular form with successively
occupied columns are obtained as selfgenerating function

\begin{equation} S(n) = (S_i + 1)^{n-1},\ {\rm where}\ S^i = S_i

\end{equation}

or by using matrices. Then the numbers S(n) are obtained on the

diagonal of the product. We can multiply the product further by the
diagonal index matrix to obtain moments

$$\begin{tabular}{rrrr|rrrr|rrrr} \hline & & & & \ 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \
1 & & & \\ & & & & & 1 & 2 & 3 & & 2 & & \\ & & & & & & 1 & 3 & & &3
& \\ & & & & & & & 1 & & & & 4 \\ \hline & & & & & & & & & & & \\ 1 &
& & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 &1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \\ 1 & 1 & & & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &1 &
4 & 9 &16 \\ 1 & 1 & 2 & & 1 & 2 &5 &10 &1 & 4 &15 &40 \\ 1 & 1 & 2 &
5 & 1 & 2 & 5 &15 &1 & 4 &15 &60 \\ \end{tabular}$$

Notice that the matrix of the Stirling sums begins with two 1 and
on~the~diagonal of the product is only one 1 and then immediately the
higher sums follow. In the final product the sums are multiplied with
corresponding powers. If we label the matrix of binomial coefficients
as ${\bf B}^{\rm T}$, then we can consider its product with the
diagonal matrix $\Delta(i)$ as the logarithmic difference $d(log{\bf
S})$, similarly as it was derived in Sect. 6.4. The inverse matrix of
sums of Stirling numbers of the second kind has elements:

\begin{equation} s_{jj}^{-1} = 1;\ s_{j-1,j}^{-1} = -[S_{j-1} /S_{j}];

\ s_{ij} = 0,\ {\rm otherwise}\;. \end{equation}

We have shown one relation between Stirling numbers of the second

kind and the binomial coefficients. But there appears still another
relation. The~difference of two successive sums of Stirling numbers
is generated again by~a~binomial

\begin{equation} \Delta_nS_n = S_n - S_{n-1} = (S_{k+1} + 1)^{n-2}

\end{equation}

where we put again $S^k = S_k$. For example: $S_6 - S_5 = 1\times1
+4\times2 + 6\times5 + 4\times15 + 1\times52 = 151$.

The Stirling numbers of the second kind are defined by the formal
relation
\begin{equation} \Delta_n^1(m)^n = m^{n-1}[(1 +1/m)^{n-1} + (1 + 1/m)
^{n-2} \dots +(1 - 1/m)^0]\;. \end{equation}

Inserting $m = 1$, we obtain numbers $S(n,2): \Delta_m1^n =

1^n[2^{n-1} + 2^{n-2} \dots +2^0].$ The other numbers are derived by
the relation

\begin{equation} \Delta^m1^n = (m + 1)\Delta^m1^{n-1} +

\Delta^{m-1}1^{n-1} \end{equation}

under the condition $\Delta^01^0 = 1$.

The differences of the Stirling numbers of the second kind

\begin{equation} S(m,n) - S(m-1,n) = \Delta^{n-1}2^m \end{equation}

form the Table 8.3.

\begin{table} \caption{Differences of Stirling numbers of the second

kind} \label{Differences of Stirling numbers of the second kind}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|} \hline j & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 &
$\Sigma$ \\ \hline m=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 0 & 1 & & & & & 1 \\
3 & 0 & 2 & 1 & & & & 3 \\ 4 & 0 & 4 & 5 & 1 & & & 10 \\ 5 & 0 & 8 &
19 & 9 & 1 & & 37 \\ 6 & 0 & 16 & 65 & 55 & 14 & 1 & 151 \\ \hline
\end{tabular} \end{table}

For example: $\Delta^22^6 = 8[(3/2)^3 + (3/2)^2 + (3/2)^1 + (3/2)^0]

= 65$. This number counts naive matrices in lower triangular form
with 3 occupied columns and 6 rows, obtained from 15 matrices counted
by $S(5,2)$ by adding the~unit element into the third column and
$2\times25$ matrices counted by $S(5,3)$ increased by adding the new
unit element into one from the two first columns.

\section{Substirlings} \label{Substir}

In analogy with subfactorials defined in Sect. 7.6, we introduce

numbers which we will call {\em substirlings}. They count naive
matrices in lower triangular form with successively occupied columns
in another order, according to~the~number of columns containing just
one nonzero element. We have shown that such orbits are differences
of plane simplexes, therefore also now these matrices form
differences. Their matrix is in the Table \ref{Substirlings} which is
completed by the row and column indexed from 0. For example: $s_{40}
= 4$ counts ${\bf N}:\ a^4,\ a^2b^2,\ abba,\ abab$.

\begin{table} \caption{Substirlings} \label{Substirlings}

\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|} \hline n & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 &
$\Sigma$ \\ \hline n=0 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & & & & 2 \\ 3 & 1 & 3 & 0 & 1 & & & 5 \\ 4 & 4 & 4 & 6
& 0 & 1 & &15 \\ 5 &11 & 20 &10 &10 & 0 & 1 &52 \\ \hline
\end{tabular} \end{table}

Now again the binomial coefficients appeared here as generating

factors. Naive matrices without any columns containing only one unit
element are combined with $n$ columns with only one unit element and
the result gives the matrix elements. Therefore the sums of Stirling
numbers of the second kind are obtained by the formal
binomial:

\begin{equation} S_n = (s_{n0} + 1)^n,\ {\rm where}\ s^k = s_{n0}\;.

\end{equation}

Another possibility, how the Stirling numbers of the second kind are
obtained, is the direct count of the corresponding matrices arranged
according to the powers of a. For example:

$$\begin{array}{ccc} a & & \\ ab & aa & \\ abb,\ abc;& aab,\ aba; &
aaa \\ \end{array}$$

We get a table where the naive matrices are arranged according

to~the~rows containing the symbol a. Again these matrices are
obtained by multiplying lower matrices (without this symbol) by
binomial coefficients, showing combinatorial
possibilities:

\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|} \hline j & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 &

$\Sigma$ \\ \hline m=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\
3 & 2 & 2 & 1 & & & & 5 \\ 4 & 5 & 6 & 3 & 1 & & & 15 \\ 5 & 15& 20 &
12 & 4 & 1 & & 52 \\ 6 & 52& 75 & 50 & 20 & 5 & 1 & 203 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}

Substirlings are in their turn the sums of the {\em associated

Stirling numbers of the second kind} which count naive matrices in
the lower triangular form without empty columns, having column sums
at least $m_k = 2$. Their recurrence is given by the formula

\begin{equation} a_{ij} = ja_{i-1,j} + (i-1)a_{i-2,j-1}

\end{equation}

and their values are given in Table 8.5.

\begin{table} \caption{Associated Stirling numbers of the second

kind} \label{Associated Stirling numbers of the second kind}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrr|r|} \hline j & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline m=0&1 & & & & 1 \\ 1& 0 & 0 & & & 0 \\ 2& & 1 & & & 1 \\ 3& &
1 & & & 1 \\ 4& & 1 & 3 & & 4 \\ 5& & 1 &10 & & 11 \\ 6& & 1 &25 &15
& 41 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

\section{Space of Four Statistics} \label{Space of Four Statistics}

\begin{figure} \caption{Three statistics. A is Euler's, B is Mac

Mahon's, and C is Stirling's. Arranged strings are a, horizontal
symbol, vertical symbol} \label{Three statistics}
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20.00)(20.00,70.00) \put(20.00,70.00){\vector(0,1){0.2}} \put(20.00,
20.00){\line(0,1){50.00}} %\end %\vector(20.00,20.00)(52.00,20.00)
\put(52.00,20.00){\vector(1,0){0.2}} \put(20.00,20.00){\line(1,0)
{32.00}} %\end \put(20.00,20.00){\framebox(9.67,10.00)[cc]{1}}
\put(40.00,20.00){\framebox(10.00,10.00)[cc]{2}} \put(20.00,40.00)
{\framebox(9.67,10.00)[cc]{2}} \put(40.00,40.00){\framebox(10.00,
10.00)[cc]{2}} \put(20.00,60.00){\framebox(10.00,10.00)[cc]{2}}
\put(40.00,60.00){\framebox(10.00,10.00)[cc]{3}} \put(45.00,10.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{b}} \put(10.00,45.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{b}}
\put(9.67,65.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{c}} %\vector(65.00,20.00)(65.00,
70.00) \put(65.00,70.00){\vector(0,1){0.2}} \put(65.00,20.00){\line(0,
1){50.00}} %\end %\vector(65.00,20.00)(97.00,20.00) \put(97.00,20.00)
{\vector(1,0){0.2}} \put(65.00,20.00){\line(1,0){32.00}} %\end
\put(65.00,20.00){\framebox(9.67,10.00)[cc]{0}} \put(85.00,20.00)
{\framebox(10.00,10.00)[cc]{1}} \put(65.00,40.00){\framebox(9.67,
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[cc]{b}} %\vector(110.33,20.00)(110.33,70.00) \put(110.33,70.00)
{\vector(0,1){0.2}} \put(110.33,20.00){\line(0,1){50.00}} %\end
%\vector(110.33,20.00)(142.33,20.00) \put(142.33,20.00){\vector(1,0)
{0.2}} \put(110.33,20.00){\line(1,0){32.00}} %\end \put(110.33,20.00)
{\framebox(9.67,10.00)[cc]{1}} \put(130.33,20.00){\framebox(10.00,
10.00)[cc]{2}} \put(110.33,40.00){\framebox(9.67,10.00)[cc]{1}}
\put(130.33,40.00){\framebox(10.00,10.00)[cc]{2}} \put(110.33,60.00)
{\framebox(10.00,10.00)[cc]{2}} \put(130.33,60.00){\framebox(10.00,
10.00)[cc]{3}} \put(135.33,10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{b}} \put(25.00,
10.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{a}} \put(70.00,10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{a}}
\put(115.67,10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{a}} \put(9.67,25.00){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{a}} \put(35.00,80.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{A}} \put(80.00,80.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{B}} \put(125.33,80.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{C}}
\end{picture} \end{figure}

We have mapped naive matrices in the lower triangular form on points

of~rectangular n~dimensional parallelepipeds. These points are
classified by three different statistics Euler, Stirling and Mac
Mahon, in 3 directions. They split the space behind the Euclidean
one. These statistics distribute points differently, as it is shown
on the Fig. \ref{Three statistics} for three dimensional space and on
the scheme for four dimensional space (Table \ref{Scheme of four
statistics}).

\begin{table} \caption{Scheme of four statistics for ${\bf N}_4$ in

the lower triangular form} \label{Scheme of four statistics}
\begin{tabular}{|r|r|rrrr|rrrrrrr|} \hline & &
\multicolumn{4}{|c|}{Stirling\ I}& \multicolumn{7} {|c|}{Mac\ Mahon}
\\ \hline & & 6 & & & & & & & & & & \\ & & & 8 & & & & & & & & & \\ &
& & 3 & 6 & & & & & & & & \\ & & & & & 1 & 1 & 3 & 5 & 6 & 5 & 3 &1
\\ \hline Euler & 1 & {\bf 1} & & & & & & & & & & 1 \\ & 11 & 4 &
{\bf 7} & & & & &1 & 2 & 5 & 3 & \\ & 11 & 1 & 4 & {\bf 6} & & & 3 &
4 & 4 & & & \\ & 1 & & & & {\bf 1} & 1 & & & & & & \\ \hline & & 6
&11 & 6 & 1 & $\nwarrow$ & \multicolumn{6}{c|} {Stirling\ II} \\
\hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

We have compared three statistics, but a fourth one appeared here and
that is on the diagonal of the Stirling and Euler statistics. The
Euler numbers divide naive matrices in the lower triangular form
according to the number of occupied columns. The Stirling numbers of
the second kind count matrices with rows occupied consecutively and,
these matrices appear on the crossection of both statistics. The
Euler statistics splits 6 naive matrices in the lower triangular form
with one unit element on the diagonal in three groups the Stirling
numbers evaluate differently naive matrices in the lower triangular
form with two unit elements on the diagonal.

I do not know what you think about these coincidences. The Euclidean
space is full of surprises. It seems to be alive and if we try to
analyze it, new layers appear just on elementary levels. Euclides was
wrong when he told to the king Ptolemaos that there was no other way
to his space then his axioms. Different combinatorial functions lead
through this maze as the Ariadne's thread.

\chapter{Combinatorics of Natural Vectors} \label{Combinatorics of

natural vectors}

\section{The Binomial Coefficient} \label{The Binomial Coefficient}

The {\em binomial coefficient} is a special case of the polynomial

coefficient. This definition is invalid but it corresponds to the
facts. The two dimensional space is a special case of the
multidimensional space.

When a binomial, say $(a+b)$ is multiplied by itself m times and the

terms in the product grouped we get for example:

$$(a+b)^4 = a^4 + 4a^3b + 6a^2b^2 + 4ab^3 + b^4\;.$$

The first term 4 counts strings ${\bf aaab}$, ${\bf aaba}$, $ {\bf
abaa},$ and ${\bf baaa}$, the third term 4 counts strings ${\bf
abbb}$, ${\bf babb}$, ${\bf bbab}$, and ${\bf bbba}$. The binomial
coefficient is written as the number m stacked over the number k in
the brackets

\begin{equation} { m \choose k }\;. \end{equation}

The binomial coefficient is the product of three factorials $m!$,

$k!_{-1}$, and $(m-k)!_{-1}$. Therefore

\begin{equation} { m \choose k } = { m \choose m-k }\;.

\end{equation}

\section{The Polynomial Coefficient} \label{The Polynomial

Coefficient}

A partition of the number $m$ into $n$ parts is an n~dimensional

vector ${\bf m}$ which elements are ordered in the decreasing order,
$m_j \geq m_{j+1}$. From this vector all other vectors on the given
orbit can be generated when its elements are permuted by the unit
permutation matrices acting on the partition vector from the~right.
These vectors correspond to the scalar products of naive matrices
${\bf N}$ with the unit vector rows ${\bf J}^{\rm T}$ or to the
quadratic forms ${\bf N}^{\rm T}{\bf N}$,
because

\begin{equation} {\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf N }= {\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf N}^{\rm

T}{\bf N}\;. \end{equation}

There are $n!$ permutation matrices, but not as many permuted vector
columns, when some elements of the vector row are not
distinguishable. Vectors with equal length $m_k$ point to the sphere
and if rotated, their permutations are undistinguishable. If all
elements of the vector are equal, then no permutations have any
effect on the partition vector.

We divide vector elements into two groups, one with all zero elements,
that is $n_0$ elements, and the second group with all remaining
$(n-n_0)$ elements. The number of possible permutations will be
reduced from the factorial $n!$ to the binomial coefficient ${ n
\choose n_0 }$, or $n!/n_0!(n-n_0)!$.

In the next step we single out from the second group the vectors with
the length 1, their number is $n_1$. All other vectors will be
counted by the~third term $(n- n_0 -n_1)$, and corresponding
permutations by the binomial coefficient $(n-n_0)!/n_1!(n- n_0 -n_1)
!$. In this way we proceed till all possible values of $m_k$ are
exhausted. If some $n_k = 0$, then conveniently $0! = 1$ and
the~corresponding term is ineffective. At the end we obtain a product
of binomial coefficients:

\begin{eqnarray} \left(\frac{ n!}{n_0!(n-n_0)!}\right)

\left(\frac{(n-n )!}{(n- n_0 -n_1)!}\right) \left(\frac{(n- n_0 -n_1)
!}{n_2!(n- n_0 - n_1 - n_2)!}\right) \dots \nonumber \\
\left(\frac{(n-\sum_{k=0}^{m-1}n_k)!}{n_m!0!}\right)
\end{eqnarray}

Equal factorials appear consecutively as dividends and divisors. When

they cancel, the {\em polynomial coefficient} remains from the
product of binomial coefficients

\begin{equation} n!/\prod_{k\geq0}n_k! \end{equation}

\label{polynomial coefficient}

Lets call it the {\em polynomial coefficient for n~permutations}

because it is obtained by permuting $n$~columns. Later we will
construct another polynomial coefficient for permutations of rows of
naive matrices.

We limited the index $k$ by the lower limit 0. The coefficient could
be used actually also for vectors with negative elements. The numbers
$n_k$ of equal vectors are always positive even if the vectors
themselves are negative. We count by the polynomial coefficient
(\ref{polynomial coefficient}) points on the partition orbits of
the~positive cone of the $n$~dimensional space.

Please note the importance of this step. We know the vector ${\bf m}$
exactly, but we replace it by the corresponding partition. All points
on the given orbit are considered to be {\em equivalent}. Replacing
the vector ${\bf m }$ by the partition is a~logical abstraction. We
can proceed further, the partition is compared with an analytical
function and the orbit is described by a density
distribution.

\section{Simplex Sums of Polynomial Coefficients} \label{Simplex Sums

of Polynomial Coefficients}

Now it is possible to apply again partition schemes and to study sums

of~polynomial coefficients on all orbits of plane simplexes, it means
all natural n~dimensional vectors with constant sums m.

The overall sum is known in combinatorics as the distribution of

$m$~undistinguishable things (objects) into $n$ boxes. It is counted
by a binomial coefficient

\begin{equation} \sum_{k\geq0} n!/\prod n_k! = { m+n-1 \choose m } =

{ m+n-1 \choose n-1 } \end{equation} \label{binomial coefficient}
Both binomial coefficient are in reality different forms of one
coefficient. Most easily this binomial coefficient is obtained by
following all possibilities distributing $m$ things into a row of
$(n-1)$ bars (the objects of the second kind) representing dividing
walls of compartments. There are $(m+n-1)$ objects of two kinds and
the result is simply given by a binomial coefficient. Who is not
satisfied with this explanation, can prove (\ref{binomial
coefficient}) by the {\em full induction}.

We tested the relation at simple cases and it functioned well. Thus

we suppose that it is true for all n~dimensional vectors with $(m-1)$
elements and to all $(n- 1)$~dimensional vectors with $m$~elements.
We use the proposition for counting points with sums $m$ in
$n$~dimensions. These points we divide into two distinct subsets. In
one subset will be all points having the last element 0. Clearly,
they all are in $(n-1)$~dimensional subspace and they are counted by
the binomial coefficient ${ m+n-2 \choose m }$. In the second subset
vectors having the last element at least 1 are counted. They are
obtained from partitions of $(m-1)$ things into exactly $n$~parts by
adding 1 to the first element. This addition does not change the
corresponding number of points ${ m+n-2 \choose m-1 }$. The result is
formed by a sum of 2 binomial coefficients and verified by
calculations

\begin{eqnarray} \left(\frac{(m+n-2)!}{m!(n-2)!}\right) +
\left(\frac{(m+n-2)!}{(m-1)!(n-1)!}\right) = \nonumber \\
\left(\frac{(m+n-2)![(n-1)+m]}{m!(n-1)!}\right) = { m+n-1 \choose m
}\;. \end{eqnarray} \label{sum of 2}

As was said that we will not be interested in vectors with negative

values, but it is instructive to show results according to the lover
limit of the value $r$, which appears as the parameter $(1-r)$ of the
term $n$ in the binomial coefficients. The value $r$ can be
considered as differentiating of the
simplex

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|cccc|} \hline Lower limit & -1 & 0 & 1 & 2 \\

\hline & & & & \\ Points on the simplex & ${ m+2n-1 \choose n-1 }$ &
${ m+n-1 \choose n-1 }$ & ${ m-1 \choose n-1 }$ & ${ m-n-1 \choose
n-1 }$ \\ & & & & \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

The binomial coefficients ${ m+3-1 \choose m }$ are known as triangle

numbers. They count points of 3~dimensional planes which are regular
triangles.

\section{Differences of Normalized Simplexes} \label{Differences of

Normalized Simplexes}

We have counted points of the plane simplexes directly, now we apply

partition schemes and insert into them polynomial coefficients,
similarly as we did for the cycle indices in Chapt. 7. We limit
ourselves to cases when $m=n$. As an example, we give the scheme for
$m=n=6$:

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|} \hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\

\hline m=6 & 6 & & & & & \\ 5 & & 30 & & & & \\ 4 & & 30 & 60 & & &
\\ 3 & & 15 & 120 & 60 & & \\ 2 & & & 20 & 90 & 30 & \\ 1 & & & & & &
1 \\ \hline $\sum$ & 6 & 75 & 200 & 150 & 30 & 1 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$

In the first column vertices of the plane simplex are counted, in the
second column points on 2~dimensional edges, in the third column
points of its 3~dimensional sides. Only the last point lies inside of
the 6~dimensional plane, all other 461 points are on its borders.
This is a rather surprising property of~the high dimensional spaces
that the envelope of their normal plane simplexes is such big. But we
can not forget, that usually $m\gg n$ and then there are more points
inside than on the border.

Column sums of consecutive normalized plane simplexes can be arranged

into Table \ref{Van der Monde identity} which rows are known as the
{\em Van der Monde identity}.

\begin{table} \caption{Van der Monde identity} \label{Van der Monde

identity} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|} \hline k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5
& 6 & $\Sigma$ \\ \hline m=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 2 & 1 & & & & &
3 \\ 3 & 3 & 6 & 1 & & & & 10 \\ 4 & 4 & 18 & 12 & 1 & & & 35 \\ 5 &
5 & 40 & 60 & 20 & 1 & & 126 \\ 6 & 6& 75 & 200 & 150 & 30 & 1 & 462
\\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

The elements in each row can be written as products of two binomial

coefficients, for example $75 = (6!/4!2!)\times(5!/4!1!)$. This is a
special case of~the~identity

\begin{equation} \sum_{i=0}^{m-k}{ m \choose k+i }{ m-k \choose i } =

{ m+k \choose m } = { m+n-1 \choose n-1 } \end{equation}

The sum of products of two binomial coefficients can be written as

a~formal power of a binomial

\begin{equation} \left({ m \choose i } + 1\right)^n = { m+n \choose m

} \end{equation}

This relation counts the points of the plane simplexes in one

direction. Its special case is the {\em Waltis identity} for
$m=n$:

\begin{equation} \sum_{i=0}^{n/2}{ n \choose i }^2 = { 2n \choose n }

\end{equation}

We interpret it as the simplex in which the first vector is rooted

and only $(n-1)$ other vectors are permuted. For example:

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|c|ccc|cc|c|r|} \hline Orbits & 4000 & 3100 &

1300 & 2200 & 2110 & 1210 & 1111& $\sum$ \\ \hline Points & 1 & 3 & 3
& 3 & 3 & 6 & 1 & 20 \\ \hline Counts & 1 & \multicolumn{3}{|c|} { 9}
& \multicolumn{2}{|c|} { 9} & 1 & 20 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$

\section{Difference According to Unit Elements} \label{Difference

According to Unit Elements}

When we arrange the partition scheme according to the number of unit

vectors $n_1$, we obtain a difference of the plane simplex. For
example for $m=n=5$:
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|} \hline $n_1$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\
\hline m=5 & 5 & & & & & \\ 4 & & 20 & & & & \\ 3 & 20 & & 30 & & &
\\ 2 & & 30 & & 20 & & \\ 1 & & & & & & 1 \\ \hline $\sum$ & 25 & 50
& 30 & 20 & 0 & 1 \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

The resulting column sums of polynomial coefficients are tabulated

in~Table \ref{Unit elements difference}

\begin{table} \caption{Unit elements difference} \label{Unit elements

difference} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|} \hline $n_1$ & 0 & 1 & 2 &
3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\ \hline m=0 &1 & & & & & & & 1 \\ 1 & 0 &
1 & & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 2 & 0 & 1 & & & & & 3 \\ 3 & 3& 6 & 0 & 1 & &
& & 10 \\ 4 &10 & 12 & 12 & 0 & 1 & & & 35 \\ 5 &25 & 50 & 30 & 20 &
0 & 1 & &126 \\ 6 &71 &150 &150 & 60 & 30 & 0 & 1 &462 \\ \hline
\end{tabular} \end{table}

The numbers $b_{i0}$ are formed by vectors without any unit elements.
They can be called {\em subplane numbers}, because they generate the
number of points of the normal plane simplex by multiplying with
binomial coefficients:

\begin{equation} (b_i + 1)^m = { m+n-1 \choose m } \end{equation}

They are $(n-k)$~dimensional vectors without unit elements but with

zero elements. Their $(n-k)$ elements are combined with $k$ unit
elements. When $m \neq n$, then these relations are more complicated.
Corresponding subplane numbers are obtained by calculations of
partitions without unit parts. The~beginning of the table is

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|} \hline n & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6

\\ \hline m=0 & 1& 1 & 1 & 1& 1& 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 &
0 \\ 2 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3& 4& 5 & 6 \\ 3 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4& 5 & 6 \\ 4
& 0 & 1 & 3 & 6 &10& 15 &21 \\ 5 & 0 & 1 & 4 & 9 &16& 25 &36 \\ 6 & 0
& 1 & 5 &13 &26& 45 &71 \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

Its values $b(i,j)$ for small $m$ are: \begin{itemize} \item b(0,n) =
1; \item b(1,n) = 0; \item b(2,n) = ${ n \choose 1 }$; \item b(3,n) =
${ n \choose 1 }$; \item b(4,n) = ${ n \choose 1 }+{ n \choose 2 } =
{ n+1 \choose 2 }$; \item b(5,n) = ${ n \choose 1 } + 2{ n \choose 2
} = n^2$; \item b(6,n) = ${ n \choose 1 } + 3{ n \choose 2 } + 3{ n
\choose 3 }= (n^3-n)/2$. \end{itemize}

The subplane numbers appear here on the diagonal. An example of their

application for $m = 4,\ n = 6$: $$21 + 6\times5 + 15\times4 +
20\times0 + 15\times1 = 126 = { 9 \choose 4 }\;
.$$

Vectors without unit elements are combined with unit vectors.

\section{Differences According to One Element} \label{Differences

According to One Element}

In partition schemes the points are counted in spherical orbits. We

orient the plane simplex in the direction of one vector and then
differentiate the plane according to only one specific vector ${\bf
x}$. It can be shown on the 2~dimensional complex:
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|l|rrrrrr|c|} \hline $m_a$ & & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4
& 5 & Orbit \\ \hline Points &0 & * & * & * & * & * & * & 0,m\\ &1 &
& * & * & * & * & * & 1,(m-1) \\ &2 & & & * & * & * & * & 2,(m-2)\\
&3 & & & & * & * & * & 3,(m-3)\\ &4 & & & & & * & * & 4,(m-4)\\ &5 &
& & & & & * & 5,(m-5)\\ \hline Number & & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & \\
\hline \end{tabular}$$

The 2~dimensional complex forms a 3~dimensional simplex and its

points for different values of the vector ${\bf a}$ are counted by
column sums. It is similar to a situation as when points of the (n-1)
~ dimensional complex are counted for different values of $m$, $m_k$
going from 0 to $m$. The points are counted by binomial coefficients
${ m+k-2 \choose k }$. For example for $n=m=7$:
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrrr|} \hline $m_k$ & 0& 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 &
6 & 7\\ \hline Binomial coefficient & 792& 462& 252 & 123 & 56 & 21 &
6 & 1\\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

We obtain the identity

\begin{equation} \sum_{k=0}^m { m+k-2 \choose k } = { m+n-1 \choose m

} \end{equation}

Now we introduce another difference.

\section{Difference $\Delta(n)$ of Plane Simplexes}

\label{Difference}

\begin{figure} \caption{Difference of the plane simplex. It is formed

by one vertex, one incomplete edge, one incomplete side, etc.}
\label{Difference of} \linethickness{0.4pt} \begin{picture}(120.00,
100.00) %\emline(67.11,89.00)(107.11,20.00) \multiput(67.11,89.00)
(0.12,-0.21){334}{\line(0,-1){0.21}} %\end %\emline(27.11,20.00)
(67.11,89.00) \multiput(27.11,20.00)(0.12,0.21){334}{\line(0,1)
{0.21}} %\end \put(27.11,20.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(47.44,20.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(67.11,20.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(87.11,20.00)
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{\circle*{4.00}} \put(97.11,37.33){\circle*{4.00}} \put(57.11,37.33)
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\bezier{124}(35.67,10.67)(16.33,14.33)(27.67,11.33) \bezier{60}(27.67,
11.33)(19.33,17.33)(23.00,14.00) \bezier{36}(23.00,14.00)(20.33,19.67)
(21.67,17.00) \bezier{72}(21.67,17.00)(24.00,27.33)(21.33,20.33)
\bezier{52}(21.33,20.33)(27.67,26.67)(23.67,24.67) \bezier{52}(23.67,
24.67)(31.00,27.67)(26.33,25.33) \bezier{72}(26.33,25.33)(36.67,28.33)
(30.00,27.33) \bezier{100}(30.00,27.33)(44.00,32.33)(35.33,28.00)
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45.33)(59.67,57.00)(55.67,50.00) \bezier{80}(55.67,50.00)(61.67,61.67)
(58.33,55.67) \bezier{60}(58.33,55.67)(63.33,63.67)(60.33,59.33)
\bezier{44}(60.33,59.33)(65.33,64.00)(62.33,61.67) \bezier{32}(62.33,
61.67)(67.33,61.33)(64.33,62.33) %\emline(27.00,20.00)(107.00,20.00)
\put(27.00,20.00){\line(1,0){80.00}} %\end \end{picture}
\end{figure}

Till now zero elements were permuted with the other elements. We
exclude the zero element and count only existing (nonzero) vectors
and not virtual vectors. It means, that we count consecutively all
k~dimensional vectors $(k = 1$ to $n)$ with constant sums $m$. If we
draw the tetrahedron (Fig. \ref{Difference of}), then the counted set
of points is formed by one vertex, one edge without the~second vertex,
the inside of one side and by the four dimensional core.
In~combinatorics these vectors are known as {\em compositions}. They
can be arranged onto partition schemes. For $m=5$ we
get:

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|ccccc|r|} \hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 &

$\Sigma$ \\ \hline m=5& 5& & & & & 1 \\ 4& & 41;14 & & & & 2 \\ 3& &
32;23 & 311;131;113, & & & 5 \\ 2& & & 221;212;122; & 2111;1211;1121;
1112 & & 7 \\ 1& & & & &11111 & 1 \\ \hline $\sum$ & 1& 4 & 6 & 4 & 1
& 16\\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

The column sums of the normal plane simplexes give Table

\ref{Binomial coefficients}.

\begin{table} \caption{Binomial coefficients (matrix {\bf B})}

\label{Binomial coefficients} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|} \hline k
& 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\ \hline m=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\ 3 & 1 & 2 & 1 & & & & 4 \\ 4 & 1 & 3 & 3 & 1
& & & 8 \\ 5 & 1 & 4 & 6 & 4 & 1 & & 16 \\ 6 & 1 & 5 & 10 &10 & 5 & 1
& 32 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

Both indices in Table \ref{Binomial coefficients} were decreased by

one, to obtain the true binomial coefficient ${ k-1 \choose m-1 }$.
We had difficulties with the binomial coefficient before, when it
appeared as ${ m+n-1 \choose m }$. In that case they fill the matrix
otherwise, as in the Table \ref{Matrix bf B}:

\begin{table} \caption{Matrix ${\bf B}{\bf B}^{\rm T}$ of // binomial

coefficients} \label{Matrix bf B} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|} \hline
k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\ \hline m=0 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 1
& 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\ 2 & 1 & 3 & 6 & 10 & 15 & 21 \\ 3 & 1 & 4
& 10 & 20 & 35 & 56 \\ 4 & 1 & 5 & 15 & 35 & 70 &126 \\ 5 & 1 & 6 &
21 & 56& 126 &252 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

In both tables of binomial coefficients, their elements were obtained

similarly that is a sum of two neighbors, the left one and the upper
one, except that in the Table \ref{Binomial coefficients} the left
element is added only if $j \geq i$.

Recall the transactions with partitions and their counts according to

the~lower allowed limit of parts. Here a similar shift of values of
Tables \ref{Binomial coefficients} and \ref{Matrix bf B} occurred, but
the operation is done by the matrix of binomial coefficients ${\bf
B}^{\rm T}$. We permute $k$~nonzero elements with $(n-k)$ zero
elements and from a~part of the plane simplex we obtain the whole
simplex. Therefore this part is the~difference $\Delta(n)$. Because
there are more differences, this is the difference according to the
number of vectors $n$. In the tetrahedron one vertex is multiplied
four times, one edge six times, one side four times, and the inside
only once.

Now we can return to Table \ref{Binomial coefficients}. Its elements

have the recurrence

\begin{equation} b_{11} = 1;\ b_{ij} = b_{i-1,j} + b_{i-1,j-1}

\end{equation}

They are generated by the binomial

\begin{equation} (1_i + 1)^m = 2^m. \end{equation}

We already formulated the recurrence formula of the Table \ref{Matrix

bf B} in (\ref{sum of 2}). Notice that the elements of the Table
\ref{Matrix bf B} are sums of all elements of its preceding row or
column, which is the consequence of the consecutive applications of
(\ref{sum of 2}).

The inverse matrix ${\bf B}^{-1}$ to the matrix ${\bf B}$ is obtained
from the formal binomial

\begin{equation} (1_i - 1)^m = 0\;. \end{equation}

It is just the matrix ${\bf B }$ which elements are multiplied by

alternating signs $(-1)^{j-i}$.

\section{Difference $\Delta(m)$} \label{Difference (m)}

When we arranged the vector compositions in the table, we treated

only its column sums. There are also row sums which count
compositions classified according to the greatest vector $m_k$. The
consecutive results for $n=m$ can be arranged into the Table
\ref{Composition of vectors with m parts}

\begin{table} \caption{Composition of vectors with m parts}

\label{Composition of vectors with m parts}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrr|} \hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 &
8 & 9 \\ \hline m =1 & 1& 1& 1 & 1& 1 & 1 &1 &1 &1 \\ 2 & & 1 & 2 & 4
& 7 &12 &20 &33 &54 \\ 3 & & & 1 & 2 & 5 &11 &23 &47 &94 \\ 4 & & & &
1 & 2 & 5 &12 &25 &59 \\ 5 & & & & & 1 & 2 &5 &12 &28 \\ 6 & & & & &
& 1 &2 &5 &12 \\ & & & & & & &1 &2 & 5\\ & & & & & & & &1 &2 \\ & & &
& & & & & &1 \\ \hline $\sum$ &1 & 2 & 3 & 8 &16 &32&64 &128 &256 \\
\hline \end{tabular} \end{table}
The elements $c_{ij}$ of the Table \ref{Composition of vectors with m
parts} are sums of the polynomial coefficients counting compositions.
Their column sums are $2^{j-1}$. For $j \leq j/2$ the elements
$c_{ij}$ become constant. For example

$$\begin{tabular}{|c|c|} \hline Orbit & \# of compositions \\ \hline

$m-3,3$ & 2 \\ $m-3,2,1$ & 6 \\ $m-3,1^3$ & 4 \\ \hline $\sum$ & 12.
\\ \hline \end{tabular}$$ For $i=2$ the elements $c_{2j}$ are sums of
the binomial coefficients and their recurrence is \begin{equation}
c_{2j} = \sum_{k=1}^{j/2}{ j-k \choose k } = 2c_{2,j-1} - c_{2,j-3}
\end{equation}

where k is the number of 2.

\section{The Second Difference -- the Fibbonacci Numbers} \label{The

Second Difference -- the Fibbonacci Numbers}

When we admit as the smallest element 2, we get the Table

\ref{Fibbonacci numbers} of points of truncated plane simplexes. Its
row sums are known as the {\em Fibbonacci numbers}. In a medieval
arithmetic book they appeared as the answer on a number of~rabbit
pairs in the consecutive litters.

\begin{table} \caption{Fibbonacci numbers} \label{Fibbonacci numbers}

\begin{tabular}{|r|rrr|r|} \hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & $\Sigma$ \\ \hline
m=2 & 1 & & & 1 \\ 3 & 1 & & & 1 \\ 4 & 1 & 1 & & 2 \\ 5 & 1 & 2 & &
3 \\ 6 & 1 & 3& 1 & 5 \\ 7 & 1 & 4 & 3 & 8 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}

The vectors counted for $m=7$ are: 7; 52, 25, 43, 34; 322, 232, 223.
Notice, that the elements of the Table \ref{Fibbonacci numbers} are
binomial coefficients shifted in each column for 2 rows. Fibbonacci
numbers $F_m$ have the recurrence

\begin{equation} F_m = F_{m-1} + F_{m-2}\;. \end{equation}

The elements of the Table \ref{Fibbonacci numbers}, $f_{ij}$ are

obtained by adding 2 to each vector with $(j-1)$~nonzero elements or
1 to the greatest element of the j~dimensional vectors

\begin{equation} f_{21} = 1;\ f_{ij} = f_{i-2,j-1} + f_{i-1,j}

\end{equation}

In each row all elements of both preceding rows are repeated which
gives the recurrence of the Fibbonacci numbers.

Another way to obtain the Fibbonacci numbers is to count the

compositions in which all elements are odd. We get a scarce Pascal
triangle:

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|} \hline k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 &

$\Sigma$ \\ \hline m=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 0 & 1 & & & & & 1 \\
3 & 1& 0 & 1 & & & & 2 \\ 4 & 0 & 2 & 0 & 1 & & & 3 \\ 5 & 1 & 0 & 3
& 0 & 1 & & 5 \\ 6 & 0 & 3 & 0 & 4 & 0 & 1 & 8 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$

For example the last row counts the compositions: $51,\ 15,\ 33;\
4\times(3111);\ 111111$.
\section{Fibbonacci Spirals} \label{Fibbonacci Spirals}

\begin{figure} \caption{Fibbonacci spiral. Squared hypotenuses of

right triangles with consecutive Fibbonacci legs are odd Fibbonacci
numbers} \label{Fibbonacci spiral} \linethickness{0.4pt}
\begin{picture}(120.00,160.00) %\emline(10.33,50.00)(110.00,50.00)
\put(10.33,50.00){\line(1,0){99.67}} %\end %\emline(80.00,1.67)(80.00,
151.67) \put(80.00,1.67){\line(0,1){150.00}} %\end %\emline(80.00,
70.00)(100.00,50.33) \multiput(80.00,70.00)(0.12,-0.12){164}{\line(1,
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50.33)(-0.12,-0.24){167}{\line(0,-1){0.24}} %\end %\emline(80.00,
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\put(40.00,105.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{$\sqrt{34}$}} \put(20.00,40.00)
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0)[cc]{$-2$}} \put(70.00,150.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{5}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}

If we draw on two orthogonal axes consecutive Fibbonacci numbers, then

the~hypotenuses connecting consecutive points of the corresponding
right triangles are square roots of the squared Fibbonacci numbers
$F_{2k+1}$ (Fig. \ref{Fibbonacci spiral}). This implies the
identity

\begin{equation} F_{2k+1} = F_{k+1}^2 + F_k^2 \end{equation}

A similar identity is obtained for even numbers from the difference

of two squared Fibbonacci numbers, for example $F_8 = F_5^2 - F_3^2 =
21 = 25 - 4$. This difference can be written as a sum of products of
the Fibbonacci numbers.

\begin{equation} F_{2k} = F_{k+1}^2 - F_{k-1}^2 = F_{k}^2 +

F_kF_{k-1} \end{equation}

We decompose the higher Fibbonacci numbers consecutively and express

coefficients by the lower Fibbonacci numbers as:

\begin{equation} F_{2k+1} = F_2F_{2k} + F_1F_{2k-1} = F_3F_{2k-1} +

F_2F_{2k-2} = \dots \end{equation}

There appears still another formula

\begin{equation} F_{n+1} F_{n-1} - F^2_n = (-1)^n \end{equation}

For example at $n=5: 3\times8 - 25 = -1$.

This relations be formulated in the matrix form (using knowledge what

the matrix determinant is) as

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \left( \begin{array}{cc} F_{n+1} & F_{n} \\

F_{n} & F_{n-1} \end{array} \right) & = & \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 1
& 1 \\ 1 & 0 \end{array} \right)^n\;. \end{array}$$
This relation leads to two things. The first one is the eigenvalues
of the~matrix, see later Chapters, the second one is the zero power
of this matrix:

$$\begin{array}{ccccc} \left( \begin{array}{cc} 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 0

\end{array} \right)^0 & = & \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1
\end{array} \right) & = & \left( \begin{array}{cc} F_1 & F_0 \\ F_0 &
F_{-1} \end{array} \right)\;. \end{array}$$

On the diagonal the values $F_{n+1}$ and $F_{n-1}$ are. This fact
gives a possibility to prolongate the Fibbonacci numbers to negative
indices. This series must be: $1, -1, 2, -3, 5, -8, \dots$. We obtain
these numbers again as the sums of the two consecutive Fibbonacci
numbers, row sums of the elements of ${\bf B }^{-1}$ or as
the~elements of their generating matrix

$$\left( \begin{array}{cc} 0 & 1 \\ 1 & -1 \end{array} \right)^n\;.$$

\chapter{Power Series} \label{Power Series}

\section{Polynomial Coefficients for m Permutations}

\label{Polynomial Coefficients for m Permutations}

The polynomial coefficients were defined for permutations of columns

of vector rows. It is clear, that such a coefficient must be
applicable to transposed vector-rows, it means to vector-columns. It
seems that it is not necessary to have some special coefficients for
permutations of rows of vector columns, when the only difference
would be, that corresponding permutation matrices acted on the vector
from the left instead from the right. But a different situation
appears for strings of symbols, for example $(\bf aaabbccdef)^{\rm
T}$. We determine easily the number of produced strings by a
polynomial coefficient $10!/3!2!2!1!1!1!$. We cannot distinguish
equal symbols and therefore their mutual permutations are ineffective
as permutations of vectors having equal length. But this polynomial
coefficient is different from the polynomial coefficient for
n~permutations. The polynomial coefficient for n~permutations
permutes the numbers $n_k$ of vectors having the same value
(frequency) $m_k$. Now the appearances of individual vectors ${\bf
j}$, counted as $m_j$, are permuted. It is clear from the example
that some values $m_j$ can be equal for more vectors (1 for three, 2
for two). Thus a new index k is useful (its value coincides with the
number $m_k$ itself. The number of vectors with the value $m_k$ is
$n_k$, and the {\em polynomial coefficient for m~permutations} is
written as

\begin{equation} m!/\prod_{j=1}^n m_j! = m!/\prod_{k\geq0}m_k!^{n_k};

\ {\rm where}\ m = \sum_{j=1}^n m_j = \sum_{k\geq0} n_km_k\;.
\end{equation} \label{m permutations}

The m~permutations transform the sequence of symbols for example

$(\bf dagfabcace)^{\rm T}$, whereas n~permutations act as {\em
substitutions}, for example $(\bf abcceeefgg)^{\rm T}$. The
substitution ${\bf a}$ into ${\bf e}$ was not direct, but it was a
part of a cycle, moreover ${\bf g}$ appeared (which was not in the
example) but as a~column with zero elements in the alphabet
matrix.
\section{Naive Products of Polynomial Coefficients}

\label{Naive Product of Polynomial Coefficients}

In Chapt. 7 we studied symmetry of a special class of the naive

matrices, having one unit element not only in rows but simultaneously
in columns. They all go to an orbit consisting only from one
point.

Now we shall find the symmetry index of two groups of cyclic

permutations acting simultaneously on other naive matrices from the
left and from the right:

\begin{equation} {\bf P}_m{\bf N}{\bf P}_n\;. \end{equation}

The action of the permutation matrices from the left is counted by

the polynomial coefficient for m~permutations (\ref{m permutations}),
the action of the permutation matrices is counted by the polynomial
coefficient for n~permutations (9.1). The effect of permutations from
the right is identical with the n~permutations of columns of the
vector-row ${\bf m}$ of the column sums of naive
matrices:

\begin{equation} {\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf NP}_n\ =\ {\bf m}{\bf P}_n\;.

\end{equation}

Both actions are independent and therefore the final result is just
the~product of both coefficients

\begin{equation} \sum (n!/\prod_{k\geq 0}n!)(m!/\prod_{k\geq

0}m_k^{n_k}!) = n^m \end{equation}

The sum is made over all partition orbits. It is a special case

of~the~Newton polynomial formula, where coefficients having the same
partition structure are counted together by the polynomial for
n~permutations\footnote{The identity is known in physics as the
Polya-Brillouin statistics. But Brillouin and others did not
recognized its key importance.}. The final result is obtained easily.
Exactly $n$ columns are placed in each row, where one element can be
put. Individual choices in $m$ rows are independent and therefore
they multiply.

The right side result is known as the {\em distribution of

m~distinguishable objects into n~boxes}. Objects are distinguished by
their index $i$. This index is lost in a sum. The distinguishability
is not a property of things but circumstances\footnote{This has an
important philosophical consequence. In this century, a question was
disputed if the microparticles are distinguishable or not. But the
notion of distinguishability was ill defined.}. All 1 in naive
matrices are identical, only their positions vary. If they were
different, it were necessary to introduce a third index, which gives
another statistics (see later).

The difference against the cycle index (Equation 7.15) is the second
factorial $m!$ and factorials of $m_k$ instead their first powers.
When we use (10.2) for the partition $1^m$ we obtain $(n!/n_1!)
(m!/1!^{n_1}) =m!$. The cycle index splits the $S_m$ group according
to the cycle structure.
\section{Differences in Power Series} \label{Differences in Power
Series}

When we arrange polynomial coefficients into partition schemes we

obtain again column sums as for $m=n=6:$

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|c|} \hline k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 &

$\Sigma$ \\ \hline m =6 & 6 & & & & & & 6 \\ 5 & & 180 & & & & & 180
\\ 4 & & 450 & 1800 & & & & 2250 \\ 3 & & 300 & 7200 & 7200 & & &
14700 \\ 2 & & & 1800 & 16200 & 10800 & & 18800 \\ 1 & & & & & & 720
& \\ \hline $\Sigma$ &6 & 930 & 10800 & 23800 & 10800 & 720 & $46656=
6^6$ \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

From consecutive schemes we obtain Table \ref{Power series}:

\begin{table} \caption{Power series sequence} \label{Power series}

\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|} \hline k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 &
$\Sigma$ \\ \hline m=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 2 & 2 & & & & & 4 \\
3 & 3 & 18 & 6 & & & & 27 \\ 4 & 4 & 84 & 144 & 24 & & & 256 \\ 5 & 5
& 300 & 1500 & 1200 & 120 & & 3125 \\ 6 & 6 & 930 &10800 &23400
&10800 & 720 & 46656 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}

In Table \ref{Power series}, only the first column and the row sums
are clearly connected with $m$ and $n^m$. Moreover there appear
factorials but other elements grow too fast to be analyzed directly.
But all elements are divisible by $m$. In this way the Table
\ref{Power series} is decomposed into the direct product of two
matrices. One from them is the matrix of binomial coefficients ${ m
\choose k }$. This is the matrix ${\bf B}^{\rm T}$. The other one is
the matrix of differences $\Delta^n{\bf 0}^m$:

\begin{table} \caption{Differences $\Delta^n{\bf 0}^m$}

\label{Differences D bf 0} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|} \hline n &
0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Delta^n{\bf 0}^m$ \\ \hline m=0 & 1 & &
& & & & & 1 \\ 1 & & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & & 1 & 2 & & & & & 3 \\ 3
& & 1 & 6 & 6 & & & & 13 \\ 4 & & 1 & 14 & 36 & 24 & & & 75 \\ 5 & &
1 & 30 &150 & 240 & 120 & & 541 \\ 6 & & 1 & 62 & 540 &1560 &1800
&720 & 4683 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

We already encountered the row sums $\Delta^n{\bf 0}^m$ in Table 9.1

as the Euler polynomials $E_n(2)$. These numbers count the naive
matrices in lower triangular form multiplied by powers $2^k$. For
example for $m=n=4$:

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|c|ccc|ccc|c|} \hline n & 1 & & 2 & & & 3 & & 4
\\ \hline Basic string & aaaa &aaab& aabb &abbb &aabc& abbc &abcc
&abcd \\ Permutations & 1 & 4 & 6 & 4 &12 & 12 & 12 & 24 \\ \hline
Counts & 1 & & 14 & & & 36 & & 24 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$

The binomial coefficients ${ m \choose k }$ permute nonzero columns

with zero columns. The table of differences has the first row and
column indexed with zero indices. But they contain, except the
element $1_{00}$, only zeroes. This eliminates the effect of the
first row of the binomial matrix in the direct product.
The recurrence in the Table \ref{Differences D bf 0} is simple

\begin{equation} m_{00} = 1;\ m_{ij} = j(m_{i-1,j-1} + m_{i-1,j})

\end{equation}

In each column we have $j$~possibilities to add the new element.

