Final report

Work package 1

A Roadmap for RFID
Applications and Technologies

Dr. Leif Wiebking
Gerhard Metz
Siemens AG

Miia Korpela
Mikko Nikkanen
Dr. Katariina Penttil
UPM Raflatac Oy

August 12, 2008



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Executive Summary
The coordination action CE RFID funded by the European Union is divided into eight
work packages. This is the final report of work package 1 entitled RFID Roadmap.
Objectives of work package 1: RFID roadmap
The work package should give a clear overview of the actual state-of-the-art of
RFID technology and its future developments in order to gain a more objective dis-
cussion on RFID. Although the coordination action considers the importance of pas-
sive RFID technology for the use in mass market applications like retail and logis-
tics, RFID is seen as a broad area of technologies with different physical properties
and limits. Users, legislation bodies, citizens, and NGOs are often not aware of the
basic technology conditions of RFID which might result in a misunderstanding of the
benefits, costs, and risks of RFID. Frequently, properties of different RFID technolo-
gies are combined incorrectly (e.g. low cost 5-cent-tag and reading ranges up to
100 metres), leading to wrong expectations of RFID performance.
Work Package 1 presents a basic overview of the RFID technologies currently avail-
able on the market together with their specifications. It investigates major interna-
tional R&D activities that have been published so far with respect to RFID and tries
to identify pre-sent gaps and bottlenecks that still remain to be solved in order to
support broad implementation of RFID technologies.
Based on the findings, a timeline of future RFID developments and a possible RFID
roadmap will be outlined. The coordination action CE RFID also benefits from the
roadmap of the European technology platform European Technology Platform on
Smart Systems Integration (EPoSS) outlined in its Strategic Research Agenda
(SRA).
Objectives of this final report
Based on a decision of the project consortium this final report contains all informa-
tion previously collected in draft versions of intermediate reports. Therefore, the
objectives of this document are identical to the work package objectives (see
above). The three main topics of work package 1 are:
RFID technologies state-of-the-art
RFID technologies international R&D activities
RFID technologies bottlenecks and R&D approaches



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Results and recommendations to the stakeholders
Europe has a strong position within the RFID market. In the low frequency (LF) and
high frequency (HF) technology areas Europe currently takes the leading position.
Many applications in the retail and logistics market need mid-range reading and
multi-tag capability both provided by most recent ultra-high frequency (UHF) RFID
technology, namely the current Class 1 Generation 2 tags, short Gen 2. Users
make progress in the rollout of this new technology for the supply chain manage-
ment. On a first step pallets and cases will be tagged. Gen-2-tags provide a kill-
command feature that allows to permanently disable the tag after usage, e.g. at
the point of sale, addressing privacy issues of consumers carrying those tags. Other
upcoming application fields are: RFID and anti-theft systems, food chain monitor-
ing, electronic goods, asset management, access control, tracking and tracing, tick-
eting, and industrial applications like monitoring of production processes, auto-
mated manufacturing and process control.
Although there are many systems and different RFID technologies available on the
market, there is still need for R&D in the industry as well as in academia in order to
overcome remaining technological bottlenecks: The recommendation of work pack-
age 1 for RFID-related R&D activities breaks down into five areas. Three of these
areas are mainly recommendations for R&D topics:
The hardware related R&D topics subsume improvement of on-metal-tags,
ultralow power tags, packaging and mounting, printable electronics, sensor
applications, multi-frequency and multi-standard readers, low-cost manufac-
turing, localisation, new materials and robustness, tags with displays, envi-
ronmentally compatible tags, and system-on-chip design.
The application related R&D topics cover sensor networks, the improvement
of reading rates near 100%, last mile support, new applications and mar-
ket studies.
The network/software/systems related R&D topics comprise plug-and-play
infrastructures, the Internet of Things, the internationalisation of the ONS
and smart systems.
Besides these R&D-oriented areas two additional areas for activities have been
identified:
The standards/regulations related activities subsume the global harmonisa-
tion of the UHF RFID band allocations, harmonised EU regulations, improved
vendor interoperability, fallback procedures as well as peer-review encryp-
tion techniques.



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The data security/data protection/privacy-related recommendations list both
R&D and organisational topics, e.g. privacy-by-design architectures like the
kill-tagfeature and the prevention of unnoticed tag reading, increased public
acceptance by better information, concise guidelines for RFID users, and the
improvement of network data security. In this way, RFID contributes to the
preservation of European values.




