UNIT 2 BIOLOGY (PART 1)

1. Organelles

Organelle Description Function
Ribosome Attached to rER. Protein synthesis.
Nucleus Surrounded by nuclear
envelope which has many
pores.

Contain chromatin and
nucleolus.
Pores allow substances (e.g
RNA) to move out and into
the nucleus.

Nucleolus makes ribosomes.
Lysosome Round.
Single membrane.
Has digestive enzymes.
Digestive enzymes used to
digest invading cells or break
down dead components of
cell.
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (sER)
Synthesis lipids.
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum (rER)
Same as sER, but covered
with ribosomes.
Folds and processes proteins
made at ribosomes.
Golgi apparatus Group of flattened sacs
containing fluid.
Processes and packages new
lipids and proteins.

Make lysosomes.
Centriole Hollow cylinders. Involved in separation of
chromosomes during
mitosis/meiosis.
Mitochondrion Double membrane. Produce ATP or energy.






2. Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
Small cells Larger cells
Small ribosomes Large ribosomes
DNA is circular, without proteins DNA is linear, with proteins
No nucleus Has nucleus
No mitochondria Has mitochondria
Cell wall made of polysaccharide (ANIMALS) No cell wall
(PLANTS) Cellulose cell wall
Cell division is binary fission Cell division is mitosis/meiosis
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

3. Protein synthesis and transport
i. Protein synthesized at ribosomes.
ii. After synthesis, proteins are put into rER, which folds primary proteins into specific
secondary and tertiary forms.
iii. Then they are packaged into vesicles and sent to Golgi apparatus.
iv. At Golgi, tertiary proteins are stuck together to form completed quaternary proteins.
v. They are then packaged into secretory vesicles and go to cell membrane to be secreted
out of the cell.
4. Cell cycle

G1 Phase : Growth phase. Cell grows.
S Phase : DNA replication.
G2 Phase : Prepare for mitosis. Organelles replicate.
Mitosis : Cell divides.
Cytokinesis (G0): Cell physically splits.



4. Mitosis
Stage Explanation

Prophase.

- Chromosomes condense.
- Centrioles move to opposite sides.
- Spindle fibre starts forming.
- Nuclear envelope disappears.

Metaphase.

- Chromosomes line up at the middle.
- Centromere of chromosomes attached to
spindle fibres.

Anaphase.

- Centromeres divide, separating each pair of
sister chromatids.
- Spindle fibres contract pulling chromatids
to opposite ends of cell.

Telophase.

- Chromatids uncoil and become long and
thin again.
- Theyre called chromosomes again now.
- Nuclear envelope forms back around each
group of chromosomes.
- So there are now two nuclei.
- Cytoplasm divides and two daughter cells
are produced.



5. Meiosis
- MITOSIS produces genetically identical daughter cells.
- MEIOSIS produces gametes.
The variation in gametes comes from:
i. Random fusion of gametes
- Each individual makes many gametes which is genetically different from one
another
- This creates a huge number of possibility for different embryos as the two
gametes are selected randomly in fertilization.

ii. Independent assortment
- During meiosis, chromosomes pair up at the equator (which doesnt occur at
mitosis. At mitosis, chromatids lined up at equator but did not pair up)
- So, whichever way the pair are aligned will affect the combination of alleles
in gamete.

iii. Crossing over of chromatids
- Before first division of meiosis, homologous pairs of chromosomes come
together and pair up.
- Two of the chromatids in each pair twist around each other (aww)
- The twisted bits are swapped between the two chromatids and DNA are
swapped.
- So now the chromatids will contain the same gene, but different
combination of allele. (sounds confusing huh.. @@)
- Means number of combinations of alleles are huge.

6. Mammalian Ovum


Part of Ovum Adapted for
Nucleus Contains only 1 copy of each chromosome
(haploid)
Follicle cells Secrete chemicals that secrete acrosome
reaction (refer to structure of sperm below)
Lipid droplets Source of energy for growth and division
Zona pellucida Hardens once sperm enters ovum, thus
stopping further sperm from entering
Lysosomes Cause the zona pellucida to harden

7. Sperm cell


FERTILIZATION
- Successful fusion of two haploid gametes to create a diploid cell (zygote).
- The zygote then divides rapidly by mitosis to become embryo.


Follicle cells
Zona Pellucida
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Lipid droplets
Cell membrane
Lysosomes
8. Mammalian Fertilisation
- The sperm is attracted to the ovum by hormones released by follicle cells around ovum.
- When sperm reaches ovum, it embeds its head in the zona pellucida, triggering the
acrosome reaction.
- The acrosome swells and bursts, releasing digestive enzymes. (refer to structure of sperm
to locate the acrosome)
- The enzymes digest a hole into ovum (thats why call digestive enzyme ;)
- Sperm membrane fuses with ovum membrane, and sperm nucleus enters the ovum by
endocytosis.
- Lysosome in ovum causes zona pellucida to harden thus stopping other sperm to enter
(just like what mentioned in the table at previous page)
9. Plant fertilization
- Pollen grain (male gamete) lands of stigma.
- Pollen grain grows a pollen tube down along stigma.
- The pollen tube contains 3 nuclei
- one tube nucleus at the tip to make enzymes that digest surrounding cells, making
a way through the pollen tube
- 2 male gamete nuclei behind the tube nucleus
- When the tube reaches ovary, it grows through micropyle (a tiny hole in ovule wall) and
into the embryo sac.
- In embryo sac, tube nucleus disintegrates and tip of pollen tube bursts releasing the two
male nuclei.
- One male nucleus fuses with egg nucleus to form zygote then embryo of the seed.
- The other male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei (in the middle of the embryo sac),
producing endosperm (for food storage).
- Thus, double fertilization has taken place. This only happens in flowering plants.


10. Cell Differentiation
Stem Cell: an unspecialized cell that can develop into any type of cells (jac cells pun boleh ;)
2 types of stem cells:
Totipotent Cell: an unspecialized cell that can develop into all types of cells, including all
specialized cells in an organism, and extraembryonic cells (placenta cells & umbilical cord)
Pluripotent Cell: an unspecialized cell that can develop into all types of cells except
extraembryonic cells.

11. Differential Gene Expression
How to make stem cells become specialized? Through differential gene expression.
- Stem cells all contain same genes, but NOT all are expressed because NOT all are active.
- Under the right conditions, some genes are activated and other genes are inactivated.
- mRNA is only transcribed from active genes (rmbr transcription?)
- the mRNA from active genes is then translated into proteins (rmbr translation?)
- These proteins modify the cell (determine the cell structure & control cell processes)
- Changes to the cell produced by these proteins cause the cell to become specialized
(differentiated).
- These changes are difficult to reverse so once a cell has differentiated, it stays like that.

12. Variation
Continuous variation : - Phenotypes appear in a range of categories.
- Usually controlled by many genes where environment has large effect.
- e.g. height :P
Discontinuous variation: - Phenotypes appear in discrete categories.
- Usually controlled by one gene where environment has little effect.
- e.g blood group


To be continued. ;)