Either it is added to the occupied columns, or it is added into a new
column. Then other column are only shifted without permuting.

Table \ref{Power series} is the direct product $c_{ij} = a_{ij} \times

b_{ij}$. When we find the normal product $(\Delta^n 0^m){\bf B}^{\rm
T}$, we obtain the matrix which elements are powers $j^i$.
For~example

$$\begin{tabular}{rrrr|rrrrr} & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 &1 & 1 \\ & & & & & 1
& 2 & 3 & 4 \\ & & & & & & 1 & 3 & 6 \\ & & & & & & & 1 & 4 \\ \hline
1 & & & & 1 &1 &1 &1 & 1 \\ & 1 & & & & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \\ & 1 & 2 & &
& 1 & 4 & 9 &16 \\ & 1 & 6 & 6 & & 1 & 8 &27 &64 \\
\end{tabular}$$

Even the Table 10.2 is not an elementary one. It can be decomposed

again into the matrix of the Stirling numbers of the second kind
(Table 8.2) and the~diagonal matrix of factorials $\Delta(j!)$ which
multiply the Stirling matrix from the right. The Stirling numbers of
the second kind count naive matrices in~the~lower triangular form.
This condition assures that all columns form a~base for column
permutations, when the restriction of the lower triangular form is
removed.

In another arrangement, we can form the table of finite differences

as in~Table \ref{Differences of power series}.

\begin{table} \caption{Differences of power// series}

\label{Differences of power series} \begin{tabular}{|r|r|rrrr|} \hline
k & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \\ \hline m=0 & 1 & & & & \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & & & \\
2 & 1 & 1 & 1 & & \\ 3 & 14 & 3 & 1 & 1 & \\ 4 &181 & 13 & 3 & 1 & 1
\\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

In the zero column are counted strings of the simplex which are not
in~its difference. The elements in other columns are consecutive
differences. For example the elements in $d_{30}=14$ are: $b^3$,
$c^3$, $b^3$, 3$b^2c$, 3$bc^2$, 3$a^2c$, 3$ac^2$. The column indices
correspond to the powers of the first index, for example $d_{41}=13=
ab^3 + 3ab^2c + 3abc^2 +6abcd,\ d_{42}=3 = a^2b^2 + 2a^2bc$. When we
multiply this matrix with the transposed matrix of binomial
coefficients ${\bf B}^{\rm T}$, we get on the diagonal of the product
corresponding powers $n^n$. The binomial coefficient permutes the
first vector with other already permuted vectors.

\section{Operator Algebra} \label{Operator Algebra}

We used the operator notation many times. Now we shall explain its
notation. There exist the {\em identity function} $E$ and the {\em
difference function} $\Delta$. Moreover there are formal powers
$0^n$. These functions are defined reciprocally
as

\begin{equation} \Delta^m0^n = [E^m0^n -1]^m = \sum_{j=0}^m { m

\choose j }(-1)^j(m-j)^m \end{equation}

This gives for the corresponding matrix elements sums of powers of

the~index m:

\begin{itemize} \item $\Delta^m0^1 = 1\times1^m$, \item $\Delta^m0^2

= 1\times2^m - 2\times1^m$, \item $\Delta^m0^3 = 1\times3^m -
3\times2^m + 3\times1^m$. \end{itemize}

We calculate for n=3:

$$\begin{array}{lcll} $\Delta^m0^3$ & $m=1=$&

$1\times3-3\times2+3\times1$ & $=0$,\\ & $m=2=$ & $
1\times9-3\times4+3\times1$ & $=0$, \\ & $m=3=$ &
$1\times27-3\times8+3\times1$ & $=6$, \\ & $m=4=$ &
$1\times81-3\times16+3\times1$ & $=36$\;. \\
\end{array}$$

The original function is restored by the product of $\Delta^m0^n$

with the matrix of binomials. This corresponds to the formal
equation

\begin{equation} n^m = E^m 0^n =(1 + \Delta^m0^n)^m\;. \end{equation}

The row sums of the Table 10.2 taken with alternating signs (the
difference of even and odd columns) gives $(-1)^i$. Let suppose that
this is true for some row. The elements of the next row are just
multiplied sums of the preceding row:

\begin{equation} d_{ij} = j(d_{i-1,j-1} + d_{i-1,j}) \end{equation}

When we make the difference $d_1 -2(d_1 +d_2) +3(d_2 +d_3) - \dots =
-d_1 + d_2 -d_3 \dots$, we get the elements of the preceding row
with the other signs which sum was +/-1.

\section{Differences $dx$ and Sums of $n^m$} \label{Differences dx

and Sums of n}

The power $n^m$ is the binomial, if we write n as a sum $n = (n-1)

+1$. Then

\begin{equation} n^m = [(n-1) + 1]^m = \sum_{k=0}^m{ m \choose k

}(n-1)^k\;. \end{equation}

For example: $3^4 = (1\times1+4\times2+6\times4+4\times 8+1\times16)

= 81$. The terms of the binomial are differences of the number of
strings of the plane simplexes according to one vector (this vector
must have the prescribed value).

The function $n^m$ can be differentiated still in another way. When

we look at its Table 10.3, we see that the powers can be defined by
their row differences

\begin{equation} (n^m - 1) = (n - 1)\sum_{i=0}^m n^i\;.

\end{equation} \label{row differences}

For example $27-1 = 2(1+3+9)$. We can write this as the sum

of~differences of an infinite sequence $1/n^k$. We add 1 to both
sides of (\ref{row differences}) and write it as

\begin{equation} n^m = (n-1)\sum_{k=1}^{\infty}n^{m-k}\;.

\end{equation}

This equation is true even for $m=1$ and we therefore have

\begin{equation} n/(n-1) = (n-1)\sum_{i=0}^{\infty}n^{-i}

\end{equation}

This infinite sequence is hidden in the zero simplex because the

numbers with negative powers $1/a^i$ cannot be interpreted as
geometrical points with have negative sign, $a^{-1}$ is not identical
with $-a$.

For the sums of the first rows the following identities are found
easily

\begin{equation} \sum_{k=1}^n k^0 = n;\ \sum_{k=1}^n k^1 = { n+1

\choose 2 };\ \sum_{k=1}^n k^3 = { n+1 \choose 2 }^2\;.
\end{equation}

All identities are easily proven by the full induction. Especially if

the last one is true for $n$, then for $(n+1)$ we have $$ { n+1
\choose 2 }^2 + { n+1 \choose 1 }^3 = { n+2 \choose 2 }^2\;.
$$

This is verified by direct calculations.

It should be noted that the i-th row of the Table 10.2 is obtained
consecutively by multiplying this matrix by the ${\bf Q }$ from the
right from the (i-1)-th row. ${\bf Q }$ is the diagonal matrix of
indices which repeat once again just under the main diagonal as in
the following example

$$\begin{array}{cccc|cccc} & & & & 1 & & & \\ & & & & 1 & 2 & & \\ &
& & & & 2 & 3 & \\ & & & & & &3 &4\\ \hline 1 & & & & 1 & & & \\ & 1
& & & 1 & 2 & & \\ & 1 & 2 & & 1 & 6 & 6 & \\ & 1 & 6 &6 & 1 &14 &36
&24\;.\\ \end{array}$$

\section{Some Classification Schemes} \label{Some Classification

Schemes}

We can classify naive matrices similarly as it was done for the

permutation matrices. Such classifications lead sometimes to
complicated recurrences. For~example if we imitate the rencontres
numbers and count the number of elements on the main diagonal in
vector strings, we obtain for $(3,3)$ following two
classifications

$$\begin{array}{|r|c|c|c|c|c|} \hline & $\hbox{The difference}$ &

$\Sigma$ & $\hbox{The rest of the simplex}$ & $\Sigma$ & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline $k=0$ & bca,cab,bab,baa & 4 & ccb, bcb, caa, cca & 4 & 8\\ 1 &
aaa,aab,bba,acb,bac,cba & 6 &bbb, ccc, cbb, bcc, aca, cac & 6 & 12 \\
2 & aba,abb & 2 & bbc, cbc, aac, acc & 4 & 6\\ 3 & abc & 1 & & 0 & 1
\\ \hline $\Sigma$ & & 13 & & 14 & 27\\ \hline \end{array}$$

The Table 10.3 shows the rencontres numbers in the difference

simplexes, the Table 10.4 gives the counts for all naive
matrices

\begin{table} \caption{Rencontres numbers of differences}

\label{Rencontres numbers of differences}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|} \hline k & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 &
$\Sigma$ \\ \hline m=0 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & 3 \\ 3 & 4 & 6 & 2 & 1 & & & 13 \\ 4 & 27 & 28
& 16 & 3 & 1 & & 75 \\ 5 &187 & 214 & 104 & 31 & 4 & 1 &541 \\ \hline
\end{tabular} \end{table}

\begin{table} \caption{Rencontres numbers// in power series}

\label{Rencontres numbers in power series}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrr|r|} \hline k & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & $\Sigma$
\\ \hline m=0 & 1 & & & & & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 1 & 2 & 1
& & & 4 \\ 3 & 8 & 12 & 6 & 1 & & 27 \\ 4 & 85 & 104 & 54 & 12 & 1 &
256 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

We will not analyze these recurrences, but show another one. If the
strings in plane simplexes are classified according to the number of
unit vectors $n_1$, we obtain the difference Table 10.5.

\begin{table} \caption{Differences of powers according to $n_1$}

\label{Differences of powers according to n}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|} \hline k & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 &
$\Sigma$ \\ \hline m=0 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & & 1
\\ 2 & 2 & 0 & 2 & & & & & 4 \\ 3 & 3 & 18 & 0 & 6 & & & & 27 \\ 4 &
40 & 48 & 144 & 0 & 24 & & & 256 \\ 5 & 205 & 1000 & 600 & 1200 & 0 &
120 & & 3125 \\ 6 & 2556 & 7380 & 18000 & 7200 &10800 & 0 &720 &46656
\\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

The first column elements of the Table 10.5 can be named {\em
subpowers}, because they generate the other elements in rows which
sums give the powers $n^n$. The recurrence is

\begin{equation} p_{i0}=1\ p_{ij} = p_{i-j,0}\ [i!/(i-j)

!]^2\times1/j! = p_{i-j,0}j!{ i \choose j }^2 \end{equation}
\label{recurrence}

This recurrence can be divided into two steps. At first to naive

matrices with $(i-j)$ elements $j$ unit elements are added and the
rows are permuted using the binomial coefficient ${ i \choose j }^2$.
Then we repeat permutations with columns using the same binomial
coefficient. The result must be corrected for the permutations of th-added $j$
unit elements between themselves, this is done by~the~factorial term 1/j!.

\section{Classification According to Two Vectors}

\label{Classification According to Two Vectors}

All points in the partition diagrams of the simplexes were divided

into the orbits. They were classified according to the size of the
largest vector. It is possible to count points and strings according
to the size of one specific vector. This can be done for more vectors
simultaneously, conveniently only for two vectors, when the
classification is planar. We abandon the spherical perspective and
scan a simplex according to two axis. As an example we show the
classification of the triangle $3^3$
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrr|r|} \hline $m_b$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & $\sigma$
\\ \hline $m_a$ = 0 & $c^3$ & $3bc^2$ & $3b^2c$ & $b^3$ & 8 \\ 1 &
$3ac^2$ & 6abc & $3ab^2$ & & 12 \\ 2 & $3a^2c$ & $3a^2b$ & & & 6 \\ 3
& $a^3$ & & & & 1 \\ \hline $\sigma$ & 8 & 12 & 6 & 1 & 27 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$

For $(4,4)$ simplex the following scheme is obtained similarly

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrr|r|} \hline $m_b$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &

$\Sigma$ \\ \hline $m_a= 0$ & 16 & 32 & 24 & 8 & 1 & 81 \\ 1 & 32 &
48 & 24 & 4 & & 108 \\ 2 & 24 & 24 & 6 & & & 54 \\ 3 & 8 & 4 & & & &
12 \\ 4 & 1 & & & & & 1 \\ \hline $\Sigma$ & 81 & 108 & 54 & 12 & 1 &
256\\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

The zero row and column correspond to simplexes $3^4$, their

crossection $s_{00}$ and diagonal to $2^4$. The elements are
calculated as products of two binomial coefficients and corresponding
the powers

\begin{equation} { m_a+m_b \choose m_a }{ m \choose m_a }(n-2)

^{m-m_a-m_b} \end{equation}

The row and column sums of two vector schemes give the one vector
classification

\begin{equation} { m \choose m_a }(n-1)^{m-m_a} \end{equation}

\section{\ Falling and Rising Factorials} \label{Falling and Rising

Factorials}

In (\ref{recurrence}) a ratio of two factorials $i!/(i-j)!$ appeared.

It was obtained from the corresponding binomial by multiplying it
with the factorial $j!$. This ratio is known as the {\em falling
factorial} and it is noted as $(n)_k$. The meaning of this notation
of the falling factorial is that it is the product of k~terms $(n-k)$,
k going from 0 to $(k-1)$. When we arrange falling factorials into
the Table \ref{Falling factorial} the falling factorial has a very
simple inverse matrix.

\begin{table} \caption{Falling factorial and its inverse matrix}

\label{Falling factorial} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|rrrrrr|} \hline
k & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & \qquad & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\ \hline
m=0 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 & & & & & \\ 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & & &-1 & 1 & &
& & \\ 2 & 2 & 2 & 1 & & & & & & -2 & 1 & & & \\ 3 & 6 & 6 & 3 & 1 &
& & & & & -3 & 1 & & \\ 4 & 24 & 24 & 12 & 4 & 1 & & & & & & -4 & 1 &
\\ 5 &120 &120 & 60 & 20 & 5 & 1 & & & & & &-5 & 1 \\ \hline
\end{tabular} \end{table}

The falling factorials can be obtained formally from the binomial

\begin{equation} (k! + 1)^n\ \mbox{substituting for}\ k!^j = j!\;.

\end{equation}

We have mentioned the problem of distinguishability of things in

distributions of things into distinguishable boxes. The distribution
of the undistinguishable things, obtained as a sum of the polynomial
coefficients for n~permutations, led to the binomial coefficient ${
m+n+1 \choose m }$. Then we divided $m$~ones into $m$~rows and
obtained the polynomial coefficient for m~permutations, because these
ones were equivalent. The sum of products of both coefficients gave
$n^m$. Now we add the third index $k$. We can distinguish, if on the
row $i$ in~the~column $j$ is $1_{\alpha}$ or $1_{\beta}$. There
appears constant number $m!$ of permutations of m~objects for all
points counted by the sum of polynomial coefficients for
n~permutations. The result is

\begin{equation} \sum_{k\geq0}m!n!/\prod n_k! = (m+n-1)!/(n-1)!

\end{equation}

This identity is known as the {\em rising factorial} and the notation
$(n)^m$ is used. Both rising and falling factorials are related as

\begin{equation} (n+m-1)_m = (n)^m\;. \end{equation}

It is possible to define the rising factorial as the falling

factorial of negative numbers

\begin{equation} (n)^m =(-1)^m(-n)_m\;. \end{equation}

For example $(n)^2 = (n+2)(n+1)n = (-1)^3(-n)(-n-1)(-n-2)$.

\section{\ Matrices ${\bf NN}^{\rm T}$} \label{Matrices NN}

We have already counted quadratic forms ${\bf N}^{\rm T}{\bf N}$. Now
we shall study the~other quadratic forms ${\bf NN}^{\rm T}$. In them
blocks ${\bf JJ}_k^{\rm T}$ obtained as outer products of~the~unit
vector columns ${\bf J}_k$ appear.

For example the block matrix $$\left( \begin{array}{ccccc} 1 & 1 & 1

& 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 &
1 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 \end{array} \right)$$

is permuted as $$\left( \begin{array}{ccccc} 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\ 0 &

1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 1
& 0 & 1 \end{array} \right)\;.$$

These blocks can not distinguish sequences $({\bf ababa})^{\rm T}$

and $({\bf babab})^{\rm T}$. They only register that on places $1,3,
5$ one vector was and the other vector was on places 2 and 4.

The difference between both quadratic forms can be compared to two

observers of trains. ${\bf N}^{\rm T}{\bf N }$ is an observer sitting
on a train. He registers how many times his train moved but he can
not tell when. ${\bf NN}^{\rm T}$ is an observer on~rails registering
intervals when rails were used but he can not tell by which
train.

The quadratic forms\footnote{ The quadratic forms ${\bf NN}^{\rm T}$

of long strings form very interesting patterns.} ${\bf NN}^{\rm
T}$are counted by an index known as the {\em Bell polynomial}

\begin{equation} m!/\prod_{k\geq0} n_k !m_k !^{n_k} \end{equation}

When we compare it with the product of two polynomial coefficients,

we see that this was divided by the term $n!/n_0!$. This term
appeared as the~operand multiplying all Stirling numbers of the
second kind to give differences $\Delta^m0^n$ (Sect. 10.3). Therefore
the Bell polynomials are counted by~the~Stirling numbers of the
second kind and their sums. The number of quadratic forms ${\bf NN
}^{\rm T}$ is identical with the number of naive matrices in the
lower triangular form without empty intermediate
columns.

When the Bell polynomials are compared with the~cycle index (7.15),
we see that here instead of the simple $m$~terms their factorials
appear. The~elements in columns do not form cycles but
undistinguishable subsets. The Stirling numbers generate differences,
if multiplied with the matrix of factorials, and with the matrix of
powers, if multiplied with falling factorials:

$$\begin{array}{cccc|rrrrr|rrrrr} & & & & \quad & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1
&\quad & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ & & & & & & 2 & 2 & 2 & & & 1 & 2 & 3 \\ &
& & & & & & 6 & 6 & & & & 2 & 6 \\ & & & & & & & & 24 & & & & & 6 \\
\hline 1 & & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & & & & 1
& 3 & 3 & 3 & & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \\ 1 & 3 & 1 & & & 1 & 7 &13 &13 & & 1
& 4 & 9 &16 \\ 1 & 7 & 6 & 1 & & 1& 15 &51 &75 & & 1 & 8& 27& 64 \\
\end{array}$$

When the lowest allowable value $m_j = 2$, the polynomials give
associated Stirling numbers of the second kind which recurrence
is

\begin{equation} a_{ij} =ja_{i-1,j} + (i-1)a_{i-2,j-1}\ {\rm with}\

a_{00} =1\;. \end{equation}

\section{\ Balloting Numbers} \label{Balloting Numbers}

\begin{figure} \caption{Balloting numbers cone. Coordinates ${\bf a}$

are always greater then coordinates ${\bf b}$} \label{Balloting
numbers} \linethickness{0.6pt} \begin{picture}(120.00,120.00)
%\emline(20.00,110.00)(20.00,20.00) \put(20.00,110.00){\line(0,-1)
{90.00}} %\end %\emline(20.00,20.00)(110.00,20.00) \put(20.00,20.00)
{\line(1,0){90.00}} %\end %\emline(20.00,20.00)(110.00,110.00)
\multiput(20.00,20.00)(0.12,0.12){751}{\line(0,1){0.12}} %\end
%\emline(20.00,40.00)(40.00,20.00) \multiput(20.00,40.00)(0.12,-0.12)
{167}{\line(0,-1){0.12}} %\end %\emline(20.00,80.00)(80.00,20.00)
\multiput(20.00,80.00)(0.12,-0.12){501}{\line(0,-1){0.12}} %\end
%\emline(20.00,100.00)(100.00,20.00) \multiput(20.00,100.00)(0.12,
-0.12){667}{\line(0,-1){0.12}} %\end \put(20.00,19.67)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(20.00,40.00){\circle*{4.00}} %\emline(20.00,
60.00)(60.00,20.00) \multiput(20.00,60.00)(0.12,-0.12){334}{\line(0,
-1){0.12}} %\end \put(40.00,39.67){\circle*{4.00}} \put(20.00,59.67)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(40.00,59.33){\circle*{4.00}} \put(20.00,79.33)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(40.00,80.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(60.33,60.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(20.00,99.33){\circle*{4.00}} \put(10.00,99.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{a}} \put(99.67,9.67){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{b}}
\put(70.00,54.67){\makebox(0,0)[lc]{forbidden}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}

In Sect. 9.8 the Fibbonacci numbers were introduced with a singular

matrix. If we rearrange its elements as in Table 9.7, we obtain a
matrix which can be inverted. The positive numbers of the inverse
matrix are known as the {\em balloting numbers}.
\begin{table} \caption{Fibbonacci and balloting numbers}
\label{Fibbonacci and balloting numbers}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|c|rrrrrrr|} \hline & \multicolumn{7}{|c|}
{Fibbonacci numbers} & & \multicolumn{7}{|c|} {Balloting numbers}\\
\hline k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & \quad & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6
& 7 \\ \hline m=1 & 1 & & & & & & && 1 & & & & & & \\ 2 & & 1 & & & &
& && & 1 & & & & & \\ 3 & 1 & & 1 & & & & && -1 & & 1 & & & & \\ 4& &
2 & & 1 & & & && &-2 & &1 & & & \\ 5 & 1 & & 3& &1 & & && 2& &-3 & &
1 & & \\ 6 & & 3 & & 4 & & 1& && & 3 & &-4 & & 1 & \\ 7 & 1 & & 6 & &
5 & & 1 && -2 & & 9 & & -5 & & 1 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

Actually, the balloting numbers are all positive. The negative signs
appear by multiplication with ${\bf I}*$ from both sides. They count
binary strings in~which one side has always an advantage given by the
sieve rule $m_{ai} \geq m_{bi}$. The counted strings lead only in a
half of the two dimensional cone (Fig. 10.1). The inverse Fibbonacci
matrix counts strings which elements are ${\bf b}$ and two
consecutive ${\bf aa} = {\bf a}^2$. For example $f_{75} = 5$ counts
strings ${\bf b}^5{\bf a}^2$, ${\bf b}^4{\bf a}^2{\bf b}$, ${\bf
b}^3{\bf a}^2{\bf b}^2$, ${\bf b}^2{\bf a}^2{\bf b}^3$, ${\bf b}{\bf
a}^2{\bf b}^4$.

\begin{figure} \caption{Fibbonacci lattice. Odd vectors ${\bf a}$ are

not formed. The Fibbonacci numbers count the restricted strings}
\label{Fibbonacci lattice} \linethickness{0.6pt}
\begin{picture}(130.00,150.00) %\vector(20.00,20.00)(40.00,20.00)
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\put(120.00,20.00){\vector(1,0){0.2}} \put(100.00,20.00){\line(1,0)
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{\vector(0,1){0.2}} \put(20.00,20.00){\line(0,1){40.00}} %\end
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{0.2}} \put(20.00,60.00){\line(0,1){40.00}} %\end %\vector(20.00,
100.00)(20.00,140.00) \put(20.00,140.00){\vector(0,1){0.2}}
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\end{figure}

The corresponding lattice is depicted on Fig. \ref{Fibbonacci

lattice}. The Fibbonacci numbers $f_{ij}$ are generated by the
recursion

\begin{equation} f_{11} = 1;\ f_{ij} = f_{i-1,j-1} + f_{i,j-2}\;.

\end{equation}

The balloting numbers $b_{ij}$ are generated by the recursion

\begin{equation} b_{11} = 1;\ b_{ij} = b_{i-1,j-1} + b_{i-1,j+1}\;,

\end{equation}

We can formulate also a table, which elements count strings in which

$m_a \geq m_b^2$. Its elements are $b_{ij} = b_{i-1,j-1} + b_{i-2,j}$,
and it is again a rarefied matrix of binomial
coefficients.

The inverse matrix with positive signs is

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrr|} \hline & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 &
8 & 9 \\ \hline n=0 & 1 & & & & & & & & \\ 1 & & 1 & & & & & & & \\ 2
& & & 1 & & & & & & \\ 3 & 1 & & & 1 & & & & & \\ 4 & & 2 & & & 1 & &
& & \\ 5 & & & 3 & & & 1 & & & \\ 6 & 3 & & &4 & & & 1 & & \\ 7 & & 7
& & & 5 & & & 1& \\ 8 & & & 12 & & & 6 & & & 1 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$

The matrix elements, the numbers $b_{ij}$, are generated by the

recursion

\begin{equation} b_{11} = 1;\ b_{ij} = b_{i-1,j-1} + b_{i-1,j+2}\;.

\end{equation}

They count strings with the elements $a^3$, and $b$.

\section{\ Another Kind of Differences} \label{Another Kind of
Differences}

For all points (elements) of space we can measure distances

(differences) from the other points. These distances are induced by
their special functions. As an example we introduce differences $[2^m
+1] - { m \choose j }$ tabulated in Table \ref{Differences of
binomial coefficients}

\begin{table} \caption{\ Differences of binomial coefficients}

\label{Differences of binomial coefficients}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|} \hline j & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\
\hline m=0& 1 & & & & & \\ 1& 2 & 1 & & & & \\ 2& 4& 3 & 1 & & & \\
3& 8 & 7 & 4 & 1 & & \\ 4& 16& 15 &11 & 5 & 1 & \\ 5& 32 &31 &26 &16
& 6 & 1 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

The inverse matrix has elements as in Table \ref{Differences of m}

\begin{table} \caption{\ Differences of $m^2$} \label{Differences of

m} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|} \hline j & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\
\hline m=0 & 1 & & & & & \\ 1 &-2 & 1 & & & & \\ 2 & 2& -3 & 1 & & &
\\ 3 &-2& 5 &-4 & 1 & & \\ 4 & 2& -7 & 9 &-5 & 1 & \\ 5 &-2& 9&-16
&14 &-6 & 1 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

When we do not consider the signs $(-1)^{m+j}$, the squares of $(m-1)

$ are in the third column, in the second column its first differences
$(m+1)^2-m^2$ and in the first column its second differences which
are from the second row up constant. The higher column elements are
differences of the elements of the previous columns

\begin{equation} m_{ij} = m_{i-1,j-1} - m_{i-1,j}\;, \end{equation}

similarly as all sums in the matrix of binomial coefficients.

Another possible decomposition of the Table \ref{Differences of m} is

on the sum of two tables of binomial coefficients ${\bf B}_{m,j} +
{\bf B}_{m-1,j-1}$.

Such difference tables can be constructed for any powers of

consecutive numbers. Their inverse matrices have no simple
interpretation as differences of squared numbers.

\section{\ Lah Numbers} \label{Lah Numbers}

It is difficult to show all relations between all space functions.

The Lah numbers ${\bf L}$ are introduced simply by their Table
\ref{Lah numbers}

\begin{table} \caption{\ Lah numbers ${\bf L}$} \label{Lah numbers}

\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrr|r|} \hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & $\Sigma$
\\ \hline m=1& 1 & & & & & 1 \\ 2& 2& 1 & & & & 3 \\ 3& 6& 6 & 1 & &
& 13 \\ 4& 24& 36 & 12 & 1 & & 73 \\ 5& 120& 240& 120 & 20 & 1& 501
\\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

Actually, the original Lah numbers ${\bf L}$ have odd rows negative
signs and then

\begin{equation} {\bf L}^2 = {\bf I};\ {\rm or}\ {\bf L}^{-1} = (-1)
^{i+j}{\bf L}\;. \end{equation}

The elements of the Table \ref{Lah numbers} are direct products of

falling factorials with the binomial coefficients

\begin{equation} l_{ij} = i!/j!{ i-1 \choose j-1 }\;. \end{equation}

The recurrence of the Lah numbers is

\begin{equation} l_{i+1,j} = (i+j)l_{ij} + l_{i,j-1} \end{equation}

Another possibility to produce the Lah numbers, is the product of

matrices of Stirling numbers of both kinds. The matrix of the
Stirling numbers of the second kind is multiplied by the matrix of
the Stirling numbers of~the~first kind from the
right:

\begin{equation} {\bf L }= {\bf S}_1{\bf S}_2\;. \end{equation}

Due to the relations of both kinds of Stirling numbers the inverse

of~the~Lah matrix is identical with the matrix itself.

The transposed order of the Stirling numbers multiplication gives

another Table \ref{Differences as product}, this time of differences
$\Delta(n)n^n$

\begin{table} \caption{\ Differences as product ${\bf S}_2{\bf S}_1$}

\label{Differences as product} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrr|r|} \hline n
& 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & $\Sigma$ \\ \hline m=1 & 1 & & & & & 1 \\ 2 & 2
& 1 & & & & 3 \\ 3& 6 & 6 & 1 & & & 13 \\ 4 & 26 & 36 & 12 & 1 & & 75
\\ 5 &150& 250 &120 &20 & 1 &541 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

Multiplying the matrix of the Stirling numbers of the first kind

by~the~matrix of the Stirling numbers of the second kind gives the
same result as the~permutations of columns of the naive matrices in
the lower triangular form with j~columns with nonzero elements by the
permutation matrices ${\bf P }$ with i~rows and columns and j~cycles.
The arrangement assures that empty columns are not permuted from
their position. The Table \ref{Differences as product} counts strings
according to the number of columns in the lower triangular form,
which were not permuted from their positions. The elements of its
first column are, except the first element, $2\Delta^{n-1}0^{n-1}$.
There are counted matrices in the lower triangular form with the
leading first element ${\bf a}$ and the second element either ${\bf
a}$ or ${\bf b}$.

\chapter{Multi Dimensional Cubes} \label{Multi Dimensional Cubes}

\section{Introduction} \label{Introduction 11}

As an introduction to this chapter, we repeat some of the facts about

cubes, which were already explained previously. We used as the
generating function of the powers of vector sets $(\Sigma{\bf e}_j)
^m$. We obtained vector strings ${\bf N}$ leading to the points on
the planes orthogonal to the unit diagonal vector ${\bf I}$. We found
mathematical operations which arranged these matrix vectors ${\bf N}$
onto spherical orbits and mentioned some possibilities to form from
the plane simplexes their complexes, that is the positive cones in
vector space. We have also shown that cubes or generally any
parallelepipeds are formed from plane complexes by truncating too long
vectors. The traditional approach, the Cartesian product of n one
dimensional complexes gives only points, no vector strings

\begin{equation} (1 + a + a^2)\times(1 + b +b^2) = 1 + a + a^2 + b +

ab + b^2 + a^2b + ab^2 + a^2b^2. \end{equation}

These n~dimensional cubes are formed usually by the Cartesian

products of $n$ one dimensional complexes, for example:

\begin{equation} (1 + a + a^2)\times(1 + b + b^2) = 1 + (a + b) + a^2

+ ab + b^2 + a^2b + ab^2 + a^2b^2. \end{equation}

The first three simplexes are complete, but the last two are
truncated. Moreover, not all strings are produced. Now we will treat
cubes systematically. Especially we will show how the vector strings
are transformed into points of cubes and points of plane simplexes
into orbits. This transformation is possible by interpretation of the
transposed naive matrices ${\bf N}^{\rm T}$ as faces (Fig. ), the
vectors determining the coordinates of the points in m~dimensional
space. Each vector string corresponds to one point and all strings
of~the~plane simplex n are mapped onto points of m~dimensional cube
which side is $(n-1)$. This transformation is not a simple task. It
can be demonstrated on mapping a 3~dimensional plane onto
4~dimensional cube with the sides 0-2.

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|r|rrrrrrrrr|c|} \hline Moments: & & 0 & 1 & 2 &

3 & 4& 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & $\Sigma$\\ \hline Plane strings:& b=0& 1 & & 4
& & 6 & & 4 & & 1 & 16 \\ & 1& & 4 & & 12 & &12& & 4 & & 32 \\ & 2& &
&6 & &12 & & 6 & & & 24 \\ & 3& & & & 4 & &4 & & & & 8 \\ & 4& & & &
& 1 & & & & & 1 \\ \hline Cube points: & $\Sigma$ & 1 & 4 &10 &16
&19& 16 &10 & 4 & 1 & 81\\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

The strings from different orbits are counted together because they
have equal {\em moments}. New orbits go from 0 to $m(n-1)$. Some of
the known functions receive a new interpretation, but it still will
be necessary to introduce some new functions.

For plane simplexes we have introduced differences which have

somewhat curious properties. They include one vertex, one incomplete
edge, one incomplete side. But when we transpose the naive matrices
${\bf N }$ and interpret them as faces, we see, that these properties
mean that the difference of a cube is occupied by its points touching
its surfaces nearest to the center of~the~coordinates, having at
least one coordinate zero, at least one coordinate one and so on in
the higher dimensional cubes (Fig. 11.1).

\begin{figure} \caption{Difference of the three dimensional cube with

the sides $0-2$. The difference is made from points touching the
surfaces of the cube nearest to the center of coordinates. The points
of the difference have the coordinates (permuted): $(0,0,0)$; $(0,0,1)
$; $(0,1,1)$; and $(0,1,2)$} \label{Difference of the three
dimensional cube} \linethickness{0.6pt} \begin{picture}(130.00,110.00)
\put(40.00,30.00){\framebox(60.00,60.00)[cc]{}} \put(60.00,40.00)
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\multiput(20.00,80.00)(0.24,0.12){167}{\line(1,0){0.24}} %\end
%\emline(80.00,80.00)(120.00,100.00) \multiput(80.00,80.00)(0.24,0.12)
{167}{\line(1,0){0.24}} %\end %\emline(50.00,80.00)(90.00,100.00)
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{164}{\line(-1,0){0.24}} %\end %\emline(40.00,60.00)(100.00,60.00)
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(70.67,30.00) \put(70.67,90.00){\line(0,-1){60.00}} %\end \put(20.00,
20.00){\circle{4.00}} \put(20.00,50.33){\circle*{4.00}} \put(40.00,
30.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(50.00,20.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(40.00,
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%\emline(10.00,58.00)(54.00,15.33) \multiput(10.00,58.00)(0.12,-0.12)
{356}{\line(1,0){0.12}} %\end %\emline(31.67,68.33)(85.00,17.33)
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%\emline(32.33,95.67)(115.00,16.67) \multiput(32.33,95.67)(0.13,-0.12)
{659}{\line(1,0){0.13}} %\end \end{picture} \end{figure}

\section{Unit Cubes} \label{Unit Cubes}

The unit cubes are most instructive to start with. They have n~sides
and on each side there are just two points, 0 and 1. They are
generated by~the~function

\begin{equation} \prod^n_{j=1} (1 + {\bf e }_j) = 2^n\;.

\end{equation}

\begin{figure} \caption{Three dimensional cube with the sides 0-1}

\label{Three dimensional cube with the sides 0-1}
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45.00){\makebox(0,0)[lc]{bc}} \put(105.00,95.00){\makebox(0,0)
[lc]{abc}} \end{picture} \end{figure}
For example, for $n=3$ we get points: $1, a, b, c, ab, ac, bc, abc$
(Fig. \ref{Three dimensional cube with the sides 0-1}). One from the
most interesting properties of the unit cubes, in which only whole
coordinates are allowed, is that they are formed only by a surface.
There is no point inside them representing their center.

There are $(m+1)$ partition orbits in the unit cubes, from each plane
simplex there is just one orbit. The number of points on each orbit
is determined by the corresponding binomial coefficient. What remains
to be determined is the number of strings in the unit cubes, but we
have studied even this function, and this number is given by the
falling factorial $(i)_{(i-j)}$. We will look on it again. We write
it in the inverse order against the Table 10.6

\begin{table} \caption{Strings of unit cubes ${\bf F }$}

\label{Strings of unit cubes} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|} \hline k
& 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & $\Sigma$ \\ \hline m=0 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\ 2 & 1 & 2 & 2 & & & & 5 \\ 3 & 1 & 3 & 6 & 6
& & & 16 \\ 4 & 1 & 4 & 12 & 24 & 24 & & 65 \\ 5 & 1 & 5 & 20 & 60
&120 &120 & 326 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

The elements of the Table 11.1 $f_{ij}$ are obtained as the~product

of the binomial matrix ${\bf B }$ and the diagonal matrix of
factorials $\Delta(j!)$:

\begin{equation} {\bf F }={\bf B}\Delta(j!)\;. \end{equation}

We can choose $k$ objects (vectors) from $n$~objects and then to

permute them. This is done as the formal binomial, when consecutive
factorials are treated as powers \begin{equation} (n)_m = [(k)_i +
(n-k)_i]^m\ {\rm where}\ (k)^j_i = (k)_j\;.
\end{equation}

For example if $n=5, m=3$, and we choose $k=2$, the result is $$(5)_3
= 60 = { 3 \choose 0 }(2)_3(3)_0 + { 3 \choose 1 }(2)_2(3)_1 + { 3
\choose 2 }(2)_1(3)_2 + { 3 \choose 3 }(2)_0(3)_3 =$$ \\

$$1\times0\times1 + 3\times2\times3 + 3\times2\times6

+1\times1\times6\;.$$

It counts 18 permutations of strings with two symbols, say $$a, b:

6(abc, abd, abe)\;;$$ 36 permutations with either $a$ or $b$: $6(acd,
ace, ade, bcd, bce, bde)$, and 6 permutations of the string $cde$.
$(2)_3 = 0$; it is not possible to form a sequence of~three symbols
from only two symbols. The row sums are given simply as
\begin{equation} S_m = m(S_{m-1}) + 1 \end{equation}

It is possible to add a new object to the preceding strings in m~ways,

except the zero string. Another possibility to obtain the matrix
11.1, is to multiply the matrix of rencontres numbers ${\bf R }$
(Table 7.3) with the matrix of~the~binomial coefficients

\begin{equation} {\bf F }= {\bf RB}. \end{equation}

Otherwise, the strings of the unit cubes are generated similarly as

the factorials from subfactorials by the Apple polynomial $D$. Here
it is the polynomial of the second order, $(D + 2)^2$, for example
$$44 + 5\times9\times2 + 10 \times2\times4 + 10\times1\times8 +
5\times0\times 16 + 1\times1\times32 = 326\;.$$

It is well known, that in nature many events are described by the

binomial distribution. When you toss n~coins simultaneously, then the
results will fill vertices of the unit cube evenly, especially if the
experiment is repeated many times. At least that is what the
probability theory supposes. Less known is the derivation of another
statistics generated by the unit cubes. Suppose that we are
registering accidents. Let us have $S_m$ persons with at most
m~accidents and the mean accident rate 1 per person. At such
conditions, we choose as the registration tool strings of $k$ ones
from m symbols if the other $m-k$ places are exploited for indexing
the persons. Such a register will have the following capacity: There
will be $m!$ persons with no accident, $m!$ persons with one accident,
m persons with $(m-1)$ accidents, and at last only one person with
m~accidents. Such distribution of accidents is known as the {\em
Poisson distribution}. It is applied usually to low accident rates
and it is then necessary to change the conditions. Nevertheless, if
Einstein said that God does not play dice, we can say, that he
himself is the Dice. The tossing of coins or dices models only the
ideal space.

\section{Partition Orbits in Cubes} \label{Partition Orbits in Cubes}

The partition orbits in cubes correspond to points of plane

simplexes. Thus we know their total number. We have also shown above,
how differently these points are mapped on the plane simplexes and
the cubes. We already found that counting of the orbits is very
simple in the unit cubes.

The partition orbits in the m~dimensional cubes which sides are 0-2
are easily found. The results are given in the Table \ref{Partition
orbits in cubes 0-2}. It was shown in Sect. 11.1, how its row m=4 is
obtained from points of the plane simplex.

\begin{table} \caption{Partition orbits in cubes 0-2}

\label{Partition orbits in cubes 0-2}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrrrrrr|r|} \hline k & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5
& 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 &10 &11 &12 & $\Sigma$\\ \hline m=0 & 1 & & & & & & &
& & & & & & 1 \\ 1 & 1& 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & & & 3 \\ 2& 1 & 1 & 2
& 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & 6 \\ 3 & 1& 1 & 2 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & &
& & 10 \\ 4 & 1 & 1 & 2 & 2 & 3 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 15 \\ 5 & 1
& 1 & 2 & 2 & 3 & 3 & 3 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & 21 \\ 6 & 1 & 1 & 2 & 2
& 3 & 3 & 4 & 3 & 3 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 28 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}

Some properties of the distribution of partition orbits are clear.

They are symmetrical according to the parameter $k$. This follows
from the symmetry of the cubes. The number of orbits on planes near
to the zero point does not depend on the dimensionality of cubes and
remains constant. It is determined by the number $k$ and cannot be
greater than the number of unrestricted partitions p(k). If we use
the constant $c$ as the length of the sides of~the~cubes, the
diagonal $k$ is going from 0 to $cm$.

\begin{figure} \caption{Formation of three dimensional cube with the

side 0-2 from the square with the side 0-2 (empty circles). The unit
three dimensional cube with the side 0-1 is added (filled circles)
and sides are completed} \label{Formation of three dimensional cube}
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80.00)(0.24,0.12){167}{\line(1,0){0.24}} %\end %\emline(80.00,80.00)
(120.00,100.00) \multiput(80.00,80.00)(0.24,0.12){167}{\line(1,0)
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80.00)(0.24,0.12){167}{\line(1,0){0.24}} %\end %\emline(90.00,100.00)
(90.00,40.00) \put(90.00,100.00){\line(0,-1){60.00}} %\end
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{0.24}} %\end %\emline(40.00,60.00)(100.00,60.00) \put(40.00,60.00)
{\line(1,0){60.00}} %\end %\emline(70.00,90.00)(70.67,30.00)
\put(70.00,90.00){\line(0,-1){60.00}} %\end \put(20.00,20.00)
{\circle{4.00}} \put(20.00,20.00){\framebox(60.00,60.00)[cc]{}}
\put(70.00,60.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(100.00,60.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(90.00,70.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(70.00,90.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(90.00,100.00){\circle{4.00}} \put(100.00,90.00){\circle{4.00}}
\put(120.00,100.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(120.00,70.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(90.00,100.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(100.00,90.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(20.00,50.00){\circle{4.00}} \put(20.00,80.00)
{\circle{4.00}} \put(50.00,80.00){\circle{4.00}} \put(80.00,80.00)
{\circle{4.00}} \put(50.00,50.00){\circle{4.00}} \put(80.00,50.00)
{\circle{4.00}} \put(50.00,20.00){\circle{4.00}} \put(80.00,20.00)
{\circle{4.00}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

When we observe row differences in Table 11.3, we see that they are
always 1 on the last $(m+1)$ occupied places. These numbers are just
the~numbers of partition orbits in m~dimensional unit cubes. In
3~dimensional space, it can be drawn (Fig. \ref{Formation of three
dimensional cube}). To a square with the sides 0-2 the unit three
dimensional cube is added, forming the back of the cube with sides
0-2. The~orbit 111 is formed from the orbit 11, which was not in the
square, 211 or 221 is obtained from 21, 22 generates 221 and 222. This
suggests the recurrence of the partition orbits. It can be formulated
graphically:

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|ccccccc|} \hline & 0 $<$ &

\multicolumn{4}{c}{MOMENTS} & $>$ mc $<$ & $>$ m(c+1) \\ \hline &
\multicolumn{6}{l}{Orbits of m~dimensional cube of lesser size (c-1)}
& \\ & & \multicolumn{6}{r|}{Orbits of (m-1)~dimensional cube of the
same size}\\ \hline $\Sigma$: & \multicolumn{7}{c|}{Orbits of
m~dimensional cube with the size c} \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$

Because the cubes are symmetrical along their diagonals, the

positions of~the~summands can be inverted. For example
$$\begin{tabular}{|ccccccc|c|ccccccc|} \hline 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & &
& & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ & & 1 & 1 & 2 & 1 & 1 & = & 1 & 1 & 2 & 1 & 1
& & \\ \hline 1 & 1 & 2 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & 1 & 1 & 2 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1
\\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

Defining the number of orbits p(m,n,c) on the plane $m$ of

n~dimensional cube with the side $c$, we have

\begin{equation} p(m,n,c) = p(m,[n-1],c) + p([m-n],n,[c-1])\;.

\end{equation}

\section{Points in Cubes} \label{Points in Cubes}

We know the total number of the points with the natural coordinates
(otherwise the volume $m^n$) in the cubes, and now we want to
determine their distribution according to their moments in the plane
simplexes. If starting simplexes are not truncated, these numbers
must be the binomial coefficients ${ m+k-1 \choose k }$. Similar
numbers appear on the tails of distributions. From the first cubes
with $c=2$, the recurrence can be easily deduced

\begin{table} \caption{ Points in cubes with c=2} \label{ Points in

cubes with c=2} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrr|r|} \hline k & 0 & 1 & 2
& 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & $\Sigma$\\ \hline n=0 & 1 & & & & & & & & &
1 \\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & 3 \\ 2 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 2 & 1 & & & & &
9 \\ 3 & 1 & 3 & 6 & 7 & 6 & 3 & 1 & & & 27 \\ 4 & 1 & 4 & 10 & 16 &
19 & 16 & 10 & 4 & 1 & 81 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

Here the recurrence is simple. To each point of a $(n-1)$~dimensional

cube we add a new side with $c$ points. By adding 0, 1 we simply sum
up $(c+1)$ partition orbits of the less dimensional cube. For example
the term 19 in the last row is obtained as 6 + 7+ 6. The formula
is

\begin{equation} c_{ij} = \sum_{k=0}^{c} c_{i-1,j-k}\;.

\end{equation}

A new vector with all its allowed values is added to each partition
on~a~suitable place.

Another possibility to produce cubes is to increase the size $c$ of

the cubes. The cubes of different dimensions $m$ are multiplied by
the transposed matrix of the binomial coefficients as follows. The
number of points of greater cubes appears on the
diagonal

$$\begin{tabular}{rrrr|rrrrr} & & & &\quad& 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ & & & &&
& 1 & 2 & 3 \\ & & & && & & 1 & 3 \\ & & & && & & & 1 \\ \hline & & &
&& & & & \\ 1 & & & && 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 3 & 1 & & && 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\
9 & 3 & 1 & && 9 &12 &16 &21 \\ 27& 9 & 3 & 1&&27 &36& 48 &64 \\
\end{tabular}$$

The tree dimensional cube with $c=2$ has 27 points. It is transformed

in the dimensional cube with $c=3$ by adding
$3\times2$~dimensional cubes (squares), $3\times 1$ dimensional cubes
(edges) and $1\times0$ dimensional cube, the~point with coordinates
$(3, 3, 3)$. The new diagonal elements in the inverse order, $64, 16,
4, 1,$ form the new baseline of the next cube. To increase the size
of the cubes, it is necessary to rearrange the diagonal elements and
repeat the multiplication.

\section{Vector Strings in Cubes} \label{Vector Strings in Cubes}

In Sect. 11.2, we have shown that in the unit cubes the strings are
counted by~the~falling factorials. For other cubes the numbers of
strings are not determined as easily, but it is not as that difficult,
if we make it consecutively. For example for $ c=2$ we obtain the
Table \ref{Vector strings in cubes with c=2}.

\begin{table} \caption{Vector strings in cubes with c=2}

\label{Vector strings in cubes with c=2}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrr|r|} \hline m & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6
& 7 & 8 & $\Sigma$\\ \hline n=0 & 1 & & & & & & & & & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & 1
& 1 & & & & & & & 3 \\ 2 & 1 & 2 & 4 & 6 & 6 & & & & & 19 \\ 3 & 1 &
3 & 9 & 24 & 54 & 90 & 90 & & & 271 \\ 4 & 1 & 4 &16 & 60 & 204 & 600
&1440 &2520 &2520 & 7365 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

To show how the elements of the Table \ref{Vector strings in cubes

with c=2} are generated, the result for $s_{45}$ is given: $600 = 90
+ 5\times 54 + 10\times24$. We obtained the points in the cubes by
summing $(c+1)$ elements of the less dimensional cube (11.9). In this
case it is necessary to permute added symbols with symbols of the
corresponding strings with $(n-1)$ symbols. This is done by
multiplying the corresponding numbers with binomial coefficients. The
recurrence is therefore

\begin{equation} s_{ij} = \sum_{k=0}^c { m \choose k }s_{i-1,j-1}\;.