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Table of Contents
1 Approach................................................................................ 21
1.1 Definition of work package topic ................................................ 21
1.2 Structure of work package topics............................................... 22
1.2.1 RFID technologies state-of-the-art ......................................... 22
1.2.2 RFID Technologies international R&D activities ......................... 23
1.2.3 RFID Technologies bottlenecks and R&D approaches ................. 23
1.3 Relevant stakeholders .............................................................. 24
1.3.1 Stakeholder group Research & Development ............................ 24
1.3.2 Stakeholder group RFID technology suppliers ........................... 25
1.3.3 Stakeholder group business associations.................................. 27
1.3.4 Stakeholder group government & governmental institutions ....... 28
1.3.5 Stakeholder group standardisation organisations....................... 28
1.3.6 Stakeholder group quasi-autonomous and non-governmental
organisations ......................................................................... 28
1.3.7 Stakeholder group RFID end user companies............................ 29
1.3.8 Contribution............................................................................ 29
2 Methodology ........................................................................... 31
2.1 Assessment criteria.................................................................. 31
2.2 Methods ................................................................................. 32
3 State-of-the-art and Analysis .................................................... 34
4 Application View...................................................................... 35
4.1 RFID vs. barcode and OCR........................................................ 35
4.1.1 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model ........................................ 37
4.2 RFID Reference Model .............................................................. 39
4.3 Application examples ............................................................... 42
4.3.1 Logistics, supply chain management at Metro Group .................... 42
4.3.2 Identity management, security, access control ............................ 42
4.3.3 Contactless smart card Mifare................................................. 43



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4.3.4 Contactless smart card FeliCa................................................. 45
4.3.5 -chip.................................................................................... 46
4.3.6 Animal identification ................................................................ 46
4.3.7 Automation, production management, manufacturing .................. 47
4.3.8 Automotive............................................................................. 47
4.3.9 Smart drug cabinet.................................................................. 48
4.3.10 Medical, pharmaceutical, health care ......................................... 48
4.3.11 VeriChip................................................................................. 48
4.4 Niche applications ................................................................... 49
4.4.1 Tree identification ................................................................... 49
4.4.2 Identification of bees ............................................................... 50
4.4.3 Railroad car identification......................................................... 50
4.5 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model ........................................ 50
5 Transponder Classes View........................................................ 52
5.1 EPCglobal classes .................................................................... 52
5.1.1 Passive tags ........................................................................... 53
5.1.2 Semi-passive tags ................................................................... 54
5.1.3 Active tags ............................................................................. 54
5.1.4 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model ........................................ 55
6 ISO/OSI Network Model View.................................................... 58
6.1 Tag/reader interface................................................................ 61
6.2 Reader/edge server interface.................................................... 65
6.3 Edge server/integration server interface..................................... 66
6.4 Integration server/integration server interface............................ 67
6.5 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model ........................................ 69
7 Technological View.................................................................. 72
7.1 Air interfaces .......................................................................... 72
7.1.1 Inductive coupling................................................................... 72
7.1.2 Electromagnetic field coupling................................................... 74
7.1.3 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model ........................................ 82



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7.2 Reader technology ................................................................... 86
7.2.1 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model ........................................ 90
7.3 Antenna arrangements ............................................................. 93
7.4 Transponder technology ........................................................... 94
7.4.1 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model ........................................ 95
7.4.2 Performance ........................................................................... 97
7.4.3 Manufacturing ....................................................................... 103
7.4.4 Antenna designs.................................................................... 107
7.4.5 Low power designs ................................................................ 112
7.5 RFID middleware systems....................................................... 115
7.5.1 Hardware.............................................................................. 115
7.5.2 Software............................................................................... 117
7.6 Backend systems................................................................... 120
7.6.1 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model ...................................... 122
7.7 Advanced systems ................................................................. 122
7.7.1 Sensors ................................................................................ 122
7.7.2 Localisation........................................................................... 124
7.7.3 Ambient intelligence............................................................... 125
7.7.4 Networks .............................................................................. 126
7.7.5 Robust systems ..................................................................... 129
7.7.6 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model ...................................... 131
8 Standards and Regulations View.............................................. 135
8.1 Radio regulations................................................................... 135
8.1.1 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model ...................................... 138
8.2 Air interface standards ........................................................... 141
8.3 Application standards ............................................................. 142
8.4 Standards for test methods..................................................... 144
8.5 Data management standards .................................................. 144
8.6 Data structure standards ........................................................ 145
8.7 Sensor standards................................................................... 146



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8.8 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model .......................................146
9 Data Processing View..............................................................149
9.1 Data security, data protection, data confidentiality and integrity ..150
9.1.1 Tag cloning............................................................................150
9.1.2 Eavesdropping .......................................................................151
9.1.3 Man-in-the-middle-attack........................................................151
9.1.4 Relay attack ..........................................................................152
9.1.5 Replay attack.........................................................................152
9.1.6 Unauthorised reading/writing...................................................153
9.1.7 Tampering with tickets, payment or money cards.......................153
9.1.8 Denial of service ....................................................................154
9.1.9 Unauthorised deactivation of tags.............................................154
9.1.10 Physical destruction of tags or readers......................................155
9.1.11 Privacy threats.......................................................................155
9.1.12 Intentional or accidental assignment of tags (ID number) to
wrong objects or individuals ....................................................156
9.1.13 Mistaken tag reading ..............................................................156
9.1.14 Injection of malware...............................................................156
9.2 Addressing data protection and privacy concerns .......................157
9.3 European values ....................................................................159
9.4 Safety-related issues ..............................................................160
9.4.1 Pharmaceutical applications.....................................................160
9.4.2 Tampering with medical data...................................................160
9.4.3 Unauthorised or accidental access to dangerous areas ................160
9.4.4 Tampering with best-before dates stored on RFID tags ...............161
9.4.5 Exposure to magnetic and electromagnetic fields .......................161
9.5 Secure RFID systems..............................................................161
9.6 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model .......................................167
10 Market View ..........................................................................172
10.1 Vendors of RFID equipment .....................................................173