\end{equation}

Another possibility to obtain the greater cubes by increasing

the~sides of~the~n~dimensional cubes gives also a possibility for
finding recurrent formulas for the number of strings. For $n=2$ (the
squares), we obtain the Table \ref{Strings in 2 dimensional
Cubes}.

\begin{table} \caption{Strings in 2~dimensional Cubes} \label{Strings

in 2 dimensional Cubes} \begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrr|r|} \hline k & 0
& 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & $\Sigma$\\ \hline c=0 & 1 & & & & &
& & & & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & 2 & 2 & & & & & & & 5 \\ 2 & 1 & 2 & 4 & 6 & 6 &
& & & & 19 \\ 3 & 1 & 2 & 4 & 8 &14 &20 &20 & & & 69 \\ 4 & 1 & 2 & 4
& 8 &16 &30& 50 &70 &70 &201 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

The recurrence is

\begin{equation} s_{i0} = 1;\ s_{ij} = s_{i-1,j-1} + s_{i,j-1}\

s_{ij} = 0;\ \mbox{outside the cube}\;. \end{equation}

There are always two possibilities to prolong the strings, except of

strings leading for the back sides. The first corresponds to the term
$s_{i,j-1}$, the second possibility inside the squares is accounted
by counting the strings from the~lesser square $s_{i-1,
j-1}$.

It is also possible to shift a cube in its space, when its point with
the~lowest moment is not incident with the beginning of the
coordinate system. The number of orbits and points is not changed by
this operation, but the~number of strings is.

\section{Natural Cubes - e Constant} \label{Natural Cubes - e

Constant}

We have shown that the unit cubes are generated by the formula 1.3.
The~term 1 in $(1+{\bf e}_j)$ was interpreted as ${\bf e}_j^0$. The
volume of a cube depends on its base $m$ and on the its
dimensionality $n$. Now we will study, what volume $e$ a cube has, if
its side nears to one and its dimensionality to infinity. We try to
find what value has the limit

\begin{equation} e = \lim_{z\rightarrow\infty}(1 + 1/z)^z

\end{equation} \label{e Con}

The argument in \ref{e Con} can be either positive or negative.

The base of $e$ cube lies between cubes with whole numbers $1 <
(1+1/z) < 2$. When $z =1$, the result is $1.5$ instead $2^1$. When $z
=2$, the result is $1.5^2=2.25$ instead $2^2$. Evaluating the
binomial development of (11.7), we obtain
inequalities

\begin{equation} \sum^{\infty}_{k=0}1/k! < e = \sum^{\infty}_{k=0}{ z

\choose k }1/k! < 1 + \sum^\infty_{k=0}1/2^k = 3\;. \end{equation}

Using sophisticated mathematical arguments, it can be proven that

the~number $e$ must be greater than the sum of the inverse
factorials. Because it should be simultaneously smaller, the best
solution is the one where both limits coincide. The constant $e$ is
an irrational number and its first digits are $e = 2.71828\dots$. The
sum of inverse factorials approaches to the exact value fast. Thus the
first seven terms give $$e = 1 + 1 +1/2 + 1/6 + 1/24 + 1/120 + 1/720
= 2,71805\;.$$

The next term is 1/5040 = 0.000198. It corrects the fourth decimal

place.

If $z$ is negative, the substitution $z = -(t+1)$ is inserted into

the formula (11.7) and than some modifications show, that again the
number $e$ is obtained:

\begin{eqnarray} \lim_{t\rightarrow\infty}[1 - 1/(t+1)]^{-(t+1)} =

\lim [t/(t+1)]^{-(t+1)} = \\ \nonumber lim(1 + 1/z)^{t+1} \times
\lim(1 +1/z) = e\times1 = e\;. \end{eqnarray}

The generating function of the $e$ cube has some important properties,
which make from it a useful tool. When a substitution $x = az$ is
applied, the~limit of the expression

\begin{equation} \lim_{x\rightarrow\infty} (1 + a/x)^x = e^a = exp(a)

\end{equation}

is the $a$-th power of the number $e$. This property of the number
$e$ is exploited using $e$ as the base of natural logarithms.

When we return to the function of the rising factorial (10.8) which

counts strings in unit cubes, then the number of all strings in the
infinite unit cube can be expressed using the constant
$e$:

\begin{equation} \lim_{n \rightarrow \infty} n!\sum^{\infty}_{k=0}

1/k! = en!\;. \end{equation}

A note: To paint a half of sides of a cubical canister in infinite

dimensional space, more varnish is needed that the volume of the
canister is.

\chapter{Matrices with Whole Numbers} \label{Matrices with Whole

Numbers}

\section{Introductory Warning} \label{Introductory Warning}

This chapter will remain only sketched. The reason is that it is

practically impossible to treat its content systematically as it was
done with naive matrices. The remaining of the chapter will be
exploited for introducing some matter which belongs to the following
Chapters.

\section{Matrices with Unit Symbols} \label{Matrices with Unit

Symbols}

We started our study with permutation matrices having in each row and
column exactly one unit symbol. Then we added the naive matrices,
having this restriction only for rows and the transposed naive
matrices, where it was applied for columns. The next step is to allow
units to be inserted to any available place of a matrix. We already
know, that the number of~these matrices will be determined by a
binomial coefficient. For matrices with $m$ columns and $n$ rows,
with k unit elements in the matrix, the number of~the~possible
configurations will be determined by the binomial coefficient ${ mn
\choose k }$. These configurations can be counted using tables having
two partition orbits in rows as well as in columns. For example for
$m=n=k=4$ we obtain Table 12.1.

\begin{table} \caption{Distribution of unit matrices// $m=n=k=4$}

\label{Distribution of unit matrices $m=n=k=4$}
\begin{tabular}{|l|ccccc|c|} \hline Partition & 4 & 31 & 22& 211
&1111 & $\Sigma$ \\ & & & & & ${\bf N}$ & \\ \hline 4 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0
& 4 & 4 \\ 31 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 144 & 48 & 192 \\ 22 & 0 & 0 & 36 & 144 &
36 & 216 \\ 211 & 0 &144 & 144 & 720 & 144 & 1152 \\ \hline $1^4 {\bf
N}^{\rm T}$ & 4 & 48 & 36 & 144 & 24 & 256 \\ \hline $\Sigma$ & 4
&192 & 216 &1152 & 256 & 1820 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}

The Table 12.1 gives some perspective. In the space, new vector
strings appeared. They lead to the same points as the naive matrices,
but their orbits are not simple partition orbits but the {\em pattern
orbits }which are the products of two partitions, one for rows and
the other one for columns.

For example, the pattern produced by the partition product

$(211\times310)$ is

$$\left( \begin{array}{rrr} 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 \\

\end{array} \right)\;.$$
This is a Ferrers graph. There are 6 possible permutations
of~the~rows of this pattern (all rows are different) which are
combined with permutations of the fourth zero row. Two columns are
equal. Thus there are 3 possible permutations which are combined with
permutations of the fourth zero columns.

The partition product $(211\times211)$ has two patterns:

$$\left( \begin{array}{rrr} 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \\

\end{array} \right)$$

with all possible $36 = 3!\times3!$ permutations of rows and columns

and the~second one

$$\left( \begin{array}{rrr} * & 1 & 1 \\ 1& 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\

\end{array} \right)$$

with 9 permutations of the zero element marked by *. Unit elements

fill only the marked row and column. These permutations of patterns
are multiplied respectively by 16 permutations of the fourth row and
column with zero elements. It is easy to count all permutations to a
given pattern, but it is more difficult to find all patterns
generated by the given partition product.

The total number of unit vectors with constant sums is given by the
row or column sums elements of tables similar to Table 12.1. Due to
the difficulties with the notation, we will give the formula only for
column sums, where we can use the symbol $n_i$ for the number of
identical binomial coefficients

\begin{equation} \sum (n!/\prod n!){ m \choose k_j }^{n_j} = { mn

\choose k };\ \sum_{j=1}^n k_j = k\;. \end{equation}

The sum is made over all possible partitions. The product of the
binomials is not restricted by any conditions on column sums, and
therefore units in each row can be distributed independently, then
the rows obtained by such a~way are permuted ($n=m$) but $n!$
overestimates permutations of rows with equal sums, therefore the
result must be divided by the partial factorials.

\section{Matrices with Natural Numbers} \label{Matrices with Natural

Numbers}

Now the next step seems to be easy. A matrix is a mn dimensional

vector and if k unit elements can be placed in it without any
restrictions, the number of all possible vectors is given by the
binomial coefficient (10.2) ${ mn+k \choose k }$. The~Table 12.1
should be completed by 2056 new entries to give ${ 19 \choose 4 }$
different matrices instead ${ 16 \choose 4 }$ matrices with the unit
elements. The new patterns fill the Table differently, see the Table
12.2

\begin{table} \caption{Matrices with elements $\geq\;1$}

\label{Matrices with elements $>$1} \begin{tabular}{|r|ccccc|c|}
\hline Partition& 4 & 31 & 22 & 211 &1111 & $\Sigma$\\ \hline 4 & 16
& 48 & 24 & 48 & 0 & 136 \\ 31 & 48 & 288 &144 & 288 & 0 & 768 \\ 22
& 24 & 144& 72 & 144 & 0 & 384 \\ 211 & 48 & 288 &144 & 288 & 0 & 768
\\ \hline $\Sigma$ &136 & 768& 384 & 768 & 0 & 2056 \\ \hline 1111 &
4 & 192 &216 &1152 & 256 & 1820 \\ \hline $\Sigma$ &140 & 960 &600
&1920 & 256 & 3876 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

It is practically impossible to follow all possible patterns of

matrix vectors as we did before. One special class of them was
studied systematically, matrices having in each row exactly two unit
symbols. These patterns developed into a special branch of
mathematics, the graph theory (see the next Chapter)
.

In the previous Chapters we have counted the partition vectors, that

is the number of the Ferrers graphs. This is simultaneously the
number of~the~diagonal patterns corresponding to quadratical forms of
the naive matrices. This patterns can be compared with the
symmetrical unit patterns of ${\bf JJ}^{\rm T}_j$ matrices with $m_j$
elements, which is the pattern of the number $\Sigma m_j^2$.

\section{Interpretation of Matrices with Natural Numbers}

\label{Interpretation of Matrices with Natural Numbers}

If a diagonal matrix is projected onto the unit vector row ${\bf J

}^{\rm T}$, the result is a~row vector corresponding to a vector row
of generalized matrices with natural numbers. It is thus possible to
write such a matrix as a string of projections of quadratic forms of
naive strings onto the consecutive unit vector rows.

\begin{equation} ({\bf J}_1^{\rm T}{\bf N}_1^{\rm T}{\bf N}_1, \ {\bf

J}_2^{\rm T}{\bf N}_2^{\rm T}{\bf N}_2, \ {\bf J}_3^{\rm T}{\bf
N}_3^{\rm T}{\bf N}_3)^{\rm T}\;.
\end{equation}

Another possibilities will be shown later. We can interpret a matrix

${\bf M }$ together with its transpose ${\bf M }^{\rm T}$, taken in
the block form

$$\left( \begin{array}{cc} {\bf 0} & {\bf M}^{\rm T} \\ {\bf M } &

{\bf 0} \end{array} \right)\;,$$

as an adjacency matrix ${\bf A}$ of a bipartite graph with multiple

edges (see the next Chapter).

\section{Coordinate Matrices} \label{Coordinate Matrices}

We interpreted rows in matrices as strings of consecutive vectors.

There exist still another explanation. The rows are just simultaneous
vectors determining positions of different points or objects. The
matrix

$$\left( \begin{array}{cc} 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 \\ \end{array} \right)$$

gives for two different points (or objects) the same address. This is
possible, if the address $(1, 0)$ is for example a house or a box.
Thus it is necessary to study the possibility that matrices define
positions of $m$ points in space, that they are lists of coordinates
in orthogonal axes. Such a list forms the {\em coordinate matrix}
${\bf C}$ which elements $c_{ij}$ are coordinates of $m$ points
(vertices, objects) $i$ on~$n$~axes.
The matrix column $$(0, 1, 2, 3, 4)^{\rm T}$$

determines coordinates of five points lying on the natural number

axis. Between all points unit distances are.

The matrix

$$\begin{array}{cc} ${\bf A}$ & \left( \begin{array}{ccccc} 0 & 1 & 2

& 3 & 4 \\ 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \end{array} \right)^{\rm T}
\end{array}$$

determines coordinates of five points rotated into two dimensional

plane. Another straight configuration of five points is the plane
simplex

$$\begin{array}{cc} ${\bf B}$ & \left( \begin{array}{ccccc} 0 & 1 & 2

& 3 & 4 \\ 4 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 0 \end{array} \right)^{\rm T}
\end{array}$$

These are examples of the simplest regular structure of five points,

evenly spaced straight chain.

If the quadratic forms ${\bf CC}^{\rm T}$ of coordinate matrices are

calculated, they have on their diagonals squared Euclidean distances
of each point from the center of the coordinate a system

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} ${\bf A}$ \\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{ccccc} 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \\ 0 & 2
& 4 & 6 & 8 \\ 0 & 3 & 6 & 9 & 12\\ 0 & 4 & 8 & 12& 16 \end{array}
\right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} ${\bf B}$ \\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{ccccc} 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 2 & 4 & 6 & 8 \\ 0 & 4
& 8 & 12& 16\\ 0 & 6 & 12& 18& 24\\ 0 & 8 & 16& 24& 32 \end{array}
\right) \end{array} \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{c} ${\bf C}$ \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{ccccc} 16&

12& 8 & 4 & 0 \\ 12& 10& 6 & 3 & 0 \\ 8 & 6 & 4 & 2 & 0 \\ 4 & 3 & 2
& 10& 0\\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 16 \end{array} \right)
\end{array}$$

Off-diagonal elements are quadratic products of both distances i and

j.

Coordinates of points form structures in space. If the chain is

flexible, it can be wound over edges on the unit cube

$$\begin{array}{c} ${\bf D}$ \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 0 & 0 &

0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 & 1 \end{array} \right)\;.
\end{array}$$

Here the four points are placed on the vertices of the three
dimensional cube. Another configuration is

$$\begin{array}{c} ${\bf E}$ \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 0 & 0 &

0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{array}
\right)\;. \end{array}$$

Here all four coordinates in the first column are zeroes. They can be
thus neglected. The first point lies in the center of the coordinate
system, the second one on the end of the second unit vector, the
third one on the end of the third unit vector. The points are related
as in the three dimensional plane complex. The distances between them
are not equal. The first point is in the unit distance to the other
three points, the distances between these three points are
doubled.

The configuration of four points determined by the coordinate matrix

$$\begin{array}{c} ${\bf F}$ \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 1 & 0 &

0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{array}
\right) \end{array}$$

corresponds to the regular tetrahedron. The chain is wound over its

vertices.

\section{Oriented and Unoriented Graphs as Vector Strings}

\label{Oriented and Unoriented Graphs as Vector Strings}

If we draw the difference of two vectors $({\bf e}_b - {\bf e}_a)$,

as on Fig. 3.2, it corresponds to the accepted convention for drawing
arcs of oriented graphs (see next Chapt.). The incidence matrix ${\bf
S}$ of a graph is just the difference of two naive matrices $${\bf S
}= {\bf N}_a - {\bf N}_b\;,$$

as it was shown in Sect 3.3. It is an operator which transfers a

vector string into another. A vector string is a continuous path in
the vector space, the operator transferring one vector string into
another is also continuous. It seems to be the area between two
strings, vector lines, and we could imagine it as a surface. But when
we make consecutive differences at all pairs of unit vectors, we get
a linear vector again. A loop transfers a unit vector into itself.
All these vectors lie in the plane orthogonal to the unit diagonal
vector ${\bf I}$.

The other possibility, how to interpret oriented graphs is the

difference inside a string itself. For example, a string ${\bf
abcda}$ contains transitions ${\bf a}$ into ${\bf b}$, ${\bf b}$ into
${\bf c}$, ${\bf c}$ into ${\bf d}$ and ${\bf d}$ into ${\bf a}$. The
difference is thus: $$\begin{array}{cccccc} ${\bf a}$ & $\rightarrow$
& ${\bf b}$ & & & \\ & ${\bf b}$ & $\rightarrow$ & ${\bf c}$ & & \\ &
& ${\bf c}$ & $\rightarrow$ & ${\bf d}$ & \\ & & & ${\bf d}$ &
$\rightarrow$ & ${\bf a}$\;. \end{array}$$

Similarly differences at higher distances could be compared.

\begin{figure} \caption{Two diagonal strings in three dimensional

cube 0-2. Find the remaining four} \label{Two diagonal strings in
three dimensional cube 0-2.} \linethickness{0.6pt}
\begin{picture}(130.00,110.00) \put(40.00,30.00){\framebox(60.00,
60.00)[cc]{}} \put(60.00,40.00){\framebox(60.00,60.00)[cc]{}}
%\emline(20.00,80.00)(60.00,100.00) \multiput(20.00,80.00)(0.24,0.12)
{167}{\line(1,0){0.24}} %\end %\emline(80.00,80.00)(120.00,100.00)
\multiput(80.00,80.00)(0.24,0.12){167}{\line(1,0){0.24}} %\end
%\emline(50.00,80.00)(90.00,100.00) \multiput(50.00,80.00)(0.24,0.12)
{167}{\line(1,0){0.24}} %\end %\emline(90.00,100.00)(90.00,40.00)
\put(90.00,100.00){\line(0,-1){60.00}} %\end %\emline(90.00,40.00)
(50.00,20.00) \multiput(90.00,40.00)(-0.24,-0.12){167}{\line(-1,0)
{0.24}} %\end %\emline(50.00,20.00)(50.00,80.00) \put(50.00,20.00)
{\line(0,1){60.00}} %\end %\emline(20.00,20.00)(60.00,40.00)
\multiput(20.00,20.00)(0.24,0.12){167}{\line(1,0){0.24}} %\end
%\emline(80.00,20.00)(120.00,40.00) \multiput(80.00,20.00)(0.24,0.12)
{167}{\line(1,0){0.24}} %\end %\emline(20.33,50.33)(80.00,50.33)
\put(20.33,50.33){\line(1,0){59.67}} %\end %\emline(80.00,50.33)
(120.00,70.00) \multiput(80.00,50.33)(0.24,0.12){164}{\line(1,0)
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{\line(-1,0){60.00}} %\end %\emline(60.00,70.00)(20.00,50.33)
\multiput(60.00,70.00)(-0.24,-0.12){164}{\line(-1,0){0.24}} %\end
%\emline(40.00,60.00)(100.00,60.00) \put(40.00,60.00){\line(1,0)
{60.00}} %\end %\emline(70.67,90.00)(70.67,30.00) \put(70.67,90.00)
{\line(0,-1){60.00}} %\end \put(20.00,20.00){\framebox(60.00,60.00)
[cc]{}} \put(20.00,20.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(40.00,60.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(70.67,90.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(120.00,100.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(71.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(100.00,60.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} %\emline(20.00,20.00)(40.00,60.00) \multiput(20.00,
20.00)(0.12,0.24){167}{\line(0,1){0.24}} %\end %\emline(40.00,60.00)
(71.00,90.00) \multiput(40.00,60.00)(0.12,0.12){251}{\line(1,0)
{0.12}} %\end %\emline(71.00,90.00)(120.00,100.00) \multiput(71.00,
90.00)(0.58,0.12){84}{\line(1,0){0.58}} %\end %\emline(120.00,100.00)
(100.00,60.33) \multiput(120.00,100.00)(-0.12,-0.24){167}{\line(0,-1)
{0.24}} %\end %\emline(100.00,60.33)(70.67,30.00) \multiput(100.00,
60.33)(-0.12,-0.12){245}{\line(0,-1){0.12}} %\end %\emline(70.67,
30.00)(20.33,20.00) \multiput(70.67,30.00)(-0.60,-0.12){84}{\line(-1,
0){0.60}} %\end \end{picture} \end{figure}

The oriented complete graphs $K_n$ form 2~dimensional edges (known as

arcs) of the plane simplexes. Unoriented graphs are strings of
vectors orthogonal to surfaces of corresponding oriented graphs. The
unoriented complete graphs $K_n$ are vector strings going from the
coordinate center to the farthest end of the unit cube which sides
are diagonals of the n~dimensional unit cube, or otherwise, to the
farthest end of the cube with the side 0-2, as it is shown on Fig.
12.1. Another graphs correspond to multisets from these bases,
defined as differences or sums of naive matrices. Edges and arcs of
graphs form a space which symmetry is more complicated that the
symmetry of naive matrices.

The recursive definition of the canonical form of the incidence

matrix ${\bf S}$ of the complete oriented graph $K_n$ is

\begin{equation} \left( \begin{array}{cc} {\bf S}_{n-1} & {\bf

0}_{n-1} \\ -{\bf I}_{n-1} & {\bf J}_{n-1} \end{array} \right)
\end{equation}

where ${\bf 0}_{n-1}$ is the zero vector-column. Similarly, the

canonical form of the complete unoriented graph $K_n$ is

\begin{equation} \left( \begin{array}{cc} {\bf G}_{n-1} & {\bf

0}_{n-1} \\ {\bf I}_{n-1}& {\bf J}_{n-1} \end{array} \right)\;.
\end{equation}

\section{Quadratic Forms of the Incidence Matrices.} \label{Quadratic

Forms of the Incidence Matrices.}

A simple exercise in matrix multiplication shows that the quadratic

forms of the incidence matrices of unoriented and oriented graphs
have the form

\begin{equation} ({\bf N}^{\rm T}_a + {\bf N})^{\rm T}_b({\bf N }_a+

{\bf N }_b) = ({\bf N}^{\rm T}_a {\bf N }_a + {\bf N}_b^{\rm T} {\bf
N }_b) + ({\bf N}_a^{\rm T} {\bf N }_b + {\bf N}_b^{\rm T} {\bf N }_a)
\end{equation} \begin{equation} ({\bf N}^{\rm T}_a - {\bf N})^{\rm
T}_b({\bf N }_a - {\bf N }_b) = ({\bf N}^{\rm T}_a {\bf N }_a + {\bf
N}_b^{\rm T} {\bf N }_b) - ({\bf N}_a^{\rm T} {\bf N }_b + {\bf
N}_b^{\rm T} {\bf N }_a) \end{equation}

The quadratical forms are composed from two parts: The diagonal
matrix ${\bf V }$ formed by the sum of quadratic forms of the two
naive matrices ${\bf N}_a$ and ${\bf N}_b$. The diagonal elements
$v_j$ are known as {\em degrees} of the corresponding
vertices.

The sum of scalar products $$({\bf N}_a^{\rm T} {\bf N }_b + {\bf

N}_b^{\rm T} {\bf N }_a)$$

forms the off-diagonal elements. It is known as the adjacency matrix

${\bf A}$ of a graph. Its elements $a_{ij}$ show which vertices are
adjacent and in multigraphs how many lines connect both vertices. For
it is necessary to have in the incidence matrix identical unit
rows or one row with square root of the multiplicity of the
line.

The diagonal matrix ${\bf V }$ and the adjacency matrix ${\bf A }$

can be obtained as the sum or the difference, respectively, of
quadratic forms of unoriented and oriented
graph

\begin{equation} {\bf V }= 1/2({\bf G}^{\rm T} {\bf G }+ {\bf S}^{\rm

T} {\bf S}) \label{v} \end{equation} \begin{equation} {\bf A }=
1/2({\bf G}^{\rm T} {\bf G }- {\bf S}^{\rm T} {\bf S}) \label{a}
\end{equation}

\begin{figure} \caption{Decomposition of quadratic forms ${\bf

S}^{\rm T}{\bf S }$ and ${\bf G}^{\rm T} {\bf G }$ into the diagonal
vector ${\bf V }$ and the adjacency matrix vector ${\bf A }$. ${\bf
S}^{\rm T}{\bf S }$ and ${\bf G}^{\rm T} {\bf G }$ are orthogonal}
\label{Decomposition} \linethickness{0.6pt} \begin{picture}(100.00,
70.00) %\vector(70.33,20.00)(20.00,50.00) \put(20.00,50.00)
{\vector(-3,2){0.2}} \multiput(70.33,20.00)(-0.20,0.12){251}{\line(-1,
0){0.20}} %\end %\vector(70.33,20.00)(120.33,50.00) \put(120.33,50.00)
{\vector(3,2){0.2}} \multiput(70.33,20.00)(0.20,0.12){251}{\line(1,0)
{0.20}} %\end %\vector(70.33,20.33)(70.33,50.00) \put(70.33,50.00)
{\vector(0,1){0.2}} \put(70.33,20.33){\line(0,1){29.67}} %\end
%\vector(70.33,50.00)(120.00,50.00) \put(120.00,50.00){\vector(1,0)
{0.2}} \put(70.33,50.00){\line(1,0){49.67}} %\end %\vector(70.33,
50.00)(20.00,50.00) \put(20.00,50.00){\vector(-1,0){0.2}} \put(70.33,
50.00){\line(-1,0){50.33}} %\end \put(20.00,60.00){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S }$}} \put(45.00,60.00){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{-${\bf A }$}} \put(70.33,60.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{${\bf V }$}}
\put(95.33,60.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{${\bf A }$}} \put(120.00,60.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{${\bf G}^{\rm T} {\bf G }$}} \put(70.33,20.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(70.33,10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{0}}
\end{picture} \end{figure}
The relation of both quadratic forms is shown schematically on Fig
\ref{Decomposition}. The Hilbert length of the diagonal vector ${\bf
V }$ is 2m, twice the number of rows in the incidence matrices. The
adjacency matrix vector ${\bf A }$ has the same length and it is
opposite oriented in both quadratic forms, thus ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf
S }$ and ${\bf G}^{\rm T} {\bf G }$ end on different planes. If the
graph is {\em regular}, $v_j = const$, then the diagonal matrix ${\bf
V }$ is collinear with the unit diagonal vector ${\bf I }$ and the
adjacency matrix ${\bf A }$ has the same direction, too.

The diagonal elements of the adjacency matrix ${\bf A }$ are zeroes.

It is therefore possible to use them inconsistently for noting loops
of a graph with loops. At oriented graphs rows corresponding loops
are zeroes. But at unoriented graphs, the row corresponding to a loop
has value 2, which gives as the quadratic 4 and using formulas
\ref{v} and \ref{a} the loop value 2 appears
automatically.

The other quadratic forms ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}$ and ${\bf SS}^{\rm T}$
have on the diagonal 2, the number of unit vectors in the rows of the
incidence matrices. This is in accord with the fact that each line is
registered twice in matrix ${\bf V }$ as well as in matrix ${\bf
A}$. Off diagonal elements are $\pm 1$, if two lines are adjacent
having a common vertex. The off-diagonal elements form in such a way
the adjacency matrices of line graphs. But at oriented graphs this
explanation is complicated by signs which signs can be positive and
negative. This sign pattern depends on mutual orientation of arcs. It
is unpredictable and must be determined separately.

\section{Incidence Matrices of Complete Graphs $K_n$ as Operators}

\label{Incidence Matrices of Complete Graphs $K_n$ as Operators}

The unit matrices ${\bf J}$ (${\bf J}^{\rm T}$) are operators which
sum row (or column) elements of the matrix they are acting on, or
transfer them into the resulting vector-row (or vector-column). In
canonical form of incidence matrices of complete graphs $K_n$ the
unit matrices ${\bf J}$ are combined with the unit matrices ${\bf I}$
with the negative signs. The incidence matrices of complete graphs
$K_n$ are frame operators\footnote{It is curious that such elementary
things can be discovered at the end of the twenties century. Maybe
they were just forgotten.}. The framing operation is applied to
quadratic forms of coordinate matrices twice. At first ${\bf CC}^{\rm
T}$ is framed

\begin{equation} {\bf S}(*){\bf S}^{\rm T} \end{equation}

or

\begin{equation} {\bf G}(*){\bf G}^{\rm T}\;. \end{equation}

The result of this operation is the larger matrix with ${ n \choose 2

}$ rows and columns. The elements in the product are differences
(sums) of all pairs of the elements of the framed matrix. The product
is split into the diagonal and off-diagonal parts. The diagonal
part is again framed, now in the frame collapsing diagonal elements
back into n~dimensional symmetrical matrix
\begin{equation} {\bf S}^{\rm T}(*){\bf S} \label{c} \end{equation}

or

\begin{equation} {\bf G}^{\rm T}(*){\bf G} \label{d} \end{equation}

This operation forms the second difference (sum) of ${ n \choose 2 }$

of the first differences (sums).

The unit diagonal matrix ${\bf I}$ gives ${\bf S}({\bf I}){\bf
S}^{\rm T}$. This is matrix ${\bf SS}^{\rm T}$ of the complete graph
$K_4$. Four diagonal elements of ${\bf I}$ exploded into six diagonal
elements of the product. The diagonal elements (2) are differences of
the coordinates (or squared distances, since ${\bf I} = {\bf I}^2$)
of the four vertices of the regular tetrahedron. The diagonal
elements are rearranged back into four dimensions as in \ref{c} or
\ref{d}.

\section{Blocs Schemes} \label{Blocs Schemes}

As we said it is possible to study systematically matrices with an

arbitrary number of unit elements in a row. For practical reasons,
this number must be constant, otherwise only special configurations
were accessible for calculations. From matrices having k~unit
elements in each row, only matrices having specific properties
corresponding to properties of complete graphs were studied. Such
matrices are called {\em block schemes} ${\bf B }$ and give the
quadratic forms

\begin{equation} {\bf B}^{\rm T}{\bf B }= (l -r){\bf I }+ r{\bf

JJ}^{\rm T} \end{equation} \label{e} where $r$ is the connectivity of
the block. Sometimes there is posed a stronger condition on block
schemes, their matrices must be the squared ones and their both
quadratic form equivalent

\begin{equation} {\bf B }^{\rm T}{\bf B }= {\bf BB }^{\rm T}.

\end{equation}

The unoriented complete graph $K_3$ is the block with $l = 3$, $r =

1$. The other $K_n$ are not blocs, since in their ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}$
appear zero elements.

The equation \ref{e} shows that each unit vector ${\bf e}_j$ must
appear in the scheme l-times and each pair of elements r-times. The
numbers m, n, k, l ,r are limited by following conditions

\begin{equation} mk = nl \quad \label{f} \end{equation}

\begin{equation} l(k-1) = r(n-1) \label{g} \end{equation}

(\ref{f}) counts the number of units in rows and columns, (\ref{g})

the pairs in rows $mk(k-1)/2$ and in the quadratic form $rn(n-1)/2$.
Dividing both sides by l/2, the result is simplified to the final
form. The simplest example of a block scheme is the matrix with
$m=n=4, k=l=3, r=2$:

$$\left( \begin{array}{cccc} 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 0

& 1 & 1 \\ 0 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ \end{array} \right)\;.$$
Block schemes with $k=3$ are known as the Steiner's 3-tuples. It is
clear that the construction of block schemes and finding their
numbers is not a simple task. If you are interested, the book
\cite{[8]} is recommended .

\section{\ Hadamard Matrices} \label{Hadamard Matrices}

Another special class of matrices are the {\em Hadamard matrices}

${\bf H }$ with elements $h_{ij} = \pm 1$ and quadratic forms

\begin{equation} {\bf H}^{\rm T}{\bf H }= {\bf HH }^{\rm T} = n{\bf

I}\;. \end{equation}

It means that all rows and columns of the Hadamard matrices are
orthogonal. The examples of two lowest Hadamard matrices are:

$$\begin{array}{cc} \left( \begin{array}{rr} 1 & 1 \\ 1 & -1 \\

\end{array} \right) & \left( \begin{array}{rrrr} 1 & 1 & 1 & 1\\ 1 &
1 &-1 &-1\\ 1& -1 & 1& -1\\ 1 &-1 &-1& 1\\ \end{array} \right)\;.
\end{array}$$

The Hadamard matrices can be symmetrical as well as asymmetrical.

There exist some rules how it is possible to construct Hadamard
matrices of higher orders. The construction is easy at the
$2n$~dimensional matrices, where the blocks of the lower matrices can
be used as the building stones

$$\left( \begin{array}{rr} {\bf H}_n & {\bf H }_n\\ {\bf H }_n &
-{\bf H }_n \\ \end{array} \right)\;.$$

\chapter{Graphs} \label{Graphs}

\section{Historical Notes} \label{Historical Notes}

The theory of graphs was formulated, similarly as many other notions

in this book, by Euler. Before the World War II, all graph theory
could be cumulated in only one book. Today, there are numerous
specialized journals dealing with the theory of graphs and its
applications.

\begin{figure} \caption{Seven bridges in K\"{o}nigsberg and the

Euler's graph solution of the puzzle} \label{Seven bridges}
\linethickness{0.6pt} \begin{picture}(110.00,120.00) \put(40.00,33.83)
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\put(27.50,33.33){\oval(25.67,32.67)[lt]} %\emline(26.67,49.67)(87.00,
49.67) \put(26.67,49.67){\line(1,0){60.33}} %\end %\emline(40.33,
17.00)(86.67,17.00) \put(40.33,17.00){\line(1,0){46.33}} %\end
\put(86.67,36.17){\oval(42.00,27.00)[lb]} \put(86.17,33.83)
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{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{C}} \put(39.00,32.67){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{A}}
\put(39.00,7.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{B}} \put(85.00,33.00){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{D}} %\emline(20.00,90.00)(75.00,90.00) \put(20.00,90.00){\line(1,
0){55.00}} %\end %\emline(75.00,90.00)(20.00,70.67) \multiput(75.00,
90.00)(-0.34,-0.12){162}{\line(-1,0){0.34}} %\end %\emline(20.67,
109.67)(75.33,90.00) \multiput(20.67,109.67)(0.33,-0.12){164}{\line(1,
0){0.33}} %\end \bezier{128}(20.33,90.00)(8.00,100.33)(21.00,109.33)
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71.00)(29.67,79.33)(20.33,90.00) \put(10.00,90.00){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{A}} \put(20.00,120.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{C}} \put(19.67,62.67)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{B}} \put(85.00,90.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{D}}
\put(20.33,109.67){\circle*{4.00}} \put(20.00,90.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(20.33,70.33){\circle*{4.00}} \put(74.67,90.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\end{picture} \end{figure}

Euler formulated the basic idea of the graph theory when solving
the~puzzle of~the~seven bridges in K\"onigsberg (Fig. \ref{Seven
bridges}). Is it possible to take a~walk over all the bridges, and
returning back to the starting place, crossing each bridge only once?
Euler has shown that the demanded path exists only if in all the
crossing points of the roads even number of the roads meet. Three
roads intersected in some crossing points of the roads in the Euler's
graph. Thus in K\"onigsberg a simple path was
impossible.

One wonders if such a configuration of bridges were in Athens, its

philosophers on their promenades were interested in such trivial
problems and if they have solved it similarly as Euler did, for all
similar configurations of ways? Or, was the 7 bridge puzzle not as
silly as for children? Some maturity is needed to be interested in
relations which can not be seen but only imagined?

Till now all problems in this book were solved by multiplication of

different possibilities and summing them. Essentially, old Greeks
would have been able to solve them, but they were interested in the
geometrical problems, where the problem and its solution can be seen.
The possible answer to~the~above question is that the
multidimensional spaces are too abstract to start with.

An advantage of the graph theory is that the graphs connect abstract

notions with concreteness. They can be drawn on paper and inspected
consecutively as a system of points and lines. But this simplicity is
deceiving.

Graphs are usually considered to be a binary relation of two sets,

the {\em vertices} and the {\em edges} or {\em arcs}, see Fig. 3.2.
It is possible to define a~theory of~anything and there appeared very
interesting problems suitable to be studied by young adepts of
academic degrees, as for example the game theory. But some graph
problems found very soon practical applications or analogies
in~physical sciences. Especially chemistry gave many impetuses for
utilization of graph theory because the graphs were found to be
adequate models of~connectivities of atoms in molecules. It seems to
be unsubstantial to study walks between vertices of graphs but when
these walks are connected directly with complicated measurable
physical properties of chemical compounds, as the boiling point is,
then such theoretical studies become pragmatical, and give us a deep
insight into how our world is constructed.
Graphs were connected with many different matrices: {\em Incidence
matrices} ${\bf S }$ and ${\bf G}$, {\em adjacency matrices} ${\bf
A}$, {\em distance matrices} ${\bf D }$ and other kinds of matrices.
All these matrices were used for calculations of eigenvalues and
eigenvectors, but the different matrices were not connected into an
unified system. Mathematicians were satisfied with the fact, that all
graphs can be squeezed into three dimensional space and mapped onto
two dimensional paper surface. They ignored the problem of
dimensionality of graphs. Different authors considered them to be
dimensionless objects, one dimensional objects, two dimensional
objects. According to the Occam's razor, there should not be
introduced more factors than necessary to explain observed facts. But
treating graphs as multidimensional vectors with special
configurations unifies the theory, graphs are just a special class of
vectors, sums, or differences of two vector strings. These vectors
belong into the vector space. Properties of sums or differences of
two vector strings can be studied conveniently if they are imagined
as graphs, compared with existing objects, or at least with small
samples of larger structures.

\section{Some Basic Notions of the Graph Theory} \label{Some Basic

Notions of the Graph Theory}

The graph theory has two basic notions. The first one is the {\em
vertex} which is usually depicted as a point, but a vertex can be
identified with anything, even with a surface comprising many
vertices, if the graph theory is applied to practical problems. The
second notion is the {\em line} representing a relation between two
vertices. Lines can be {\em oriented}, as vectors are, going from a
vertex into another, then they are called {\em arcs}, and/or {\em
unoriented}, just connecting two vertices without any preference of
the direction. Then they are called {\em edges} (Fig. 3.2).

\begin{figure} \caption{Examples of unoriented graphs. A -- a tree, B

-- a cycle graph, C -- a multigraph} \label{Examples of unoriented
graphs} \linethickness{0.6pt} \begin{picture}(140.00,110.00)
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\put(126.67,39.67){\circle*{4.00}} \put(110.00,49.33){\circle*{4.00}}
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%\emline(55.00,83.67)(75.00,100.00) \multiput(55.00,83.67)(0.15,0.12)
{137}{\line(1,0){0.15}} %\end \put(11.00,99.67){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(10.00,68.67){\circle*{4.00}} \put(29.67,83.67){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(55.33,84.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(75.00,99.33){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(74.67,69.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(106.00,83.33){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(42.67,95.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{A}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}

An arc is represented by a row of the incidence matrix ${\bf S }$

formed by the~difference of two unit vectors $({\bf e }_i - {\bf e
}_j)$. According to our convention, both vectors act simultaneously
and the beginning of the vector can be placed on~the~vertex j. The
resulting arc vector goes directly from the vertex j into the vertex
i. An edge is depicted as a simple line connecting two vertices.
Actually the sum of two unit vectors is orthogonal to the line
connecting both vertices. It is more instructive to draw an
unoriented graph with connecting lines. Nevertheless, for formal
reasons we can consider an unoriented graph as a string vectors where
each member is orthogonal to its oriented matching element. When the
oriented graph is a vector, then the unoriented graph must be a
vector, too.

A special line in graphs is the {\em loop} which connects a vertex

with itself. Formal difficulties appear, how to connect oriented
loops with matrices, because corresponding rows are zero $({\bf e}_j
- {\bf e}_j) = {\bf 0}$. These complications are resulting from the
higher order symmetries. An unoriented loop has a double intensity

\begin{equation} ({\bf e}_j + {\bf e}_j) = 2{\bf e}_j\;,

\end{equation}

and we will see later, how this fact can be exploited.

Relations between things can be things, too. For example in chemistry,

if we identify atoms in a molecule with vertices, then bonds between
atoms, keeping the molecule together, and determining the structure
of the molecule, are bonding electrons. The forces between the nuclei
and the electrons are modeled by graphs if into each connecting line
a new vertex is inserted and so a {\em subdivision graph} is formed.
Each line in the graph is split into a pair of lines. The
generated subdivision graph has (n + m) vertices and 2m lines.

\begin{figure} \caption{Graph and its line graph} \label{Graph and

its line graph} \linethickness{0.6pt} \begin{picture}(120.00,150.00)
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{0.12}} %\end %\emline(50.00,50.00)(80.00,50.00) \put(50.00,50.00)
{\line(1,0){30.00}} %\end %\emline(80.00,50.00)(110.00,50.00)
\put(80.00,50.00){\line(1,0){30.00}} %\end \put(20.00,20.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(50.00,20.33){\circle*{4.00}} \put(20.33,50.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(50.00,50.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(80.00,50.00)
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\put(20.33,136.67){\circle*{4.00}} \put(27.67,140.67){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{g}} \put(60.33,138.67){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{a}} \put(96.67,121.33)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{b}} \put(97.00,87.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{c}}
\put(60.33,69.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{d}} \put(20.33,86.67){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{e}} \put(17.00,114.67){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{f}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}

We can construct a {\em line graph} \ref{Graph and its line graph},
changing lines into vertices, and introducing new incidences defined
now by the common vertices of two original lines. If the parent graph
had m edges, the sum of its vertex degrees $v_j$ was $2m$. Its line
graph has m vertices and the sum of its vertex degrees $v_i$
is

\begin{equation} \Sigma(v^2_j - v_j). \end{equation}

A pair of vertices can be connected by more lines simultaneously.

Then we speak about {\em multigraphs} (\ref{Examples of unoriented
graphs}, C). Next step is to consider the parallel lines as one line
with the weight k. It is obvious that the lines need not to be
weighted by whole numbers but any weights $w_{ij}$ can be used. From
calculations emerge even graphs with imaginary lines.

\begin{figure} \caption{Restriction of a graph. Vertices in the

circle A are joined into one vertex a} \label{Restriction of a graph}
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\multiput(73.67,32.33)(0.07,-1.94){2}{\line(0,-1){1.94}}
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\multiput(45.64,50.10)(0.74,0.12){9}{\line(1,0){0.74}} %\end
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\put(60.00,45.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(90.33,45.00){\circle*{4.00}}
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\put(40.33,30.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(17.33,30.00){\circle*{4.00}}
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%\emline(90.33,70.00)(90.33,100.00) \put(90.33,70.00){\line(0,1)
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{\line(-1,0){24.67}} %\end %\emline(55.00,84.67)(35.00,69.33)
\multiput(55.00,84.67)(-0.16,-0.12){128}{\line(-1,0){0.16}} %\end
%\emline(35.00,69.33)(13.00,69.33) \put(35.00,69.33){\line(-1,0)
{22.00}} %\end %\emline(55.00,85.00)(34.67,100.00) \multiput(55.00,
85.00)(-0.16,0.12){126}{\line(-1,0){0.16}} %\end %\emline(34.67,
100.00)(13.33,100.00) \put(34.67,100.00){\line(-1,0){21.33}} %\end
\put(12.67,100.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(35.00,100.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(29.67,85.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(13.33,69.33){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(35.33,69.33){\circle*{4.00}} \put(55.00,85.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(90.33,99.67){\circle*{4.00}} \put(90.33,70.33){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(55.00,30.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{A}} \put(55.00,95.00){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{a}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

It is also possible to restrict the graphs by grouping sets of

vertices into new vertices and leaving only the lines connecting the
new set vertices (Fig. \ref{Restriction of a graph}). This operation
simplifies the graph.

Both elements of the graphs can be indexed (labeled) and unindexed

(unlabelled). Usually only vertex labeled graphs are considered.
Labeled graphs are sometimes only partially indexed graphs, when
only some of their vertices are indexed, or equivalently, several
vertices have equal indices. When one vertex is specially labeled,
we speak about the {\em root}.

A special labeling of graphs is their coloring. A task can be

formulated to color the vertices in such a way that no incident
vertices had the same color. The number of colors indicates the
parts of the graph where all vertices are disconnected. No line
exists between them. The least number of colors which are necessary
to color a connected graph is 2. Then we speak about {\em bipartite
graphs}. For coloring of the planar graphs (carts), which lines do
not intersect, we need at least four colors.

Bipartite graphs have an important property, their incidence matrices

can be separated into two blocks and their quadratic forms split into
two separate blocks.

Graphs are {\em connected}, if there exists at least one path or walk
between all pairs of~vertices. It is uninterrupted string of lines
connecting given pair of vertices. Mutually unconnected parts of a
graph are known as its {\em components}. At least $(n-1)$ lines are
needed to connect all n vertices of a graph and n~lines to form a
cycle. Connected graphs with $(n-1)$ lines are known as {\em trees}
(\ref{Examples of unoriented graphs}, A and they are acyclic. A graph
formed from more trees is the {\em forest}.

We can find the {\em center} of a graph, determined as its innermost

vertex, or the {\em diameter} of a graph, as if they were some solid
objects. But there appears some difficulties. When we define the
center of a graph as the vertex which has the same distance from the
most distant vertices, then in linear chains with even number of
vertices For example in the linear chain $L_6$

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we have two candidates for the nomination. It is better to speak

about the {\em centroid} or the {\em central edge}. Some graphs have
no center at all.

To introduce all notions of the graph theory consecutively in a short

survey is perplexing. But it is necessary to know some terms.

\begin{figure} \caption{Decision tree. The left branch means 1, the

right branch means 0. The root is taken as the decimal point and the
consecutive decisions model the more valued logic} \label{Decision
tree} \linethickness{0.4pt} \begin{picture}(100.00,70.00)
%\emline(40.00,10.00)(20.00,29.67) \multiput(40.00,10.00)(-0.12,0.12)
{164}{\line(-1,0){0.12}} %\end %\emline(39.67,10.00)(80.00,50.00)
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\put(20.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(60.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}}
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\end{picture} \end{figure}

The {\em linear chains} $L_n$ are a special class of trees which all
vertices except two endings have the degree $v_j = 2$. The vertex
degree counts lines incident to the vertex. Linear chains have the
longest distance between their extremal vertices and the greatest
diameters from all graphs. Another extremal trees are the {\em stars}
$S_n$. All $(n-1)$ of their vertices are connected to the central
vertex directly. The diameter of stars is always 2. The {\em decisive
trees} are trees with one vertex of the degree 2 and all other
vertices with degrees 3 or 1. If the vertex of the degree 2 is chosen
as the root (Fig. \ref{Decision tree}) then on a walk it is necessary
to make a binary decision on each step which side to go. The vertices
with degrees 1 are known as the {\em leaves}. They are connected
by~the~{\em branches} to the {\em stem} of the tree. We already know
the decision trees as strings in the unit cubes. In a tree, they are
joined into bifurcating branches. The~indexing of the leaves is known
as the binary coding.

The {\em complete graph} $K_n$ has n(n-1)/2 lines which connect
mutually all its vertices. Its diameter is 1 and it has no center.
The {\em complement} $\overline{G}$ of a graph $G$ is defined as the
set of lines of the graph $G$ missing in the complete graph $K_n$ on
the same vertices, or by the sum

\begin{equation} K_n = G + \overline G\;. \end{equation}

It follows, that the complementary graph of the complementary graph

$\overline{\overline G}$ is the initial graph G and that the
complementary graph $\overline{K_n}$ of the complete graph $K_n$ is
the empty graph $G_n$ with no lines.

\section{Petrie Matrices} \label{Petrie Matrices}

The arcs of the oriented graphs were defined as the differences of

two unit vectors $({\bf e}_j - {\bf e}_i)$. There is another
possibility of mapping arcs and edges on~matrices with the unit
elements.

An arc is identified directly with the unit vector $({\bf e}_j$ or

with a continuous string of the unit vectors ${\bf e}_j$. Such
matrices are known as the {\em Petrie matrices}\footnote{There is not
enough of simple symbols for all different matrices.} ${\bf
P}e$.

The Petrie matrices are equivalent to the incidence matrices. A row

containing a continuous string of unit symbols corresponds to each an
arc of~the~incidence matrix without an interruption. The string of
unit symbols in a~Petrie matrix ${\bf P}e$ going from i to (p-1)
corresponds to the arc between vertices i and p. The arc 1-2 is
represented in a Petrie matrix by one unit symbol, the arc 1-6 needs
5 unit symbols.

The canonical forms ${\bf P}e$ and ${\bf S}$ of $K_4$ are
$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} ${\bf P}e$ \\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 & 1
\\ 0 & 1 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{array} \right) \\ \end{array}&
\begin{array}{c} ${\bf S}$ \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} -1 & 1 &
0 & 0 \\ -1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 & 1 & 0 \\ -1 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\ 0 &
-1& 0 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 & -1& 1 \end{array} \right)\;. \end{array}
\end{array}$$

Petrie matrices have two important properties:

1. A Petrie matrix ${\bf P}e$ of a graph $G$ multiplied by the

incidence matrix ${\bf S }$ of the linear chain $L$ gives the
incidence matrix of the given graph:

\begin{equation} {\bf S}(G) = {\bf P}e(G){\bf S}(L)\;. \end{equation}

From the consecutive units in a row of the Petrie matrix only the
first and the last are mapped in the product, all intermediate pairs
are annihilated by consecutive pairs of unit symbols with opposite
signs from the incidence matrix of the linear chain, which vertices
are indexed consecutively: $1-2-3-\dots-n$. For example
$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{ccc|cccc} & & & \ -1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
& & & 0 &-1 & 1 & 0 \\ & & & 0 & 0 &-1 & 1 \\ \hline & & & & & & \\
1& 0& 0& -1 & 1& 0& 0 \\ 0& 1 &0& 0&-1& 1 &0 \\ 0 &0 &1& 0& 0&-1 &1
\\ \end{array} & \begin{array}{ccc|cccc} & & &\ -1& 1& 0 & 0 \\ & & &
0&-1& 1 &0 \\ & & & 0& 0&-1 &1 \\ \hline & & & & & & \\ 1& 0 &0 & -1
&1& 0& 0 \\ 1& 1 &0 & -1& 0& 1 &0 \\ 1 &1 &1 & -1 &0& 0 &1 \\
\end{array} \end{array}$$

2. Only the Petrie matrices of trees are nonsingular. The trees have
$(n-1)$ arcs. Therefore their Petrie matrices are square matrices and
because trees are connected graphs, their Petrie matrices are without
empty columns. The~importance of this property will be clear in the
Chapt. 15.

\section{Matrices Coding Trees} \label{Matrices Coding Trees}

The Petrie matrices define the trees in space of arcs. The another
possibility of~coding trees is in the space of their vertices. There
exist the {\em descendant code matrices} and their inverses, showing
the relation of vertices as the relation of children to parents. In
the descendant code both ends of arcs are used, but the vertices on
the path only once. Moreover, the root itself is induced as
the~element ${\bf e}_{11}$ in the first row. The convention is, that
the arcs are always going from the root. The resulting
code\footnote{The code matrix ${\bf C}$ is simultaneously the
coordinate matrix.} has the matrix ${\bf C}$ the lower triangular
form and on the diagonal is the unit matrix ${\bf I}$. At trees, the
first column is at trees the unit matrix ${\bf J}$, but the code
allows forests, too.

The inverses of code matrices ${\bf C}^{-1}$ are in the lower

triangular form, and the unit matrix ${\bf I}$ is on the diagonal.
The off diagonal elements are $-1$ when the vertex j is the child of
the vertex i, and 0 otherwise. Since each child has only one parent,
two nonzero elements are in each row, except the first one, and this
part of the matrix is the incidence matrix ${\bf S}$ of the given
tree. Therefore

\begin{equation} ({\bf S} + {\bf e}_{11}) = {\bf C}^{-1}\;.

\end{equation}

The element ${\bf e}_{11}$ is the vector going from the origin of the
coordinate system to the vertex 1, or using the graph convention, the
arc going from the vertex 0 to the vertex 1. In this case, the zero
column containing one $-1$ element is deleted.

For our purposes it is necessary to allow any vertex to become the

root without changing the indexes. For this reason, we define the
path matrix as vertices on the path between the vertex i to the root
j. This is only a~permutation of the lower triangular form. For
example

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} ${\bf C}$ \\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{cccc} 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 & 1
\\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ \end{array} \right) \end{array} &
\begin{array}{c} {\bf C}^{-1} \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 0 & -1
& 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & -1 & 1 \\ -1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
\end{array} \right)\;. \end{array} \end{array}$$

The permutation of the columns is (3,1,4,2). The row with the unit
element is inserted into the incidence matrix as the second one and
all arcs are going from the vertex 2.

We already applied the code matrix of the linear chain $L_n$ and its
inverse as the operators ${\bf T}^{\rm T}$ and ${\bf C}^{-1}$ in
Sect. \ref{Partition Matrices}. Recall that

$$\begin{array}{cccc|cccc} & & & & \ 1& 0 & 0& 0 \\ & & & & \ 1 & 1 &
0 & 0 \\ & & & & \ 1 & 1& 1 & 0 \\ & & & & \ 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ \hline
& & & & \ & & & \\ 1& 0& 0& 0 & \ 1 & 0& 0 & 0 \\ -1& 1& 0& 0 & \ 0 &
1& 0 & 0 \\ 0& -1& 1 & 0 & \ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0& -1& 1 & \ 0 & 0
& 0 & 1. \\ \end{array}$$

Inspecting it, we see, that ${\bf C}^{-1}$ is incidence matrix of the

linear chain $L_4$ which singularity was removed by adding the row
with one unit element $1_{11}$. For such rooted incidence matrices we
will use the starred symbol ${\bf S}*$. Similarly the incidence
matrices of all trees can be adjusted. The code matrices ${\bf C}$
are just their inverses $({\bf S}*)^{-1}$.

It seems that the distinction between the Petrie matrices ${\bf P}e$
and the~code matrices ${\bf C}$ is due to the unit column ${\bf J}$
which transforms $(n-1)$ square matrix to $n$ dimensional square
matrix. But both sets are different.

The incidence matrices of trees ${\bf G}*$ rooted by the unit column
${\bf J}$ are nonsingular and they have inverses ${\bf G}^{-1}$ which
in their turn are code matrices ${\bf C}$ of unoriented trees. These
code matrices ${\bf C}$ must contain negative elements.

For example, for the star we get using the principle of inclusion and
exclusion

$$\begin{array}{cccc|cccc} & & & & \ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ & & & & \ -1 &
1 & 0 & 0 \\ & & & & \ -1 & 0& 1 & 0 \\ & & & & \ -1 & 0& 0 & 1 \\
\hline & & & & & & & \\ 1& 0& 0& 0 & \ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 1& 1 & 0 & 0
& \ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & \ 0& 0 & 1& 0 \\ 1& 0 & 0 & 1 &\
0 & 0 & 0 & 1\;. \\ \end{array}$$

The incidence matrices of the unoriented stars ${\bf S}*$ and the
oriented stars ${\bf G}*$ are selfinverse.

\chapter{Enumeration of Graphs} \label{Enumeration of Graphs}

\section{Introduction} \label{Introduction 14}

We treated enumeration of the naive matrices ${\bf N }$ in detail. To

enumerate their sums and differences, known as unoriented and
oriented graphs, respectively, is more complicated problem. Therefore
only some problems of graph enumeration will be discussed.

\section{Enumeration of Trees} \label{Enumeration of Trees}

Acyclic connected graphs, known as the trees, form the base of the
graph space. We explain later why, now we only show some
complications of enumeration of graphs on them, as compared to the
naive matrices.

Every tree which vertices are labeled can be connected with a string
of~symbols using the Pr\"{u}fer algorithm: We choose the pending
vertex with the lowest label, mark its neighbor and prune it from the
tree (its branch is cut and discarded). This pruning is repeated till
from the original tree only $K_2 = L_2$ remains. In such a way we
obtain a string of $(n-2)$ symbols. If all n vertices of the original
tree had a specific label, then there is obviously $n^{n-2}$ strings
corresponding to all possible labeling of trees. For example: $L_5$
1-5-4-3-2 gives 5,3,4, $L_5$ 2-1-4-3-5 gives 1,4,3. The sequence 4,4,
4 is obtained by pruning the star $S_5$ rooted in 4.

These strings can be counted by a modified Equation 10.2. A tree has

$(n-1)$ edges and the sum of vertex degrees $v_j$ is $\sum v_j = 2(n-
1)$. The least possible vertex degree of pending vertices is 1.
$n$~vertex degrees are bounded, therefore only $(n-2)$ units can be
partitioned in trees. Therefore, we get

\begin{equation} {\rm Number\ of\ trees}\ = n^{n-2} = \sum

(n!/\prod_k n_k!) ([n-2]!/\prod_k(v_k -1)^{n_k}\;.
\end{equation}

The sum is made over all partitions of $(n-2)$ into n parts and $v_k$
replaces $m_k$.

The equation 14.1 counts trees successfully, but there appears one
inconvenience: Different types of trees are counted together when
they have the~same partition structure. The partition orbits split in
the graphs into the~suborbits. The smallest pair of trees split in
such a way, two different trees on the orbit 322111 are on Fig.
14.1.

\begin{figure} \caption{The smallest pair of graphs on the same

partition orbit (A and B) and the graph with a central edge (c)}
\label{The smallest pair} \linethickness{0.6pt}
\begin{picture}(120.00,100.00) %\emline(20.00,10.00)(40.67,10.00)
\put(20.00,10.00){\line(1,0){20.67}} %\end %\emline(40.67,10.00)
(80.00,10.00) \put(40.67,10.00){\line(1,0){39.33}} %\end \put(20.00,
10.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(39.67,10.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(60.00,
10.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(80.00,10.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(110.00,
10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{C}} %\emline(20.00,30.33)(100.00,30.33)
\put(20.00,30.33){\line(1,0){80.00}} %\end %\emline(60.00,30.33)
(60.00,50.00) \put(60.00,30.33){\line(0,1){19.67}} %\end
%\emline(20.33,65.00)(99.67,65.00) \put(20.33,65.00){\line(1,0)
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{\line(0,1){20.00}} %\end \put(20.00,65.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(40.00,65.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(40.00,84.67){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(60.00,65.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(80.00,65.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(99.33,65.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(60.00,50.00){\circle*{4.00}}
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\put(99.67,30.33){\circle*{4.00}} \put(110.00,65.00){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{A}} \put(109.33,30.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{B}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}

The partition orbits are split into the graph orbits with different
structures. Similar vertices of graphs are known as the {\em orbits
of a graph}. This use of one notion on different levels is somewhat
confusing\footnote{The Sun has its planets and the planets have in
their turn their trabants all with their own
orbits.}.

The tree A on Fig. 14.1 has 5 different orbits and B only 4. The
number of different edges, connecting vertices on different orbits,
is lesser than the~number of vertex orbits, except for the symmetric
edges connecting vertices on the same orbit, as the central edge is
in C on Fig. 14.1.

We must explain why the partition orbits are important and find
techniques how to count the number of unlabelled trees. But before
that we mention another two problems connected with the labeling of
trees.

Trees, similarly as other graphs, can be built from trees of lower

dimensions. If we use the technique of the Young tables, that is
inscribing indices into the Ferrers graphs, we obtain the Young
labeled trees. Starting from $K_2$, there are always $(n-1)$
opportunities how to attach the n-th vertex to $(n-1)$ vertices of
trees of the lower level and the number of the Young labeled trees
must be $(n-1)!$. These trees can be compared to the convolutions.

All trees are generated by the polynomial

\begin{equation} x(x + m)^{m-1} \end{equation} \label{polynomial}

where $m$ is the number of edges in a tree with $(m + 1)$ vertices.
The powers of $x$ can be interpreted as the number of edges connected
to the added vertex forming the root and the terms of the polynomial
at $x^k$ can be interpreted as the number of trees rooted in the n-th
vertex having the corresponding vertex degree k. For example for
$m=4$ we get: $$64x^1 + 48x^2 + 12x^3 + 1x^4 = 125\;
.$$
16 trees with 4 vertices are attached to the fifth vertex at 4
different places This gives the first coefficient. The second
coefficient is obtained by rooting $(L_3 + K_1)=3\times12$ and
$2K_2=3\times4$. The last term corresponds to the star rooted in the
fifth vertex.

So we got the new combinatorial identity, which can be tabulated in

Table 14.1 together with its inverse matrix

\begin{table} \caption{Trees generated by the polynomial ({\ref

polynomial}) and the inverse matrix} \label{Trees generated by the
polynomial} \begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrr|c|rrrrrr|} \hline & 1 & 2 & 3 &
4 & 5 & $\sum$ & \ & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\ \hline m=1 & 1& & & & & 1 &
\ & 1 & & & & \\ 2 & 2 & 1 & & & & 3 & & -2 & 1 & & & \\ 3 & 9 & 6 &
1 & & & 16 & & 3 & -6 & 1 & & \\ 4 & 64 & 48 & 12 & 1 & & 125 & & -4
& 24 & -12 & 1 & \\ 5 & 625 & 500 & 150 & 20 & 1 & 1296& & 5 & -80 &
90 & -20 & 1 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

The elements of the inverse matrix can be decomposed into binomial

coefficients ${ m \choose j }$ and elements $j^{(i-j)}$. The next row
of the inverse matrix is $-6\times1 +15\times16 -20\times27 +
15\times16 -6\times5 +1\times1$.

For counting unlabelled trees it is necessary to find the number of

rooted trees orbit and the number of the rooted trees with
symmetrical edges.

\section{Symmetry Group of Unoriented Graphs} \label{Symmetry Group

of Unoriented Graphs}

The incidence matrix ${\bf G }$ of the complete unoriented graph

$K_n$ has $n$ columns and $n(n-1)/2$ rows. In each column there are
$(n-1)$ unit elements and in each row there are two unit elements.
Different combinations of pairs of~the~unit vectors correspond to
different edges of the graph and can be indexed consecutively by the
index i, going from 1 to $n(n-1)/2$.

The incidence matrix ${\bf G }$ can be permuted from the left by

permutation matrices ${\bf P}_{n(n-1)/2}$ forming the group of cyclic
permutation $S_{n(n-1)/2}$ and from the right by permutation matrices
${\bf P}_n$. These permutations of n columns form the group $S_n$ of
cyclic permutations which changes permutations of the larger left
hand group $S_{n(n-1)/2}$. This group of graph edges can not be
complete, because it is induced by the lesser cyclic group $S_n$. We
will use for the graph group induced by permutations of columns of
the incidence matrix ${\bf G}_n$ simple notation $G_n$. In
mathematical literature different names are used, as the "wreath
product" or the "step group".

In Table 14.2, effects of cyclic permutations on the incidence matrix

of~the~ complete graph $K_n$ are shown.

\begin{table} \caption{Relation between $S_n$ and $G_n$ groups}

\label{Relation between $S_n$ and $G_n$ groups}
\begin{tabular}{|l|c|c|c|c|c|c|} \hline $S_n$ group & & $s_1^4$ &
$s_1^2s_2^1$ & $s^1_1s_3^1$ & $s^2_2$ & $s_4^1$ \\ \hline ${\bf P}$ &
&1 0 0 0 & 0 1 0 0 & 0 1 0 0 & 0 1 0 0 & 0 1 0 0 \\ & &0 1 0 0 & 1 0
0 0 & 0 0 1 0 & 1 0 0 0 & 0 0 1 0 \\ & &0 0 1 0 & 0 0 1 0 & 1 0 0 0 &
0 0 0 1 & 0 0 0 1 \\ & &0 0 0 1 & 0 0 0 1 & 0 0 0 1 & 0 0 1 0 & 1 0 0
0 \\ \hline Initial row& ${\bf G}_{K_4}$ &
\multicolumn{5}{c|}{Permuted rows (the index of the original row)} \\
\hline 1 &1 1 0 0& 1 & 1 & 2 & 1 & 2 \\ 2 &1 0 1 0& 2 & 3 & 3 & 6 & 4
\\ 3 &0 1 1 0& 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 5 \\ 4 &1 0 0 1& 4 & 4 & 6 & 4 & 6 \\
5 &0 1 0 1& 5 & 6 & 4 & 3 & 3 \\ 6 &0 0 1 1& 6 & 5 & 5 & 2 & 1 \\
\hline $G_4$ group & & $s^6_1$ & $s_1^2s^2_2$ & $s^2_3$ &
$s_1^2s^2_2$ & $s_2^1s_4^1\;.$ \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}

The indexing of the graph edges is done recursively. To the graph

with $n$ edges a new vertex is added and to the incidence matrix
${\bf G}_n$ a new block having the block form of two unit matrices
$({\bf I}_n|{\bf J}_n)$. The subgroup $s_1^1S_n$ of the group
$S_{n-1}$, which leaves the last column in its place, permutes only
the elements of the matrix ${\bf G}$, but its effect transforms the
unit cycle $s_1$ with one element into n elements of the acting
permutation matrix and transforms its cycle structure which adds new
cycles to the existing structure of the graph group.

Of course, the group $S_{n+1}$ contains also other subgroups than

$s_1^1S_n$. One of them is the subgroup of the simple cycles
$s_{n+1}$. Each cycle with uneven length k transforms the $(n+1)$-th
unit cycle into a new cycle of the same length. In our example
$(s_1^1 + s_1^3)$ transforms into

\begin{equation} (s_1^3 + s_1^3) = s^6_1\ {\rm and}\ (s_1^1 + s_3^1)\

{\rm into}\ (s_3^1 + s_3^1)= s_3^2\;. \end{equation}

Cycles with even length transform the added unit cycle into two
cycles, one having the same length as the original cycle and the
other with half length. For this case, we have in our example the
cycles of the length 2: $$[s_1^1 + (s_1^1s^1_2)] = (s_1^1 +
s_1^1s^1_2) = s_1^2s^2_2\;.$$

Actually, each element of a cycle of the length $n$ acts on $(n-1)/2$

induced elements of the group $G_n$. If $n$ is odd, $(n -1)/2$ is a
whole number and if $n$ is even, there remain $n/2$ edges which are
permuted and form a new cycle. In~our example $s_4$ generated the new
cycle $s_2$ because the complete graph $K_4$ has 6 edges. In $K_6$
with 15 edges, $s_6$ produces the cyclic structure $s_4^1s_6^2$.

When there are two cycles of different length, which have not a
common divisor, they induce as many cycles as their common divisor is
of the length which is equal to their lowest multiple. For example at
$n=5: 2\times3=6$, and there remain 4 elements to be permuted by
smaller cycles. This is possible as $s_1^1s^1_3$. The cycle $s_1$ is
induced by the cycle $s_2$ which permutes two vectors of~only one
edge and leaves the identity. The cycle $s_3$ permutes columns of
three edges only and reproduces itself. Some examples of induced
graph cycles

$$\begin{array}{cccccc} S_6 & s_6^1\;; & S_7 & s_1^1s^1_6\;; & S_8 &
s^1_2s^1_6\;; \\ & & & & & \\ G_6 & s_3s^2_6\;; & G_7 & s_3s^3_6\;; &
G & s_1^1s_3^1s^4_6\;. \\ \end{array}$$

It is possible to generate any graph group either by computing

results of~multiplication of the incidence matrices by different
permutation matrices, or by deducing effects of different cycle
structures. Both ways are tedious tasks demanding patience and/or
computers. If we remind yourselves that we dealt with sums of only
two naive matrices, where all operations seemed easy, we wonder how
complicated must be groups of matrices having in each row three or
more unit symbols, or groups of matrices of different kinds.

The graph groups $G_n$ can be used for determining the number of all
simple graphs with $n$ vertices, similarly as the cycle indices were
used. An~edge can be present in a graph or not. In a simple graph
multiple edges are not allowed and we can imagine that the graphs are
placed on vertices of~$n(n-1)/2$ dimensional unit cubes which sides
are formed by diagonals as on~Fig. 12.1, where two diagonal strings
in the 3 dimensional cubes were shown.

\begin{figure} \caption{The smallest pair of graphs on the same

partition orbit (A and B) and the graph with a central edge (c)}
\label{The smallest pair} \linethickness{0.6pt}
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To represent both possibilities, we insert into the cycle indices the

polynomial $(1 + x^k)$ instead of cycles $s_k$ and calculate for all
subgroups. The $G_4$ graph index is \begin{equation} G_4 = 1/24\
(s^6_1 + 9s^2_1s^2_2 + 8s^2_3 + 6s^1_2s_4^1)\;. \end{equation}

It gives

\begin{equation} Z(G_4,\ 1+x) = 1 + x^1 + 2x^2 + 3x^3 + 2x^4 + x^5 +

x^6 \end{equation} \label{Z(G}

where coefficients at $x^k$ determine the number of different graphs

with 4 vertices and k edges. They are shown on Fig. \ref{Graphs with
4 vertices and k edges}.

\section{Symmetries of Unoriented Graphs} \label{Symmetries of

Unoriented Graphs}

We explained the graph group by permutations of columns of the

incidence matrix ${\bf G }$ of the complete graph. Now we use this
technique to explain the~symmetry of other unoriented graphs, which
are essentially subsets of k elements of the complete graph.

There are only two possibilities of what a permutation columns of the

incidence matrix can do with the rows. A row can be permuted in
itself or it can be changed into a row corresponding to another edge.
The group of~the~single edge has two elements: (1)(2) and (12). If
the edge is defined on the set of 4 vertices, then there are 4
permutations which leave it unchanged: (1)(2)(3)(4), (1)(2)(34), (12)
(3)(4), and (12)(34). We can choose 6 different edges but some will
have equal groups, as the edge 3-4 with the edge
1-2.

With k rows we have always three possibilities: Permutations acting

on vertices change only the ordering of rows, that is their indexing.
Or they change them completely (or at least partially) into rows
corresponding to~other edges. The result is that one labeled graph
is changed into another labeled graph which must have the same
number of edges and must belong to the same graph
type.

The count of the number $b$ of the permutations which only permute
the~rows of the incidence matrix ${\bf G}$ of a graph determines the
symmetry of the graph. When we divide the number of all permutations
$n!$ by the {\em symmetry number} $b$, we obtain the number of the
different labeled graphs of the given type. $b$ of a single edge on
4 vertices is 4, and there are indeed $24/4 = 6$ different edges on
the set of 4 vertices. The symmetry number of this graph $K_4$ is 24
and therefore there is only one distinguishable labeling of this
graph. The relation of the number $b$ to distinguishable labeling
is known as the~{\em Burnside lemma}.

Now we inspect the calculations according to (\ref{Z(G}). The formula

\begin{equation} (1+x)^6 +9(1+x)^2(1+x^2)^2 +8(1+x^3)^2 + 6(1+x^2)

(1+x^4) \end{equation}

is divided according to its increments in the final result as:

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|} \hline Powers of x & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4

& 5 & 6 \\ \hline $s^6_1$ & 1 & 6 & 15 & 20 & 15 & 6 & 1 \\
$9s^2_1s^2_2$ & 9 & 18 & 27 & 36 & 27 & 18 & 9 \\ $8s^2_3$ & 8 & & &
16 & & & 8 \\ $6s^1_2s^1_4$ & 6 & & 6 & & 6 & & 6 \\ \hline $\Sigma$
& 24 & 24 & 48 & 72 & 48 & 24 & 24 \\ \hline Number of graphs & 1 & 1
& 2 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

All permutation matrices of the group $S_4$ transform the empty or

complete graph into itself. Therefore their b = 24. When we divide
the column sums by 24, we obtain the number of different graphs with
$k$ vertices. The number of~the~distinguishable labeled graphs is
given in the first row, where the identity permutations are counted.
For a single edge, it gives six different graphs. The~number $b$ is
produced by three permutations of rows of the type $s^2_1s^2_2$ and
by one permutation $s^6_1$.

At graphs with two edges, 15, 27, and 6 permutations belong to two
different graphs, either $L_3$ and one isolated vertex or two $L_2$.
When we try to divide the permutations into the graph orbits, we can
use the fact that both $b$ and the number of different labeling of a
graph must be divisors of $n!$. 15 can then be split only as
$12+3$. Then 27 can be divided as $12+12+3$. We can use also another
criterion, to decide which from both possibilities is right. We
exploit possible partitions of vertex degrees. Graphs with two edges
have the sum of vertex degrees 4 and for 4 vertices two partitions:
2110 and 1111. There are 12 distinguishable permutations of the first
partition and only 1 permutation of the second one. This partition is
stable at all permutations, including the cycle of the length 4,
therefore the group structure is $s^1s^1_4$. Both criterions leave as
the only possible splitting is 12+12+3. There are 12 linear chains
$L_4$ with $b=2$ and the group structure $(s^4_1 + s^2_2)$, and 3
graphs $2K_2$ with $b=8$. Their group structure is $s^4_1 + 2s^2s^1_2
+ 3s^2_2 + 2s_4^1$. the graphs with five and six edges are
complementary the graphs with none and one edge.

\section{Oriented graphs} \label{Oriented graphs}

In an simple oriented graph, two arcs between each pair of vertices

can exist. The symmetry of the oriented graphs is complicated by this
fact. This can be documented on the relation between the number of
selfcomplementary unoriented graphs with 4k vertices and the number
of selfcomplementary tournaments with 2k vertices. A {\em tournament}
is a connected oriented graph which can have only one from both
orientations of arcs.

The complete tournament with 2k vertices has $(4k^2 - 2k)$ arcs, the
complete oriented graph with 4k vertices has $(8k^2 -2k)$ arcs. It is
necessary to complete a graph corresponding to a selfcomplementary
tournament with 2k vertices, and to generate from each arc two arcs.
It can be done as follows: We generate 2k new vertices indexed by
dashed indices of the tournament and we connect all odd dashed and
undashed vertices having equal index by k arcs. If in the tournament
the arc i-j exists, we induce arcs i-j and i-j' in~the~complementary
graph, if there is the arc j-i, we introduce arcs i'-j and i'-j'. The
arcs missing in the induced graph are present in the
selfcomplementary graph, they correspond to the arcs in the
complementary tournament or connect even dashed and undashed
vertices. The difference is formed by $4k^2$ arcs and $2k$
vertices.

The difference between the oriented and unoriented graphs can be

explained also in a other way. We can use two separate rows for both
orientations of the arcs i-j and j-i, respectively. In an simple
oriented graph, n(n-1) arcs can be, that is twice the number of the
edges. The incidence matrix ${\bf S }$ has twice the number of rows
of the incidence matrix ${\bf G }$ and permutations of its columns
induce another kind of column permutations changing the signs. The
permutation (12)(3)(4) induces the graph permutations (12)(23)(45)(6)
(89)(10,11)(12) which leaves only two rows unchanged.

We already mentioned that the number of labeled unoriented graphs is

$2^{n(n-1)/2}$. This can be written as the polynomial

\begin{equation} G(t) = (1 + t)^{{ n \choose 2 }}\ {\rm with}\ t=1\;.

\end{equation}

This fact is deduced, from the possibilities of how to fill the

adjacency matrix ${\bf A }$ with unit symbols. There are ${ n \choose
2 }$ possibilities which are independent. The adjacency matrix is
symmetrical. The filling goes simultaneously in the lower and upper
off-diagonal positions. The polynomial $G(2)$ gives the~number of
labeled oriented graphs with only one arc between a pair of
vertices. This corresponds to an adjacency matrix which has only one
element in each pair of positions i-j and j-i showing the orientation
of the arc. The~polynomial $G(3)$ gives the number of oriented graphs
with both orientations of arcs, or the number of asymmetrical
adjacency matrices which can have a pair of unit symbols in each pair
of the corresponding places.

\section{Connected Unoriented Graphs} \label{Connected Unoriented

Graphs}

A graph is connected if it has only one component. The number of

unoriented connected graphs can be determined if we count all graphs
rooted in one component $C_k$ with $k$ vertices. Their number is
equal to the number of all rooted labeled graphs
\begin{equation} n2^{n(n-1)/2} = \sum_{k=1}^n { n \choose k
}C_kG_{n-k} \label{rooted labeled graphs} \end{equation}

where $G_{n-k}$ is the number of all rooted graphs with $(n-k)$

vertices, that means $n2^{(n-k)(n-k-1)/2}$ with $G_0 = 1$. The
meaning of the left hand side of~the~identity is clear: Each graph
has $n$ possible roots. The right hand side counts each graph
according to the number of its components. If it has two components,
then it is counted twice, once with $k$ roots, then with $(n-k)$
roots. The empty graph is counted $n$ times due to the binomial
coefficient on the right hand side.

When we separate the number of connected graphs $C_n$, we can

determine the number of all rooted labeled graphs recursively. Here
a general relation between two generating functions is applied, the
normal and the exponential ones. The numbers of the connected
labeled graphs $G_n$ are the coefficients of the exponential
generating function of the labeled graphs

\begin{equation} G(x) =\sum_{n=1}^{\infty}C^n(x)/n! =

\exp(\sum_{n=1}^{\infty}a^nx^n)\;. \end{equation}

Because there exists also the normal generating function of the

labeled graphs

\begin{equation} G(x) = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty}A^nx^n)\;, \end{equation}

both functions can be compared. Inserting $a_0 =1$, we can logarithm

both sides with the result

\begin{equation} a_n = A_n - 1/n\ \sum_{n=1}^{\infty}ka_kA_{n-k})\;.

\end{equation}

(\ref{rooted labeled graphs}) appears to be just a special case of

this identity.

The number of connected graphs $C_n$ is a fast growing function

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|} \hline n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\

\hline $C_n$& 1 & 1 & 4 & 38 & 728 & 26704 \\ \hline \end{tabular}\;
.$$

\chapter{Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors} \label{Eigenvalues and

Eigenvectors}

\section{Interpretation of Eigenvalues} \label{Interpretation of

Eigenvalues}

The quadratic form of the naive matrices ${\bf N}^{\rm T}{\bf N }$

are a diagonal matrix. Also squares of Hadamard matrices are diagonal
matrices. But the second quadratic form of naive matrices ${\bf
NN}^{\rm T}$ and the quadratic forms of the incidence matrices of
graphs ${\bf G }$ and ${\bf S }$ have off-diagonal elements. We
interpreted the diagonal and the off-diagonal elements as two
orthogonal matrix vectors, giving the unit projections of any matrix
vector ${\bf M }$ into the space of rows and columns (see Fig. ). In
this chapter we will show conditions when a matrix vector can be
represented by an equivalent diagonal matrix of {\em eigenvalues}
introduced in Sect. \ref{Diagonalization of Matrices} and the
properties which such a substitute has.

When compared with the naive matrices, one property is clear: The
diagonal matrix must have the same length as the matrix vector ${\bf
M }$ itself. From this property follows that at the diagonalization,
the matrix vector ${\bf M }$ is rotated to decrease the importance of
the off-diagonal elements. Alternatively, the vector position is
stable and we move the coordinate system, exactly as if we were going
around the matrix till a place is found, from where it is possible to
see through. Such a point of view has its own set of coordinates.

The going around the matrix is similar with the function of the
polarizing filters rotating the light (the set of the eigenvalues is
known as the {\em spectrum} of the matrix) has a pair of matrices
known as matrices of {\em eigenvectors}. The~matrix ${\bf M }$ is put
between a pair of eigenvector matrices ${\bf Z}^{\rm T}$ and ${\bf Z
}$ and the~resulting product is the equivalent diagonal matrix
$\Delta({\bf M})$:

\begin{equation} {\bf Z}^{\rm T} {\bf MZ }= \Delta({\bf M})

\end{equation}

In Sect. \ref{Diagonalization of Matrices}, symbols ${\bf L}$ and

${\bf R}$ were used for both diagonalizing matrices. The difference
between these matrices and the eigenvectors is due to the additional
demand on the eigenvectors. The eigenvectors are the diagonalizing
vectors which are normalized as in the following
examples

$$\begin{array}{rr|rrr} & & \ & 1/\sqrt{ 2} & 1/\sqrt{ 2} \\ & & &
1/\sqrt{ 2} &-1/\sqrt{ 2} \\ \hline 0 & 1 & & 1/\sqrt{ 2} & -1/\sqrt{
2} \\ 1 & 0 & & 1/\sqrt{ 2} & 1/\sqrt{ 2} \\ \hline 1/\sqrt{ 2} &
1/\sqrt{ 2} & & 1 & 0 \\ 1/\sqrt{ 2} & -1/\sqrt{ 2} & & 0 & -1 \\
\end{array}$$ $$\begin{array}{rr|rrr} & & \ & 1/\sqrt{ 2} & 1/\sqrt{
2} \\ & & & 1/\sqrt{ 2} &-1/\sqrt{ 2} \\ \hline 2 & 1 & \ & 3/\sqrt{
2} & 1/\sqrt{ 2} \\ 1 & 2 & & 3/\sqrt{ 2} & -1/\sqrt{ 2} \\ \hline
1/\sqrt{ 2} & 1/\sqrt{ 2} & & 3 & 0 \\ 1/\sqrt{ 2} & -1/\sqrt{ 2} & &
0 & 1 \\ \end{array}$$

The situation is complicated when more eigenvalues are equal and

the~corresponding values are multiple.

Notice two important properties of eigenvector matrices:

\begin{itemize} \item 1. Their column vectors should be orthogonal
and normalized

\begin{equation} {\bf Z}^{\rm T}{\bf Z }= {\bf I} \end{equation}

For example

$$\begin{array}{rr|rrr} & & \ & 2^{-1/2} & 2^{-1/2} \\ & & & 2^{-1/2}
& -2^{-1/2} \\ \hline 2^{-1/2} & 2^{-1/2} & & 1 & 0 \\ 2^{-1/2} &
2^{-1/2} & & 0 & 1 \\ \end{array}$$

Sometimes it is difficult to find the orthogonal eigenvectors, if

more eigenvalues are equal (or one eigenvalue is multiple).
\item 2. When eigenvectors multiply the matrix ${\bf M}$, all its
elements are multiplied by the factor corresponding to the eigenvalue
$\lambda_j$. In other words, the matrix ${\bf M }$ behaves to its
eigenvector matrices ${\bf Z}^{\rm T}$ and ${\bf Z}$ as a diagonal
matrix of~the~ eigenvalues

\begin{equation} {\bf MZ }= \lambda_j {\bf Z} \end{equation}

\end{itemize}

\section{Eigenvalues and Singular Values} \label{Eigenvalues and

Singular Values}

All the above equations were written for the quadratic matrices ${\bf
M}$, representing quadratic forms. For rectangular matrices we can
fill their missing row or column elements by zeroes and for any
vector taken as the eigenvector, we obtain a zero eigenvalue. We will
not be interested in the eigenvalues of the rectangular matrices, but
in the eigenvalues of their quadratic forms, which are known as the
{\em singular values} of the rectangular matrices and
of~the~asymmetric square matrices.

The incidence matrix ${\bf S }$ of a tree is $(n-1)\times

n$-dimensional. ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ is n-dimensional matrix,
${\bf SS}^{\rm T}$ is $(n-1)$-dimensional matrix. Both products have
the same sets of singular values. In this case ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf
S}$ must have one zero $\lambda_j$. This is true for all connected
graphs. The square unit matrix ${\bf JJ}^{\rm T}$ has only one
nonzero eigenvalue which is identical with the eigenvalue of ${\bf
J}^{\rm T}{\bf J}$. This is the sum of n units.

We repeat once again the important fact that on the diagonal of both
quadratic forms as well as squared symmetric matrices appear the
squared elements $m_{ij}$. If a matrix is symmetric, both quadratic
form coincide with the square of the matrix ${\bf M}^{\rm T}{\bf M} =
{\bf M}^2$, therefore the singular values of~the~symmetric matrices
coincide with their squared eigenvalues.

\section{Characteristic Polynomials} \label{Characteristic

Polynomials}

Now we approach to the problem of the eigenvalues in another aspect.

A matrix and the matrix of its eigenvectors form a system of linear
equations which solutions are found when consecutively the diagonal
matrix of eigenvalues $\Delta(\lambda)$ is subtracted from the matrix
${\bf M }$ and the resulting matrix is multiplied by the eigenvector
${\bf z }$:

\begin{equation} ({\bf M }- \lambda{\bf I}){\bf z }= {\bf 0}

\end{equation}

For example the matrix

$$\left( \begin{array}{cc} 2 & 1 \\ 1 & 2 \end{array} \right)$$

corresponds to the equations

$$(2 -\lambda)x + y = 0$$ $$x + (2 -\lambda)y = 0\;.$$

If we insert the eigenvector $x=1,\ y=1,$ we get as the solution
$\lambda=3,$ for $x=1,\ y=-1,$ the eigenvalue is $\lambda=1$. We
already know the eigenvectors, otherwise the solution must be found
using different methods. The product of the differences of the
eigenvalues with an unknown $x$ is the {\em characteristic
polynomial} $P(x)$ of the matrix ${\bf M }$. In the given case it is
$P(x) = x^2 -4x +3$. In the general case the characteristic
polynomial is

\begin{equation} P(x) = \prod^n_{j=1}(x - \lambda_j) = x^n -

a_1x^{n-1} +a_2x^{n-2} \dots \pm a_{n-1}x \pm a_nx^0\;.
\end{equation}

The term $a_1$ is just the sum of all the eigenvalues and it is
identical with the trace of the matrix, the last term is the product
of all eigenvalues and determines if a system of eigenvalues has a
solution. Therefore it is called the {\em determinant}. If a matrix
has at least one zero eigenvalue, then the solution of the matrix
equations is undetermined and the matrix is {\em singular}.

\section{Permanents and Determinants} \label{Permanents and

Determinants}

Until now the {\em permanents} were not defined and without them we
had difficulties describing how the polynomials are obtained from the
matrix elements. Let suppose that we have square matrices which
elements are either symbols or numbers, for
example

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf A }\\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{ccc} a & b & c \\ d & e & f \\ g & h & i \end{array}
\right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf B}\\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} 1 & 1 & 2 \\ 0 & 1 & 3 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 \end{array}
\right)\;. \end{array} \end{array}$$

The permanent $p({\bf M})$ is the sum of all products of all

combinations of all elements $m_{ij}$ in the row i or the column j,
respectively, with the elements with other indices in all other
columns and rows

$$p({\bf A}) = aei + afh + bdi + bfg + cdh + ceg$$ $$p({\bf B}) = 110
+ 131 + 100 + 131 + 201 + 211 = 8\;.$$

We use the whole set of the permutation matrices ${\bf P}$ as the
templates and write the elements incised by them from the matrix as
the products.

It is clear that the number of elements in a n-dimensional permanent

is $n!$. The n elements in each row are multiplied with $(n-1)!$
strings of preceding permanents. Actually, the number of rows and
columns in a matrix need not to be equal, but the corresponding
products then contain zeroes. This is important for the definition of
determinants.

Before we start with them, we show at least one result from the rich
theory of permanents, namely the permanents of matrices $({\bf
JJ}_n^{\rm T}+k{\bf I}_n)$: \begin{itemize} \item If $k=0$, we have a
square unit matrix. All $n!$ strings of the permanent are equal 1 and
their sum gives factorial $n!$. \item If $k= -1$, then zeroes are on
the main diagonal and all strings containing at least one diagonal
element are zero. We count the~elements of the permanent as the
permutation matrices ${\bf P }$ without elements on the main
diagonal. You might remember (if not, see Chapt. 7) that they are
counted by subfactorials $z_{i0}$, Table 7.3. It gives for the matrix
$({\bf JJ}^{\rm T}-{\bf I})$ the result $({\bf JJ}^{\rm T}_n-{\bf
I}_n) = (r_n -1)^n$. \item If k=1, we have on the main diagonal 2 and
elements of~the~permanent containing the diagonal elements are powers
of 2. Inserting this value into the generalized polynomial $({\bf
JJ}_n+{\bf I}_n) = (r_n -1)^n$. This is the Apple polynomial. \item
Similarly the permanents for any k are found.
\end{itemize}

The {\em determinant} $Det({\bf M})$ is in some sense an inverse

function of the permanent, because it is based on the principle of
inclusion and exclusion. It has identical elements as the permanent,
only their signs can be either positive or negative, depending on the
sign of the generating permutation, that is on~the~number of
inverses. For our examples it is

$$Det(A) = aei - afh - bdi + bfg + cdh - ceg$$ $$Det(B) = 0 - 3 - 0 +

3 +0 -2 = -2\;.$$

For $n=2$, the determinant is $Det({\bf M}) = ad - bc$. For $n=3$,

the determinant is found easily if we repeat the first 2 rows of the
matrix as its 4-th and 5-th rows and write the diagonal products on
the left and on the right

$$\begin{array}{c|ccc|c} &\ a & b & c &\ \\ (-) & d & e & f &\ (+)\\
ceg & g & h & i & aei\\ \hline fah & a & b & c & dhc\\ ibd & d & e &
f & gbf\\ \end{array}$$

Finding determinants of higher order matrices used to be a tedious

task. It was formalized by the definition of {\em minors} $A_{ij}$ of
matrix elements $m_{ij}$. The~minor $A_{ij}$ is the determinant of
the matrix $\delta_{ij}{\bf M }$ obtained from the matrix ${\bf M }$
by deleting the j-th column and i-th row. The determinant is then
defined as the sum of products of all elements of a row or a column
with their minors

\begin{equation} Det({\bf M})=\sum_{i=1}^m m_{ij}A_{ij}=\sum_{j=1}^n

m_{ij}A_{ij} \end{equation}

Only for some types of matrices it is easy to find their

determinants.

It is obvious that the determinant of a diagonal matrix is the

product of its elements, whereas the trace is their sum. Because the
elements of~a~diagonal matrix are simultaneously its eigenvalues, the
determinant is the~product of the eigenvalues of a
matrix

\begin{equation} Det({\bf M})= \prod_{j=1}^n\lambda_j\;.

\end{equation}

This is true for any matrix and this fact gives another definition of
the determinant as the volume of a rectangle formed by its
eigenvalues. If an~eigenvalue is zero, the rectangle does not form a
body in n-dimensional space and its volume is zero.

The polynomial is the product of the differences of the diagonal

matrix of the unknown $x$ minus the matrix ${\bf M }$ itself. It is
calculated similarly as the determinant, only the differences remain
unopened. The determinant is the~last term $a_n$ of the polynomial,
when $x^0$.

Otherwise: when a matrix contain unknown $x$'s on its diagonal, we

cannot calculate its determinant in the closed form as a number. The
result is a~polynomial. For example the matrix

${\bf M}$ $$\left( \begin{array}{ccc} x & a & b \\ a & x & c \\ b & c

& x \end{array} \right)$$

$$Det{\bf M} = x^3 + 0x^2 - (a + b + c )x^1 + 2abcx^0$$

The determinants of the symmetrical matrices with zeroes on the

diagonal are partitioned according to the powers of $x$ by the
rencontres numbers, and the numbers obtained are identical with the
elements of the characteristic polynomial.

Also for the triangular matrices in the lower or the higher

triangular form, the determinant is the product of their diagonal
elements. We decompose the~determinant according to the elements of
the first row. There will be only one nonzero element $m_{11}A_{11}$.
Then we decompose the minor $A_{11}$ similarly. Two rules are
important for calculating of the determinants: \begin{itemize} \item
1. Changing the order of rows or columns does not change the value
of~the~determinant, but it can change its sign. The permanent does
not depend on the ordering of columns and rows and the sign can be
changed if the~new permutation of rows or columns changed the
signature of terms of~the~determinant.

\item 2. The determinant is not changed, when we add or subtract to

some row (or column) of the matrix a multiple of a row (or a column)
of the matrix. If we add to the second row in the above example its
first row and control all terms, we see that what appears on one side
of the determinant, that appears also on the other side in products
with negative signs and all changes eliminate themselves, and the
value of the determinant remains unchanged.
\end{itemize}

Both rules are exploited for calculation of the determinants. For

example, we show how the determinant of matrices $({\bf JJ}_3^{\rm
T}- {\bf I}_3)$ is found:

$$\begin{array}{c} {\bf 0}\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 0 & 1 & 1\\

1 & 0 & 1\\ 1 & 1 & 0 \end{array} \right) \end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{ccc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf 1}\\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} 2 & 2 & 2\\ 1 & 0 & 1\\ 1 & 1 & 0 \end{array}
\right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf 2}\\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} 2 & 2 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 &-1 \end{array}
\right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf 3}\\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} 2 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 &-1 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 &-1 \end{array}
\right) \end{array} \end{array}$$
\begin{itemize} \item 1. The sum of the second and the third row 2,1,
1 was added to the first row.

\item 2. The first column was subtracted from the last one.

\item 3. The first column was subtracted from the second one.
\end{itemize}

The n dimensional matrix $({\bf JJ}_3^{\rm T}- {\bf I})$ transformed

by these three steps into the lower triangular form has on the
diagonal one value $(n-1)$ and $(n-1)$ values -1. The larger matrices
need more steps.

Nowadays the determinants are found usually by computers. But to gain

insight, it is good to know the principles which form the base of the
algorithms used.

The determinant can be interpreted as $1/n!$ part of volume of the

n-dimensional body described by matrix together with the origin of
the coordinates. For example, two points $A(5,2)$ and $B(2,5)$ form
with $O(0,0)$ a triangle, see the Fig.
\ref{Interpretation}

\begin{figure} \caption{Interpretation of the determinant}

\label{Interpretation} \linethickness{0.4pt} \begin{picture}(140.00,
140.00) \put(20.20,20.00){\framebox(100.33,100.00)[cc]{0.30}}
%\emline(20.00,20.00)(60.00,120.00) \multiput(20.00,20.00)(0.12,0.30)
{334}{\line(0,1){0.30}} %\end %\emline(60.00,120.00)(120.00,60.00)
\multiput(60.00,120.00)(0.12,-0.12){500}{\line(0,-1){0.12}} %\end
%\emline(120.00,60.00)(20.20,20.00) \multiput(120.00,60.00)(-0.30,
-0.12){334}{\line(-1,0){0.30}} %\end \put(60.00,130.00){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{A(5,2)}} \put(129.00,60.00){\makebox(0,0)[lc]{B(2,5)}} \put(9.67,
10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{O(0,0)}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}

The surface of the triangle is $25 - 10 -4.5 = 10,5$. The determinant

of the matrix

$$\left( \begin{array}{cc} 5 & 2 \\ 2 & 5 \end{array} \right)$$

The determinant is $25 - 4 = 21$. One half of it is 10.5.

\section{Graph Polynomials} \label{Graph Polynomials}

The adjacency matrices ${\bf A}$ of simple graphs without loops have
all off-diagonal elements either 1 or 0, and all diagonal elements
are zero and they are symmetrical $a_{ij}= a_{ji}$. If we try to find
their polynomial by the above described method, we find for 3
vertices

\begin{equation} \hbox{One off-diagonal element}\ P({\bf A}) = x^3 -

x^1 = \prod_{j=1}^3(x -\lambda_j) \end{equation}

\begin{equation} \hbox{Two off diagonal elements}\ P({\bf A}) = x^3 -

2x^1\;. \end{equation}

The coefficient $a_1$ at $x^2$ in the polynomial corresponding to the

sum of~eigenvalues is 0, since the trace of ${\bf A}$ is zero the
coefficient $a_2$ at $x^1$ corresponding to the sum of terms
$\lambda_i\lambda_jx$, is proportional to the number of edges in the
graph. This is true also for graphs with more vertices, because these
terms appear in the polynomial, when the diagonal terms $x$ are
multiplied by the off-diagonal elements. Due to the symmetry of the
adjacency matrices all terms at $x^{n-k_{odd}}$ are zero and terms at
$x^{n-k_{even}}$ are formed by~the~number of k-multiples of isolated
edges. These k-tuples are known as the {\em edge figures}.

For example for the chain $L_6$ \\ \linethickness{0.5pt}

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\put(110.00,10.00){\circle*{4.00}} %\emline(10.00,10.00)(30.00,10.00)
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(70.00,10.00) \put(50.33,10.00){\line(1,0){19.67}} %\end
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has the terms of the polynomial 5, 6 and 1. The polynomial of the

adjacency matrices ${\bf A}$ of the trees is known as the {\em
acyclic polynomial}, because it does not accommodate for cycles. It is
simultaneously the {\em matching polynomial} of the acyclic graphs.