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10.1.1 RFID vendors by countries and continents ................................ 173
10.1.2 RFID vendors by frequency ..................................................... 175
10.1.3 RFID vendors by standards ..................................................... 180
10.1.4 RFID systems by tag power supply .......................................... 181
10.1.5 RFID vendors by applications .................................................. 182
10.2 System specifications and properties........................................ 182
11 Intellectual Property View....................................................... 185
11.1 Patents, utility patents ........................................................... 185
11.2 Patent pools.......................................................................... 190
12 RFID Technologies International R&D Activities....................... 192
12.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 192
12.2 Sources of international R&D activities ..................................... 192
12.3 R&D Database....................................................................... 193
12.4 Technology aspects................................................................ 194
12.4.1 Transponder technology ......................................................... 194
12.4.2 Interrogator technology.......................................................... 207
12.4.3 System technology ................................................................ 211
12.5 Application-specific topics ....................................................... 214
12.5.1 Fraunhofer Institutes (Germany) ............................................. 214
12.5.2 LogMotionLab........................................................................ 215
12.5.3 openID-center....................................................................... 215
12.5.4 Ko-RFID ............................................................................... 215
12.5.5 FLog LogIDLab

.................................................................. 216
12.5.6 Sokymat Automotive.............................................................. 216
12.5.7 Identec Solutions................................................................... 217
12.5.8 Philips/NXP ........................................................................... 217
12.5.9 Plefo Ab / Mannings ............................................................... 217
12.5.10 Philips Semiconductors / Graz University of Technology.............. 218
12.5.11 Traffic Supervision Systems A/S .............................................. 218
12.5.12 Immotec Systems / Homenet .................................................. 218



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12.5.13 Eczacibasi Bilisim ...................................................................219
12.5.14 Internic Data Communications GmbH / Smart-ID.......................219
12.5.15 EOSS Innovation Management .................................................219
12.5.16 Follow Me..............................................................................219
12.5.17 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model .......................................219
12.6 Software, systems, and networks.............................................222
12.6.1 RFID middleware....................................................................222
12.6.2 Software, Systems and networks .............................................225
12.7 Socio-economic aspects ..........................................................240
12.7.1 Security, data protection, privacy.............................................240
12.7.2 Environmental and safety aspects ............................................243
12.7.3 General aspects .....................................................................244
12.7.4 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model .......................................245
13 RFID Technology Bottlenecks and R&D Approaches ....................248
13.1 Introduction ..........................................................................248
13.2 Technology aspects ................................................................248
13.2.1 Transponder technology..........................................................248
13.2.2 Interrogator technology ..........................................................268
13.2.3 System technology.................................................................273
13.3 Application-specific topics........................................................278
13.3.1 The real-time-enterprise .........................................................278
13.3.2 Standardisation of application layers.........................................279
13.3.3 Traffic control and safety aspects .............................................279
13.3.4 Pairing objects .......................................................................279
13.3.5 Improving of medication compliance.........................................280
13.3.6 Supporting blind people ..........................................................280
13.3.7 Anti-counterfeiting, RFID for DRM ............................................280
13.3.8 Support of pilot operations ......................................................281
13.3.9 E-tax-free with RFID...............................................................281
13.3.10 Market studies .......................................................................281



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13.3.11 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model ...................................... 281
13.4 Software, systems, and networks ............................................ 283
13.4.1 Internet of Things.................................................................. 283
13.5 Socio-economic aspects.......................................................... 284
13.5.1 Trust and acceptance ............................................................. 284
13.5.2 Security, data protection, privacy ............................................ 284
13.5.3 Environmental and safety aspects............................................ 285
13.5.4 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model ...................................... 285
14 RFID technology roadmap....................................................... 288
14.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 288
14.2 EPCglobal roadmap................................................................ 289
14.3 CE RFID roadmap .................................................................. 293
14.3.1 Packaging............................................................................. 293
14.3.2 Chip design........................................................................... 294
14.3.3 Energy aspects...................................................................... 294
14.3.4 RF technology ....................................................................... 295
14.3.5 Manufacturing ....................................................................... 296
14.3.6 Systems ............................................................................... 297
14.3.7 Readers/interrogators ............................................................ 298
14.3.8 Non-silicon technologies ......................................................... 300
14.3.9 Bi-stable displays................................................................... 301
14.3.10 Sensors ................................................................................ 301
14.3.11 Cryptography ........................................................................ 302
14.3.12 ICT architectures ................................................................... 303
14.3.13 Socio-economic aspects.......................................................... 303
15 Conclusions........................................................................... 305
15.1 Summary ............................................................................. 305
15.2 Recommendations ................................................................. 315
16 References............................................................................ 331
17 Appendices ........................................................................... 338



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17.2 International RFID R&D activities .............................................338
17.3 RFID research roadmap for all topics ........................................338
17.4 RFID Stakeholder Model ..........................................................342
17.5 RFID Reference Model.............................................................343




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List of Figures
Figure 1 RFID applications ................................................................ 37
Figure 2 Passive and robust RFID systems for identification of railroad cars
........................................................................................ 50
Figure 3 RFID system block diagram.................................................. 58
Figure 4 Communication reader to tag ............................................... 62
Figure 5 Communication tag to reader, reader talks first ...................... 63
Figure 6 Inductive coupling (physical principle for radio frequencies below
40 MHz)............................................................................. 73
Figure 7 Example for communication tag to reader with Manchester coded
binary data ........................................................................ 74
Figure 8 Electromagnetic field coupling (physical principle for radio
frequencies above 40 MHz) .................................................. 75
Figure 9 Comparison of receiving level at a transponder between magnetic
field coupling and electromagnetic field coupling..................... 77
Figure 10 Different field distribution of magnetic field (left) and electro
magnetic field (right)........................................................... 78
Figure 11 Tendencies of system capabilities.......................................... 79
Figure 12 Effects that affect communication quality............................... 81
Figure 13 RFID networking................................................................. 86
Figure 14 Function blocks that are integrated into most RFID readers...... 88
Figure 15 Typical block diagram of a transponder. Not all blocks need to be
present.............................................................................. 95
Figure 16 Dependency of performance parameters of transponders on their
physical properties.............................................................. 98
Figure 17 Assembly / chip attachment ............................................... 105
Figure 18 Assembly / lamination ....................................................... 105
Figure 19 Top left: Mifare card with coil antenna and chip; bottom:
miscellaneous coil antennas; ISO 15 693: 13.56 MHz vicinity; 108
Figure 20 Top: dipole antenna; bottom: miscellaneous tag antennas
layouts; UHF; ................................................................... 109
Figure 21 Block diagram of circuit for energy harvesting ...................... 113



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Figure 22 Tendencies for supply voltage and power efficiency for CMOS
circuits .............................................................................114
Figure 23 Central and de-central RFID middleware approach.................116
Figure 24 In the case of localisation systems the concepts of sensor fusion
offer impressively enhanced results .....................................123
Figure 25 Localisation enabled services in future RFID applications ........124
Figure 26 RFID localisation with active tags: the reader is able not only to
read the tags ID and data, but can also locate the tag and
provide the tags coordinates. .............................................125
Figure 27 Smart home enabled by RFID sensor networks......................126
Figure 28 Wireless sensor networks: what is important?.......................127
Figure 29 Application area for RFID networks: the origin of a fire is detected
and the information is transmitted via the network. also the
position of the automated fire fighting system is estimated by the
network............................................................................128
Figure 30 SAW identification system process.......................................130
Figure 31 Main international RFID standards .......................................141
Figure 32 ISO standards hierarchy for logistic units..............................143
Figure 33 The architecture of the MIFARE tag......................................162
Figure 34 MIFARE tag and reader ......................................................162
Figure 35 RFID plaintext communication cloning ..............................163
Figure 36 Symmetric authentication...................................................164
Figure 37 Asymmetric authentication .................................................165
Figure 38 RFID vendors by countries..................................................174
Figure 39 RFID vendors by continent..................................................175
Figure 40 LF RFID suppliers by continent ............................................176
Figure 41 HF RFID suppliers by continent............................................176
Figure 42 UHF RFID suppliers by continent..........................................177
Figure 43 RFID vendors by frequency.................................................177
Figure 44 RFID vendors by frequency range........................................179
Figure 45 RFID systems by standards.................................................180
Figure 46 RFID systems by tag power supply ......................................181



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Figure 47 RFID systems by applications ............................................. 182
Figure 48 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID packaging. 293
Figure 49 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for chip design....... 294
Figure 50 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID energy aspects
...................................................................................... 295
Figure 51 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID RF technology
...................................................................................... 296
Figure 52 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID manufacturing
...................................................................................... 297
Figure 53 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID systems ... 298
Figure 54 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID readers /
interrogators .................................................................... 299
Figure 55 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID non-silicon
technologies..................................................................... 301
Figure 56 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID bi-stable
displays ........................................................................... 301
Figure 57 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID sensors .... 302
Figure 58 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID cryptography
...................................................................................... 302
Figure 59 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID ICT
architectures .................................................................... 303
Figure 60 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID socio-
economic aspects.............................................................. 304
Figure 61 Diagram of the CE RFID stakeholder model .......................... 342