The polynomial coefficients of the linear chains can be tabulated

rather easily (Table \ref{Polynomial coefficients of linear chains
$L_n$}).

\begin{table} \caption{Polynomial coefficients of the linear chains

$L_n$} \label{Polynomial coefficients of linear chains $L_n$}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|} \hline k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 \\
\hline m=0 & 1 & & & & & & \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & \\ 2 &-1 & 0 & 1 &
& & & \\ 3 & 0 &-2 & 0 & 1 & & & \\ 4 & 1 & 0 &-3 & 0 & 1 & & \\ 5 &
0 & 3 & 0 &-4 & 0 & 1 & \\ 6 &-1 & 0 & 6 & 0 &-5 & 0 & 1 \\ \hline
\end{tabular} \end{table}

\begin{figure} \caption{Six two-tuples (A) and one three-tuple (B)

of~the~chain $L_6$} \label{Six two-tuples and one three-tuple}
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(50.00,90.00) \put(30.00,90.00){\line(1,0){20.00}} %\end
%\emline(70.00,90.00)(90.00,90.00) \put(70.00,90.00){\line(1,0)
{20.00}} %\end %\emline(30.00,70.00)(50.00,70.00) \put(30.00,70.00)
{\line(1,0){20.00}} %\end %\emline(90.33,70.00)(110.00,70.00)
\put(90.33,70.00){\line(1,0){19.67}} %\end %\emline(50.00,50.00)
(70.00,50.00) \put(50.00,50.00){\line(1,0){20.00}} %\end
%\emline(90.67,50.00)(110.00,50.00) \put(90.67,50.00){\line(1,0)
{19.33}} %\end %\emline(10.00,10.00)(30.00,10.00) \put(10.00,10.00)
{\line(1,0){20.00}} %\end %\emline(50.33,10.00)(70.00,10.00)
\put(50.33,10.00){\line(1,0){19.67}} %\end %\emline(90.33,10.00)
(110.00,10.00) \put(90.33,10.00){\line(1,0){19.67}} %\end \put(120.00,
100.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{A}} \put(120.00,10.00){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{B}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

For $L_6$, we have 5 edges. Six two-tuples and one three-tuple are
shown on Fig. \ref{Six two-tuples and one three-tuple}.

The elements of the Table 15.1 (compare with Table 10.7) are
the~binomial coefficients and the row sums of the absolute values of
coefficients are the Fibbonacci numbers. The coefficients of the
polynomials of the linear chains are the greatest ones which are
obtainable for the trees. It is clear that not too many combinations
of these coefficients are possible. Since the number of trees is a
fast growing function, and the coefficients are limited, their
combinations, compared to the number of trees, are scarcer and as the
result, trees must be {\em isospectral}. This means that different
types of trees must have identical spectra. On Fig. \ref{A pair of
the smallest isospectral trees} is a pair of the smallest isospectral
trees which polynomial is $x^8 - 7x^6 + 9x^4$.

\begin{figure} \caption{A pair of the smallest isospectral trees}

\label{A pair of the smallest isospectral trees}
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(130.00,20.00) \multiput(120.00,30.33)(0.12,-0.12){84}{\line(0,-1)
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{\circle*{4.00}} \put(40.00,40.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(20.33,20.33)
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{\circle*{4.00}} \put(95.00,40.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(130.00,40.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(90.00,30.33){\circle*{4.00}} \put(94.67,20.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(104.67,30.33){\circle*{4.00}} \put(120.33,30.33)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(135.00,30.33){\circle*{4.00}} \put(130.00,20.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

The acyclic polynomial combines with the {\em cycle polynomial} if

cycles appear in a graph. The effect of cycles can be shown on the
example of~the~adjacency matrix of $K_3$ (Fig. \ref{The complete
graph $K_3$ and simultaneously the cycle $C_3$}):

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \left( \begin{array}{ccc} x & -1 & -1\\ -1 & x &

-1\\ -1 & -1 & x \end{array} \right) & $=$ & P({\bf A}) = x^3 - 3x^1
+ 2 \end{array}$$ \\ \begin{figure} \caption{The complete graph $K_3$
and simultaneously the cycle $C_3$} \label{The complete graph $K_3$
and simultaneously the cycle $C_3$} \linethickness{0.6pt}
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(35.00,53.67) \multiput(10.00,12.33)(0.12,0.20){209}{\line(0,1)
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{\circle*{4.00}} \put(59.67,12.33){\circle*{4.00}} \put(35.00,53.67)
{\circle*{4.00}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

There appears the coefficient 2 at the term $x^0$. This is produced

by~the~cycle $C_3$. This cycle is counted twice. This multiplicity
appears at all cycles which must be counted separately from the
acyclic terms. The cycles of even length k are subtracted from the
number of $k/2$-tuples of isolated edges. It is rather easy to
construct the polynomials of the isolated cycles. If we remove from a
cycle an edge, it turns into a linear chain which acyclic polynomial
we already know, and the bridging edge combines to k-tuples with
$(n-3)$ edges of the cycle, as if they form differences of the linear
chain with $(n-2)$ vertices. These k-tuples are subtracted from the
terms of $L_n$. For example

$$P(C_6) = P(L_6) + P(L_4) = (x^6 - 5x^4 + 6x^2 -1) - (x^4 - 3x^2 + 1)

= x^6 - 6x^4 + 9x^2\;.$$

To obtain the cycle polynomial, we must subtract the coefficient 2

for the~cycle of the length $n=6$. The result is $$x^6 - 6x^4 + 9x^2
-2\;.$$

If the adjacency matrix is weighted or the graph contains multiple

bonds, the polynomial can be modified accordingly. We have shown that
the coefficient $a_2$ of the polynomial at $x^{n-2}$ is formed from
the squares of the matrix elements. Further terms in larger matrices
are more complicated. Finding of~all k-tuples of isolated edges and
cycles in graphs with many vertices and edges is tedious and
calculating of polynomials by this technique is no more
practical.

\section{Cluj Weighted Adjacency Matrices of the linear chains}

\label{Cluj Weighted Adjacency Matrices}

Diadudea introduced asymmetrically weighted distance matrices, Cluj

matrices (named according to his home town in Rumania), by the
Wiener weights $N_{i,(i,j)}$ and $N_{j,(i,j)} $ (the number of
vertices on the end j of the path $p_{ij}$ from the diagonal vertex
($i=j$) to the off-diagonal vertex j ($i\not =j$).

At first, it is necessary to explain relations of the Cluj matrices

to other matrices characterizing graphs, as the incidence matrices
${\bf S}$ (oriented graphs) and ${\bf G}$ (unoriented graphs), walk
and path matrices defined ${\bf W}$ on arcs (edges, respectively),
and walk and path matrices defined ${\bf P}$ on vertices see next
chapter.

The elements of the incidence matrix of an oriented graph ${\bf S}$

are defined as $s_{ij} = -1$ if the arc i goes from the vertex j,
$s_{ij} = 1$ if the arc i goes to the vertex j, $s_{ij} =0$,
otherwise. The quadratic form of the incidence matrix with its
transpose ${\bf S}^T$ is known as the Laplace--Kirchhoff matrix. It
is decomposed into the diagonal matrix of the vertex degrees ${\bf
V}$ and the matrix of the off--diagonal elements known as the
adjacency matrix ${\bf A}$ ($a_{ij} = 1$, if the vertex i is adjacent
to the vertex j, $a_{ij} =0$, otherwise)

\begin{equation} {\bf S}^T\ {\bf S} \label{3}\ . \end{equation}

The other quadratic form of the incidence matrix with its transpose
${\bf S}\ {\bf S}^T$ has off--diagonal elements corresponding to the
adjacency matrix ${\bf A}$ of the line graph. For trees, this matrix
has dimension $(n-1)$ and has the true inverse which is the quadratic
form of the walk and path matrices ${\bf W}$ defined on arcs (edges,
respectively).

The walk (path) matrices ${\bf P}$ are defined on vertices for trees,
too. The elements of ${\bf P_p}$ (path) are for oriented trees
$p_{ij} = 1$, if the vertex j is incident with the path i, $p_{ij}
=0$, otherwise. The elements of ${\bf P_w}$ (walk) are for unoriented
trees $p_{ij} = 1$, if the vertex j is on the end of the path i,
$p_{ij} = -1$, if the vertex j is an inner vertex in the path i,
$p_{ij} =0$, otherwise.

The sum

\begin{equation} {\bf P_w}\ + \ {\bf P_p} \end{equation}

is twice the incidence matrix ${\bf G}_K$ of the complete unoriented

graph $K_n$, since in the sum only the direct walks between all pairs
of vertices remain.

The Cluj matrices of trees are the scalar products of the transposed
walk matrix ${\bf P_p}^T$ with the incidence matrix ${\bf G}_K$ (this
convention can be transposed)

\begin{equation} {\bf C_p}\ = {\bf P_p^T}{\bf G}_K \end{equation}

For example for the linear chain $L_4$

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{cccccc} \ \ & \ \ & \ \ & \ \ & \ \

&\ \\ \ \ &\ \ &\ \ &\ \ &\ \ &\ \\ \ \ &\ \ & \ \ &\ \ &\ \ &\ \ \\
\ \ &\ \ &\ \ &\ \ &\ \ & \end{array} & \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 1
& 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\ 0 &
1 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{array} \right) \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{cc} \left( \begin{array}{cccccc} 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 &

1 \\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\ 0 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1
& 1 & 1 \end{array} \right) & \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 3 & 1 & 1 &
1 \\ 3 & 3 & 2 & 2 \\ 2 & 2 & 3 & 3 \\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 3 \end{array}
\right) \end{array}$$\.

The diagonal elements of the scalar product count $(n-1)$ walks going
from the vertex $j=i$ to the other vertices. The off--diagonal
elements of the scalar product count walks incident with both
vertices $i$ and $j$. The off--diagonal matrix is the Cluj matrix
${\bf C}_e$

Since Diadudea was interested mainly in chemical aspects of the new

matrices ${\bf C}_p$, there remained unnoticed some properties of the
direct (Hadamard) product of a Cluj matrix with the corresponding
adjacency matrix ${\bf A}$:

\begin{equation} {\bf C}_e = {\bf C}_p \bullet {\bf A} \end{equation}

which leaves only adjacent elements of the Cluj matrix ${\bf C}_e$
(or equivalently Cluj weighted adjacency matrix ${\bf A}_C$, for
example for the linear chain $L_4$ (n-butane) above

$$\left( \begin{array}{cccc} 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 3 & 0 & 2 & 0 \\ 0 & 2

& 0 & 3 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \end{array} \right)$$\,

The basic properties of these adjacency matrices weighted by the

number of vertices on the ends of arcs (edges) ${\bf A}_C$ are:

1) The sum of their elements is n(n - 1). Each from the (n - 1) edges
has n vertices on its ends.

2) The trace is zero.

3) The sum of squared eigenvalues is 2W:

\begin{equation} Tr {\bf A}_C^2 = 2W \end{equation}

since on the trace of ${\bf A}_C^2$ appear twice the products of the
number of vertices $N_{i,(i,j)} \ N_{j,(i,j)}$ on both sides of all
edges.

The spectrum is symmetrical, the eigenvalues appear in pairs $\pm

\lambda_j$. The odd eigenvalue of the trees with the odd number of
vertices is zero. The largest eigenvalue is $(n - 1)$, it coincides
with the largest matrix elements $N_{ij}$ of the pending vertices.

The term of the characteristic polynomial $x^{n-1}$ is zero, the term

$x^{n-2}$ is the Wiener number.

The pair of the largest eigenvalues $\pm (n-1)$ of the stars are
their only nonzero eigenvalues. This is consistent with their Wiener
number $S_n$: $W_S = (n-1)^2$.

The eigenvalues of the linear chains $L_n$ with odd n (from the
inspection of the first chains) have values $(0, \pm [2, 4, \dots,
(n-1)])$, the eigenvalues of the linear chains $L_n$ with even n have
values $(\pm [1,\ 3,\ \dots,\ (n-1)])$.

These values are compatible with the combinatorial identities for the
sequences of the binomial coefficients:

for odd n:

\begin{equation} { n+1 \choose 3 } = \sum_{k=0}^{(n-1)/2} (2k)^2 =

\sum_{k=1}^{n-1}k(n-k) \end{equation}

for even n:

\begin{equation} { n+1 \choose 3 } = \sum_{k=1}^{n/2} (2k-1)^2 =

\sum_{k=1}^{n-1}k(n-k) \label{9} \end{equation}

The characteristic polynomial can be calculated ana\-lo\-gou\-sly to

the known method of determining the characteristic polynomial of the
unweighted adjacency matrices of trees by counting of all k-tuples of
isolated edges. Here each k-tuple gets its weight determined by all
arc (edge) products $N_{i,(i,j)} N_{j,(i,j)}$.

For example for $L_5$:

Weights of bonds 1 -- 4 = 4;\ 2 -- 3 = 6;\ 3 -- 2 = 6;\ 4 -- 1 = 4;:

$x^3$ term (1-tuples, the Wiener term): $4+6+6+4 = 20$;

$x^1$ term (2-tuples): $(4\times 6) + (4\times 6) + (4\times 4) =

64.$

The characteristic polynomial: $P = x^5 - 20 x^3 + 64x$.

The term $x^{n-1}$ of the characteristic polynomial is zero. It

corresponds to the sum of the eigenvalues. The term $x^{n-2}$ of the
characteristic polynomial is determined by the sum of 1-tuples.
Therefore it is the Wiener term. It corresponds to the sum of the
products of two eigenvalues. Both recurrences are compatible with the
combinatorial identities and above.

\section{Pruning Techniques} \label{Pruning Techniques}

\begin{figure} \caption{Pruning of graphs. Graphs 1A and 2A are

increased by adding one edge and one vertex (1B and 2B). The graphs B
are pruned by deleting the new edge together with the adjacent
vertices (empty circles) and the adjacent edges (1C and 2C).}
\label{Pruning of graphs} \linethickness{0.6pt}
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{\circle{4.00}} %\emline(125.00,40.00)(125.00,25.00) \put(125.00,
40.00){\line(0,-1){15.00}} %\end \put(25.00,49.67){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{A}} \put(77.67,50.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{B}} \put(132.33,50.00)
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The characteristic polynomial of an acyclic graph is the determinant

of~the~difference of its matrix and the diagonal matrix $x{\bf I}$.
When a graph is enlarged by adding a new vertex and an edge, the
characteristic polynomial is changed according to the place, where
the new vertex is attached. Otherwise, if the~graph size is decreased,
by subtracting one vertex with its edges, the polynomial of the
induced graph is differentiated according to the graph which remains,
when the connecting vertex, to which a new vertex is attached, is
removed with all its edges. The final characteristic polynomial can
be then written as the determinant of a $2\times2$ matrix For example
(Fig. \ref{Pruning of graphs}).

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \left( \begin{array}{cc} (x^3 - 2x) & x^2 \\ 1 &

x \end{array} \right) & = & x^4 - 3x^2\\ \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \left( \begin{array}{cc} (x^3 - 2x) & (x^2 - 1)

\\ 1 & x \end{array} \right) & = & x^4 - 3x^2 +1 \end{array}$$

In the first case two loose vertices $K_1$ correspond to the term
$x^2$, in~the~second case the graph $K_2$ corresponds to the term
$(x^2-1)$.

A graph can be pruned off more branches simultaneously and the

branches need not to be the isolated vertices only but they can be
also graphs. On~the~diagonal there appear always the polynomials of
the pruned and the pruning graphs and off-diagonal elements are their
corresponding differences. The~only necessary condition is that all
the subgraphs must be connected by the {\em bridges}, edges or arcs,
connecting two vertices without cycles. Then in the matrix
polynomials of corresponding subgraphs and their differences,
the~polynomials of corresponding subgraphs without the connected
vertex appear

$$\left( \begin{array}{cc} \hbox{polynomial A} & \hbox{difference AB}

\\ \hbox{difference BA} & \hbox{polynomial B}\\ \end{array} \right)\;
.$$

For example, the star $S_3$ pruned as $2K_1$ and $K_2$

$$\left( \begin{array}{cc} x^2 - 2 & 2 \\ 1 & x - 1 \end{array}

\right)$$
The pruning decreases the dimensionality of the polynomial.

\section{Polynomials of Graphs with Loops} \label{Polynomials of

Graphs with Loops}

A diagonal matrix of vertex degrees ${\bf V }$ can be considered an

adjacency matrix of a graph which consists only of loops. Its
polynomial is obtained simply as the product

\begin{equation} \prod^n_{j=1} (x - v_j) = \prod^n_{j=1} (x -

\lambda_j)\;. \end{equation}

The coefficients of the polynomial can be calculated also as the sums

of all k-tuples of the isolated loops on different vertices for
example for $v_j = 2,1,1$:

$$\begin{tabular}{|cc|cccc|ccccc|cc|} \hline
\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{Loop} & \multicolumn{4}{c}{1-tuples} &
\multicolumn{5}{|c|}{2-tuples} & \multicolumn{2}{|c|}{3-tuples} \\
\hline *& * & * 0& 0*& & & *0& *0& 0*& 0 * & &*0 & 0* \\ *& & & &* &
& * & & *& & * &* & * \\ *& & & & & *& & * & & * & * & * & * \\
\hline \multicolumn{2}{|c|}{$\Sigma$} & \multicolumn{4}{|c|}{4} &
\multicolumn{5}{|c|}{5} & \multicolumn{2}{|c|}{2} \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$

The loop polynomial is $P(V) = x^3 - 4x^2 + 5x^1 - 2$. This makes
possible to find the polynomials of the quadratic forms ${\bf G}^{\rm
T}{\bf G}$ or ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ (${\bf V}\pm{\bf A})
$.

The loop figures are combined with the edge or the arc figures. All
pairs of~loops are counted together with of one edge figures. The
loops figures formed from a loop and an edge are counted together
with the 3-tuples of the loops. Therefore the polynomials of the
quadratic forms of the incidence matrices of the oriented and
unoriented graphs contain all terms of the polynomial, and not only
the every second term as the acyclic polynomial does. The final loop
polynomial of $L_4$ has 3 components

$$\begin{tabular}{l|rrrr} Loop polynomial & $x^3$ & $-4x^2$ & $+5x^1$

&$- 2$ \\ Edge polynomial & & & $-2x^1$ & \\ Cycle polynomial & & 0 &
& \\ Edge-loop polynomial& & & & + 2 \\ \hline Resulting polynomial&
$x^3$ & $-4x^2$ & $+3x^1$ & \\ \end{tabular}$$

The effect of the diagonal elements is simple, when all the diagonal
elements are equal r, as at the {\em regular graphs}. The unknown $x$
can be replaced by substitution $y = (x + r)$ and the matrix treated
as being without diagonal elements. This can be exploited in some
cases for the calculation of the~determinants, as we will see
later.

\section{Vertex and Edge Erased Graphs} \label{Vertex and Edge Erased

Graphs}

The set of n subgraphs of a graph $G$, obtained from the parent graph
by deleting each vertex with all its incident arcs or edges, is known
as the {\em Ulam subgraphs}. Ulam conjectured that the parent graph
can be reconstructed from this set. This appears trivial but it is
difficult to prove it for the unlabelled graphs, where there is no
simple way, how to mach the unlabelled vertices of~two graphs. There
exist another relation, the polynomials of the Ulam subgraphs are the
differences of the polynomial of the parent graph. It means that the
vertex erased subgraph $\delta_j G$ is the partial difference of the
parent graph according to the erased vertex $\delta_j P(G)$ or the
difference of the corresponding matrix, obtained by eliminating the
corresponding row and column. The rules of differentiation and
integration are the same as in the differential and the integral
calculus

\begin{equation} \delta x^n = nx^{n-1} \end{equation}

\begin{equation} \int nx^{n-1} = x^n \end{equation}

The reconstruction of the parent polynomial of a matrix from the sum

of differences

\begin{equation} P(M) = \int \sum_{j=1}^n \delta_j P(M)

\end{equation}

is exact till the integration constant which vanishes in the

differences.

For example the graph on the Fig. \ref{The graph A and its vertex
erased subgraphs $A_1$ -- $A_5$} the matching polynomials of its Ulam
subgraphs are

$$\begin{tabular}{l|rrrr} ${\bf A}_1$ & $x^4$ & $-4x^2$ & $-2x$ &
$+1$ \\ ${\bf A}_2$ & $ x^4$ & $-2x^2$ & & \\ ${\bf A}_3$ & $ x^4$ &
$-5x^2$ & $-4x$ & \\ ${\bf A}_4$ & $ x^4$ & $-3x^2$ & & \\ ${\bf
A}_5$ & $x^4$ & $-4x^2$ & $-2x$ & $+1$ \\ \hline $\sum$ & $5x^4$ &
$-18x^2$ & $-8x$ & $+2 $ \\ \hline ${\bf A}$ & $x^5$ & $-6x^3$ &
$-4x^2$ & $2x $ \\ \end{tabular}$$

\begin{figure} \caption{The graph A and its vertex erased subgraphs

$A_1$ -- $A_5$} \label{The graph A and its vertex erased subgraphs
$A_1$ -- $A_5$} \linethickness{0.6pt} \begin{picture}(190.00,90.00)
\put(10.00,10.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(10.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(30.00,29.67){\circle*{4.00}} \put(30.00,10.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(70.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(90.00,29.67){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(110.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(90.00,10.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(10.00,50.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(10.00,70.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(30.00,69.67){\circle*{4.00}} \put(50.00,70.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(30.00,50.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(70.00,50.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(90.00,69.67){\circle*{4.00}} \put(110.00,70.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(90.00,50.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(130.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(150.00,29.67){\circle*{4.00}} \put(170.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(130.00,50.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(130.00,70.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(170.00,70.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(150.00,50.00){\circle*{4.00}}
%\emline(10.00,69.67)(50.00,69.67) \put(10.00,69.67){\line(1,0)
{40.00}} %\end %\emline(10.00,69.67)(10.00,50.00) \put(10.00,69.67)
{\line(0,-1){19.67}} %\end %\emline(10.00,50.00)(30.00,50.00)
\put(10.00,50.00){\line(1,0){20.00}} %\end %\emline(30.33,69.67)
(10.00,50.00) \multiput(30.33,69.67)(-0.12,-0.12){164}{\line(-1,0)
{0.12}} %\end %\emline(110.00,70.00)(90.00,70.00) \put(110.00,70.00)
{\line(-1,0){20.00}} %\end %\emline(90.00,70.00)(90.00,50.00)
\put(90.00,70.00){\line(0,-1){20.00}} %\end %\emline(90.00,50.00)
(70.00,50.00) \put(90.00,50.00){\line(-1,0){20.00}} %\end
%\emline(70.00,50.00)(90.00,70.00) \multiput(70.00,50.00)(0.12,0.12)
{167}{\line(0,1){0.12}} %\end %\emline(130.00,70.00)(130.00,50.00)
\put(130.00,70.00){\line(0,-1){20.00}} %\end %\emline(130.00,50.00)
(150.00,50.00) \put(130.00,50.00){\line(1,0){20.00}} %\end
%\emline(30.00,30.00)(10.00,30.00) \put(30.00,30.00){\line(-1,0)
{20.00}} %\end %\emline(10.00,30.00)(10.00,10.00) \put(10.00,30.00)
{\line(0,-1){20.00}} %\end %\emline(10.00,10.00)(30.00,10.00)
\put(10.00,10.00){\line(1,0){20.00}} %\end %\emline(30.00,10.00)
(30.00,30.00) \put(30.00,10.00){\line(0,1){20.00}} %\end
%\emline(30.00,30.00)(10.00,10.00) \multiput(30.00,30.00)(-0.12,-0.12)
{167}{\line(0,-1){0.12}} %\end %\emline(70.00,30.00)(110.00,30.00)
\put(70.00,30.00){\line(1,0){40.00}} %\end %\emline(90.00,30.00)
(90.00,10.00) \put(90.00,30.00){\line(0,-1){20.00}} %\end \put(10.00,
76.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1}} \put(30.00,76.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{2}}
\put(50.00,76.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{3}} \put(10.00,40.33){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{4}} \put(30.00,40.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{5}} %\emline(30.00,
69.67)(30.00,50.00) \put(30.00,69.67){\line(0,-1){19.67}} %\end
\put(70.00,70.00){\circle{4.00}} \put(150.00,70.00){\circle{4.00}}
\put(70.00,10.00){\circle{4.00}} \put(130.00,9.67){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(150.00,10.00){\circle{4.00}} \put(40.00,50.00){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{A}} \put(100.00,50.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{$A_1$}} \put(40.00,
10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{$A_3$}} \put(50.00,30.00){\circle{4.00}}
\put(99.67,10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{$A_4$}} \put(160.00,50.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{$A_3$}} \put(160.00,10.00){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{$A_5$}} %\emline(130.00,30.00)(170.00,30.00) \put(130.00,30.00)
{\line(1,0){40.00}} %\end %\emline(150.00,30.00)(130.00,10.33)
\multiput(150.00,30.00)(-0.12,-0.12){164}{\line(-1,0){0.12}} %\end
%\emline(130.00,10.33)(130.00,30.00) \put(130.00,10.33){\line(0,1)
{19.67}} %\end \end{picture} \end{figure}

In edge (or arc) erased graphs, only the edge (arc) itself is
eliminated without eradicating incident vertices, which corresponds
to the elimination of the corresponding row and column in the
quadratic form ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}$ or ${\bf SS }^{\rm T}$,
respectively. The set of the edge erased subgraphs has $m$ subgraphs,
$m$ being the number of edges of the graph. In trees, each subgraph
has always two components. Here also the sum of the polynomials of
the edge erased subgraphs of trees is a difference of the polynomial
of the parent tree, but the rules of differentiation are different.
The coefficients at $(n-2k)$ powers of $x$ are not multiplied by the
power of $x$ and the power of $x$ is not decreased, but they are
divided by $(m-k)$ and the power of $x$ is left
unchanged.

An edge erased tree is a forest with $n$ vertices and the first term
of its polynomial is $x^n$. There are $m$ subgraphs and therefore the
sum of all subgraph polynomials is divisible by $m$. All subgraphs
contain $(m-1)$ edges and therefore the coefficient of the second
term of the sum, when divided by this number gives $m$. The following
coefficients can be deduced using the full induction. If the relation
of polynomials is true for the parent tree, it must be true also for
its subgraphs (forests), containing one edge less, and their
polynomials. Corresponding coefficients of all subgraphs must be $0\
{\rm mod}\ (m-k)$. This is true also for the term $a_{n-k}$ if
$n=(2k+1)$. Among the subgraphs of~the~linear chain there exist $k$
subgraphs containing the term corresponding to $(k+1)$ tuple. For
example the graph on the Fig. \ref{The tree B and its edge erased
subgraphs $B_1$ -- $B_5$} the matching polynomials of its edge erased
subgraphs are

$$\begin{tabular}{l|rrr} ${\bf B}_1$ &$ x^6$ & $-4x^4$ & $+2x^2$ \\

${\bf B}_2$ & $ x^6$ & $-4x^4$ & $+2x^2 $ \\ ${\bf B}_3$ & $x^6$ &
$-4x^4$ & $+2x^2$ \\ ${\bf B}_4$ &$ x^6$ & $-4x^4$ & $+3x^2 $ \\
${\bf B}_5$ &$ x^6$ & $-4x^4$ & \\ \hline $\sum$ & $ 5x^6$ & $-20x^2$
& $+9x^2$ \\ \hline ${\bf B}$ & $ x^6$ & $-5x^4$ & $-3x^2 $ \\
\end{tabular}$$

\begin{figure} \caption{The tree B and its edge erased subgraphs

$B_1$ -- $B_5$} \label{The tree B and its edge erased subgraphs $B_1$
-- $B_5$} \linethickness{0.6pt} \begin{picture}(260.00,130.00)
\put(10.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(30.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(50.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(70.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(30.00,10.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(30.00,50.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(10.00,100.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(30.00,100.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(50.00,100.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(70.00,100.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(30.00,80.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(30.00,120.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(100.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(190.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(120.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(210.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(140.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(230.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(160.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(250.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(120.00,10.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(210.00,10.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(120.00,50.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(210.00,50.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(100.00,100.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(190.00,100.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(120.00,100.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(210.00,
100.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(140.00,100.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(230.00,100.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(160.00,100.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(250.00,100.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(120.00,
80.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(210.00,80.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(120.00,
120.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(210.00,120.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(20.00,105.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1}} \put(40.00,105.33)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{4}} \put(60.00,105.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{5}}
\put(20.00,115.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{2}} \put(20.00,85.00){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{3}} %\emline(10.00,100.00)(70.00,100.00) \put(10.00,100.00)
{\line(1,0){60.00}} %\end %\emline(30.00,120.00)(30.00,80.00)
\put(30.00,120.00){\line(0,-1){40.00}} %\end %\emline(9.67,30.00)
(70.00,30.00) \put(9.67,30.00){\line(1,0){60.33}} %\end
%\emline(30.00,50.00)(30.00,30.00) \put(30.00,50.00){\line(0,-1)
{20.00}} %\end \put(140.00,80.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{$B_1$}}
%\emline(120.00,120.33)(120.00,80.00) \put(120.00,120.33){\line(0,-1)
{40.33}} %\end %\emline(120.00,100.00)(160.00,100.00) \put(120.00,
100.00){\line(1,0){40.00}} %\end %\emline(120.00,50.00)(120.00,10.00)
\put(120.00,50.00){\line(0,-1){40.00}} %\end %\emline(100.00,30.00)
(120.00,30.00) \put(100.00,30.00){\line(1,0){20.00}} %\end
%\emline(139.67,30.00)(160.00,30.00) \put(139.67,30.00){\line(1,0)
{20.33}} %\end \put(140.00,10.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{$B_4$}}
%\emline(190.00,100.33)(250.00,100.33) \put(190.00,100.33){\line(1,0)
{60.00}} %\end %\emline(210.00,100.33)(210.00,80.00) \put(210.00,
100.33){\line(0,-1){20.33}} %\end %\emline(210.00,50.00)(210.00,10.00)
\put(210.00,50.00){\line(0,-1){40.00}} %\end %\emline(190.00,30.00)
(230.00,30.00) \put(190.00,30.00){\line(1,0){40.00}} %\end
\put(230.00,80.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{$B_2$}} \put(229.67,10.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{$B_5$}} \put(50.00,80.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{$B$}}
\put(50.00,10.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{$B_3$}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}
For the matching polynomials an eliminated edge reduces the number of
figures with $k$ isolated edges. There are always $(m - k)$ such
subgraphs with the same polynomial. Dividing by this parameter the
coefficients at the terms at $x^{n-2k}$, we get the acyclic
polynomials for the cyclic graphs, too. For
example

$$K_4 : x^4 -6x^2 + 3\\ \Sigma_i \delta (P) = 6(x^4 -5x^2 + 2) = (6/6)
x^4 -(30/5)x^2 + (12/4)\;.$$

The differences of the matrices will be useful for finding their

inverses.

\section{Seidel Matrices of Regular Graphs} \label{Seidel Matrices of

Regular Graphs}

Seidel defined a modified adjacency matrix ${\bf A}_S$ for so called

the schlicht\footnote{From German.} graphs (with simple arcs) in the
following way: $a_{ij} = -1$ if i and j vertices are adjacent,
$a_{ij} = 1$ if i and j vertices are non-adjacent and $a_{ii} = 0$.
It means that

\begin{equation} {\bf A }_S = \overline{\bf A } - {\bf A}\;.

\end{equation}

This matrix can be interpreted as the difference of the adjacency

matrices of the graph $G$ and its complementary graph $\overline{G}$.
The Seidel matrix of regular graphs can be formulated as the
difference of the Laplace-Kirchhoff matrices ${\bf K}= {\bf S}^{\rm
T} {\bf S}$ of both graphs corrected by the regular diagonal terms
$(n - 1 - 2r)$ where $r$ are vertex degrees of the regular graph.

\begin{equation} {\bf A }_S = {\bf K} - \overline{\bf K }+ (n - 1 -

2r){\bf I}. \end{equation}

Therefore the Seidel matrix of a regular graphs has a spectrum which

is obtained from the difference of the spectra of its
Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix ${\bf K}$ and the Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix
of its complementary graph $\overline{\bf K}$, corrected by the
diagonal term. For example for a cycle $C_4$:

$$\begin{tabular}{l|rrrc} Spectrum $C_4$ & 4,& 2,& 2, & 0 \\ Spectrum

$\overline{C_4}$ & 0, & -2, & -2,& 0\\ $\Delta(n - 1 - 2r)$ & -1, &
-1, & -1, & -1 \\ \hline Spectrum ${\bf A}$ & 3, & -1, & -1, & $-1\;
.$ \end{tabular}$$

The result is identical with the spectrum of the adjacency matrix of

the~complete graph $K_4$, despite that the Seidel matrix contains
unit elements of both signs. But both matrices, ${\bf A}(K_4)$ and
${\bf A}_S(K_4)$ are the adjacency matrices of line (bond) graphs of
two stars $S_5$ with different orientations. Because both
orientations

$$\begin{tabular}{ccccccc} &$\downarrow$ & & \qquad & & $\uparrow$ &

\\ $\rightarrow$ & &$\leftarrow$ & & $\leftarrow$ & &$\rightarrow $
\\ & $\downarrow$ & & & &$\uparrow $ & \\ \end{tabular}$$
have the identical Laplace-Kirch\-hoff matrices ${\bf K}$ and
therefore also the~identical spectrum. The result is
correct.

Using the same argumentation, the quadratic form ${\bf SS }^{\rm T}$
of the bipartite cycles (n even), which spectra are equivalent to the
Laplace-Kirchhoff matrices ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$, have all
off-diagonal elements either negative or one off-diagonal element in
each row can be negative and the other positive. If we combine ${\bf
K}(C_{2k})$ with ${\bf K}(\overline{C_{2k}})$ the result is identical
with the difference ${\bf K}(kK_2) - {\bf K}(k\overline{K_2})$.
Therefore the Seidel adjacency matrices of $k$ complete graphs $K_2$
and the cycles $C_{2k}$ are isospectral. For example:

$$\begin{tabular}{l|rrrrrr} Spectrum ${\bf K}(3K_2)$ & 2& 2,& 2& 0,&

0,& 0 \\ Spectrum ${\bf K}(\overline{3K_2})$ &-4,&-4,&-4,&-6,&-6,& 0
\\ $\Delta(n - 1 - 2r)$ & 3,& 3,& 3,& 3,& 3,& 3 \\ \hline Spectrum
{\bf A }(3K ) &1,& 1,& 1,&-3,&-3, &3 \\ \end{tabular}$$

$$\begin{tabular}{l|rrrrrr} Spectrum ${\bf K}(C_6)$ & 4,& 3,& 3,& 1,&

1,& 0 \\ Spectrum ${\bf K}(\overline{C_6})$ & -2,&-3,&-3,&-5,&-5, &0
\\ $\Delta(n - 1 - 2r)$ & 1,& 1,& 1,& 1,& 1,& 1 \\ \hline Spectrum
${\bf A }(C_6)$ & 3,& 1,& 1,&-3,&-3,& 1.\\
\end{tabular}$$

\section{\ Spectra of Unoriented Subdivision Graphs} \label{Spectra

of Unoriented Subdivision Graphs}

A subdivision graph $S(G)$ is obtained from a graph $G$ by inserting

a new vertex into each of its m edges. The adjacency matrix of an
unoriented subdivision graph ${\bf A}[S(G)]$ is obtained
straightforwardly from the incidence matrix ${\bf G }$ of the parent
graph writing it in the block form

$$\begin{array}{ccc} {\bf A}[S(G)] & = & \left( \begin{array}{cc}

{\bf 0} & {\bf G} \\ {\bf G}^{\rm T} & {\bf 0} \end{array} \right)
\end{array}$$

where ${\bf 0}$ is the zero matrix.

The spectra of the adjacency matrices of subdivision graphs with $n$

vertices and $m$ edges are related with the spectra of the quadratic
form ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G}$ of parent as graphs

\begin{equation} P_{S(G)}(\lambda_j) = (\lambda_j=0)^{\|m-n\|} \pm

P_{G^{\rm T}G}(\lambda_j)^{1/2} \end{equation} \label{Pe}

where $G^{\rm T}G\lambda_j$ are eigenvalues of the quadratic form of

the incidence matrix ${\bf G }$ of the parent graph. The same
relation is true even for the subdivision oriented graphs $S(G)$ with
the incidence matrices ${\bf S}$

The adjacency matrix ${\bf A}^2[S(G)]$ has two blocks ${\bf G}^{\rm
T}{\bf G }$ and ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}$. Both blocks have the identical
spectra. Their square roots with both signs form the~spectrum of the
the adjacency matrix of the subdivision graph. The~difference between
the number of vertices and edges are zero eigenvalues.
This can be exploited for calculations. For example, the cycle $C_3$
has the~adjacency matrix ${\bf A}$ equivalent with its incidence
matrix ${\bf G }$. The subdivision graph of the cycle $C_3$ is the
cycle $C_6$. Its adjacency matrix ${\bf A}$ is

$$\left( \begin{array}{cccccc} 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1
& 0 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 &
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \end{array} \right)\;.$$

The quadratic blocks are identical

$$\left( \begin{array}{ccc} 2 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 2 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & 2

\end{array} \right)$$

and they have eigenvalues: 4, 1, 1, thus the adjacency matrix ${\bf

A}$ of $C_6$ has eigenvalues: $2,1,1,-1,-1,-2$.

The subdivision graph of the star graph $S_4$ has the adjacency
matrix ${\bf A}$

$$\left( \begin{array}{ccccccc} 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 &
0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 &
0 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0
& 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \end{array} \right)\;.$$

The quadratic blocks are

$$\begin{array}{cc} \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 2 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 2 & 1

\\ 1 & 1 & 2 \end{array} \right) & \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 3 & 1&
1 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 1& 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{array}
\right) \end{array}$$.

We already know that the first block has eigenvalues: 4, 1, 1, thus

the~adjacency matrix ${\bf A}$ of $S(S_4)$ has eigenvalues: $2,1,1,0,
-1,-1,-2$.

All subdivision graphs of stars $S_n$ have spectra derived from the
spectra of their line graphs ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}= {\bf I }+ {\bf
JJ}^{\rm T}$. The corresponding spectra are $n,1^{n-1}$ and it is
easy to find their square roots. The signs are determined by the zero
trace of the adjacency matrix ${\bf A}$.

\section{\ Adjacency Matrices of Line Graphs} \label{Adjacency

Matrices of Line Graphs}

The quadratic form ${\bf GG }^{\rm T}$ of the incidence matrix ${\bf
G }$ defines the line graph $L(G)$ of the parent graph $G$. A line
graph is obtained from its parent graph if its edges are transformed
into vertices which are incident if they have in~the~parent graph a
common vertex. The relation between the quadratic form ${\bf GG
}^{\rm T}$ and the adjacency matrix ${\bf A}[L(G)]$ of the line graph
for parent graphs with simple the edges is

\begin{equation} {\bf GG}^{\rm T} = 2{\bf I }+ {\bf A}[L(G)]\;,

\end{equation}

where ${\bf I }$ is the unit diagonal matrix. Therefore there exists

a relation between eigenvalues the adjacency matrix ${\bf A}[L(G)]$
of the line graph

\begin{equation} P_{L({\bf A})}(\lambda_j) = P_{{\bf GG}^{\rm

T}}(\lambda_j -2)\;. \end{equation} \label{P}

The line graph of the linear chain $L_n$ is the linear chain
$L_{n-1}$. The subdivision graph of the linear chain $L_n$ is the
linear chain $L_{2n-1}$.

Two conditions of the subdivision graphs (equation \ref{Pe}) and the

line graphs (equation \ref{P}) determine the relations between the
eigenvalues of the matrices of the linear chains as

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|r|r|} \hline $L_n$ & $\lambda_j({\bf GG}^{\rm T})

$ & $\lambda_j({\bf A})$\\ \hline n=2 & 2,\ 0 & 1,\ -1 \\ 3 & 3,\ 1 &
$\sqrt{2},\ 0,\ -\sqrt{2}$ \\ 4 & $2+\sqrt{2},\ 2,\ 2-\sqrt{2}$ &
$1.618,\ 0.618,\ -0.618,\ -1.618$ \\ 5 & $3.618,\ 2.618,\ 2,\ 1.382,\
0.382$ & $\sqrt{3},\ 1,\ -1,\ -\sqrt{3}$ \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

These relations lead to the formula for the eigenvalues the adjacency
matrix ${\bf A}$

\begin{equation} {\bf A}_{(L_n)}(\lambda_j) = 2\cos\;j\pi/(n-1)\;.

\end{equation}

The linear chain $L_n$ behaves as a rod fixed in its center. This is
opposite to a string which is fixed on its ends. Its vibrations are
described by the sinus function.

\section{\ Oriented Subdivision Graphs} \label{Oriented Subdivision

Graphs}

The adjacency matrices of the subdivision graphs derived from the

incidence matrices ${\bf S }$ of oriented graphs represent a more
complicated problem. Remember that an oriented graph is formed by
arcs going from vertex j to vertex i. Their incidence matrix ${\bf S
}$ has in each row a difference of two unit vectors $({\bf e}_i -
{\bf e}_j).$ The quadratic form ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S }$, from which
the adjacency matrix ${\bf A }$ is derived, has all its off-diagonal
elements negative: ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S }= ({\bf V }- {\bf A})$,
where ${\bf V }$ is the diagonal matrix of vertex degrees $v_j$.
Therefore all elements of~the~adjacency matrix of an oriented graph
are usually positive\footnote{Elements with both signs appear in the
Laplace-Kirchhoff matrices of the complementary graphs of graphs with
multiple bonds resulting from the Eichinger matrices ${\bf E }$ which
are pseudoinverses of the Laplace-Kirchhoff matrices ${\bf S}^{\rm
T}{\bf S }$ (see next Chapt.).}.

First it is necessary to solve the question of how the eigenvalues of

adjacency matrices having elements of both signs are related to
eigenvalues of~the~adjacency matrices with the uniform signs. A
simple exercise in matrix multiplication shows that the element
$a_{ij}$ of an adjacency matrix of a line graph is negative, if both
arcs have the same orientation (they meet head to tail). To keep such
orientations, all graph vertex degrees $v_j$ must be 1 or 2, which is
possible in linear chains and simple cycles. If three or more arcs
meet in a vertex then at least two of them must have the opposite
orientation, and in the adjacency matrix of the line graph the
positive sign appears. If a graph is bipartite, then it is possible
to choose orientations of arcs in such a way that all elements of the
adjacency matrix are positive. Because the quadratic form ${\bf
S}^{\rm T}{\bf S }$ is independent on the orientation of arcs, all
quadratic forms ${\bf SS}^{\rm T}$ of bipartite graphs must have
identical spectra as the quadratic forms ${\bf SS}^{\rm T}$ with the
uniform signs.

It can be concluded that the quadratic forms $${\bf SS}^{\rm T} =

2{\bf I } \pm {\bf A}[L(G)]$$

of the oriented linear chains $L_n$ and the bipartite (n even) simple
cycles $C_n$ have identical spectra, and that the adjacency matrices
of their line graphs must have eigenvalues having the form
$\pm(\lambda_j \pm 2)^{1/2}$. Simple cycles, which are subdivision
graphs of cycles with uneven number of vertices, have eigenvalues in
the form $\pm(\lambda_j^2 - 2)^{1/2}$. The eigenvalues of the
subdivision graphs of the bipartite graphs have eigenvalues
$\pm(\lambda_j^2 + 2^{1/2}$), where $\lambda_j$ are eigenvalues of
the corresponding line graphs.

For the regular oriented graphs the relation (\ref{Pe}) holds for all
orientations of the subdivision graphs. For other graphs it is
necessary to solve the effects of the different orientations of arcs
in an oriented graph on the spectra of~the~corresponding subdivision
graphs individually.

\section{\ La Verrier-Frame-Faddeev Technique} \label{La

Verrier-Frame-Faddeev Technique}

This technique is based on the properties of matrix products and

their relation with the products of eigenvalues

\begin{equation} Sp({\bf M }^k) = Sp(\lambda_j^k) \end{equation}

If we subtract from the matrix ${\bf M }$ the diagonal matrix of the

trace values $Tr({\bf I})$, we subtract the sum of eigenvalues from
each diagonal value of~the~matrix ${\bf M}$. We name this difference
matrix ${\bf B}_1$. Its product with the matrix ${\bf M }$ has the
eigenvalues formed by sums of pairs of different eigenvalues
of~the~matrix ${\bf M}$

\begin{equation} Sp[({\bf M }- Tr{\bf I}){\bf M}] = Sp({\bf B}_1{\bf

M}) = Sp(\Sigma\lambda_j^2 - \Sigma\lambda_j^2
-2\Sigma\lambda_i\lambda_j) \end{equation}

The terms $\Sigma\lambda_j^2$ eliminate themselves. Thus the trace of

the product is twice the sum of products of two eigenvalues of the
matrix ${\bf M}$ which is the~coefficient $a_2$ at $x^{n-2}$. When
subtracting this coefficient from the diagonal of the product ${\bf
BM }_1$ we obtain a matrix ${\bf B}_2$ which product with the matrix
${\bf M }$ gives us on the diagonal the triple sum of the product of
three different eigenvalues of the matrix ${\bf M}$:

\begin{equation} Sp[({\bf M }- Tr({\bf M}){\bf M }- a{\bf I}){\bf M}]

= \sum (\lambda_j^3 -\lambda_j^3 -2\lambda_j^2\lambda_j +
2\lambda_i\lambda_j^2 - 3\lambda_i\lambda_j\lambda_k)
\end{equation}
In this way we continue $n$ times or until we get in some step as the
result the matrix ${\bf B}_k = {\bf 0}$. We already used this
technique for the matrices in~the~triangular forms where only the
first subtraction was necessary. For example

$$\begin{array}{c} {\bf M}\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 3 & 1 & 1

& 1 \\ 1 & 2 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 & 2 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{array}
\right) \end{array}$$ $$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf
B}_1\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} -5 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & -6 & 1 & 0
\\ 1 & 1 & -6 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & -7 \end{array} \right) \end{array} &
\begin{array}{c} {\bf B}_2\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 7 & -2 &
-2 & -4 \\ -2 & 9 & -3 & 1 \\ -2 & -3 & 9 & 1 \\ -4 & 1 & 1 & 13
\end{array} \right) \end{array} \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf B}_3\\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{cccc} -3 & 1 & 1 & 3 \\ 1 & -3 & 1 & -1 \\ 1 & 1 & -3 &
-1 \\ 3 & -1 & -1 & -7 \end{array} \right) \end{array} &
\begin{array}{c} {\bf B}_3{\bf M}\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} -4
& 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & -4 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & -4 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & -4
\end{array} \right) \end{array} \end{array}$$

The polynomial is $x^4 -8x^3 +19x^2 -16x -1$.

The problem of finding of polynomials is thus transformed to the

basic operations with matrices, subtractions and multiplication.
Over each matrix hovers the rainbow of the induced matrices which on
its ends shows us the~polynomial and in it the spectrum of the
matrix. The finding of the eigenvalues can be sometimes, when solving
technical problems, a pot of gold at~the~end of the rainbow.

Notice that ${\bf B}_3{\bf M}$ is the diagonal matrix with equal
values. It means that ${\bf B}_3$ is a multiple of the inverse of
${\bf M}^{-1}$.