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List of Tables
Table 1 Table of RFID views ............................................................ 34
Table 2 Overview application characteristics, used frequencies, typical
applications ....................................................................... 35
Table 3 Benefits and disadvantages of barcode / OCR ........................ 36
Table 4 Benefits and disadvantages of RFID...................................... 36
Table 5 Mapping auto-id technologies to the RFID Reference Model...... 38
Table 6 CE RFID Reference Model main categories ............................. 40
Table 7 Subcategories covered by work package 1............................. 41
Table 8 Mapping application examples to the RFID Reference Model ..... 51
Table 9 EPCglobal RFID technology classes ....................................... 52
Table 10 Mapping basic transponder classes to the
RFID Reference Model ......................................................... 56
Table 11 ISO/OSI layer model........................................................... 59
Table 12 Mapping network model to the RFID Reference Model ............. 70
Table 13 RFID air interfaces.............................................................. 72
Table 14 Advantages and disadvantages of inductive coupling............... 74
Table 15 Advantages and disadvantages of electromagnetic field
coupling ............................................................................ 75
Table 16 Mapping air interfaces to the RFID Reference Model ................ 83
Table 17 Exemplary list of some RFID manufacturers versus offered
system types ..................................................................... 90
Table 18 Mapping reader functions to the RFID Reference Model ........... 91
Table 19 Mapping reader antenna arrangements and tag types
to the RFID Reference Model................................................ 96
Table 20 Tag memory sizes / possible data usage on tags .................... 99
Table 21 Degree of achievement of characteristic properties of passive,
semi-passive and active tags ..............................................100
Table 22 Mapping tag performance to the RFID Reference Model ..........101
Table 23 Mapping tag manufacturing and antenna to the RFID Reference
Model...............................................................................111



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Table 24 Mapping advanced systems to the RFID Reference Model ....... 132
Table 25 European harmonised radio regulations for RFID usage ......... 136
Table 26 RFID radio regulations worldwide........................................ 137
Table 27 Mapping radio regulation parameters to the RFID Reference Model
...................................................................................... 139
Table 28 Mapping RFID standards to the RFID Reference Model ........... 147
Table 29 Mapping data processing variants to the RFID Reference Model
...................................................................................... 170
Table 30 Correlation of RFID system properties and frequency ranges .. 184
Table 31 ISO/IEC 18000 (2004) declared patents .............................. 186
Table 32 Mapping general tag topics to the RFID Reference Model ....... 197
Table 33 Mapping passive tag topics to the RFID Reference Model........ 203
Table 34 Mapping semi-passive and active tag topics to the
RFID Reference Model ....................................................... 206
Table 35 Mapping interrogator technology to the
RFID Reference Model ....................................................... 210
Table 36 Mapping system technology to the RFID Reference Model ...... 213
Table 37 Mapping application-specific topics to the
RFID Reference Model ....................................................... 221
Table 38 Mapping RFID middleware to the RFID Reference Model......... 224
Table 39 Mapping systems and networks to the
RFID Reference Model ....................................................... 239
Table 40 Mapping R&D activities related to socio-economic aspects
to the RFID Reference Model .............................................. 247
Table 41 Mapping general tag bottlenecks to the
RFID Reference Model ....................................................... 255
Table 42 Mapping passive tag bottlenecks to the
RFID Reference Model ....................................................... 259
Table 43 Mapping semi-passive tag bottlenecks to the RFID Reference
Model .............................................................................. 262
Table 44 Mapping active tag bottlenecks to the
RFID Reference Model ....................................................... 268
Table 45 Mapping interrogator bottlenecks to the
RFID Reference Model ....................................................... 272



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Table 46 Mapping system technology bottlenecks to the
RFID Reference Model ........................................................278
Table 47 Mapping application-specific bottlenecks to the
RFID Reference Model ........................................................283
Table 48 Mapping software, systems, and networks, as well as socio-
economic bottlenecks to the RFID Reference Model................286
Table 49 Roadmap of EPCglobal .......................................................292
Table 50 Several benefits using RFID................................................308
Table 51 SWOT analysis: RFID Technologies State-of-the-art
strengths..........................................................................310
Table 52 SWOT analysis: RFID Technologies State-of-the-art
weaknesses and opportunities.............................................311
Table 53 SWOT analysis: RFID Technologies State-of-the-art
threats.............................................................................312
Table 54 SWOT analysis: RFID Technologies International R&D
Activities .........................................................................313
Table 55 SWOT analysis: RFID Technology Bottlenecks and R&D
Approaches strengths and weaknesses............................314
Table 56 SWOT analysis: RFID Technology Bottlenecks and R&D
Approaches opportunities and threats .............................315
Table 57 RFID stakeholder categories ...............................................316
Table 58 Mapping recommendations to the RFID Reference Model (1)...324
Table 59 Mapping recommendations to the RFID Reference Model (2)...326
Table 60 Mapping recommendations to the RFID Reference Model (3)...328
Table 61 Mapping recommendations to the RFID Reference Model (4) ..330




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1 Approach
This section describes the objectives and activities of work package 1, the per-
sons/bodies that have contributed to this work package and the methods used
within.
1.1 Definition of work package topic
Work package 1 is entitled with RFID Roadmap. The main objective of the work
package is to give a clear overview of the actual state-of-the-art of RFID technology
and its future developments in order to gain a more objective discussion on RFID.
RFID comprises a large set of different technologies. There is a lack of information
about the properties and the performance of the various systems. In order to as-
sess RFID applications, their benefits as well as their risks (e.g. in terms of secu-
rity, data protection and privacy issues), objective information about the techno-
logical and physical functionality and limits will help to establish a fair discussion on
RFID between suppliers, implementers, users, and persons that get in contact with
RFID systems (e.g. customers, consumers).
The coordination action CE RFID has been proposed from the working group
RFID/Logistics of the European Technology Platform (ETP) European Technology
Platform on Smart Systems Integration (EPoSS). CE RFID benefits from the RFID
research strategies outlined in the Strategic Research Agenda (SRA) of EPoSS, al-
though the CE RFID roadmap goes beyond the SRA. Work package 1 tries to define
an RFID roadmap with a broad agreement of many stakeholders.
The three main topics of work package 1 are:
RFID technologies state-of-the-art
RFID technologies international R&D activities
RFID technologies bottlenecks and R&D approaches
These topics also describe the focus of the three workshops that have been con-
ducted. Starting with a detailed description of the state-of-the-art of many existing
RFID systems, the second topic will supplement the findings with past and current
R&D activities in academia and industry worldwide. The third topic assesses the
results of the first two topics (state-of-the-art, international R&D activities) with the
goal to identify technology gaps and bottlenecks that still need to be solved in order
to provide further development and improvement of RFID systems. Together with