\section{\ Collapsed Adjacency Matrices of Highly Regular Graphs}

\label{Collapsed Adjacency Matrices of Highly Regular Graphs}

\begin{figure} \caption{The proper (a) and improper (b) indexing of

the cycle $C_4$} \label{The proper and improper indexing}
\linethickness{0.6pt} \begin{picture}(180.00,100.00) \put(10.33,49.00)
{\framebox(15.00,15.00)[cc]{}} \put(40.00,49.00){\framebox(15.00,
15.00)[cc]{}} \put(70.00,49.00){\framebox(15.00,15.00)[cc]{}}
\put(100.00,49.00){\framebox(15.33,15.00)[cc]{}} \put(40.00,10.00)
{\framebox(15.00,15.00)[cc]{}} \put(10.33,64.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(25.33,64.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(40.00,64.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(55.00,64.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(70.00,64.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(85.00,64.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(100.00,64.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(115.33,64.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(10.33,49.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(25.33,49.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(40.00,49.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(55.00,49.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(70.00,49.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(85.00,49.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(100.00,49.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(115.33,49.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(40.00,25.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(55.00,25.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(40.00,10.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(55.00,10.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(10.33,74.00){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{1}} \put(40.00,74.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1}} \put(70.00,74.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1}} \put(85.00,74.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{2}}
\put(100.00,73.67){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1}} \put(115.33,74.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{2}} \put(25.33,74.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{2}}
\put(55.00,74.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{2}} \put(10.67,39.00){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{4}} \put(25.33,39.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{3}} \put(40.00,39.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{2}} \put(55.00,39.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{3}}
\put(70.00,39.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{2}} \put(85.00,39.00){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{1}} \put(100.00,39.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1}} \put(115.33,39.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{2}} \put(30.00,25.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1}}
\put(65.00,25.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{2}} \put(64.67,10.00){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{2}} \put(29.67,10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{3}} \put(160.00,17.33)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{b}} \put(133.00,49.00){\framebox(15.33,15.00)
[cc]{}} \put(133.00,64.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(148.33,64.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(133.00,49.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(148.33,49.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(133.00,73.67){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1}} \put(148.33,
74.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1}} \put(133.00,39.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1}}
\put(148.33,39.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1}} \put(160.00,57.33)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{a}} \put(17.67,85.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{A}}
\put(47.67,85.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{B}} \put(77.67,85.00){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{C}} \put(107.67,85.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{D}} \put(141.33,85.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{E}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

Highly regular n dimensional graphs are graphs characterized by a

square matrix $x{\bf A}'$ with dimension less than $n$, having the
property, that each vertex j is adjacent to a' vertices i. The
matrices ${\bf A}'$ are known as the {\em collapsed adjacency
matrices}. Examples of the highly regular graphs are the complete
graphs $K_n$ and the cycles $C_n$. Some indexing of vertices of the
highly regular graphs is {\em proper}, if it can be described by a
collapsed adjacency matrix. For example, the cycle $C_4$ can be
properly indexed as on Fig. \ref{The proper and improper indexing}.
The indexing B is improper, since the vertices 2 are not
equivalent.

The collapsing of an adjacency matrix is achieved by the folding its

rows and the deleting of the corresponding columns:

$$\begin{array}{cccc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf A}_A\\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{cccc} 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0
\\ 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \end{array} \right)\\ \\ \\ \end{array} &
\begin{array}{c} {\bf A}_B\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 0 & 1 & 0
\\ 2 & 0 & 2 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 \end{array} \right)\\ \\ \\ \\ \end{array}
& \begin{array}{c} {\bf A}_C\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cc} 0 & 2 \\ 2
& 0 \end{array} \right)\\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \end{array} & \begin{array}{c}
{\bf A}_D\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cc} 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 \end{array}
\right) \\ \\ {\bf A}_E\\ \\ (2) \end{array} \end{array}$$

The collapsed adjacency matrices seem to have an interesting

property: The polynomials of the collapsed adjacency matrices ${\bf
A}'$ are the~divisors of the polynomials of the adjacency matrices
${\bf A}$. The conjecture is that the regularly collapsed adjacency
matrices have the same set of eigenvalues. The spectra of the
collapsed adjacency matrices are truncated to the greatest
eigenvalues.

The polynomials of collapsed adjacency matrices ${\bf A}'$ are:

$$P({\bf A }_A) = x^4 - 4x^2;$$ $$P({\bf A }_B) = x^3 -4x;$$ $$P({\bf

A }_C) = x^2 - 4;$$ $$P({\bf A }_D) = x^2 - 2x;$$ $$P({\bf A }_E) = x
-2\;.$$
\section{\ Factor Analysis} \label{Factor Analysis}

We have defined equivalence of graph vectors as classes of matrices

which can be obtained by the permutations of rows and or columns by
the unit permutation matrices ${\bf P}$. The equivalent matrices have
equal quadratic forms, they are projected onto one point in the
vector space. Now we define another classes of equivalence against
the common quadratic form, or more generally against the common
product.

We say that matrices ${\bf B }$ and ${\bf C }$ are {\em equivalent}

if

\begin{equation} {\bf B}^{\rm T}{\bf B }= {\bf C}^{\rm T}{\bf C}\;,

\end{equation}

or a matrix ${\bf B}^{\rm T}$ is equivalent to the matrix ${\bf U }$

and a matrix ${\bf B }$ is equivalent to the matrix ${\bf V }$ if
${\bf B}^{\rm T}{\bf B }= {\bf UV}$.

For example, the following matrices are equivalent according this

definition

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \left( \begin{array}{ccc} \sqrt{2} & 0 & 0 \\

\sqrt{1/2} & \sqrt{3/2} & 0 \\ \sqrt{1/2} & \sqrt{1/6} & \sqrt{4/3}
\end{array} \right) & \equiv & \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 2 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 2 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & 2 \end{array} \right)\;.
\end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \left( \begin{array}{cccc} \sqrt{3} & 0 & 0 & 0

\\ \sqrt{1/3} & \sqrt{8/3} & 0 & 0 \\ \sqrt{1/3} & \sqrt{1/6} &
\sqrt{5/2}& 0 \\ \sqrt{1/3} & \sqrt{1/6} & \sqrt{1/10} & \sqrt{12/5}
\end{array} \right) & \equiv & \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 1 & 1 & 0 &
0 \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 1
\\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 \end{array} \right)\;. \end{array}$$

The existence of such pairs or multiplets has a somewhat unpleasant

consequence: If we know only a scalar product, we can not be sure if
the roots we found are true ones or only equivalent to the original
parts of the product.

But there is also good news in the existence of the equivalence: We

can replace an unknown matrix vector by the canonical triangular
decomposition of its quadratic form. This is exploited by the {\em
factor analysis}, when the matrices of experimental results,
containing stochastic errors are replaced by~the~sums of matrices
having great weights and the difference is left as error
matrix

We have shown in Sect. 3.4 that an inverse matrix of a matrix

in~the~lower triangular form with the unit diagonal can be
represented as the sum of powers of the matrix itself. Now we show
that a quadratic form can be decomposed into a sum of {\em factors},
or its transposed eigenvectors ${\bf Z}$:

\begin{eqnarray} {\bf Z}{\bf M}^{\rm T}{\bf MZ}^{\rm T}= \Delta

\lambda_j \\ \Sigma \lambda_j {\bf Z}^{\rm T}{\bf Z} = {\bf MM}^{\rm
T} \end{eqnarray}

There exists a relation which is complementary to the equation 15.2

\begin{equation} \Sigma {\bf Z}^{\rm T}{\bf Z }^{\rm T}= {\bf I}

\end{equation}

For example matrix ${\bf Q}$

$$\left( \begin{array}{ccc} 1 &-1 & 0\\ -1& 2& -1\\ 0 &-1 & 1
\end{array} \right)$$

has three eigenvectors, $(1,1,1)^{\rm T}$; $(1/\sqrt{6},-2/\sqrt{6},

1/\sqrt{6})^{\rm T}$, and $(1/\sqrt{2},0,-1/\sqrt{2})^{\rm T}$, which
give three outer quadratic forms with multiplicities

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf A}\ \lambda_{j=0}\\ \\

\left( \begin{array}{ccc} 1/3 & 1/3 & 1/3 \\ 1/3 & 1/3 & 1/3 \\ 1/3 &
1/3 & 1/3 \end{array} \right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf B}\
\lambda_{j=3}\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 1/6 & -2/6 & 1/6 \\ -2/6
& 4/6 & -2/6 \\ 1/6 & -2/6 & 1/6 \end{array} \right) \end{array}
\end{array}$$ $$\begin{array}{c} {\bf C}\ \lambda_{j=1}\\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} 1/2 & 0 & -1/2 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 \\ -1/2 & 0 & 1/2
\end{array} \right)\;. \end{array}$$

The corresponding sums are ${\bf Q }= 3{\bf B}+ 1{\bf C}$ and ${\bf I
}= {\bf A}+ {\bf B}+ {\bf C}$.

The outer quadratic forms of eigenvectors are factors of correlation

matrices. These correlation matrices are decomposed into their
factors having the greatest eigenvalues, which are normalized on 1.
In our example it can be said that the factor ${\bf B}$ explains 75\%
of the matrix ${\bf Q }$ and the factor ${\bf C}$ the~remaining
25\%.

The factor decomposition is a valuable tool for explaining large

correlation matrices when few factors cover satisfactorily the
greatest part of~the~correlation matrix elements that the rest can be
considered as a stochastic error of the observation.

\chapter{Inverse Matrices} \label{Inverse Matrices}

\section{Introduction} \label{Introduction 16}

The inverse matrices were mentioned more times, but now they shall be
explained more systematically.

It is rather easy to define an inverse element to an isolated element,

as a number or a vector is. But this task becomes conceptually
difficult for whole systems represented by the matrix vectors. And it
is mysterious how to define inverse elements to objects. Can you tell,
what your inverse is? The answer will depend on the situation: do
you search your inner inverse as a person only, or an inverse element
of you as a part of some system?

At first recall Sect 3.4. There two types of inverse elements were
described, additive and multiplicative. The additive inverse is
defined by the identity $a + b = 0$, from it $b = -a$. The negative
element has the same value and opposite sign of its parent element.
The multiplicative inverse element is defined as the product $ab =
1$. From it $b = 1/a$ and $a = 1/a$. The distinction between an
element and its inverse is determined by convention. We have already
shown that the multiplicative inverses are additive on the
logarithmic scale (Fig. 3.5).

For matrices the additive and multiplicative inverse matrices can

also be defined with the zero matrices ${\bf 0}$ and the unit
diagonal matrices ${\bf I}$ as the unit elements, respectively. The
additive inverses of ${\bf M }$ seem to be trivial, they have only
inverse signs $-{\bf M}$, since ${\bf M }-{\bf M }= {\bf 0}$. The
multiplicative inverses are much more interesting.

Nevertheless we already defined the {\em complementary graphs}

$\overline{{\bf G}_n}$ to the graphs ${\bf G}_n$ by the
equation

\begin{equation} {\bf G}_n +\overline{{\bf G}_n} = {\bf G}_{K_n}\;.

\end{equation}

The complementary graph together with the parent graph gives the
complete graph $K_n$. The matrices ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ and
$\overline{{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}}$ can be considered as the {\em
generalized additive inverses} as we see later.

Now we consider the multiplicative inverses. We start with the unit

permutation matrices ${\bf P}$ which represent the symmetric group.
Their inverses are simply their transposes

\begin{equation} {\bf P}^{\rm T}{\bf P }= {\bf I}\;. \end{equation}

For the diagonal matrices $\Delta{\bf M}$ the inverse elements of

$d_{ii}$ are elements $1/d_{ii}$. But when we combine a diagonal
matrix with a permutation matrix, its inverse is not a simple sum of
both partial inverses.

The problem of the inverses is complicated for some asymmetric

matrices that have two different inverses, one from the left and one
from the right, because the multiplication from the left have
another effect than the multiplication from the right. And many
matrices have no inverse, because they are singular. Their spectrum
contains some zero eigenvalues and their rainbow does not close.

We can point in this context at the definition of the eigenvectors,

${\bf Z}$ which give when multiplied with ${\bf Z}^{\rm T}$ the unit
diagonal matrix. The transposed matrix of eigenvector matrix ${\bf
Z}^{\rm T}$ is the left hand side inverse of ${\bf Z }$.

We have worked with the quadratic forms and it will be convenient to

define for these quadratic forms a third kind of inverses, the {\em
inner inverse} of the quadratic form as a matrix ${\bf R }$ which
gives, if it is multiplied from one side with a matrix ${\bf M }$ and
from the other side with its transposed form ${\bf M}^{\rm T}$ the
unit diagonal matrix:

\begin{equation} {\bf MRM }^{\rm T} = {\bf I} \end{equation}

It can be expressed also conventionally, ${\bf MR }$ is the {\em left
hand side inverse} of ${\bf M}^{\rm T}$ and ${\bf RM}^{\rm T}$ is the
{\em right hand side inverse} of ${\bf M}$.

If we correct the product of the eigenvectors with their matrix

inside by the inverse eigenvalues, we get the unit diagonal matrix.
Therefore a matrix ${\bf M }$ weighted by the inverses of its
eigenvalues is the inner inverse of its eigenvector matrices. For
example

$$\begin{array}{ccccc} \left( \begin{array}{cc} 1/\sqrt{6} &

1/\sqrt{6} \\ 1/\sqrt{2} & 1/\sqrt{2} \end{array} \right)\ & \left(
\begin{array}{cc} 2 & -1 \\ -1 & 2 \end{array} \right) & \left(
\begin{array}{cc} 1/\sqrt{6} & 1/\sqrt{2} \\ 1/\sqrt{6} & 1/\sqrt{2}
\end{array} \right) & $=$\ & \left( \begin{array}{cc} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1
\end{array} \right) \end{array}$$

\section{Matrix Inverting} \label{Matrix Inverting}

We have shown in Chapt. 8 dealing with the matrices of combinatorial

numbers in triangular form, that their inverses are found by the
inclusion and exclusion technique. Another technique suitable for
finding of inverse matrices was already shown in the Sect. 15.13 as
the La Verrier-Frame-Faddeev technique. Both techniques are
equivalent in the case of matrices in lower triangular form
having the unit diagonal. The n-th power of its difference with the
unit diagonal matrix gives the zero matrix ${\bf 0}$. When we write
all terms of this power and rearrange them suitably, we
get

\begin{equation} {\bf I }= [{\bf M}^{n-1}- n{\bf M}^{n-2}+ (n(n-1)/2)

{\bf M}^{n-3} \dots \pm n{\bf M}^1 \pm {\bf I}]{\bf M}\;.
\end{equation}

The right side matrix in brackets is the left hand side inverse ${\bf
M}$ of the matrix in the lower triangular form ${\bf M}$.

Similar structure, only somewhat more complicated, have the matrices

${\bf B}_{n-1}$ obtained by the Le Verrier-Faddeev-Frame technique,
where coefficients of the polynomial are used for subtracting the
multiples of the unit diagonal matrix in different steps of the
multiplication with the matrix ${\bf M}$.

The inverse matrix is formulated using the determinant $Det(M)$ and

determinants of all its submatrices $\delta_{ij}{\bf M}$, known as
the {\em minors} ${\bf A}_{ij}$. $\delta_{ij}{\bf M}$ is the matrix
${\bf M }$ with the i-th row and the j-th column
deleted.

The inverse matrix ${\bf M}^{-1}$ to a matrix ${\bf M }$ is the

transposed matrix of its minors ${\bf A}_{ij}$ divided by the
determinant. If the determinant is zero then the inverse matrix is
not defined from the obvious reason: If we divide by small numbers
close to zero, we obtain undetermined infinite numbers. This gives
also the answer to the question, what your inverse element is. It is
your minor. It depends on the properties of the world you live
in.
For example, a magic square matrix and its inverse

$$\begin{array}{cccc} \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 3 & 5 & 7 \\ 8 & 1 &

6 \\ 4 & 9 & 2 \end{array} \right)^{-1} & = & 1/360 \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} -52 & 53& 23 \\ 8 & -22 & 38 \\ 68 & -7 & -37
\end{array} \right) \end{array}$$

A practical technique for matrix inverting has two steps:

\begin{itemize} \item First a regular matrix is decomposed into 3

matrices \begin{equation} {\bf M }= {\bf LUP} \end{equation}

where ${\bf L }$ is a matrix in the lower triangular form, ${\bf U }$

is a matrix in the upper triangular form and ${\bf P }$ is an
permutation matrix. \item It is easy to find corresponding inverses
and the inverse is then

\begin{equation} {\bf M}^{-1} = {\bf P}^{-1} {\bf U}^{-1} {\bf

L}^{-1}\;. \end{equation} \end{itemize}

A multiplication of a matrix with its inverse can be transformed into

the task of decomposition of its determinant according to its rows or
columns. If a row of minors is multiplied by a transposed row of the
corresponding matrix elements, we obtain the determinant and because
the minors in the inverse matrix are divided by it, the ratio is 1.
If unmatched rows are multiplied, it has the same effect as if the
matrix had two identical rows and the determinant given by this
product is zero.

\section{Walk and Path Matrices} \label{Walk and Path Matrices}

We have shown how the inverse matrix elements are related to minors
of the matrix elements. But in some cases these inverses can be
deduced directly from the structure of graphs without no apparent
connection to the minors and determinants.

This is the case of matrices ${\bf SS}^{\rm T}$ or ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}$
of trees. They have $(n-1)$ rows and columns and are nonsingular
because the corresponding quadratic forms ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$
and ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G}$ have just one zero eigenvalue. In a tree
there are no cycles and therefore there exist only one walk between
each pair of vertices (in the case of unoriented graphs we speak
about paths). Matrices\footnote{Only one symbol is used for both
matrices for economy.} ${\bf W}$ with rows corresponding to all walks
or paths in a tree, and with columns representing the arcs or edges,
can defined. The elements $w_{ij}$ of these matrices are $\pm 1$ if
the arc or edge $j$ is a part of the path or walk $i$ and 0
otherwise. The definition is complicated, especially for unoriented
trees, by the signs necessary to eliminate unwanted elements, when
the walk matrices are multiplied with the matrices ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}$
which all elements are positive. The oriented trees can have the
configuration of all arcs head to tail, since trees are bipartite
graphs. Then all off-diagonal elements of ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}$ are
negative and all elements of ${\bf W }$ positive. Otherwise $w_{ij}$
has the positive sign, if the edge $j$ is in the even distance from
the last edge in the walk (path) or the arc $j$ has the same
orientation as the last arc, and it has the negative sign, if the
corresponding edge is in the odd distance from the last edge, or the
corresponding arc has the opposite orientation as the last
one.

The path matrices of the oriented linear chains looks like the Petrie
matrices of complete graphs (see Sect. 13.3), only the elements of
both matrices have different interpretations.

The true inverses of quadratic forms ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}$ and ${\bf
SS}^{\rm T}$ are 1/n multiples of the corresponding quadratic forms
${\bf W}^{\rm T}{\bf W}$, and matrices ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf W}^{\rm
T}{\bf W}$ and ${\bf S}^{\rm }{\bf W}^{\rm T}{\bf W}$ are the right
inverses of ${\bf G }$ or ${\bf S}$, respectively, similarly as ${\bf
W}^{\rm T}{\bf WG }$ and ${\bf W}^{\rm T}{\bf WS }$ are the left
inverses of ${\bf G }$ or ${\bf S}$, respectively. The diagonal
elements of both quadratic forms count how many times the
corresponding arc or edge was used in all walks or paths, the
off-diagonal elements count common exploitations of the given pair of
lines. These simply obtained numbers are simultaneously minors of the
corresponding quadratic forms of the incidence matrices. The trace of
${\bf W}^{\rm T}{\bf W}$ is the sum of distances between the vertices
in the tree. It is known as the {\em Wiener number}, see the next
Chapt..

The walk and path matrices of trees include all walks or paths of the
given tree, whereas the code matrices of trees include only the walks
(or paths) from the root. For the oriented trees both kinds of
matrices are related as

\begin{equation} {\bf C}{\bf S}_{\rm K}^{\rm T} = -{\bf W}^{\rm T}\;.

\end{equation}

For example

$$\begin{tabular}{rrrr|rrrrrr} & & & &\ -1 & -1 & 0 & -1 & 0 & 0 \\ &
& & & 1 & 0 & -1& 0 & -1& 0 \\ & & & & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & -1\\ & & &
& 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ \hline & & & & & & & & &\\ 1 & & & & -1 &
-1 & 0 & -1 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 & & & 0 & -1 & -1& -1 & -1& 0 \\ 1 & 1 &
1 & & 0 & 0 & 0 & -1 & -1& -1\\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0
\\ \end{tabular}$$

\section{Inverse Matrices of Uneven Unoriented Cycles.}

\label{Inverse Matrices of Uneven Unoriented Cycles.}

The incidence matrix ${\bf G }$ of a simple unoriented cycle

$C_{odd}$ has in its canonical form in each row two consecutive 1,

\begin{equation} g_{ii} = 1,\ g_{i,i+1} = 1\ [{\rm if}\ i=(n + 1)\

{\rm then}\ i= 1,\ g_{ij} = 0\ {\rm otherwise}\;. \end{equation}

Both quadratic forms are identical, their elements are

\begin{equation} g^{\rm T}g_{ii} = 2,\ g^{\rm T}g_{i,i\pm 1} = 1\

[{\rm if}\ i = (n + 1) {\rm then}\ i = 1\;. \end{equation}

We begin the search for the inverse for the quadratic form of a cycle
matrix ${\bf C}^{\rm T}{\bf C}$. It is easy to find it for small
cycles, for example for 7 member cycle this symmetrical matrix $({\bf
G}^{\rm T}{\bf G})$ starts as
$$\begin{array}{cc} {\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G} & \left(
\begin{array}{rrrrrrr} 2 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 0
& 0 & 0 \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\vdots \end{array} \right)\;. \end{array}$$

Its inverse $({\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G})^{-1}= {\bf C}^{\rm T}{\bf C} $

starts as

$$\begin{array}{cc} ({\bf C}^{\rm T}{\bf C}) & \left(

\begin{array}{rrrrrrr} -5 & 7 & -5 & 3 & -1 & -1 & 3 \\ 3 & -5 & 7 &
-5 & 3 & -1 & -1 \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\vdots & \vdots \end{array} \right) \end{array}$$

This matrix is the quadratic form of the basic matrix ${\bf C}$ of
uneven cycles which elements are $c_{ij} = (-1)^{d(ij)}$. The upper
d(ij) indices are the distances of the vertices j from the diagonal
vertex i. There are k positive elements and (k+ 1) negative elements
in each row and column, for example

$$\begin{array}{cc} ${\bf C}$ & \left( \begin{array}{rrrrrrr} +1 &

-1& +1 & -1& -1 & +1& -1 \\ -1 & +1& -1& +1 & -1& -1 & +1 \\ \vdots &
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots \end{array}
\right) \end{array}$$

Since ${\bf C}$ is symmetric \begin{equation} {\bf C}^{\rm T}{\bf C}

= {\bf CC}^{\rm T} = {\bf C}^2\;. \end{equation}

In quadratic forms the signs of the neighbor elements are always

opposite and their value difference is always 2. Therefore when
multiplying ${\bf C}^{\rm T}{\bf C}$ with ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G}$,
we obtain, for the diagonal elements $$1\times (2 - n) + 2\times n +
1\times (2 - n) = 4\;.$$

For the off-diagonal elements, we get $$1\times[2(k - 1) - n] +

2\times(n - 2k) + 1\times[2(k + 1) - n] = 0\;.$$

A similar result is obtained also for the middle elements $\pm(1, 1,

-3)$ or $\pm(-3, 1, 1)$. The cycle matrix ${\bf C}$ has the required
property of cycle matrices, namely ${\bf CG}\ \equiv {\bf 0 }\ {\rm
mod}\ 2$. The neighbor elements are mostly $(\pm 1)$ and if they have
the equal sign then their sum is 2. The product is $2{\bf P}$, where
${\bf P }$ is the unit permutation matrix of the cycle. The next
product is $${\bf CGG}^{\rm T} = 2({\bf P }+ {\bf P }^{\rm T})\;.$$
This result will be interpreted in terms of kolinearity and
ortogonality later.

These properties of partial products allow us to define the

pseudoinverse matrices of ${\bf G}$ and ${\bf G }^{\rm T}$ from both
sides

\begin{equation} {\bf G}^{-1}\ \hbox{from the right}\ = 1/4{\bf

G}^{\rm T}{\bf C}^2 = \pm1/2{\bf CP}^{\rm T} \end{equation}

\begin{equation} {\bf G}^{-1}\ \hbox{from the left}\ = 1/4{\bf

C}^2{\bf C}^{\rm T}= \pm1/2{\bf P}^{\rm T}{\bf C}\;.
\end{equation}
The permutation matrix ${\bf P}^{\rm T}$ has the unit elements $p_{i,
i+(n-1)/2}$. If it multiplies the matrix ${\bf C}$ from the right, it
permutes its columns, if from the left, it permutes its rows. Because
the matrix ${\bf C}$ is symmetric, results of both permutations are
identical and the incidence matrix of an unoriented uneven cycle has
a true inverse. Moreover, if the cycle matrices act on the quadratic
form ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G}$ from both sides, they diagonalize it,
too:

$${\bf CG}^{\rm T}{\bf GC }= 4{\bf I}\;.$$

\section{Inverse Matrices of Unoriented Cyclic Graphs} \label{Inverse

Matrices of Unoriented Cyclic Graphs}

The existence of the inverse matrices of quadratic forms of the

incidence matrices of simple unoriented cycles arouse the interest of
possibilities of finding the inverse matrices of these quadratic
forms of incidence matrices of cyclic graphs. From both quadratic
forms ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G }$ and ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}$ only the
matrix of lesser dimension can have the inverse. It means that for
graphs with two or more cycles only the form ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G}$
can be nonsingular, because ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}$ is of higher
dimension.

\begin{figure} \caption{Examples of unoriented nonsingular cyclic

graphs} \label{Examples of unoriented nonsingular cyclic graphs}
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20.00)(25.33,20.00) \put(45.00,20.00){\line(-1,0){19.67}} %\end
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{84}{\line(-1,0){0.18}} %\end %\emline(10.00,30.00)(10.00,10.00)
\put(10.00,30.00){\line(0,-1){20.00}} %\end %\emline(10.00,10.00)
(25.00,20.00) \multiput(10.00,10.00)(0.18,0.12){84}{\line(1,0){0.18}}
%\end \put(28.33,40.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{A}} \put(60.00,10.00)
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\put(60.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(80.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(60.00,10.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(80.00,10.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(99.67,10.00){\circle*{4.00}} %\emline(99.67,9.67)(99.67,30.00)
\put(99.67,9.67){\line(0,1){20.33}} %\end %\emline(99.67,30.00)
(131.33,10.00) \multiput(99.67,30.00)(0.19,-0.12){167}{\line(1,0)
{0.19}} %\end %\emline(131.33,10.00)(131.33,30.00) \put(131.33,10.00)
{\line(0,1){20.00}} %\end %\emline(131.33,30.00)(99.67,10.00)
\multiput(131.33,30.00)(-0.19,-0.12){167}{\line(-1,0){0.19}} %\end
\put(99.67,29.67){\circle*{4.00}} \put(115.67,20.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(131.33,29.67){\circle*{4.00}} \put(131.33,10.33){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(70.00,40.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{B}} \put(115.00,40.00){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{C}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

Some examples of unoriented cyclic graphs having inverses of the

quadratic form were found easily (Fig. 16.1). Graph A has inverses of
both quadratic forms

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G }\\ \\

\left( \begin{array}{cccc} 2 & 1 & 1 & 0\\ 1 & 2 & 1 & 0\\ 1 & 1 & 3
& 1\\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 \end{array} \right) \end{array} &
\begin{array}{c} 4{\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G }^{-1}\\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{cccc} 3 &-1 &-1 & 1\\ -1 & 3 &-1 & 1\\ -1 &-1 & 3 &-3\\
1 & 1 &-3 & 7 \end{array} \right) \end{array}
\end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf GG}^{\rm T}\\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{cccc} 2 & 1 & 1 & 0\\ 1 & 2 & 1 & 1\\ 1 & 1 & 2 & 1\\ 0
& 1 & 1 & 2 \end{array} \right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} 2({\bf
GG}^{\rm T})^{-1}\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 2& -1 & -1 & 1\\ -1
& 2 & 0 & -1\\ -1 & 0 & 2 & -1\\ 1 & -1 & -1 & 1 \end{array} \right)
\end{array} \end{array}$$

Graph B

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G }\\ \\

\left( \begin{array}{cccc} 3 & 1 & 1 & 1\\ 1 & 2 & 0 & 1\\ 1 & 0 & 2
& 1\\ 1 & 1 & 1 & 3 \end{array} \right) \end{array} &
\begin{array}{c} 4({\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G})^{-1}\\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{cccc} 2 & -1 & -1 & 0\\ -1& 3 & 1 & -1\\ -1& 1 & 3 &
-1\\ 0 & -1 & -1 & 2 \end{array} \right) \end{array} \end{array}$$

Graph C

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G }\\ \\

\left( \begin{array}{ccccc} 2 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0\\ 1 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 0\\ 1
& 2 & 4 & 1 & 1\\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 1\\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 2 \end{array}
\right) \end{array} \begin{array}{c} 24({\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G})
^{-1}\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{ccccc} 17 &-7 & -3 & 1 & 1\\ -7 &17 &
-3 & 1 & 1\\ -3 & -3 & 9 & -3 & -3\\ 1 & 1 & -3 & 17 & -7\\ 1 & 1 &
-3 & -7 & 17 \end{array} \right) \end{array} \end{array}$$

\section{Generalized Inverses of Laplace-Kirchhoff Matrices}

\label{Generalized Inverses of Laplace-Kirchhoff Matrices}

The Laplace-Kirchhoff matrices are named according to two famous

scientists. Laplace solved using these matrices motion of celestial
bodies, Kirchhoff solved using these matrices motion of electrons in
electrical circuits. The Laplace-Kirchhoff matrices are matrices
${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$. They have positive diagonal elements and
negative off-diagonal elements which are balanced as

\begin{equation} {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}{\bf J} = {\bf 0};\ {\bf

J}^{\rm T}{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}= {\bf 0} \end{equation}

The Laplace-Kirchhoff matrices have one zero eigenvalue. It can be

removed if we add or subtract from the Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix a
multiple k of the unit matrix $k{\bf JJ}^{\rm T}$. Then we can find
the inverse. If we add or subtract from it again a multiple of the
unit matrix $k{\bf JJ }^{\rm T}$, we obtain the generalized inverse
with the properties:

\begin{equation} {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}[({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S }+

k{\bf JJ }^{\rm T})^{-1} + k{\bf JJ }^{\rm T}] = n{\bf I }- {\bf
JJ}^{\rm T} \end{equation}

For example

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\\ \\

\left( \begin{array}{ccc} 1 & -1 & 0 \\ -1 & 2 & -1 \\ 0 & -1 & 1
\end{array} \right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} ({\bf S}^{\rm
T}{\bf S}+{\bf JJ }^{\rm T})\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 2 & 0 & 1
\\ 0 & 3 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 2 \end{array} \right) \end{array} &
\begin{array}{c} ({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}+{\bf JJ }^{\rm T})^{-1}\\ \\
\left( \begin{array}{ccc} 2 & 0 & -1 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 \\ -1 & 0 & 2
\end{array} \right) \end{array} \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{c} ({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}+{\bf JJ }^{\rm T})^{-1})

+{\bf JJ }^{\rm T}\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 3 & 1 & 0\\ 1 & 2 &
1\\ 0 & 1 & 3 \end{array} \right) \end{array}$$

This is possible since the unit vector ${\bf J }$ is the zero

eigenvector of the matrix ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$. Remember that $
n{\bf I }- {\bf JJ}^{\rm T}$ is the Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix of the
complete graph $K_n$.

Among infinitely many generalized inverses of every matrix ${\bf

S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$, the special generalized inverse exists which is
obtained by the Moebius inversion of the matrix ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf
S}$.

The main submatrices $\delta_{j}{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$, where j-th

row and j-th column are deleted, are nonsingular and have inverses.
If these inverses are summed up leaving j-th rows and columns empty,
we obtain the {\em Eichinger matrices} ${\bf E}$ which also have the
properties of the generalized inverses:

\begin{equation} {\bf E} = \sum_{j=1}^n \delta_{j}{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf

S} \end{equation}

\begin{equation} {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}{\bf E} = n{\bf I} -{\bf JJ

}^{\rm T}\;. \end{equation} For example as above

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\\ \\

\left( \begin{array}{ccc} 1 & -1 & 0 \\ -1 & 2 & -1 \\ 0 & -1 & 1
\end{array} \right) \end{array} \begin{array}{c} (\delta_1({\bf
S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})^{-1}\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0
& 1 & 1 \\ 0 & 1 & 2 \end{array} \right) \end{array} \begin{array}{c}
(\delta_2{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})^{-1}\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{array} \right) \end{array} &
\begin{array}{c} (\delta_3{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})^{-1}\\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} 2 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 \end{array}
\right) \end{array} \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{c} {\bf E}\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 3 & 1 & 0\\

1 & 2 & 1\\ 0 & 1 & 3 \end{array} \right) \end{array}$$

The eigenvalues of the Eichinger matrices are the inverse eigenvalues

of the parent Laplace-Kirchhoff matrices except the eigenvalue
corresponding to the zero eigenvalue. This eigenvalue is equal to the
sum of other $(n-1)$ eigenvalues.

\section{Rooting Technique} \label{Rooting Technique}

In Chapt. 13 we showed that the incidence matrices of trees are

nonsingular and that they have the inverses $({\bf S}*)^{-1}$, the
code matrices ${\bf C}$.
The rooting removes singularity not only of the matrices of trees but
of all graphs. The proof is inductive and formulated for the right
inverse. The matrix ${\bf JJ}^{\rm T}$ is zero matrix to any
Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix, since the unit column is its zero
eigenvector. But the matrix ${\bf JJ}^{\rm T}$ adds to the place of
perturbation 1 in the given row and zeroes in the corresponding
column. The root row must be balanced. In other rows the unit column
is the zero eigenvector, 1 on the diagonal is produced by the
additional elements of the partial inverse. Since the
Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix is symmetrical, the product of the partial
inverse with the negative off-diagonal elements of the root row must
give -1. This leaves zeroes as the off-diagonal elements.

In the previous section the Moebius inversion of the

Laplace-Kirchhoff matrices were shown. This requires inverting of n
submatrices. It is sufficient to remove the singularity of the
Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix by rooting only one vertex, simply by adding
1 (or any number) to its one diagonal element:

\begin{equation} {(\delta_j\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})^{-1} + {\bf

JJ}^{\rm T} = ({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S} + 1_{jj})^{-1}\;.
\end{equation}

For example

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} ({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S} + 1_{11})

_{C_4}\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 3 & -1 & 0 & -1\\ -1 & 2 & -1
& 0\\ 0 & -1 & 2 & -1\\ -1 & 0 & -1 & 2 \end{array} \right)
\end{array} & \begin{array}{c} ({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S} + 1_{11})
_{C_4})^{-1}\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 7/4
& 6/4 & 5/4 \\ 1 & 6/4 & 8/4 & 6/4 \\ 1 & 5/4 & 6/4 & 7/4 \end{array}
\right)\;. \end{array} \end{array}$$

The weight of arcs is decreased for cycles $C_n$. The inverse of the
difference $(\delta_1{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})^{-1}$ is always the
matrix ${\bf SS}^{\rm T}$ of the linear chain $L_n$ which inverse is
the quadratic form ${\bf W}^{\rm T}{\bf W}$ of the path matrix. The
chain forms the spanning tree. Its square matrix must be decomposed
into the triangular form and added to the matrix ${\bf JJ}^{\rm T}$.
Since ${\bf W}^{\rm T}{\bf W}$, as defined, gives $n{\bf I }$ as the
product with ${\bf SS }^{\rm T}$, it is necessary to divide by n. For
example the triangular decomposition

$$\begin{array}{c} {\bf W}^{\rm T} \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccccc}

1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 &
1 \end{array} \right) \end{array}$$ $$\begin{array}{ccc}
\begin{array}{c} {\bf W}^{\rm T}{\bf W}\\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} 3 & 2 & 1 \\ 2 & 4 & 2 \\ 1 & 2 & 3 \end{array}
\right) \end{array} & = & \begin{array}{c} Triangular\\
decomposition\\ \left( \begin{array}{ccc} \sqrt{3/4} & 0 & 0\\
\sqrt{1/3} & \sqrt{2/3} & 0\\ \sqrt{1/12} & \sqrt{1/6} & \sqrt{1/2}
\end{array} \right) \end{array} \end{array}$$

When the matrix elements of ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S }$ are interpreted

as {\em conductivities}, then inverse elements are {\em resistances}
(or resistance distances). Two adjacent vertices are connected in a
circle $C_n$ by two ways, either directly by the connecting arc, or by
the path of $(n-1)$ arcs. If all arcs have the resistance 1 then the
conductivity of both connections is 1, and $1/(n-1)$, respectively.
The conductivity of the circuit is $n/(n-1)$, in our example $4/3$.
Two paths between the opposite vertices in the even cycles have the
resistances $n/2$, their joined conductivity is $4/n$, in our example
$1$.

The rooting technique at trees gives as the same result as the code
matrices. The multiplicity k of arcs can be expressed as repeating of
rows or by weighting the arcs. These weights in the incidence
matrices must be square roots of the multiplicity k of the
arc.

Elementary calculations show, that the multiplicity k of an arcs is

decreasing the code of the vertex the arc is going in, as 1/k. For
example the tree

\begin{figure} \unitlength 1.0mm \linethickness{0.6pt}

\begin{picture}(51.70,12.33) \put(10.33,10.00){\circle*{4.00}}
\put(30.00,10.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(50.00,10.00){\circle*{4.00}}
%\emline(30.00,10.00)(50.00,10.00) \put(30.00,10.00){\line(1,0)
{20.00}} %\end %\emline(10.33,8.67)(30.00,8.67) \put(10.33,8.67)
{\line(1,0){19.67}} %\end %\emline(10.67,11.00)(30.00,11.00)
\put(10.67,11.00){\line(1,0){19.33}} %\end \end{picture}
\end{figure}

has three codes corresponding to roots 1, 2, 3, respectively:

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \begin{array}{c} Root\ 1\\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{ccc} 1 & 0 & 0\\ 1 & \sqrt{1/2} & 0 \\ 1 & \sqrt{1/2} &
1 \end{array} \right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} Root\ 2\\ \\
\left( \begin{array}{ccc} 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 &
\sqrt{1/2} \end{array} \right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} Root\
3\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 &
\sqrt{1/2} \end{array} \right) \end{array} \end{array}\;.$$

\section{Relations of Spectra of Graphs and Complementary Graphs}

\label{Relations of Spectra of Graphs and Complementary Graphs}

The characteristic polynomials of Laplace-Kirchhoff matrices can be

found by the same techniques as the characteristic polynomials of
adjacency matrices, that is, by counting the characteristic figures
in which the vertex degrees $v_j$ represent the loops or by the Le
Verrier-Faddeev-Frame technique.

The sum of the inverses of the Laplace-Kirchhoff submatrices

$(\delta{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})^{-1}$ forms the generalized inverse
${\bf E }$ of the Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix giving as the product the
Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix of the complete graph ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf
S}_K$:

\begin{equation} {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}{\bf E }= {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf

S}_K\;. \end{equation}

The generalized inverse ${\bf E }$ of the Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix is

identical with the matrix ${\bf B}_{n-2}$ of the Le
Verrier-Faddeev-Frame technique

\begin{equation} {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S} = ({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})_n

-a_1({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})^{n-1}\;, \end{equation}

where $a_1$ is the coefficient of the characteristic polynomial and

the matrix $({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})_n = ({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}){\bf
B}_{n-1}$. The Frame matrices ${\bf B }$ are obtained as ${\bf B}_n =
({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})_n - a_n{\bf I}$. The last Frame matrix is
${\bf B }_n = ({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}_n - a_n{\bf I}) = {\bf 0}$. It
means that

\begin{equation} {\bf B}_{n-1} = 1/a_{n-1}({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})

^{-1}\;. \end{equation}

In the Laplace-Kirchhoff matrices $a_n = 0$, therefore $({\bf S}^{\rm

T}{\bf S})_n = {\bf 0}$. Thus ${\bf B}_{n-1} = ({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf
S})^{-1}$, and $ a_{n-1} = n$. It follows that

\begin{equation} {\bf E }= {\bf B}_{n-2}\ {\rm and}\ {\bf E}({\bf

S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})^2 = n{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\;. \end{equation}

Moreover, if the Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}_K$

of the graph $G_n$ is multiplied by $({\bf E }- {\bf I})$, the
Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix of the complementary graph $\overline{G}$ is
obtained. From these results the relation of eigenvalues $\lambda_j$
of corresponding the Laplace-Kirchhoff matrices follow:

\begin{equation} {\bf E }(\lambda_j ) = {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf

S}(n/\lambda_j)\ {\rm and}\ {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}(\overline{G})
(\lambda_j) = {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}(G)(n -\lambda_j)\;.
\end{equation}

The eigenvalues of the Laplace-Kirchhoff matrices of the pairs

complementary graphs must be complementary for giving as their sums
the eigenvalues of the complete graph $K_n$. For example, the star
$S_n$ is the complementary graph of the complete graph $K_{n-1}$. Its
spectrum is $[n, 1^{n-2}, 0]$ which is complementary to the spectrum
$[0, (n - 1)^{n-2}, 0]$ of the Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix of the
complete graph with $(n -1)$ vertices.

\section{Products of the Laplace-Kirchhoff Matrices} \label{Products

of the Laplace-Kirchhoff Matrices}

Two graphs are considered equivalent if their matrices can be

transformed by symmetrical permutations with the unit permutation
matrices ${\bf P }$ into each other: ${\bf M}_{G_i} = {\bf
PM}_{G_j}{\bf P}^{\rm T}$. An interesting problem arises: How are
related the eigenvalues of the corresponding matrices such
operations. It is customary to arrange eigenvalues in increasing or
decreasing order, but if a matrix is permuted, then also its
eigenvalues should be permuted to give different products and
therefore they can not be in all equivalent graphs arranged similarly
in canonical form in an increasing or in decreasing order.

This means that an {\em eigenvalue orbit} can be defined which volume
is determined by the multiplicities of the eigenvalues.

When we multiply the Laplace-Kirchhoff matrices of twelve differently

labeled linear chains $L_4$, we obtain 3 different results depending
on the number of common arcs and the given permutation. From these
three we are interested in two extreme cases:

$$\begin{array}{cc} \hbox {3 common arcs}\ & \left(

\begin{array}{cccc} 2 & -3 & 1 & 0\\ -3 & 6 & -4 & 1\\ 1 & -4 & 6&
-3\\ 0 & 1 & -3& 2 \end{array} \right)\;. \end{array}$$

The trace is the sum of squared eigenvalues $(2 + 2^{1/2})^2 + 2^2 +

(2 - 2^{1/2})^2 = 16$.

$$\begin{array}{cc} \hbox {0 common arcs}\ & \left(

\begin{array}{cccc} 2 &-1 &-1& 0 \\ -1 & 2 & 0 &-1 \\ -1 & 0 & 2& -1
\\ 0 &-1 &-1 & 2 \end{array} \right)\;. \end{array}$$

$L_4$ is the selfcomplementary graph and in the product of the two

selfcomplementary graphs the eigenvalues are just multiplied in
inverted order as eigenvalues in the quadratic

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrr|} \hline Spectrum $(L_4)$ & $2+2^{1/2}$ & 2

& $2-2^{1/2}$ & 0 \\ Spectrum $(L_4)$ & $2-2^{1/2}$ & 2 & $2+2^{1/2}$
& 0 \\ \hline Spectrum $(C_4)$ & 2 & 4 & 2 & 0 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$

The matrix product is the Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix of the cycle $C_4$

and its eigenvalues are not ordered because the cycle itself is
permuted from its standard form.

The result can be formulated in a theorem: If the Laplace-Kirchhoff

matrix of a graph with simple arcs is multiplied by the
Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix of its complementary graph, the eigenvalues
of the matrix product are the eigenvalues of the parent
Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix multiplied with eigenvalues of its
complementary graph taken in the inverse order, except the zero
eigenvalue.

The proof: From the complementary properties of both

Laplace-Kirchhoff matrices it follows that their off-diagonal
elements forming adjacency matrices ${\bf A}$ have no effect on the
trace of the product, $Tr[{\bf A}(G){\bf A}\overline{(G)}] = 0$.
Therefore the diagonal elements of the product are $v_j[(n - 1) -
v_j]$ and simultaneously the trace is according to the theorem the
sum of eigenvalues products $\lambda_j(n-\lambda_j)$:

\begin{equation} Tr({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\overline{({\bf S}^{\rm

T}{\bf S}}) = \sum_{j=1}^n [(n - v_j)- v_j^2] = \\
\sum_{j=1}^n[(n\lambda_j - \lambda_j^2) \end{equation}

The trace of the Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix is simultaneously equal to

the sum of vertex degrees $\Sigma v_j$ and to the sum of eigenvalues
$\Sigma\lambda_j$, and the trace of the squared Laplace-Kirchhoff
matrix with simple arcs is

\begin{equation} Tr([{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}]^2) = \sum_{j=1}^n (v_j^2

+ v_j) = \sum_{j=1}^n\lambda_j^2, \end{equation}

thus

\begin{equation} Tr({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\overline{{\bf S}^{\rm

T}{\bf S}}) = nTr({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}) - Tr([{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf
S}]^2)\;. \end{equation}

Going from the complementary graph and its Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix,

and inserting $(n -1 - v_j)$ we obtain the same result.

The proof used properties of graph matrices with simple arcs but the
relation between eigenvalues holds also for multigraphs and their
complementary graphs as calculated from the relation

\begin{equation} \overline{{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}} = {\bf S}^{\rm

T}{\bf S}({\bf E }- {\bf I})\;. \end{equation}

This is the difference

\begin{equation} \overline{{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}} = ({\bf S}^{\rm

T}{\bf S})_K -{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\;. \end{equation}

For example

$$\begin{tabular}{cccc|ccc} & & & &\multicolumn{3}{c}{$\overline{{\bf

S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}}$}\\ & & & & & & \\ & & & &\ -1 & 1 & 0\\ & & & &\
1 & 0 & -1\\ & & & &\ 0 & -1 & 1\\ \hline & & & & & & \\ ${\bf
S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ & 3 & -2 & -1 & -5 & 4 & 1 \\ & -2 & 2 & 0 & 4 &
-2 & -2 \\ & -1 & 0 & 1 & 1 & -2 & 1 \end{tabular}$$

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|ccc|} \hline Spectrum ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ &

$3+3^{1/2}$ & $3- 3^{1/2}$ & 0 \\ Spectrum $\overline{{\bf S}^{\rm
T}{\bf S }}$ & $-3^{1/2}$ & $3^{1/2}$ & 0 \\ \hline & & & \\ Spectrum
${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\overline{{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S }}$ & $
-(3+27^{1/2})$ & $27^{1/2} -3$ & 0 \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

The proof can be made simple by using formal notation:

\begin{eqnarray} [{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}]^2 + \overline{{\bf S}^{\rm

T}{\bf S}} = {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S} \\ ({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S} +
\overline{{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}}) = {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}({\bf
S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})_K = \\ {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}(n{\bf I }-{\bf
JJ}^{\rm T}) = \\ n{\bf I}{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}+ {\bf 0 }= n{\bf
S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\;. \end{eqnarray}

Or

\begin{equation} Sp(\lambda_j^2 + \lambda_j[n - \lambda_j]) =

nSp(\lambda_j)\;. \end{equation}

The unit vector-column ${\bf J}$ or the unit vector-row ${\bf J}^{\rm
T}$ are the zero eigenvectors of the Laplace-Kirchhoff matrices of
all graphs and the Laplace-Kirchhoff matrices of all subgraphs of the
complete graph $K_n$ are not orthonormal eigenvectors to its
Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix.

The consequence of the properties of the eigenvalues products is that

the spectra of selfcomplementary graphs (their Laplace-Kirchhoff
matrices) must be symmetrical, except their zero eigenvalue:

\begin{equation} n/2 \pm( -\lambda_jn/2)\;. \end{equation}

\section{\ Systems of Linear Equations} \label{Systems of Linear

Equations}

A system of $n$ equations with $n$ unknowns can be written in the

matrix form as

\begin{equation} {\bf Mx }= {\bf b}\;. \end{equation}

The matrix of the coefficients is multiplied by the vector column

${\bf x }$ and gives the vector column ${\bf b}$.