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the description of bottlenecks, foreseeable R&D approaches for overcoming have
been elaborated.
The results of all main topics have been evaluated in order to form a roadmap con-
taining a probable timeline of future RFID developments. In the conclusion section
results are summarised and a set of recommendations are clustered, including con-
siderations of what kind of stakeholders are mainly addressed by the recommenda-
tions.
1.2 Structure of work package topics
The three main topics of the work packages have been structured orthogonal to the
RFID Reference Model, created by the CE RFID partners.
1.2.1 RFID technologies state-of-the-art
Since RFID does not comprise a linear set of technologies, a group of different
views has been defined in order to present various aspects of numerous different
RFID systems:
Application view (chapter 4):
This subsection lies orthogonal to the RFID Reference Model introduced
here. A comparison of RFID with other auto-id technologies is presented. A
few sample applications together with a technical description and the map-
ping of the RFID Reference Model are presented.
Transponder classes view (chapter 5):
Introduction to the EPCglobal transponder class system.
ISO/OSI network model view (chapter 6):
Description of the components of classic RFID systems and the interfaces
between each other.
Technology view (chapter 7):
Presentation of air interfaces, reader technology, antenna arrangements,
transponder technology, RFID middleware systems, backend systems.
Standards and regulations view (chapter 8):
Discussion of radio regulations, air interface standards, application stan-
dards, standards for test methods, data management standards, and sensor
standards.



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Data processing view (chapter 9):
Overview of data security, data protection, privacy issues, safety-related is-
sues, and secure RFID on smartcards
Market view (chapter 10):
This view shows some statistical evaluations of the vendor list that has been
created. The most important system specifications and properties are sum-
marised.
Intellectual property view (chapter 11):
Major intellectual property rights (IPR), blocking patents and a famous pat-
ent pool is presented.
1.2.2 RFID Technologies international R&D activities
The international R&D activities as the second topic have been structured into the
following categories (chapter 12):
Technology aspects:
Transponder (tag) technology, interrogator (reader) technology, system
technology
Application-specific topics
Software, systems, networks:
RFID Middleware, software, systems and networks

1.2.3 RFID Technologies bottlenecks and R&D ap-
proaches
The second and third topic uses the same classification structure in order to easily
create reference between R&D activities and bottlenecks (chapter 13):
Technology aspects:
Transponder (tag) technology, interrogator (reader) technology, system
technology
Application-specific topics



24


Software, systems, networks:
RFID Middleware, software, systems and networks
1.3 Relevant stakeholders
To support the CE RFID review process each work package defined a subset of the
common stakeholder list, which originally has been created according to the RFID
stakeholder model (cf. Appendix 17.4). (The characterisation AC means that this
stakeholder is an additional contributor, P means that this stakeholder is a CE
RFID project partner).
1.3.1 Stakeholder group Research & Development
Fundamental research
Auto ID Labs (Research)
Clausthal University of Technology, Institute for Electrical Information Tech-
nology (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
DLR (RFID technology, R&D issues)
cole Suprieure d'lectricit (Research)
FH Technikum Klagenfurt (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
FH-Wels, Institut fr Automatisierungstechnik, Sensorik und Mikrosysteme
(RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
IMEC (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
Institute LETI (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
Linz Competence Center Mechatronics (LCM) (RFID technology, R&D issues;
AC)
RSA Laboratories (RFID security, encryption technology)
TU Graz, IAIK (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
Uni Linz, Institut fr Nachrichtentechnik (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
University of Barcelona (RFID technology, R&D issues)



25


Technische Universitt Dortmund, Department of Logistics, (Contribution:
Analysis and recommendations of standards, VDI standards)
University of Erlangen-Nuremberg Institute for Technical Electronics
(RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
University of Freiburg (information on guidelines)
University of Freiburg (department of microsystems engineering (IMTEK)
Laboratory for Electrical Instrumentation) (RFID technology, R&D issues;
AC)
University of Glamorgan Centre for Electronic Product Engeneering
Faculty of Advances Technology
University of Kaiserslautern (R&D issues)
University of St. Gallen (R&D issues)
Applied research
Fraunhofer Institute ATL (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
Fraunhofer Institute IFF (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
Fraunhofer Institute IMS (RFID technology, R&D issues)
Fraunhofer Institute ISST (RFID technology, R&D issues)
Fraunhofer Institute IZM Berlin (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
Legal and social science
IZT, Institut for Future Studies and Technology Assessment (Science)
System integrator
IBM Deutschland GmbH (RFID systems)
SAP (RFID systems)
1.3.2 Stakeholder group RFID technology suppliers
Manufacturers:
ARDACO, a.s. (RFID security, encryption technology; AC)