The equation system has a solution if the matrix ${\bf M }$ is not

singular. Then

\begin{equation} {\bf x } = {\bf M}^{-1}{\bf b}. \end{equation}

We find the inverse matrix and multiplying it with the vector {\bf b}
we should obtain the unknowns.

Another possibility to solve the system, provided that the matrix

${\bf M }$ is not singular and its determinant is not zero, is the
Cramer technique. We construct the block matrix in the
form

\begin{equation} \left( \begin{array}{cc} {\bf M }& {\bf b} \\ {\bf J

} & \Sigma x_j \end{array} \right)\;. \end{equation}

The last column of this matrix with $m = (n+1)$ rows and columns is a
linear combination of the first n columns. The weights are given by
the elements of the vector ${\bf x}$. This is true also for the m-th
row. The determinant of the block matrix is zero and therefore when
we develop it according to the last row we get

\begin{equation} \Sigma x_j = \Sigma A_{mj}/det(M)\;. \end{equation}

$A_{mj}$ is the minor. The elements $x_j$ are simply

corresponding ratios of determinants. The disadvantage of this
technique is that it needs many calculations. Another disadvantage is
usually not obvious.

If each row has its own weight vector, or if the vector ${\bf b }$ is
combined with an error vector, then the vector ${\bf x}$ can be far
from all vectors ${\bf x}_j$. For example a matrix

$$\left( \begin{array}{ccccc} 12 & 4 & 3 & 2 & 1\\ 14 & 5 & 5 & 3 &
2\\ 14 & 5 & 5 & 4 & 1\\ 16 & 6 & 6 & 6 & 3\\ 16 & 6 & 8 & 4 & 3
\end{array} \right)$$

has a well defined inverse and it gives to the vector ${\bf b } = (32,
46, 45, 64, 62)^{\rm T}$ as the solution the vector ${\bf x }= (1, 1,
2, 3, 4)^{\rm T}$. Inducing an error vector ${\bf r} = (2, 0, 0, 0,
0) ^{\rm T}$ which gives the vector ${\bf b } = (34, 46, 45, 64, 62)
^{\rm T}$ the vector ${\bf b }$ changes to $(8.5, -24, 4, 5, 6)^{\rm
T}$. It means that a slight error induced the error of the input
vector $(7.5, -25, 2, 2, 2)^{\rm T}$, which completely distorted the
true vector, or a slight change of the specific vector ${\bf x}$
distorted the result for the whole bundle of identical vectors. This
property of vector systems is very unfortunate, because we can not be
sure, if we do not know the exact values, using approximate values
only, our reconstruction corresponds to original values.

\chapter{Distance Matrices} \label{Distance Matrices}

\section{Introduction} \label{Introduction 17}

Distances were mentioned before but now they and their matrices will
be studied systematically, using all our knowledge.

We can move between two points i and j on different paths. The length
of the path depends on circumstances, as on accessible ways, or means
of transportation. The length of the path between the points i and j
is the {\em distance} $d_{ij}$.

The {\em topological distance matrices} ${\bf D}$ are defined as

matrices which off-diagonal elements are the distances $d_{ij}$.
These elements count the number of arcs (edges) between vertices i
and j in the graph. This is the least number of edges or arcs which
must be passed on a walk or a path between both vertices. This is
important in graphs with cycles where more walks or a paths exist.
The distances between disconnected blocks are defined as
infinite.

Such matrices distance matrices were used to characterize graphs in

the graph theory and nobody cared what was the meaning of the
distances obtained by simple counts of lines. Recently the distance
matrices measuring the Euclidean geometrical distances of
corresponding vertices were introduced and also the matrices with
reciprocal distance values in chemistry.

The topological distance matrix ${\bf D}$ of a graph has the same
unit elements as its adjacency matrix ${\bf A}$. Both matrices are
obtained by the same operation described in Sect. 12.8 from the
coordinate matrices.

The problem is demonstrated on the example of the coordinates of four

body in the vertices of the regular tetrahedron, spanned straight on
an axis or wound zigzag on the unit cube, respectively. There are
three corresponding quadratic forms of three coordinate matrices
${\bf CC}^{\rm T}$

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf A} \\ {\bf I}^2 \\ \\

\left( \begin{array}{cccc} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 &
1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{array} \right) \end{array} &
\begin{array}{c} {\bf B} \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 0 & 1 & 2 & 3
\end{array} \right)\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 2 & 3 \\ 0 & 2 & 4 & 6 \\ 0 & 3 & 6 & 9 \end{array} \right)
\end{array} \end{array}$$ $$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} \\ \\
\left( \begin{array}{ccc} 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 &
1 & 1 \end{array} \right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf C} \\
\\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 0 & 1
& 2 & 2 \\ 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 \end{array} \right)\;. \end{array}
\end{array}$$

Multiplying the quadratic forms of these coordinate matrices with the

frame ${\bf S}^{\rm T}(*){\bf S}$, where ${\bf S}^{\rm T}$ is the
matrix
$$\left( \begin{array}{cccccc} -1 &-1& 0 &-1& 0 & 0 \\ 1 &0& -1 & 0
&-1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1& 1 & 0& 0 &-1 \\ 0 & 0& 0 & 1 & 1 & 1 \end{array}
\right)\;,$$

the distances (differences of coordinates) between four points in

different configurations are found. These distances appear as the
{\em diagonal elements} of the corresponding products. They are $(2,
2, 2, 2, 2, 2)$, $(1, 4, 1, 9, 4, 1)$, and $(1, 2, 1, 3, 2, 1)$,
respectively. In all cases these numbers are squares of the Euclidean
distances.

These diagonals $\Delta_D$ of $n(n-1)/2$ distances are reduced into

the n~dimensional square matrix by framing with the incidence
matrix of the complete graph

\begin{equation} {\bf S}^{\rm T}\Delta_D{\bf S}= {\bf Q} - {\bf D}\;,

\end{equation}

where ${\bf Q}$ is the diagonal matrix of the row or column sums of
the distances elements of the vertex i to all other vertices. The
negative off-diagonal elements show distances between corresponding
pairs of vertices:

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf A} \\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{cccc} 3 & -1& -1& -1\\ -1 & 3 & -1 & -1 \\ -1 & -1 & 3
& -1 \\ -1 & -1 & -1 & 3 \end{array} \right) \end{array} &
\begin{array}{c} {\bf B} \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 13 & -1 &
-4 & -9 \\ -1 & 6 & -1 & -4 \\ -4 & -1 & 6 & -1 \\ -9& -4& -1 & 13
\end{array} \right) \end{array} \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{c} ${\bf C}$ \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} 6 & -1

& -2 & -3 \\ -1 & 4 & -1 & -2 \\ -2 & -1 & 4 & -1 \\ -3 & -2 & -1 & 6
\end{array} \right)\;. \end{array}$$

The first matrix ${\bf A}$ is identical with the Laplace-Kirchhoff

matrix of the complete graph $K_4$. The second matrix ${\bf B}$
corresponds to squared Euclidean distances between coordinates of the
number axis. The off-diagonal elements of the third matrix ${\bf C}$
are identical with the topological distance matrix of
$L_4$.

\section{Properties of Distance Matrices} \label{Properties of

Distance Matrices}

The topological distance matrices ${\bf D}$ of the trees have an

interesting property. It was discovered rather recently by
Rutherford. He found that ${\bf D}$ is the inner inverse of the
quadratic form of the incidence matrix

\begin{equation} {\bf S}{\bf D}{\bf S}^{\rm T}= -2{\bf I}\;.

\end{equation} \label{S}

The dimensionality of the distance matrix is reduced by this framing

on the dimensionality of the arc set $(n-1)$. The elements of the
first product, for example ${\bf D}{\bf S}^{\rm T}$, are differences
of distances $(BJ - BK) - (AJ - AK)$. This difference at acyclic
graphs is just the distance between vertices connected by one arc, it
means $\pm 1$, according to the orientation of the arc. In the second
product we get again the difference. The result of (\ref{S}) is the
second difference which is negative.

We interpret this difference scheme as the symptom of the

ortogonality of (n-1) arcs in trees. The difference scheme with all
arcs in the complete graph

\begin{equation} {\bf S}_K{\bf D}{\bf S}^{\rm T}_K \end{equation}

triangulates the positions of vertices in the space. The example

distance matrices above give following differences

$$\begin{array}{c} ${\bf A}$ \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{rrrrrr} -2 &

-1 & 1 & -1 & -1 & 0 \\ -1 & -2 & -1 & -1 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & -1 & -2 & 0
& -1 & -1 \\ -1 & -1 & 0 & -2 & -1 & -1 \\ 1 & 0 & -1 & -1 & -2 &
-1\\ 0 & 1 & -1 & -1 & -1 & -2 \end{array} \right) \end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{c} ${\bf B}$ \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{rrrrrr} -2 &
-4 & -2 & -6 & -4 & -2\\ -4 & -8 & -4 & -12 & -8 & -4 \\ -2 & -4 & -2
& -6 & -4 & -2 \\ -6& -12& -6 & -18 & -12 & -6\\ -4 & -8 & -4 & -12 &
-8 & -4 \\ -2 & -4 & -2 & -6 & -4 & -2 \end{array} \right)
\end{array}$$ $$\begin{array}{c} ${\bf C}$ \\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{rrrrrr} -2 & -2 & 0 & -2 & 0 & 0 \\ -2 & -4 & -2 & -4 &
-4 & -2 \\ 0 & -2 & -2 & -2 & -2 & 0 \\ -2 & -4 & -2 & -6 & -4 & -2
\\ 0 & -2 & -2 & -4 & -4 & -2 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & -2 & -2 & -2 \end{array}
\right)\;. \end{array}$$

The analysis of the difference scheme shows that the diagonal

elements are twice the length of the corresponding arcs. The
off-diagonal elements are interpreted as cosines of the angles
between the corresponding arcs:

\begin{equation} \cos A = (b^2 + c^2 - a^2)/2bc. \end{equation}

\label{cos}

After the normalization of the diagonal elements we get in the case A

on the diagonal 1. The off-diagonal elements are 1, 0, and -1. When
they are divided by $2\times1\times1$ they get $0.5, 0, -0.5$. These
values are cosines of $60^0, 90^0$ and $120^0$, respectively. These
are angles between edges in the regular
tetrahedron.

After normalization of the diagonal elements we get in the case B on

the diagonal the distances 1, 4, and 9. Their square roots are 1, 2
and 3, the distances in the straight line. The off-diagonal elements
are� $-2,\ -4,\ -6,\ -8,$ and $-12$. When they are divided by the
corresponding diagonal elements as $2\times1\times1$,
$2\times1\times2$, $2\times1\times3$, $2\times2\times2$, and
$2\times2\times3$, the fraction is always 1. This is cosine of $0^0$,
all distances between the points are collinear. This correspond to
the configuration of the straight line.

In the case B we get on the diagonal 1, 2, and 3 after normalization

of the diagonal elements. One is the side of the cube, the square
root of 2 is the diagonal of its side and the square root of 3 is its
inner diagonal. The off-diagonal elements are $0,\ -2,$ and $-4$.
They are divided by the corresponding diagonal elements as
$2\times1\times\sqrt{2}$, $2\times\sqrt{2}\times\sqrt{2}$, and
$2\times\sqrt{2}\times\sqrt{3}$. These are cosines of $35.26^0, 45^0$
and $90^0$, respectively. These are angles between the arcs in the 3
dimensional cube as required.

\section{Embeddings of Graphs} \label{Embeddings of Graphs}

If we interpret distances through the arcs as the squared Euclidean

geometrical distances, then we can study the configurations of graphs
embedded into the graph space. Three configurations of the linear
chain were already mentioned.

The topological configurations of trees are obtained from the code

matrices and all arcs in the trees are orthogonal.

The conformations of cycles with even number of vertices are

interesting. The~cycle $C_4$ forms the square, each from its four
arcs is orthogonal with its both neighbors and collinear with the
fourth arc

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf D}_{C_{4}} \\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{cccc} 0 & 1 & 2 & 1\\ 1 & 0 & 1 & 2\\ 2 & 1 & 0 & 1\\ 1
& 2 & 1 & 0 \end{array} \right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf
S}{\bf D}_{C_{4}}{\bf S}^{\rm T} \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} -2
& 0 & 2 & 0\\ 0& -2 & 0 & 2\\ 2& 0& -2 & 0\\ 0 & 2 & 0& -2
\end{array} \right)\;. \end{array} \end{array}$$

The cycle $C_4$ bent on the regular tetrahedron with the distance
matrix corresponding to the distance matrix of the complete graph
$K_4$ gives another matrix angles. The neighboring arcs form
60-degree angles and each arc is orthogonal to its opposite arc. They
form a pair which has no common vertex.

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf D}_{K_{4}} \\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{cccc} 0 & 1 & 1& 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \end{array} \right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf
S}{\bf D}_{K_{4}}{\bf S}^{\rm T} \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} -2
& 1 & 0 & 1\\ 1& -2 & 1 & 0\\ 0 & 1 &-2 & 1\\ 1 & 0 & 1 &-2
\end{array} \right)\;. \end{array} \end{array}$$

\begin{figure} \caption{Three embeddings of the cycle $C_6$}

\label{Three embeddings of the cycle $C_6$} \linethickness{0.6pt}
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{\line(0,1){19.33}} %\end \put(4.00,10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1}}
\put(3.67,29.67){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{2}} \put(25.00,52.33){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{3}} \put(45.00,52.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{4}} \put(51.00,20.33)
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{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{4}} \put(97.33,29.67){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{5}}
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44.67) \put(145.67,44.67){\line(1,0){19.33}} %\end %\emline(165.00,
44.67)(165.00,24.33) \put(165.00,44.67){\line(0,-1){20.33}} %\end
%\emline(165.00,24.33)(150.33,10.00) \multiput(165.00,24.33)(-0.12,
-0.12){120}{\line(-1,0){0.12}} %\end %\emline(150.33,10.00)(130.33,
10.00) \put(150.33,10.00){\line(-1,0){20.00}} %\end \put(121.00,10.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1}} \put(157.67,10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{2}}
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\put(137.67,24.67){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{6}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}

There exist three embeddings of the cycle $C_6$ onto vertices of the
3 dimensional cube. The first one is identical with the usual
topological distance matrix and leads to three collinear pairs of
orthogonal arcs

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf D}_{C_{6}} \\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{cccccc} 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 2 & 1\\ 1 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 2\\
2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3\\ 3 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 2\\ 2 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 0 &
1\\ 1 & 2 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 0 \end{array} \right) \end{array} &
\begin{array}{c} {\bf S}{\bf D}_{C_{6}}{\bf S}^{\rm T} \\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{cccccc} -2& 0 & 0 & 2 & 0 & 0\\ 0& -2& 0 & 0 & 2 & 0\\
0 & 0 &-2 & 0 & 0 & 2\\ 2 & 0 & 0 &-2 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & 2 & 0 & 0 &-2 &
0\\ 0 & 0 & 2 & 0 & 0 &-2 \end{array} \right) \end{array}
\end{array}$$

Two another forms of $C_6$ have some distances shorter and lead to
the another arrangement of collinear arcs.

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf D}_{C_{6}} \\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{cccccc} 0 & 1& 2& 3 & 2 & 1\\ 1 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 2\\ 2
& 1& 0 & 1 & 2 & 1\\ 3 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 2\\ 2 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 1\\
1 & 2 & 1 & 2 & 1 & 0 \end{array} \right) \end{array} &
\begin{array}{c} {\bf S}{\bf D}_{C_{6}}{\bf S}^{\rm T} \\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{cccccc} -2 & 0& 0 & 2 & 0 & 0\\ 0 &-2 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 2\\
0 & 0 &-2 & 0 & 2 & 0\\ 2 & 0 & 0& -2 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & 0 & 2 & 0 &-2 &
0\\ 0 & 2 & 0 & 0 & 0 &-2 \end{array} \right)\;. \end{array}
\end{array}$$
The collinear arcs in the third conformation of $C_6$ are (1-2 -- 4-5)
, (2-3 -- 1-6) and (3-4 -- 5-6), respectively.

The planar conformation of $C_6$ has the following matrix and the
resulting matrix of angles between bonds

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf D}_{C_{6}} \\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{cccccc} 0 & 1 & 3 & 4 & 3 & 1\\ 1 & 0 & 1 & 3 & 4 & 3\\
3 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 3 & 4\\ 4 & 3 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 3\\ 3 & 4 & 3 & 1 & 0 &
1\\ 1 & 3 & 4 & 3 & 1 & 0 \end{array} \right) \end{array} &
\begin{array}{c} {\bf S}{\bf D}_{C_{6}}{\bf S}^{\rm T} \\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{cccccc} -2 &-1 & 1 & 2 & 1& -1\\ -1 &-2 &-1 & 1 & 2&
1\\ 1 &-1 &-2& -1 & 1& 2\\ 2 & 1 &-1 &-2& -1& 1\\ 1 & 2 & 1 &-1 &-2
&-1\\ -1 & 1 & 2 & 1 &-1 &-2 \end{array} \right)\ \end{array}
\end{array}$$

where the angles are $120^0$, $60^0$, $180^0$, $300^0$, and $240^0$,
respectively.

The uneven cycles have each arc orthogonal to its neighbors on both
sides but the pair of its opposites forms $60^0$ angles to it. This
conformation is obtained by a rotation of two consecutive right
angles for $60^0$ through the given arc. The result appears for the
arc closing the cycle.

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf D}_{C_7} \\ \\ \left(

\begin{array}{ccccccc} 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 3 & 2 & 1\\ 1 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3
& 3 & 2\\ 2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 3\\ 3 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3\\ 3 &
3 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 2\\ 2 & 3 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 1\\ 1 & 2 & 3 & 3 & 2
& 1 & 0 \end{array} \right) \end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf
S}{\bf D}_{C_{7}}{\bf S}^{\rm T} \\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{ccccccc}
-2 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0& 0\\ 0 &-2 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0\\ 0 & 0 &-2 & 0
& 0& 1 & 1\\ 1 & 0 & 0 &-2 & 0 & 0 & 1\\ 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 &-2 & 0 & 0\\
0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 &-2 & 0\\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 &-2 \end{array}
\right) \end{array} \end{array}$$

The distance matrices of complete graphs $K_n$ can be expressed as

${\bf D} = n{\bf JJ}^{\rm T}- {\bf I}$. The product is ${\bf
SJJ}^{\rm T}{\bf S}^{\rm T}= {\bf 0}$. Therefore

\begin{equation} {\bf SD}_K{\bf S}^{\rm T}= -{\bf SS}^{\rm T}\;.

\end{equation}

The outer product of the incidence matrix of a graph with simple arcs
has on the diagonal 2. The off-diagonal elements are either 0, if the
arcs do not have any common vertex, or 1, if two arcs meet in a
vertex. The cosine of $60^0$ is 0.5. Therefore the equilateral
structures appear in complete graphs. $K_3$ is the equilateral
triangle, $K_4$ is the equilateral tetrahedron. Six arcs of the
equilateral tetrahedron form three pairs of orthogonal arcs.

The quadratic form of complete graphs can be formulated in the block

form using consecutively the $(n -1)$ complete graphs and unit
vectors

$$\begin{tabular}{rr|rr} & & \ ${\bf S}^{\rm T}$ & $-{\bf I}$\\ & &
${\bf 0}$ & ${\bf J}^{\rm T}$\\ \hline & & & \\ ${\bf S}$ & ${\bf 0}$
& ${\bf SS}^{\rm T}$ & $-{\bf S}$\\ -${\bf I}$ & ${\bf J}$ & ${\bf
-S}^{\rm T}$ & ${\bf I + JJ}$ \end{tabular}$$

Increasing the dimension of the complete graph there will appear $(n
- 3)$ orthogonal arcs to each parent arc.

Inserting the distance matrix of the star rooted in the n-th vertex
into ${\bf SS }^{\rm T}$ of the complete graph, then we get for the
star graph the product

\begin{equation} \begin{array}{ccc} {\bf S}_K{\bf DS}_K^{\rm T} & = &

\left( \begin{array}{cc} 2{\bf SS}^{\rm T} & -2{\bf S}\\ -2{\bf S} &
-2{\bf I} \end{array} \right) \end{array}
\end{equation}

The arcs of the star are orthogonal. The arcs connecting its loose
vertices have the double length (on the diagonal fours appear). These
arcs are the diagonals of the corresponding squares. This can be
checked by calculation of cosines. $2/8^{1/2}$ is cosine of $45^0$.
The direct verification is possible only for $K_5$ with three
orthogonal axes.

\section{Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors} \label{Eigenvalues and

Eigenvectors}

The distance matrices of straight chains have 3 nonzero eigenvalues:

$W+a$, -a and $-W$, where $W$ is the topological Wiener number ${ n+1
\choose 3 }$. The eigenvalue a has the following values

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|} \hline n & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8

\\ \hline a & 0 & 0.4495& 1.4031 & 3.0384 & 5.7272 & 9.0405 & 13.7494
\\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

The eigenvector of the smallest eigenvalue W has the elements $v_j =

-1 + 2(j - 1)/(n - 1)$ which weight the n consecutive squared numbers
k from $-(n-1)$ to $(n - 1)$. It leads to the combinatorial identity

\begin{equation} \sum_{k=0}^{n/2}\;[1 - 2k/(n-1)][(n-1-k-x)^2 - (k-x)

^2] = 1 - 2x/(n-1) \end{equation}

where x goes from 0 to $(n - 1)$. If the chain increments are two
vertices then the change between the consecutive counts gives a
possibility to use full induction

$$\begin{tabular}{|rr|rr|} \hline & & $ 7/7 \times (25 - 4) =$ & 21

\\ $5/5 \times (16 - 1) = $ & $75/5$ & $ 5/7 \times (16 - 1) =$ &
$75/7$ \\ $ 3/5 \times (9 - 0) =$ & $27/5$ & $ 3/7 \times (9 - 0) =$
& $27/7$ \\ $1/5 \times (4 - 1) =$ & $ 3/5$ & $1/7 \times (4 - 1) =$
&$ 3/7$ \\ \hline & $ 105/5 $ & & $21 + 105/7$ \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$

which is verified by direct calculations. For x = 0, the identity

simplifies to

\begin{equation} \sum_{k=0}^{n/2}\;(n-1-2k)^2 = { n+1 \choose 3 }\;.

\end{equation}

The eigenvalue $a$ for the straight chains is produced by the

reflection plane (the elements of the eigenvector are symmetrical to
the center of the chain) and it forms the rotation tensor

\begin{equation} b = (a + W/2) = [\Sigma d^4 - 3/4W^2]^{1/2}\;.

\end{equation}

The proof is simple. Sum of squared eigenvalues must be equal to the

trace of the squared matrix, it means to the double sum of $d^4$

\begin{equation} (1/2 W + a)^2 + W^2 + (a - 1/2 W)^2 = 2\Sigma d^4

\end{equation}

Solving the quadratic equation gives the result. Four eigenvalues

(including zero) can be expressed as $W/2 \pm(b\ {\rm or}\ W/2)
$.

We can compare three nonzero eigenvalues of the straight linear

chains with three distinct eigenvalues of topological distance
matrices of stars. The positive eigenvalue is the sum of all negative
eigenvalues. There are $(n - 2)$ eigenvalues $-2$ and a special
eigenvalue

\begin{equation} -a = (n - 2)/2 + [n^2 - 3n + 3]^{1/2}\;.

\end{equation}

Corresponding eigenvectors for stars rooted in $v_1$ are

$$\begin{array}{ccccc} a & 1 & 1 & 1 & $\ldots$ \\ 0 & 1 & -1/(n-2) &
-1/(n-2) & $\ldots$ \\ 1 & -a/(n-1)& -a/(n-1) & -a/(n-1) & $\ldots $
\end{array}$$

Due to the monotony of the distance matrices, all products can be

easily found. The eigenvalue $a$ is obtained as the solution of the
quadratic equation

\begin{equation} a^2 + 2(n-2)a -(n-1) = 0\;. \end{equation}

The planar conformation of $C_6$ has the following eigenvalues: $ 12,

0, 0, 0, -6, -6,$ compared with two conformations of $C_6$ embedded
onto the cube $9, 0, 0, -1, -4, -4$ and $8.424, 0, 0, -1.424, -3, -4$
(two permutations with lesser distances).

The maximal eigenvalue of the even planar cycles on the circle with
unit radius is $2n$ and its eigenvector is the unit vector (this
corresponds to $2n/4$ for topological distance matrices). The even
distances on the circle form the right triangles over the diameter as
the hypotenuse and their pairs sum to 4.

\section{Generalized Distance Matrices} \label{Generalized Distance

Matrices}

Another matrix defining a graph is the adjacency matrix ${\bf A}$

which has identical unit elements as the distance matrix and zero
elements on places, where $d_{ij}$ are greater than 1.

It is possible to formulate the sets of generalized distance matrices

${\bf D}^{k}$ where k is the power of the topological distance
$d_{ij}$. Then the adjacency matrix ${\bf A}$ appears as the
generalized distance matrix ${\bf D}^-\infty)$ where in the brackets
is the infinite inverse power of the distances.

The matrix $({\bf JJ}^{\rm T}- {\bf I}$ (otherwise the distance
matrix of the complete graph) is thus the distance matrix ${\bf D}(0)
$. The changes of eigenvalues and eigenvectors between the adjacency
matrices ${\bf A }$ and the distance matrices ${\bf D}$ are then
continuous transformations produced by powers of given distances, or
in some cases, by changes of the geometrical conformations. We will
study some special examples.

\subsection{Special Cases: Linear Chains} \label{Special Cases:

Linear Chains}

As an the first example we use linear chains, which exist in the form
of stiff rods. It was found that to express this geometrical property,
it is necessary and sufficient to write the distances $d_{ij}$ as
squares of linear distances. The topological distance matrices are
then just second power geometrical distance matrices of linear chains
bent on vertices of n dimensional unit cube. Their apparently linear
distances are squares of the corresponding $d_{ij}$ as diagonals in
the n dimensional cube. In Table 1 eigenvalues of different power
distance matrices $L_5$ are tabulated. This chain is long enough to
show main properties of such a system, where the second power
geometrical distance matrices always have only 3 nonzero
eigenvalues.

\begin{table} \caption{Eigenvalues d* of the linear chain $L_5$ ${\bf

D}^k$ matrices} \label{Eigenvalues d* of the linear chain}
\begin{tabular}{|c|lllll|} \hline Distance power & & & & & \\ \hline
j &1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\ \hline $-\infty$ & 1.7321 & 1 & 0 & -1 &
-1.7321\\ -2 & 2.1109 & 0.7376 & -0.3024 &-1.0501 & -1.4960 \\ -1 &
2.6166 & 0.3036 & -0.5607 &-1.0536 & -1.3056 \\ -1/2 & 3.1292
&-0.1686 & -0.7526 &-1.0387 & -1.1649 \\ 0 & 4 &-1 & -1 &-1 & -1 \\
1/2 & 5.5279 &-0.7959 & -0.9187 &-1.3178 & -2.4955 \\ 1 & 8.2882
&-0.5578 & -0.7639 &-1.7304 & -5.2361 \\ 2 &23.0384 & 0 & 0 &-3.0384
& -20 \\ 3 &77.1665 & 2.2099 & 0.5776 &-5.7441 &-74.2099 \\ \hline
\end{tabular} \end{table}

All diagonal elements of the distance matrices are zero, and

therefore the sums of eigenvalues must be zero too. It is already well
known that eigenvalues of adjacency matrices of linear chains are
$2\cos(2k \pi/n+1)$, they form one wave. The eigenvalues of adjacency
matrices form the lowest limit to the eigenvalues of distance
matrices with negative powers of k. The greatest eigenvalue is
continuously growing with the growing powers k. The other eigenvalues
have for $k = 0$ a pole. There all negative eigenvalues are -1. For
the nonnegative eigenvalues of ${\bf A}$, it is the minimum, except
the lowest eigenvalue. This has there its maximum. The third
singularity forms when the power $k = 2$. There always only three
nonzero eigenvalues exist. Therefore the functional
relation

\begin{equation} \lambda_j = f(k) \end{equation}

has three distinct regions which parameters can be found by linear

regressions.
The topological distance matrices of the chains, where the numbers of
arcs represent the distances between vertices, are either the first
moments of the geometrical distance matrices of strait rods, or
simultaneously geometrical square distance matrices of linear chains
embedded onto the n~dimensional unit cube. The existence of the
singularity at $k = 2$ is given by the symmetry of the stiff rod. The
moments according to its length axis are 0. The three nonzero
eigenvalues can be identified with symmetry elements as shown in
Sect. \ref{Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors}.

The distance eigenvectors are rather interesting at any k. They are

usually symmetric according to the center, except for the zero
eigenvectors at $k = 2$, and degenerate $-1$ eigenvectors at $k = 0$
which are asymmetric. The symmetry can be reflective ($v_j =
v_{n-j}$, noted as $\sigma$), or rotational ($v_j = v_{n-j}$, noted
as C). These symmetries alternate for positive and negative powers of
k: $$\begin{tabular}{|l|ccccc|} \hline Eigenvector & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &
5 \\ \hline k negative & $\sigma$ & C & $\sigma$ & C & $\sigma$\\
\hline \end{tabular}$$

The positive unnormalized eigenvector is the deformed unit vector

column (row). In the adjacency matrices ${\bf A}$, the values
corresponding to the unit vector are decreased on both ends, for the
positive distance powers k they are decreased in the
center.

The fact, that the topological distance matrices as well the

geometrical distance matrices of the linear chains have n distinct
nonzero eigenvalues is consistently explained by their
dimensionality. They have too many symmetry elements to be embedded
in the 3 dimensions where three nonzero eigenvalues are
sufficient.

\subsection{Special Cases: Cycle $C_4$} \label{Special cases: Cycle

C_4$}

Another exceptional case is the cycle $C_4$, which can be bent from
the regular tetrahedron shape to the plane square by increasing two
distances or to a rod by decreasing them evenly. Its topological
distance matrix is thus undistinguishable from the second power
geometrical distance matrix of the square and the matrix $[{\bf JJ }-
{\bf I}]$ is one of the possible geometrical conformations (similarly
for the chain $L_4$, but there the adjacency matrix is different)
.

At the cycle $C_4$, the adjacency matrix ${\bf A }$ is simultaneously

the distance matrix of this cycle when vertices 1 and 3, 2 and 4 are
identified and the cycle is folded. If the distances of 1 and 3, 2
and 4 are not equal, it is also possible to identify all the arcs of
this cycle onto a line.

The eigenvalues corresponding to the distance matrix elements

$d_{ij}$ are obtained by adding or subtracting simply the distances
$d_{ij}$ from the eigenvalues of ${\bf A}$

\begin{table} \caption{Eigenvalues d* of the cycle $C_4$ ${\bf D}^k$

matrices} \label{Eigenvalues of d* of the cycle $C_4$}
\begin{tabular}{|r|llll|} \hline Eigenvalues of {\bf A }& 2 & 0 & 0 &
-2 \\ Change of distances & +d & -d &-d & +d \\ Examples: $d^2_{ij}$
0.25 & 1.75 & -0.25 & -0.25 & -1.75 \\ 1 & 3 & -1 & -1 & -1 \\ 1.414
& 3.414 & -1.414 &-1.414 & -0.586 \\ 2 & 4 & -2 & -2 & 0 \\ 4 & 6 &
-4 & -4 & 2\\ 8 & 10 & -8 & -8 & 6 \\ \hline negative distances -1 &
1 & 1 & 1 & -3 \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

This scheme leads to the change of ordering of eigenvalues. The

second eigenvalue is obtained for the positive k as the fourth one.
The distance 8 is geometrically impossible, it must be therefore the
sixth moment of the distance $\sqrt{2}$. The negative distances can
be interpreted as squared distances in the complex plane. All
distance matrices of $C_4$ have the same set of eigenvectors,
corresponding to the Vierergruppe:

$$\left( \begin{array}{cccc} 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & -1 & -1 \\ 1 &

-1 & -1 & 1 \\ 1 & -1 & 1 & -1 \end{array} \right)$$

If we fold $C_4$ as a rhomboid, we get diagonals of different

lengths. Their squares appear again as eigenvalues but in a
complicated pattern, as in this example

\begin{table} \caption{Eigenvalues d* of the ${\bf D}^k$ matrices of

rhombic cycle $C_4$} \label{Eigenvalues of d* of the rhombic
cycle} \begin{tabular}{|ll|llll|} \hline
\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{Distances} & & & & \\ $d^2_{13}$ & $d^2_{24}$ &
1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \\ \hline 3 & 1 & $2+5^{1/2}$ & -3 & -1 & $2-5^{1/2}$
\\ 4 & 0 & $2+8^{1/2}$ & -4 & 0 & $ 2-8^{1/2}$ \\ 1 & 0 &
$(1+17^{1/2})/2$ & -1 & 0 & $(1-17^{1/2})/2$ \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}

The second case is the extreme, all vertices lie on a straight line.
The third case represents two double bonds bending to $60^0$, or the
adjacency matrix of the graph on Fig. 13.2 b or a distance matrix of
one of its conformations. The eigenvectors are also deformed, going
to lover values and to higher ones again (in the third case it is
0.7808) and having zero values which are possible for other
conformations or moments, too:

$$\left( \begin{array}{cccc} 0.6180 (0.4142)& 1 & 0.6180 (0.4142)& 1

\\ 0 & 1 & 0 & -1 \\ 1 & 0 & -1 & 0 \\ 1 & - 0.6180 (0.4142) &1 & -
0.6180 (0.4142) \end{array} \right)$$

There exists a third deformation the cycle $C_4$, corresponding to

changes of two distances. The square transforms in the rectangle, or
the cycle is formed from two chains $L_2$.

Here the zero distance appears as the permuted adjacency matrix and
the changes are:

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrr|} \hline Distances $d^2$ &

\multicolumn{4}{|c|}{Eigenvalues}\\ \hline 0 & 2 & 0 & -2 & 0 \\ 1 &
4 & 0 & -2 & -2 \\ 4 & 10 & 0 & -2 & -8 \\ 8 & 18 & 0 & -2 &-16 \\
\hline \end{tabular}$$

All eigenvectors remain the same as for $C_4$. It can be conjectured

that the topological distance matrix of the graph consisting from two
components $L_2$ has two infinite eigenvalues, and the other two are
0 and $-2$. This follows from the eigenvectors which remain identical
disregarding of the distances of both components. The eigenvalues are
again determined by the symmetry elements. Nonzero eigenvalues are
three for the square and two for the configuration corresponding to
$L_2$.

\subsection{Special Cases: Two Cycles $C_4$ (the cube)}

\label{Special cases: Two Cycles $C_4$ (the cube)}

Here we will study the formation of the cube from two cycles $C_4$.
The adjacency matrix of two cycles $C_4$ can be written similarly as
for two chains $L_2$ in the block form as

$$\left( \begin{array}{cc} {\bf C } & {\bf 0}\\ {\bf 0} & {\bf C}

\end{array} \right)$$

The adjacency matrix of the cube is

$$\left( \begin{array}{cc} {\bf C } & {\bf I} \\ {\bf I} & {\bf C}

\end{array} \right)$$

The distance matrix of two squares has the form

$$\left( \begin{array}{cc} {\bf D} & ({\bf D}+d{\bf JJ}^{\rm T}) \\

({\bf D}+d{\bf JJ}^{\rm T}) & {\bf D} \end{array} \right)$$

The corresponding eigenvalues are tabulated. The other four

eigenvalues are either zero, or they have the same values with
negative signs

\begin{table} \caption{Eigenvalues of two unit squares in distance

$d^2$} \label{Eigenvalues of two unit squares in distance $d^2$}
\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrr|} \hline Eigenvalue & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \\ \hline
Distance & & & & \\ \hline {\bf A}(cube) & 2.618 & 1.618 & 0.618 &
0.382\\ {\bf A}[2C(4)] & 2 & 2 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 8 & 0 & -4 & -4 \\ 1 &
12 & -4 & -4 & -4 \\ 4 & 24 & -16 & -4 & -4 \\ 8 & 40 & -32 & -4 & -4
\\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

Eigenvalues of two coinciding squares in zero distance are just

doubled eigenvalues of one square. The third distance adds four times
to the first eigenvalue and subtracts four times from the second
one.

There seems to be a pattern of how spectra of the lattice graphs are

formed. The spectrum of the straight chain $L_3$ is $5.416, 0, -
1.416, -4$. The spectrum of the square lattice formed by three $L_3$
is $25.416, -12, -1.416, -12$, whereas 3 identified $L_3$ have
spectrum $13.348, -1.348, -12$. These are $3\times (4.449, -0.449, -4)
$, eigenvalues of $L_3$ . The eigenvalue corresponding to the
reflection moment is slightly changed.

Generalizing the distance matrices ${\bf D}^k$ to adjacency matrices

is ambiguous for the topological distance matrices of graphs which
are embedded differently from their standard configuration. For
example, on a cube many different graphs can be embedded. Their
adjacency matrices are subgraphs of the cube.

\section{Nonlinear and Negative Distances} \label{Nonlinear and

Negative Distances}

It was customary to use arbitrary distances in the distance matrices,

as in the traveling salesman's problem. If we demand that the
distances in the distance matrices to be squared Euclidean distances,
then it is necessary to find an interpretation for the matrices where
distances are longer or shorter than possible.

A simple interpretation of longer distances is that they represent a

path on a curve. Here emerges a new problem, in the tensor ${\bf
SDS}^{\rm T}$ appear off-diagonal elements, which give cosines of
angles between arcs greater than 1. For example the following
matrices:

$$\begin{array}{cccc} \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 0 &1 &4\\ 1 &0 &1\\ 4

&1 &0 \end{array} \right) & \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 0 & 1& 5\\ 1 &
0& 1\\ 5 & 1& 0 \end{array} \right) & \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 0 & 1
& 6\\ 1 & 0& 1\\ 6 & 1 & 0 \end{array} \right) & \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} 0 & 1 & 10\\ 1 & 0 & 4\\ 10 & 4 & 0 \end{array}
\right) \end{array}$$

give the corresponding tensors

$$\begin{array}{cc} \left( \begin{array}{ccc} -2 & -4 & -2\\ -4 & -8

& -4\\ -2 & -4 & -2 \end{array} \right) & \left( \begin{array}{ccc}
-2 & -5 & -3\\ -5 & -10& -5\\ -3 & -5& -2 \end{array} \right)
\end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{cc} \left( \begin{array}{ccc} -2 & -6 & -4\\ -6 &

-12& -6\\ -4 & -6 & -2 \end{array} \right) & \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} -2 & -7 & -5\\ -7& -20 & -13\\ -5& -13 & -8
\end{array} \right) \end{array}$$

If the hypotenuse is longer than the squared legs, the off-diagonal

elements corresponding to cosines are projections of its square root
onto legs. It appears as if they were prolonged to correspond to its
hypotenuse. If the legs are not equal, the decomposition is uneven.
For example $$1.1180 + 1.1180 = 5^{1/2}\;,$$ $$1.1068 + 2\times1.0277
= 3.1622 = 10^{1/2}\;.$$

Only the portion corresponding to the unit length appears in the

result. The rule for the decomposition is again the cosine theorem
(\ref{cos}). This is true even for negative distances, which can be
eventually interpreted as squared distances in the complex plane. If
the whole distance matrix is negative, the sign changes only the sign
of the result. But a combination of positive and negative signs leads
to cosines greater than 1, for example

$$\begin{array}{cc} \left( \begin{array}{ccc} 0 & 1 & -1\\ 1 & 0 &

1\\ -1 & 1 & 0 \end{array} \right) & \left( \begin{array}{ccc} -2 & 1
& 3\\ 1 & 2 & 1\\ 3 & 1 & -2 \end{array} \right)
\end{array}$$

Angles corresponding to cosines greater than 1 do not have sense in

the Euclidean space.

\chapter{Differential Equations} \label{Differential Equations}

\section{Introduction} \label{Introduction 18}

The ancient Greeks were very good geometricians and had some
knowledge of algebra, but were not able to imagine a trajectory of a
moving object as a geometrical problem. Everybody knows the Zenon
aporea.

It was a cultural shock, when Zenon came out with his discoveries.
Imagine, Achilles can never catch a turtle, if it has an handicap.
Achilles running it, the turtle changes its position, and remains
ahead. Achilles running the second handicap, the turtle changes its
position, again, and so in infinite many intervals. Ancients
mathematicians did not find that a sum of an infinite number of ever
decreasing fractions is finite. But curiously enough, they were not
able to imagine the situation as a figure, as Fig. \ref{Zenon plot of
the Achilles and turtle aporea}.

\begin{figure} \caption{Zenon plot of the Achilles and turtle aporea.

The straight lines are relations between the geometrical positions of
both contestants (vertical lines) and time (horizontal lines)}
\label{Zenon plot of the Achilles and turtle aporea}
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\emline{133.00}{28.00}{17}{137.33}{28.33}{18} %\end \put(10.00,84.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{T}} \put(9.67,148.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{A}}
\put(9.67,137.67){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{t+1}} \put(20.00,10.00)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{0}} \put(9.67,20.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{0}}
\put(148.00,10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{t}} \put(79.00,10.00){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{Time (position)}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

This simple plot of two straight lines represents both contestants

which are moving by constant velocities. One axis shows their scaled
down geometrical positions on the race course. The horizontal axis
corresponds to the time. To imagine the abstract time as the
geometrical distance was an invention which seems to be now obvious.
Both lines can be represented by equations and the point where both
lines cross calculated. The ladder between both lines shows that the
intervals are decreasing and they converge into one point. The sum of
infinite many terms is finite.

\section{Analytical Geometry} \label{Analytical Geometry}

It was Descartes, who with his analytical geometry found that a simple
plot of two straight lines solves the Zenon aporea about Achilles and
turtle.

Analytical geometry studies not only isolated points or vector

strings as we did till now, but sets of points related by functional
relations. We already constructed the number scales. Their lines can
be rotated, shifted and bent.

Let start with the matrix multiplication

$$\begin{tabular}{r|ccccccc} & \ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\ \hline 1

& \ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\ 0.5 & & 0 & 0.5 & 1 & 1.5 & 2 & 2.5 \\
\end{tabular}$$

The straight line of 6 points in the axis x was copied and projected
into the axis y The resulting positions of the original points in the
axis b are described either as $ y = 1x$ or as $ y = 0.5x\;.$

But this equation is true not only for the set of six points with
natural coordinates, but for all points between them on the straight
line. The unit vectors are not needed. The equation of the straight
lines in two dimensions is

\begin{equation} y = a + bx \end{equation} \label{y}

The term a is the value of y when $x =0$. In the given example $a=0$.
The term a is the slope of the line determined as the ratio $y/x$, it
is tangents of the angle $\alpha. If we know y, we can find x solving
the Equation (\ref{y}) as $x = (y - a)/b$.

The two dimensional plane simplexes are straight lines having the
form $y+x=m$, their slopes are negative, and they are defined only in
the positive cone.

In the plain many straight lines can be defined. They can be parallel
or they can cross. Crossing takes place, when both coordinates x and
y of both straight lines are equal, as for example

$$ y = 2 + 3x $$ $$ y = 3 + 2x.$$

The solution is $2 + 3x = 3 + 2x$, thus x = 1. Inserting x back we

get y = 5. Using matrix technique, the system of two equations are
rearranged into the polar form:

$$-3x + y = 2$$ $$-2x + y = 3 $$

the inverse of the left side matrix

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \left( \begin{array}{cc} -3 & 1 \\ -2 & 1

\end{array} \right) & ${\rm is\ found}$ & \left( \begin{array}{cc} -1
& 1 \\ -2 & 3 \end{array} \right)\;. \end{array}$$

and this gives, when multiplied with the vector ${bf b} = (2, 3)^{\rm
T}$ the solution $(1, 5)^{\rm T}$.

\section{Zenon Plots} \label{Zenon Plots}

Let us return to the Zenon aporea. Now we follow separately the

positions of Achilles or the turtle. To do this we don't need the time
axis. The axis x is the distance to the end of the course, y is the
run away distance. For example:

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|ccccccccc|} \hline Interval& 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &

5 & 6 & 7 & 8 \\ \hline x & 8 & 7 & 6 & 5 & 4 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 0 \\ y &
0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$

The relation of both values is described by the equation $y = 8 - x$.

The constant a is the relative length of the course expressed by the
velocity. It is finite.

Another description of the motion is obtained when the baseline x

represents the position in time t, the vertical axis y the position
in time $t+1$, 1 representing an interval of time $\Delta t$. Let the
coordinates of the measured points to be for simplicity:

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|ccccccccc|} \hline Interval & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4

& 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 \\ \hline x & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 \\ y
& 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

The motion is described by the equation $y = x$.

Now let the coordinates to change as follows:

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|ccccccccc|} \hline Interval& 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &

5 & 6 & 7 & 8 \\ \hline x & 258 & 128 & 64 & 32 & 16 & 8 & 4 & 2 & 1
\\ y & 0 & 128 & 192 & 224 & 240 & 248 & 252 & 254 & 255 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$

The velocity of the motion is not constant, but it is decreasing

exponentially. The line depicting values x in different time
intervals t on the graph is bent (Fig. \ref{Exponential curve.}). To
straighten it, we must use an logarithmic scale $y = \log x$.

\begin{figure} \caption{Exponential curve. The decreasing distance

intervals from {\ref Zenon plot of the Achilles and turtle aporea}
are on the vertical axis, the horizontal axis is the time}
\label{Exponential curve.} \linethickness{0.6pt}
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\put(10.00,19.67){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{0}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}

Now again let the baseline x to represent the position in time t, the
vertical axis y the position in time $t+1$, 1 representing an
interval of time $\Delta t$. The coordinates of the exponential curve
are
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|ccccccccc|} \hline Interval& 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 &
6 & 7 & 8 & 9\\ \hline x & 0 & 128 & 192 & 224 & 240 & 248 & 252 &
254 & 255 \\ y & 128 & 64 & 32 & 16 & 8 & 4 & 2 & 1 & ? \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$

The x values are growing, the y values are decreasing. Both changes
are not linear. Nevertheless, if the values x are plotted against the
corresponding values y, the plot is linear, see Fig.
\ref{Linearization}.

\begin{figure} \caption{Linearization of the exponential curve. The

decreasing distances between points correspond to the constant time
intervals} \label{Linearization} \linethickness{0.6pt}
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The plot represents the exponential changes, for example the

radioactive decay or monomolecular chemical reactions if y is the
starting substance, x is the product. The corresponding equation
is

\begin{equation} y = 2^{8-t}\;. \end{equation}

The Zenon aporea is now transformed into the question, when the last
radioactive atom will decay, and when their starting number is $x =
256$.

We are now in a similar situation as the Greeks were. The decay of

radioactive elements is governed by an exponential law. The ratio of
decaying atoms in equal time intervals $\Delta_t$ is constant. To be
sure that all atoms decayed, we need infinitely many such intervals.
Essentially, the infinitely many intervals are needed only for the
last atom, if we demand certainty of its decay.

The graph of the process is the same as in the case of the runners,
if both axes, time and position, are replaced by positions
(concentrations) in consecutive time intervals, $t$ and $(t +1)$ as
if both positions were on two different orthogonal scales. By doing
so, these positions are considered to be orthogonal, the exponential
movement is transformed into linear, as if we used the logarithmic
scale\footnote{The linear movement is the limit of the exponential
movement when the constant $k=0$}.

\section{Markov Matrices} \label{Markov Matrices}

Markov was a Russian mathematician who got the somewhat childish idea
to study the order in which the consonants follow the vowels in a
Pushkin's poem. After a consonant another consonant or a vowel can
follow with some statistical probability which is determined by the
structure of the language and its use by the
author.

Markov studied probabilities of transitions of consecutive phonemes,

as consonants c and vowels v in the example

\begin{center} A vv A vc M cv A vc R cc K cv O vc V \end{center}

Probabilities vv, vc, cc and cv are obtained from the direct counts
by dividing them with all possibilities of the transitions (here 7
transitions of 8 letters). When arranged among into matrices, they
form the {\em stochastic matrices} ${\bf M}$ which row sums are 1.
The theory of processes connected with these matrices forms a part of
the theory of {\em stochastic processes}.