26


Atmel Corporation (RFID technology, R&D issues, chip technology; AC)
AVERY DENNISON (RFID technology, label technology)
Balluf GmbH (RFID technology, closed systems, sensor systems)
Bretschneider GmbH (RFID integration into packages, labels; AC)
CAEN RFID Srl (RFID technology, reader technology)
Deister Electronic GmbH (RFID technology, reader technology)
EPCOS AG, Surface Acoustic Wave Components Division (RFID technology,
R&D issues, Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW): AC)
FEIG Electronic (RFID technology, reader technology; P)
Giesecke & Devrient (RFID technology, ePass, security smart cards; AC)
Herma GmbH (RFID technology, smart labels; AC)
IDENTEC SOLUTIONS AG (RFID technology, active RFID; AC)
Infineon Technologies Austria (RFID technology, R&D issues, Chip technol-
ogy; AC)
InkTec Europe Ltd (LFP Division) (RFID technology, electronic Inks)
INSIDE Contactless (RFID technology, chip and reader technology)
Magellan Technology Ltd. (RFID technology, reader technology, chip and la-
bel technology)
NXP (RFID technology, R&D issues, Chip technology; P)
PolyIC GmbH & Co. KG (RFID technology, Polymer electronics; AC)
Sato Deutschland GmbH (RFID technology, Label technology, RFID printing
technology)
Siemens AG, CT IC 3 (RFID security, encryption technology; AC)
SMARTRAC Technology GmbH (information on guidelines)
Texas Instruments (RFID technology, chip technology; AC)



27


TRICON Consulting GmbH & Co.KG. (RFID technology; AC)
Ubisense Limited (RFID technology, precise real-time location)
UPM Raflatac (RFID Technology, label technology; P)
Solution providers
AIDA Centre (information on guidelines; P)
CISC (contribution: analysis and recommendations on ISO and EPC stan-
dards)
COMEX (RFID systems division) (information on guidelines)
Emsys N.V. (information on guidelines)
Hitachi (RFID systems)
Pepperl+Fuchs (contribution: analysis and recommendations on require-
ments of automation systems)
RF-iT solutions (RFID middleware; P)
Siemens IT solutions and services (information on guidelines)
Tyco Electronics idento GmbH (information on guidelines)
1.3.3 Stakeholder group business associations
General
ACEA European Automobile Manufacturers Association
Business Europe
SME
AIM (Association of Automatic Identification and Mobility)
RFID and IT-Specific
LICON Logistics e.V. (RFID Industry Consortium)
Pleon (Consultant; P)



28


VDI/VDE IT (Consultant; P)
1.3.4 Stakeholder group government & governmental in-
stitutions
European
Ministerio de Educacin y Ciencia (Science)
National
BMBF (Federal Ministry of Education and Research)
BMVIT (Bundesministerium fr Verkehr, Innovation und Technologie)
BMWA (Bundesministerium fr Wirtschaftund Arbeit)
BMWi (Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology)
BSI (German Federal Office for Information Security)
sterr. Forschungsfrderungsgesellschaft FFG
1.3.5 Stakeholder group standardisation organisations
International organisations
ISO (Standards) ([78])
Business driven organisation
EPCglobal (Standards) ([81])
1.3.6 Stakeholder group quasi-autonomous and non-
governmental organisations
Data protection agencies
European data protection institutions (Art.29 working party)
Trade union
ver.di (information on guidelines)



29


1.3.7 Stakeholder group RFID end user companies
Logistical tracking & tracing
Deutsche Post World Net (RFID user; P)
Metro Group Information Technology GmbH (RFID user; P)
Production, monitoring and maintenance
EADS (RFID user; P)
Lufthansa Technik Logistik GmbH (RFID user)
MB-technology GmbH (RFID user)
Access control and tracking & tracing of individuals
ADT Sensomatik (Hedtke) (RFID Systems)
eHealth Care
Siemens AG medical (information on guidelines)
1.3.8 Contribution
The following work package partners contributed to this report.
UPM Raflatac (RFID technology, label technology; P)
Transponder (tag) technology, chapter 7.4
Conclusions, chapter 15
Siemens AG, CT PS 7 (RFID technology; P, WP1 lead)
All chapters
The following additional contributors contributed to this report:
TU Graz, IAIK (RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
Security, data protection, privacy, chapter 12.7.1



30


University of Erlangen-Nuremberg Institute for technical electronics
(RFID technology, R&D issues; AC)
Transponder (tag) technology, chapter 7.4
Siemens AG, CT IC 3 (RFID security, encryption technology; AC)
Secure RFID on smartcards, chapter 9.5