Each phoneme in a text is considered to be a state of the system

which fluctuates constantly between its possible states, forming a
chain of consecutive events.

There is another possibility to interpret the phenomenon. A text can

be considered as a whole and all observed differences can form one
transition into the next state. Or two distinct objects, represented
by strings of symbols, can be compared. The differences can be thus
expressed as arcs of a graph, for example

$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrr|} \hline & ? & A & A & M & A & R & K &
O & V \\ & A & A & M & A & R & K & O & V& ? \\ \hline & & & & & & & &
& \\ c & * & 0 & 1 & -1 & 1 & 0 &-1 & 1 & * \\ v & * & 0 & -1 & 1 &
-1 & 0 & 1 & -1 & * \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

\begin{figure} \caption{Possible transitions of 2 letter strings. The

direct transition $cc \leftrightarrow vv$ is impossible}
\label{Possible transitions of 2 letter strings}
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35.00){\line(0,1){25.00}} %\end \end{picture}
\end{figure}
The two rows with the numbers form the transposed incidence matrix
${\bf S}^{\rm T}$ of the multigraph with loops, zeroes are on places
of loops, arcs beginning and ending on the same site, the asterisks *
mark the undetermined start and end terms. It is possible to connect
the last letter with the first one for removing these loose
ends.

The string is formed by differences $({\bf e}_i -{\bf e}_j)$ and it

is clear that we can write it as the incidence matrix of an oriented
multigraph with loops. On Fig. \ref{Possible transitions of 2 letter
strings} the possible transitions of 2 letter strings are shown, on
Fig. \ref{Possible transitions of 2 letter strings} the possible
transitions of 3 letter strings are shown.

\begin{figure} \caption{Possible transitions of 3 letter strings}

\label{Possible transitions of 3 letter strings}
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\end{picture} \end{figure}
Such transitions are not limited to language. If we followed atoms of
the radioactive elements for some periods of time, then each atom
either remained unchanged, or it emitted a quantum of radiation, and
changed into an atom of another element. Here we do not know the
indexing of individual atoms, we can determine only their amount. The
amount $\delta x$ of atoms, which decay in a time interval, is
proportional to the number of atoms $x$, the constant of
proportionality being $k$, and to the length of the time interval
$\delta t$. The equation describing this process is

\begin{equation} \delta x/\delta t = -kx \label{delta} \end{equation}

The solution of this equation is found by separating of the variables

in the differential form (very short $\delta t$):

\begin{equation} \delta x/x = \delta (logx)= -k\delta t

\end{equation}

and integrating both sides and delogarithming the result

\begin{equation} x = Aexp(-kt) \end{equation}

where $A$ is the initial value of $x$ as the integration constant.

This solution has the above mentioned hook: We cannot be ever sure
about the time when the last atom in the system decays, there exist
only probabilities. This is the discrepancy between differential and
integral calculus and finite mathematics.

The process can be visualized by two different plots, either we plot

concentrations against elapsed time as on Fig. \ref{Exponential
curve.}, which is the traditional technique, or we plot the
concentrations of the changing substance $x_t$ eventually the
concentrations of the product $(1 - x)_t$ against these
concentrations $x_{t+1}$ or $(1-x_{t+1})$, respectively after the
constant time interval $\Delta t$ as on Fig. \ref{Linearization} The
concentrations points on this plot form straight lines which slopes
depend on the velocity constants k.

Once again: The values of a function in two different time intervals

were treated as orthogonal vectors. In this way we obtained a plot of
a linear function from an exponential function, as if we found a
logarithm of the exponential function. The orthogonal projection gave
the logarithmic transformation of the exponential velocity of
transformation of n atoms of two kinds.

\section{Multidimensional Systems} \label{Multidimensional Systems}

According of our definition, matrices of oriented graphs describe

motions on planes orthogonal to the unit vectors ${\bf I}$. We are
able to follow conveniently the changes of concentrations of 3
components, which can be drawn on equilateral triangles.

What is easy for two components becomes complicated for systems

containing n different components which can each transform into
another with different velocities $k_{ij}$. Nevertheless, the basics
remain and such systems are described by generalized Markov matrices
${\bf M}$ which off-diagonal elements $k_{ij}$. are the rate
constants of a system of equations \ref{delta} and the diagonal
elements are the sums of rate constants with negative signs $-\Sigma
k_{ij}$. The diagonal elements are either the column sums if the
matrix ${\bf M}$ acts on the concentration vector column ${\bf c}$
from the left, or the row sums if the matrix ${\bf P}$ acts on the
concentration vector row ${\bf c}^{\rm T}$ from the right.

\section{Transition Matrices} \label{Transition Matrices}

A transition matrix ${\bf P}$ is formed from two parts, the Markov
matrix ${\bf M}$ and the identity matrix ${\bf I}$

\begin{equation} {\bf P}= ({\bf I} + {\bf M})\;. \end{equation}

${\bf M}$ is the asymmetrically split Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix ${\bf

S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ with the negative signs on the diagonal which is
normalized to the unit concentrations. The transition matrices ${\bf
P}$ have two limits: Either the identity matrix ${\bf I}$, if no
change occurs in the given time interval, or the permutation matrices
${\bf P}$, if all species are transformed into other one within one
time interval. We can suppose that each reaction (transition) in
which an object is transformed into another species, say $a
\rightarrow b$ in a time interval $\delta t$ is registered in the
incidence matrix ${\bf S }$ as the difference of two unit vectors
$({\bf e}_i- {\bf e}_j)$. These additive operators are transformed in
the quadratic form ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ into the multiplicative
operators which are normalized, it means the operator $k_{ij}$ is the
ratio of transformed objects to all present objects, and the
normalized symmetrical quadratic form ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ is
split into the row operator ${\bf P}_r$ and the column operator ${\bf
P_c}$

\begin{equation} -{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}= {\bf P}_r + {\bf P}_c\;.

\end{equation}

The adjacency matrices ${\bf A}$ which we used till now were the
symmetrical. They were obtained as the off-diagonal elements of
quadratic forms of incidence matrices of either an oriented graph
${\bf S}$, or an unoriented graph ${\bf G}$ (see Sect. 12.7)
.

Since the asymmetric adjacency matrices are used as the operators, it

is necessary to determine, how they are produced formally. When the
vectors-rows ${\bf c}$ are multiplied from the right, then $a_{ij} =
k$, when k arcs go from the vertex j in the vertex i, when
vectors-columns ${\bf c }$ are multiplied from the left, then $a
_{ij} = k$, when k arcs go from the vertex i to the vertex j. We
will use subscripts r and l for the both kinds of the adjacency
matrices ${\bf A}$.

The orientation of arcs can be expressed by signs, where $a_{ij} =

+k$, when k arcs go from the vertex i in the vertex j, or where
$a_{ij} = -k$, when k arcs go in the vertex i from the vertex j, or
opposite.

If each arc represents one transformation of the object j into the

object i, and the counts $k_{ij}$ are normalized, $k_{ij}$'s become
the rates of reactions known in chemistry as the monomolecular
reactions and together with the corresponding sums $\Sigma k_{ij}$ on
the diagonal with negative signs. When the concentration (or
coordinate) vectors ${\bf c }$ are multiplied by these operators, the
changes of concentrations are obtained, when the concentration
vectors ${\bf c }$ are multiplied by $({\bf I }- {\bf P})$, the new
concentration vectors are obtained. We suppose, that concentration
vectors are rows and the multiplication is from right

\begin{equation} {\bf c}_{t+1}^{\rm T} = {\bf c}_{t}^{\rm T}{\bf M}\;,

\end{equation}

therefore the sums $\Sigma k_{ij}$ on the diagonal are the column
sums.

Let ${\bf S}$ and ${\bf G}$ be the incidence matrices of the same
oriented multigraph, where $ {\bf S}$ and ${\bf G}$ are identical
matrices except for the signs. An unoriented edge corresponds to each
arc. The rows of ${\bf S }$ and ${\bf G }$ are the mutually
orthogonal vectors.

\begin{figure} \caption{Reaction multigraph } \label{Reaction

multigraph } \linethickness{0.6pt} \begin{picture}(180.00,90.00)
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(150.00,50.00) \put(130.00,50.00){\line(1,0){20.00}} %\end
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(30.00,30.00) \put(30.00,10.00){\line(0,1){20.00}} %\end
%\emline(30.00,30.00)(10.00,10.00) \multiput(30.00,30.00)(-0.12,-0.12)
{167}{\line(0,-1){0.12}} %\end %\emline(70.00,30.00)(110.00,30.00)
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(90.00,10.00) \put(90.00,30.00){\line(0,-1){20.00}} %\end \put(10.00,
76.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1}} \put(30.00,76.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{2}}
\put(50.00,76.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{3}} \put(10.00,40.33){\makebox(0,
0)[cc]{4}} \put(30.00,40.33){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{5}} %\emline(30.00,
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{19.67}} %\end \end{picture} \end{figure}

The corresponding scalar products ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf G}$ and ${\bf
G}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ are the asymmetric matrices showing differences in
the orientation of arcs. As an example we use the multigraph defined
by the transposed incidence matrix ${\bf S}^{\rm T}$ (see Fig.
\ref{Reaction multigraph })

$$\begin{array}{cc} {\bf S}^{\rm T} & \left( \begin{array}{ccccccc}

-1 & -1 & 0 & -1 & 0 & 1 & -1 \\ 1 & 0 & -1 & 0 & 1 & -1 & 1 \\ 0 & 1
& 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & -1 & 0 & 0 \end{array} \right)
\;. \end{array}$$

The elements of the matrix ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S }$ are

$$\left( \begin{array}{cccc} -3 & 1 & 1 & 1\\ -1 & 1 & 1 & -1\\ -1 &
-1 & 2 & 0\\ -1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \end{array} \right)$$

They can be interpreted as

$v_{ii} =$ (arcs in - arcs out)

$a_{ij} =$ (arcs out i in j - arcs out j in i),

then $a_{ij} =$ 0 no arc.

The elements of the matrix ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf G }$ are

$$\left( \begin{array}{cccc} -3 &-1 & -1 & -1\\ 1 & 1 & -1 & 1\\ 1 &
1 & 2 & 0\\ 1 &-1 & 0 & 0 \end{array} \right)$$

They can be interpreted as

$v_{ii} =$ (arc in - arc out)

$a_{ij} =$ (arcs out i in j - arc out j in i),

then $a_{ij} =$ 0 no arc.

The off-diagonal elements of the matrix ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf G }$

differ from the off-diagonal elements of the matrix ${\bf G}^{\rm
T}{\bf S }$ only by signs. The scalar products ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf G
}$ and ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S }$ can be combined with the quadratic
forms of incidence matrices. There are four additive combinations

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\\ \\

\left( \begin{array}{rrrr} 5 & -3 & -1 & -1\\ -3 & 5 & -1 & -1\\ -1 &
-1 & 2 & 0\\ -1 & -1 & 0 & 2 \end{array} \right) \end{array} &
\begin{array}{c} {\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G}\\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{cccc} 5 & 3 & 1 & 1\\ 3 & 5 & 1 & 1\\ 1 & 1 & 2 & 0\\ 1
& 1 & 0 & 2 \end{array} \right) \end{array} \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S}+{\bf

S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{rrrr} 2 & -2 & 0 & 0\\ -4
& 6 & 0 & -2\\ -2 & -2 & 4 & 0\\ -2 & 0 & 0 & 2 \end{array} \right)
\end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S}-{\bf S}^{\rm
T}{\bf S}\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{rrrr} -8 & 4 & 2 & 2\\ 2 & -4 & 2
& 0\\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & 2 & 0 & -2 \end{array} \right) \end{array}
\end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{cc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S}+{\bf

G}^{\rm T}{\bf G}\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{rrrr} 2 & 4 & 2 & 2\\ 2 &
6 & 2 & 0\\ 0 & 0 & 4 & 0\\ 0 & 2 & 0 & 2 \end{array} \right)
\end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S}-{\bf G}^{\rm
T}{\bf G}\\ \\ \left( \begin{array}{rrrr} -8 & -2 & 0& 0\\ -4 & -4 &
0 & -2\\ -2 & -2 & 0 & 0\\ -2 & 0 & 0 & -2 \end{array} \right)
\end{array} \end{array}$$

This gives this pattern

$${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S }+ {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S }= 2({\bf V}_{in} -

{\bf A}_r)$$ $${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S }- {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S }=
2({\bf A}_l- {\bf V}_{out})$$ $${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S }+ {\bf G}^{\rm
T}{\bf G }= 2({\bf V}_{in}+ {\bf A}_l)$$ $${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S }-
{\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G }= -2({\bf A}_r + {\bf V}_{out})\;
.$$

The scalar product $({\bf G }- {\bf S})^{\rm T} {\bf S }$ can be

normalized into the left hand side operator ${\bf M}$. The diagonal
matrices of vertex degrees (arcs in and out), as well as the
asymmetric adjacency matrices can be separated by the transposing
sums or differences ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S }$ with ${\bf G}^{\rm
T}{\bf G}$ and combining them with the sums or differences ${\bf
G}^{\rm T}{\bf S }$ with ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$:

$$4{\bf V}_{in} = ({\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S }+ {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}) +

({\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S }+ {\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G})^{\rm T} $$

$$-4{\bf V}_{out} = ({\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S }- {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})

+ ({\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S }- {\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G})^{\rm T}$$

$${\bf -}4{\bf A}_l = ({\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S }+ {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf

S}) - ({\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S }+ {\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G})^{\rm T} $$

$$4{\bf A}_r = ({\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S }- {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}) -

({\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S }- {\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G})^{\rm T}\;.$$

The same operation with ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf G }$ gives the pattern

$${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf G}+ {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S }= 2({\bf V}_{in} -

{\bf A}_l)$$

$${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf G}- {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S }= 2({\bf A}_r - {\bf
V}_{out})$$
$${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf G}+ {\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G }= 2({\bf V}_{in}+
{\bf A}_r)$$

$${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf G} - {\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G }= -2({\bf A}_l +

{\bf V}_{out})\;.$$

The scalar product ${\bf S }^{\rm T}({\bf G }- {\bf S})$ can be

normalized into the right hand side operator ${\bf M}$. The diagonal
matrices of vertex degrees (arcs in and out), as well as the
asymmetric adjacency matrices can be separated by transposing the
sums or differences ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf G }$ with ${\bf G}^{\rm
T}{\bf G}$ and combining them with sums or differences ${\bf S}^{\rm
T}{\bf S }$ with ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S }$ as above. These transposes
are identical with sums or differences of ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$,
because the transposing changes the ordering of matrices in the
product.

The incidence matrices ${\bf S }$ and ${\bf G}$, or their transposes,

used as the multiplication operators, transfer each element of the
multiplied matrix vector twice, once on the diagonal, once as
off-diagonal element. The sums or differences of these matrices ${\bf
S }$ and ${\bf G}$ which should be transformed into the quadratic
matrices have in each row exactly one element 2 in the ending or
starting column, respectively. The results are thus elementary. But
these facts are not explained in textbooks or in current literature.
If they were studied earlier, they were forgotten.

The double entry accounting of the arcs using the orthogonal vector
strings, their sums and differences, quadratic forms, scalar products
and transposes, gives a web of related matrices describing the graphs
and to them isomorphic objects and their transformations.

The Laplace-Kirchhoff matrix, identical with ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S

}$ and used for solving electrical circuits, is symmetrical. It
actually describes only the properties of the circuit, the
resistances of lines (conductors) connecting the vertices of the net.
The direction of the flow is induced by the applied tension. The
matrix of currents corresponds to one from the matrices ${\bf S}^{\rm
T}{\bf G }$ or ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$, currents $k$ in the branches
always have the opposite signs

\begin{equation} ({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf G})_{ij} = -({\bf S}^{\rm

T}{\bf G})_{ij}\;. \end{equation}

Moreover, flows in and out from all vertices must be balanced,

$\Sigma k_{ij} = 0$. Since the resistance can be expressed as the
length of a conductor, the inverse problem appears as the resistance
distances.

\section{Equilibrium Concentrations} \label{Equilibrium

Concentrations}

Finding the diagonal matrix ${\bf C }$ of the equilibrium

concentrations $c_j*$ for large systems is not a simple task. It
requires calculations of the determinants of all submatrices of the
matrix product $\delta_j{\bf MC}$, obtained by deleting the j-th row
and column. Many variants of the Kirchhoff technique of spanning
trees were elaborated for this purpose.

Today the technical difficulties are removed by the use of computers

but a basic question remains open: is the product ${\bf MC }$ a
symmetrical matrix or not? Wei and Prater \cite{[14]}, who elaborated
the matrix technique for solving of systems of exponential equations,
argued by the principle of microscopic reversibility according to
which the equivalence should be true:

\begin{equation} c_i^*k_{ij} = c_j^*k_{ji} \end{equation}

The properties of the essentially positive matrices make the validity

of this principle doubtful. We use the properties of the eigenvalues
of the Markov matrices and will study the operator ${\bf P}= ({\bf
I}+ {\bf M})$. This operator transforms the concentration vector ${\bf
c}_t$ in time t into the concentration vector ${\bf c}_{t+1}$ in time
$(t + \delta)$.

\section{Properties of Matrices Sums (I + M)} \label{Properties of

Matrices}

The matrices $({\bf I }+ {\bf M})$ have one eigenvalue exactly 1, the
other eigenvalues are in the circle $0 < \lambda_j < 1$. The matrix
${\bf M}$ has exactly one eigenvalue equal to zero and the remaining
$(n-1)$ eigenvalues in the range limited by the circle given by the
rate sums $\Sigma -k_{ij}$. Because a transformation of any species
can not be greater that its concentration, the sum of the rate
constants must be lesser than 1. If the regular unit matrix ${\bf I
}$ is added to ${\bf M}$, all eigenvalues are increased evenly by 1.
This has an important consequence which remained unnoticed: The
equilibrium state of the operator ${\bf P}$ has one eigenvalue
exactly 1, all other eigenvalues are 0. The product of any
concentration vector ${\bf c }$ with the equilibrium operator $({\bf
I}+ {\bf M})^{\infty}$ must give the equilibrium concentration vector
${\bf c}^*$. Therefore $(1/n){\bf I}({\bf I}+ {\bf M})^{\infty}$ has
the form of n identical columns of the equilibrium concentration
vectors ${\bf c}^{\rm T}$. Because the sum of concentrations is
always $\Sigma_{j=1}^n = 1$ this result conforms with the condition
${\bf c}({\bf I}+ {\bf M})^{\infty} = {\bf c}^{*{\rm T}}$.

The other important property of the equilibrium operator is that its

product with the Markov matrix ${\bf M}$ must give the zero matrix
${\bf 0}$: ${\bf M}({\bf I }+ {\bf M})^{\infty} = {\bf 0}$. To show
some consequences, we separate the equilibrium matrix operator into
the diagonal matrix ${\bf C }$ which elements are equilibrium
concentrations $c^*_j$ and the matrix of off-diagonal elements $[{\bf
M}({\bf I}+ {\bf M})^{\infty} - {\bf C}]$. The products with the
Markov matrix have the following forms:

$$\begin{array}{ccc} {\bf M} & = & \left( \begin{array}{cccc}

-c_1^*\Sigma k_{i1} & c_2^* k_{12} & \dots & c_n^* k_{1n} \\ c_1^*
k_{21} & -c_2^*\Sigma k_{i2} & \dots & c_n^* k_{2n} \\ \vdots &
\vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ c_1^* k_{n1} & c_2^* k_{n2} & \dots &
-c_n^*\Sigma k_{in} \\ \end{array} \right)\;.
\end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{c} {\bf M}[({\bf I }+ {\bf M})^{\infty} - {\bf C}]\\

\\ \left( \begin{array}{cccc} \Sigma_{i=1}c_ik_{1i} &
\Sigma_{i\neq2}(c_i^* k_{i1} -c_1^* k_{i1}) & \dots & \Sigma_{i\neq
n}(c_i^* k_{1n} -c_1^* k_{i1})\\ \Sigma_{i\neq1}(c_i^* k_{2i} -c_2^*
k_{2i}) & \Sigma_{i=2}c_ik_{2i} & \dots & \Sigma_{i\neq n}(c_i^*
k_{2n}-c_1^*k_{i2})\\ \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
\Sigma_{i\neq1}(c_i^* k_{ni} -c_n^* k_{ni}) & \Sigma_{i\neq2}(c_i^*
k_{ni} -c_n^* k_{ni}) & \dots & \Sigma_{i=n}c_ik_{ni} \end{array}
\right)\;. \end{array}$$

The equilibrium condition is fulfilled if

\begin{equation} \sum_{j=n}^nc_j^*k_{ji} - \sum_{i=n}^nc_i^*k_{ij} =

0 \end{equation}

All flows in each position in the matrix must be balanced by all

outflows to keep equilibrium. For this the principle of microscopic
reversibility is not a necessary condition, but it is only a special
case from all possibilities, how the equilibrium can be
reached.

Because any equilibrium state of the operator ${\bf P}$ has exactly
one eigenvalue 1 and other $(n - 1)$ eigenvalues are 0, it is easy to
find the corresponding eigenvectors. The unit eigenvector is the unit
row ${\bf J}^{\rm T}$ or the unit column ${\bf J}$, respectively. The
zero eigenvectors can be chosen as any $(n -1)$ rows or columns of
the Markov matrix. Any Markov matrix is therefore a system of
eigenvectors of its equilibrium state.

\section{Classification of Markov Matrices} \label{Classification of

Markov Matrices}

A Markov matrix describes its own equilibrium state and all the paths
to the equilibrium from any point of the n dimensional concentration
simplex. This simplex is a plane orthogonal to the unit vector ${\bf
I}$, for example for 3 substances it is an equilateral triangle. Each
point of the simplex can be the equilibrium point of the system and
to each equilibrium point there go infinitely many paths. Therefore
it is necessary to classify the Markov matrices according to the
character of paths the matrix produces. If we exclude matrices going
to concentrations outside the simplex, there are three possibilities.
Easily they can be found for the two dimensional case:

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \begin{array}{c} {\bf A} \\ p, q < 0.5 \\ \\

\left( \begin{array}{cc} (1-p) & p \\ q & (1-q) \end{array} \right)
\end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf B} \\ p = q = 0.5\\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{cc} 0.5 & 0.5\\ 0.5 & 0.5 \end{array} \right)
\end{array} & \begin{array}{c} {\bf C} \\ p, q > 0.5 \\ \\ \left(
\begin{array}{cc} (1-p) & p \\ q & (1-q) \end{array} \right)
\end{array} \end{array}$$

\begin{itemize} \item ${\bf A}$: Smooth approach. The transformation

lines are inside the frame formed by the diagonal and the axis x. The
determinant of ${\bf P}$ is greater than 1. The first step can lead
immediately to the equilibrium concentration.

\item ${\bf B}$. Oscillating approach. This can be recognized simply

by the reaction constants. If $k_{ij} > c^*_j$, then the system
oscillates when the reaction starts from the vertex of the reaction
simplex $c^i = 1$. In the first step the concentration $c_j$ jumps
over the equilibrium concentration. Here the time conditions should
be studied, that is the relations between the time intervals needed
for transformation of an object into another one. These intervals are
surely different for n~different objects and whole reaction
intervals. We can not suppose that all objects react simultaneously
and therefore the reaction intervals can be much longer than the
transformation intervals of individual objects. But this difference
induces lability and can lead to oscillations of other
kinds.

\item ${\bf C}$. The steepest approach. The reaction path should be a
straight line going from any concentration point to the equilibrium.
This requires that the reaction constants of each substance were
proportional to the equilibrium concentrations of the target
substances. For example for 3 substances: $c_1k_{12} = ac^*_2$ and
$c_1k_{13} = ac^*_3$. From the microscopic reversibility conditions
$c^*_2k_{23} = c^*_3k_{32}$ we obtain the relation of reaction
constants $k_{23}/k_{13}=k_{23}/k_{12}$. For other two substances we
obtain similarly for $c_2$: $k_{21}/k_{31}=k_{23}/k_{12}$ and for
$c_3$: $k_{31}/k_{21}=k_{32}/k_{12}$. \end{itemize}

Comparing all three results, we see that such approach is possible

only for $c_j^* = 1/3$, that is for the center of the simplex.

The principle of microscopic reversibility assures the steepest

approach only on straight lines connecting the equilibrium state with
vertices of the simplex, one pure substance reacts or one substance
is depleted from the equilibrium state. It is a special path and it
is questionable. It is much easier to allow the existence of cyclic
flows which must be balanced in equilibrium by the condition for
species in a cycle

\begin{equation} k_{ij} = (k + k')/c^*_i\;,\ {\em where}\ k' = c^*_j

k_{ij}\;. \end{equation}

The steepest descent to the equilibrium might be the optimal path in

the concentration simplex, but it is not possible to prove that it is
the only possible path for all reaction systems and conditions. It is
not possible to prove n the other side that the matrix product ${\bf
MC }$ is a symmetrical matrix. On the other side, it is rather easy
to find the conditions for the oscillating reaction systems. A
sufficient condition is when $k_{ij}$ are relatively great numbers.
Of course, such values violate conditions of differential reactions,
it is assumed that the increments $\delta x/\delta t$ are
infinitesimally small but the matrix multiplication shows why
oscillations emerge: in one time interval there are not sufficiently
great concentrations of the backfeed products to balance the loss
$c_j \Sigma k_{ij}$ if both values $c_j$ and $\Sigma k_{ij}$ are
great. Because $({\bf I }+ {\bf M})^b \neq ({\bf I }+ b{\bf M})$, we
cannot choose time intervals $\Delta_t$ freely . They should be
comparable with intervals needed for reactions. If some reactions
need substantially longer times, oscillations emerge as in the
Lotka-Woltera cycle.

\section{\ Jakobi Approximations} \label{Jakobi Approximations}

We have shown the exact methods for solving the equation ${\bf Mx }=
{\bf b}$ in Chapt. 16, based on the inverting of the matrix ${\bf M
}$ or finding its eigenvalues. In case we are not able to do such
sophisticated mathematical operations, we can try to guess the right
answer. We have counted the matrices and we know, that if we limit
ourselves to natural numbers, their number is not infinite. Therefore,
using computers, it is possible to find the solution by the trial
and error methods, especially, if the results are compared with the
target values and impossible combinations excluded. This technique of
fluctuation can be compared with the process by which a system seeks
its equilibrium.

Let us start with the guess vector {\bf y}. After multiplication with
the matrix {\bf M }we get the guess vector {\bf g}. Comparing it with
the target vector ${\bf b }$ we obtain the difference $d_{{\bf
g}-{\bf b}}$. If it is zero, our guess coincides with the searched
vector and we can end our search. Similarly if the difference
$d_{{\bf g}-{\bf b}}$ is negligible we can stop our search. Otherwise
we must correct the original guess vector using $d_{{\bf g}-{\bf
b}}$. But we cannot apply the whole difference, because the next
guess could be as a pendulum on the other side of the true values. We
must lessen the fluctuations. The correction must be smaller than the
difference, which is achieved by using a constant c: 0$<$c$<$1. If we
choose the constant too low, we need too many steps to find an
acceptable value of ${\bf g}$, if c is too close to 1, the results
could fluctuate, similarly as was shown for the Markov matrices.

\chapter{Entropic Measures and Information} \label{Entropic Measures

and Information}

\section{Distances and Logarithms} \label{Distances and Logarithms}

Maybe you know that information can be measured by its entropy

\begin{equation} H = -\Sigma p_j \log_2 p_j \label{H} \end{equation}

where the sum is made over all probabilities $p_j$ of objects

(symbols). These probabilities are unknown and we leave them at first
undefined.

Nobody cared to explain, why this function is suitable as the measure,

it was just introduced as an axiom. We now define this function as a
simple result of mapping of $m$ objects on vertices of a
multidimensional unit cube, or equivalently, indexing these objects
by a regular code consisting from 0 and 1 symbols or simply by using
binary number scale having equal number of digits:

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrrr|} \hline Decimal & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &

5 & 6 & 7 \\ \hline Binary & 000 & 001 & 010 & 011 & 100 & 101 & 110
& 111 \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

\begin{figure} \caption{Binary decision tree is isomorphic with

indexing of m objects by binary digits} \label{Binary decision tree
is isomorphic with indexing of m objects by binary digits}
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\end{figure}

The least necessary number of digits for each object from m objects
is close to $\log_2 m$. These digits count edges of a binary decision
graph on which leaves the counted objects are placed (Fig.
\label{Binary decision tree is isomorphic with indexing of m objects
by binary digits})\footnote{Please arrange the leaves onto the
vertices of the cube and draw the decision tree yourselves. I tried
it but my figure was too ugly. The cube as well as the decision tree
must be deformed}.

For all m objects we need at least $m\log_2 m$ digits (in the example
24 digits). This limit is obtainable only if $m$ is a power of $2$.
Nevertheless it can be used for elementary calculations of logarithms
with a satisfactory precision. The number of digits $m_j$ is the
distance of the leave j from the root in the decision tree. Therefore
the logarithms are related to the distances.

Knowing that $3^5 = 243$, we construct a binary decision tree with

1937 edges

\begin{itemize} \item 128 * 8 = 1024 \item \ 64 * 8 = \ 512 \item \

32 * 8 = \ 256 \item \ 16 * 8 = \ 128

Till now 15 branches each with 16 leaves from 16 stems of the fourth
degree were used fully for indexing 240 leaves (objects) by 1920
digits. The shorter tree budding from the last stem is used for the
last three leaves \item \ \ 2 * 6 = \ \ 12 \item \ \ 1 * 5 = \ \ \ 5
\end{itemize}
The sum of the distances of the leaves from the root is 1937. Thus $
1937: 243 = 7.971$. The result of the division is the mean distance
which equals to $\log_2 3^4$. The estimation of the binary logarithm
of 3 is $7.971 : 5 = 1.597$. Since $\lg_2 3 = 1.585$, the precision
for such simple calculation is good and could be improved using
higher powers of the searched number close to the power of the base
number.

The calculations can be done for any natural number of branches. As

an example: $5^{10} = 9765625$. The corresponding rooted tree with 10
branches has the length 7. Divided by 10 we get 0.70000. The
tabulated value (obtained by the calculator) $\log_{10}5 =
0.69897$.

After this excursion we return to the entropy function. If we have

some information about the counted objects, the necessary number of
digits can be decreased. Suppose, that the objects are already
indexed by $n$ symbols of an alphabet. The new indexing can be
composed from two parts, the symbol $j$ and the binary code proper
for each specific symbol. Now we need only $\Sigma m_j \log_2 m_j$
symbols. The difference

\begin{equation} H = m\log_2 m - \sum_{j=1}^n m_j \log_2 m_j = \sum

m_j\log(m_j/m) \label{H_m} \end{equation}

will be the measure of the information gained by dividing the set of

m objects into n labeled subsets. Introducing $p_j = m_j/m$ and
dividing the result by the number $m$, we obtain the entropy $H_m$
relative to 1 object.

For example the string $aaaabbcd$ and its permutations need only 10
digits:

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrrr|} \hline Decimal & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &

5 & 6 & 7 \\ \hline Binary & a00 & a01 & a10 & a11 & b0 & b1 & c & d
\\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

The normalized difference against the full tree $H=(24-10)/8=1.75$ is

the information entropy of the string\footnote{A reviewer of a
prestigious education journal did not believed it and rejected my
paper.}.

Unfortunately, this simple explanation does not explain the entropy

function H. This is only an approximation of its one form, based on
the binary logarithms..

\section{Boltzmann's Entropy Function $H_n$} \label{Boltzmann's

Entropy Function $H_n$}

On the Boltzmann's tomb the formula

\begin{equation} S = - k\ln W\;, \end{equation}

is engraved, where S stands for the thermodyna\-mic entro\-py, W to

Wahr\-schein\-lichkeit, that means probability, and k is a constant
named in honor of Boltzmann. This formula was the cause of his death.
He died exhausted by vain efforts to prove it. Even his friends
concocted aporea to disprove Boltzmann's ideas. His tragedy was,
that nobody understood his proof which I try to explain by this
book.

The entropy was defined by Clausius by its difference. The entropy

difference is the ratio between the specific heat Q needed to
increase temperature T of some substance and the given temperature T:
dS = dQ/T. If the specific heat was constant, the integrated form
would be

\begin{equation} S = C\log T + S_0\;. \end{equation}

It is assumed that the entropy at absolute zero is zero. Therefore

the integration constant $S_0$ must be $-C\log 0$. But the entropy is
much more complicated function, because the specific heat Q depends
on temperature and has singularities, as the melting and evaporation
heats are. We concentrate on the fact that the entropy is a
logarithmic function of temperature. What is the temperature? This is
a measure of the thermal motion of molecules\footnote{According to a
more sophisticated definition, T is an integrating factor.}. In a
system of ideal gas, the molecules represented by points move
haphazardly and if they collide, they exchange their kinetic energy,
but the total amount of the energy at the constant temperature
remains constant. Moreover, if the system remains isolated, the
distribution of energies of molecules reaches spontaneously an
equilibrium. This is the largest orbit, where the system is stable
for long periods of time.

The entropy function is considered to be mysterious. Not only for its

abstract form (we do not feel it directly as the temperature, pressure
and volume) but for its property. It is increasing spontaneously. To
decrease the entropy needs an outside action.

We have shown that the surfaces of constant energy in the phase space
are planes orthogonal to the unit vector ${\bf I}$. The system of the
ideal gas moves on this plane and for most of the time it remains on
each orbit proportionally to its volume. Therefore the system exists
in the largest orbit or orbits nearest to it for most of time. We
already know the formula for the evaluation of volumes of individual
orbits. This is the polynomial coefficient for n permutations $n!/Pi\
n_k!$. The logarithm of this coefficient was proposed by Boltzmann as
a mathematical equivalent of entropy, the H function. If n and $n_k$
are large numbers, and in the case of the ideal gas they certainly
are (the Avogadro number, determining the number of molecules in 1
mole of gas, is of order $10^{23}$), the Stirling approximation of n!
can be used and the result is

\begin{equation} H_n = -\Sigma n_k/n \log n_k/n\;. \label{H_n}

\end{equation}

This result can be obtained only with natural logarithms unlike in

the information entropy.

Boltzmann's problem was that he only conjectured the existence of the

quanta of energy (they were discovered in time of the Boltzmann's
death by Planck) and that he, instead of speaking about symmetry of
the partition orbits, introduced ill defined probabilities $p_k$
which replaced the true ratios $n_k/n$.
One paradox against Boltzmann was connected with the time inversion.
The classical mechanics supposed that the time can be inverted. But
such time inversion should lead to the decrease of entropy. This
could be taken as an evidence against the H theorem. We have shown
that space is not insensitive to changes of signs, the negative cone
has quite different properties than the positive one. Nevertheless
the sign of the entropy changes only classifies the natural
processes. We can say that if a time inversion led to the decrease of
the entropy of a system then this time inversion is not a spontaneous
phenomenon because its cause lies outside the system.

\section{Maximal $H_n$ Entropy} \label{Maximal $H_n$ Entropy}

Searching the maximal value of the function \ref{H_n} seems to be an

easy task. The entropy $H_n$ is maximal when all values $n_j = 1$.
This monotone solution has a fault: It can be achieved only at a
special value of the arithmetical mean $m/n$. The sum of the
arithmetical progression 1 to n is ${ n+1 \choose 2 }$, therefore the
arithmetical mean of values $m_j$ necessary for the linear
distribution is $(n-1)/2$, one half of the number of the objects.
This value is acceptable only at small systems.

At large systems as gas molecules are, the monotone distribution is

unachievable. The Avogadro number N is $6.023\times10^{23}$ (one mole
of hydrogen weights about two grams), the Boltzmann constant k
(k$=R/N)$ is $1.38\times10^{-23}$ Joule/grad and the gas constant R
is 8.314 Joule/grad. The monotone distribution would require
temperatures in Kelvin's (centigrade degrees) in the range of the
Avogadro number.

The distribution of gas molecules can not be monotone. Nevertheless,

it must be as flat as possible.

We investigate at first relations of the means of some skewed

distributions.

The straight slopes

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrr|c|} \hline $n_k$ & 6 & 5 & 4 & 3 & 2 & 1

& $\sum 21={ k+ 1 \choose 2 } $ \\ $m_k$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & \\
\hline $n_k \times m_k$ & 0 &5 & 8 & 9 & 8 & 5 & $\sum 35={ k+ 1
\choose 3 }$ \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

give the arithmetical mean $(k-1)/3$, approximately $\sqrt{ 2n}/3$.

The exponential slopes

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrr|l|} \hline $n_k$ & 32& 16& 8 & 4 & 2 & 1

& $\sum 63= 2^6-1= 2^{k+1}-1 $ \\ $m_k$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & \\
\hline $n_k \times m_k$ & 0 &16 & 16 & 12 & 8 & 5 & $\sum 57=2^6-7=
2^{k+1}-2k+1 $ \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

have the arithmetical mean for all sizes somewhat lesser than 1.
Starting $m_k$ values from the lowest value r, the arithmetical mean
will be always $r+1$, since we add to the basic distribution $r\times
2^{k+1}-1 $ units. The exponential slopes can be flattened by
combining several such distributions:
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrrr|l|} \hline $n_k$ & 8& 8& 4 & 4 & 2 & 2
& 1 &1 & $\sum 30= 2\times(2^4-1)$ \\ $m_k$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 &
6 & 7 & \\ \hline $n_k \times m_k$ & 0 & 8 & 8 & 12 & 8 & 10 & 6 & 7
& $\sum 59$ \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

The arithmetical mean grows slowly and the slopes can be flattened by
equilibrating neighbor values.

A distribution can be symmetrical.

A straight distribution in the form of a ridge roof gives a somewhat

better result then the monotone distribution: Its arithmetical mean
is in the range of the square root of n:

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrr|l|} \hline $n_k$ & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 3 & 2

& 1 & $\sum 16=4^2$ \\ $m_k$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & \\ \hline
$n_k \times m_k$ & 0 &2 & 6 & 12 & 12 & 10 & 6 & $\sum 48=3\times4^2$
\\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

The binomial distribution gives this result

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrr|l|} \hline $n_k$ & 1 & 6 & 15& 20& 15& 6

& 1 & $\sum 64=2^6$ \\ $m_k$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & \\ \hline
$n_k \times m_k$ & 0 & 6 & 30 & 60 & 60 & 30 & 6 & $\sum
192=3\times2^6$ \\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

If $n=2^k$ then the arithmetical mean of the binomial distribution is

$k/2$. For the Avogadro number $k\simeq79$ ($2^79=6.045\times10^23$).
The arithmetical mean is very low. This means that the distribution
can be flatter and contain more values than 80.

The flatter binomial distribution can be modeled as

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrrrrr|l|} \hline $n_k$ & 1 & 1 & 4 & 4 & 6

& 6 & 4 & 4 & 1 & 1 & $\sum 32=2\times2^4$ \\ $m_k$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 &
4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 & \\ \hline $n_k \times m_k$ & 0 & 1 & 8 & 12 &
24 & 30 & 24 & 28 & 8 & 9 & $\sum 144=9\times2^3$ \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$

The entropy can be again increased by leveling the slope as $1,2,3,5,

5\dots$. Try the triple binomial distribution and find the
corresponding equations.

The increasing and decreasing exponential slopes:

$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrr|l|} \hline $n_k$ & 1 & 2 & 4 & 8 & 4 & 2

& 1 & $\sum 22=2^3-1+2^4-1$ \\ $m_k$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & \\
\hline $n_k \times m_k$ & 0 & 2 & 8 & 24 & 16 & 10 & 12 & $\sum 72$
\\ \hline \end{tabular}$$

The distribution is composed from two components. The decreasing

exponential slope with $n=2^{k+1}-1$ parts has the mean value $k+1$.
The increasing exponential slope with $n=2^{k}-1$ parts has the sum
$n_k \times m_k = \sum_{k=0}^{k-1}k2^k$. Its mean value is somewhat
greater than $(k-2)$ but lesser than $k$, since the last term in the
sum is decisive. The arithmetical mean is approximately k. The
exponential slopes can be again flattened as before.
The entropy $H_n$ would be maximal when the distribution would be as
flat as possible and approaching to the monotone distribution. If
there is room enough for all parts, the distribution will be
symmetrical one, otherwise it can be skewed
one.

\section{Shannon's Entropy Function $H_m$} \label{Shannon's Entropy

Function $H_m$}

A statement from a recent abstract in Chemical Abstracts\cite{[15]}:

"Boltzmann entropy is an information entropy", is typical for the
state of art. It is generally believed, that Shannon entropy function
$H_{m}$ is more sophisticated and therefore better defined than
Boltzmann entropy function $H_{n}$. But both functions measure
related but nevertheless different properties. They can even be
additive.

One can speculate, who was Jack with a Lantern, who changed the great
enigma connected with entropy into a greater error. Its consequences
are spread from mathematics, over physics, biology, social sciences
to philosophy.

J. Von Neumann gave this advice to Shannon \cite{[16]}: \begin{quote}

``You should call it entropy, for two reasons. In the first place,
your uncertainty function has been used in statistical mechanics
under that name, so it already has a name. In the second place, and
more important, no one knows what entropy really is, so in a debate
you will always have the advantage.'' \end{quote}

The basic idea of Boltzmann's proof of the H theorem was not

understood and remained obscure (Kac \cite{[17]} "a demonstration")
.

We have shown the derivation of the equation \ref{H} and what it

measures. Shannon chose the function H deliberately from somewhat
other reason. He was interested in frequencies of symbols in messages
(or in the ratios of the individual frequencies $m_j$ of the
individual symbols j to the total number m of all symbols $m_j/m$).
The function H is additive when the decisions are split as on Fig.
\ref{Decisions from four possibilities}

\begin{figure} \caption{Decisions from four possibilities}

\label{Decisions from four possibilities} \linethickness{0.60pt}
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\put(122.67,37.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1/4}} \put(145.00,28.67)
{\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1/4}} \end{picture}
\end{figure}

The most important difference of \ref{H_m} against \ref{H_n} is the

maximal value of both functions. ${H_m}$ is maximal when all symbols
have the same frequencies which are equal to the arithmetical mean
$\overline{m}=m/n$. Then $n_{m/n}=n$ (other $n_k=0$) and the entropy
$H_n$ is minimal, zero. The entropy $H_m$ has a cumulative effect on
the distribution. It decreases its spread.

The fact of existence of two entropy functions explains the so called

redundancy of the information, since ${H_m}$ in texts is not maximal.
When m entropy is maximal, n entropy is minimal and their sum is not
optimal. If all symbols appeared in our speech with equal frequencies,
differences between words were negligible and difficult to be
noticed. There are 6 permutations of $aabb$ and only 4 permutations
of $aaab$. But there exists 4 strings $abbb$ on the same partition
and together 8 string.

It is better to explain it on words as basic vectors of information.

We must repeat words connected with the subject we are speaking
about. These key words which are necessary for understanding are more
frequent. Changing word frequencies in messages according their
subjects gives us opportunity to formulate more different messages
than if all words were used evenly and to recognize immediately what
is spoken about.

We have shown the simple interpretation of the information entropy.

Now we introduce this function as the analogy of the Boltzmann's
entropy Function $H_n$. This is the logarithmic measure of the
polynomial coefficient for n permutations $n!/Pi\ n_k!$. There exists
the polynomial coefficient for m permutations $m!/Pi\ m_j!= m!/Pi\
m_k!^{n_k}$.

There exist two polynomial coefficients, one for the n permutations,

the other for m permutations. What are the properties of the
polynomial coefficient for n permutations?

This coefficient determines how many strings can be formed from m

symbols on the alphabet of n symbols. In other words, how many
different messages have place.

The coefficient

\begin{equation} m!/\prod_{j=1}^n\ n_j =\prod_{k\geq1} n_k!^{m_k}

\end{equation}
can be modified similarly as in the case of \ref{H_n} using the
Stirling approximation of m factorials. The result has the same form
as \ref{H_n}, except that $p_k$ are the relative frequencies of
individual symbols.

\section{Distances and Entropy} \label{Distances and Entropy}

To answer a question how many angels can be placed on a point of a

needle is not a task of mathematics, but to analyze the work of
Maxwell's demon is, since this creature is still with us not only in
physics but also in theory of information.

The demon transformed a mixed string of cool molecules c and hot

molecules h

chchchchchchchchchchchchchchchchchchchch

into a string in the form

cccccccccccccccccccchhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh

Till now we considered both strings as equivalent, since both strings

are on the same orbit. When we imagine them in the two dimensional
space, both strings are distinguishable. Let fill a long string two
volumes of a book. We observe then both strings as two distinct
states, one volume with the hot molecules h has a higher temperature
than the other one with cool molecules c. The mixed strings (states
corresponding to them) have an intermediate temperature and higher
physical entropy.

The problem is to find a way how to measure their difference. One

possibility is to express it using distances between symbols of one
kind. For such short strings it is necessary to close them to a loop,
to avoid truncation problems connected with both ends.

The distances between symbols c are then

2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,

and

1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,20, respectively.

The distances between symbols h are here the same.

The distribution of distances in both cases is quite different and

the effect of mixing can be measured exactly as for the original
strings by the polynomial coefficients.

The distribution of distances in the binomial distribution is known

as the negative binomial distribution. For more symbols we can speak
about the negative polynomial distribution.

\section{Logical functions} \label{Logical functions}

Our thinking is governed by logical laws, as conjunction, alternative,

implication or other logical functions are. Some predicate can be
true or false. The true predicate has value 1, the false predicate
has value 0. Now there are known many valued logic or the fuzzy
logic, when the false predicate can have any value between 1 and 0.
Two predicates are combined and the result depends on the law which
must be applied.

The logical decision p can be represented by a tree with two

branches. The left one means true, its value is 1. The right branch
means zero. On the corresponding branch is grafted the tree for the
second predicate q. To the ends of its branches the new logical
values are attributed according to tables of logical functions.

\begin{table} \caption{Logical functions} \label{Logical functions}

\begin{tabular}{|lcc|ccc|} \hline conjunction: & & & if p and q,& &
then (p and q) \\ alternative:& & & if p and q,& & then (p or q) \\
implication:& & & if p and q,& & then (p is q) \\ \hline & p & q
&conjunction & alternative & implication\\ \hline & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1
\\ & 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0\\ & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1
\\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{table}

The conjunction function is obtained by usual multiplication of

$p\times q$.

\begin{figure} \caption{Decision tree. The left branch means 1, the

right branch means 0. The root is taken as the decimal point}
\label{Decision tree} \linethickness{0.40pt} \begin{picture}(100.00,
80.00) %\emline(40.00,10.00)(20.00,29.67) \multiput(40.00,10.00)
(-0.12,0.12){164}{\line(-1,0){0.12}} %\end %\emline(39.67,10.00)
(80.00,50.00) \multiput(39.67,10.00)(0.12,0.12){334}{\line(1,0)
{0.12}} %\end %\emline(59.67,30.00)(40.00,49.67) \multiput(59.67,
30.00)(-0.12,0.12){164}{\line(0,1){0.12}} %\end \put(40.00,10.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(20.00,30.00){\circle*{4.00}} \put(60.00,30.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(39.67,49.67){\circle*{4.00}} \put(80.00,50.00)
{\circle*{4.00}} \put(19.67,40.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{1.0}} \put(39.67,
60.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{0.1}} \put(80.00,60.00){\makebox(0,0)
[cc]{0.0}} \end{picture} \end{figure}

The tree valued logic, allowing values 1, 0.5 and 0 can be

represented by a decision tree with more branches, when the binary
point is placed after the first value (Fig. \ref{Decision tree}). The
value 0.1 means zero and 2 , it is 0.5, since 1 is 2. 0.0 is rounded
to 0. The right branch could have values 1.1 and 1.0, but the values
greater than 1 are truncated.

The logical operations can be viewed as operations of symmetry,

attributing to different points of logical space given values.

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\end{the bibliography} \end{document}