31


2 Methodology
2.1 Assessment criteria
In an early phase of the project the partners of work package 1 found that the
broad range of RFID technologies would need more than one point of view. CE RFID
focussed on RFID scenarios that represent high potential of importance and market
growth in the near future (i.e. logistics, ambient intelligence, and public security /
identity management). To investigate the current state-of-the-art of RFID tech-
nologies (first work package topic) a set of different views has been defined in or-
der to highlight the various aspects of RFID technologies: ISO/OSI network model
view, technology view, transponder classes view, standards and regulations view,
data processing view, application view, market view, and intellectual property view.
To support the market view and analytical steps a list of international vendors of
RFID systems has been collected. The total list is available in spread sheet format
(see appendix 17.1).
For the second topic of the work package Relevant R&D activities regarding RFID
technologies a classification system (structure) has been developed. This system
helps to assess what groups of topics are well covered and where there are gaps to
be filled. The structure starts with technological aspects (transponder (tag), inter-
rogator (reader), system), followed by application-specific topics, then software,
systems, networks (RFID middleware, software, systems and networks). It ends
with socio-economic aspects, such as security, data protection, privacy, environ-
mental and safety aspects, and general aspects. A large list of international R&D
activities from academia, industry, user and business organisations has been cre-
ated. Some representative activities have been taken from this list into the system
described above. Furthermore, they have been investigated and presented in more
detail. The total list is available in spread sheet format (cf. appendix 17.2).
For the investigation of the third topic of the work package bottlenecks and fore-
seeable R&D approaches to overcome these bottlenecks the same classification
system like the second topic (international R&D activities) has been used. R&D gaps
could easily be detected with this approach. The bottlenecks identified can be com-
pared with previous R&D activities.
In the section conclusions (see chapter 15), a SWOT analysis has been performed
separately for each of the three work package 1 topics. A clustered list of recom-
mendations has been extracted out of these findings with respect to the three top-
ics.



32


2.2 Methods
The consortium members of work package 1 of the coordination action CE RFID
(UPM Raflatac and Siemens (lead)) developed a list of additional contributors to
support the activities of the work package. Experts of the CE RFID consortium part-
ners as well as associated organisations have been asked to make suggestions for
who should be asked to contribute to work package 1 (WP1). Under the lead of
work package 1 the project partners created a small electronic leaflet that outlined
the benefits and opportunities of a contribution to CE RFID and invited potential
candidates to work for the project. In order to get maximum input from project
partners and additional contributors the leader of work package 1 suggested the
following methodology:
a) Additional contributors are asked for any form and degree of contribution.
The range starts from reviewing the reports up to full attendance and active
contribution to the three workshops of work package 1.
b) Candidates for additional contributors are addressed via telephone or e-mail
using the prepared invitation leaflet. Independent of the candidates com-
mitment they are asked for suggestions for other contributors that might
want to work for CE RFID, in particular for WP1 and WP2. Any suggested
contributor will be contacted. Nobody will be excluded. New additional con-
tributors may join the project during the whole project duration.
c) Due to the significant task overlap between work packages 1 and 2 the
leaders of WP1 and WP2 suggested to combine two of the three workshops
of each work package (i.e. WP1 WS2 combined with WP2 WS1, and WP1
WS3 combined with WP2 WS2). All potential contributors are invited to con-
tribute to all work packages if they belong to CE RFID. The combination of
workshops mentioned above reduces efforts and costs for the contributors to
WP1 and WP2 as well as it simplifies the schedule for the workshops.
The objective is to collect a set of contributors that represent relevant stakeholders
for the WP1 topics (i.e. RFID technology and research & development (R&D)) com-
ing from RFID vendors and users as well as from academia. Work package 1 could
identify 20 additional contributors. Most of them agreed to attend the workshops or
to provide information to topics of the work package, few prepared content to be
presented at the workshops, and few proposed to review the reports of WP1 only.
Three workshops focusing on the main topics of WP1 had been conducted:
1
st
workshop
Topic: RFID technologies state-of-the-art
Date: 20 October 2006



33


Venue: Siemens AG, Munich, Germany
Participants: 6 partners, 3 additional contributors
2
nd
workshop (together with WP2 WS1)
Topic: RFID technologies International R&D activities
Date: 7 December 2006
Venue: Gratkorn, Austria
Participants: 6 partners, 6 additional contributors
3
rd
workshop (together with WP2 WS2)
Topic: RFID technologies technology bottlenecks & R&D approaches
Date: 2 March 2007 in Essen/German
Venue: Tyco/ADT, Essen, Germany
Participants: 7 partners, 1 additional contributor
All partners of CE RFID and the additional contributors of WP1 and WP2 have been
asked to send their input regarding the workshop topics to the work package lead-
ers, especially if they could not attend the workshops. In order to give additional
opportunities to contribute to the work package the CE RFID consortium decided to
establish an expanded review process based on a stakeholder model (cf. appendix
17.4). It consists of seven stakeholder groups. Each work package added stake-
holders to a common stakeholder list. From this list the partners of each work
package defined a subset of stakeholders relevant to their work package topics.
Each stakeholder group should be covered by each work package.
A new review process for the final reports of all work packages has been intro-
duced. It consists of six review steps. The first working draft of the final report is
firstly reviewed by the project coordinator and secretariat. After addressing com-
ments and recommendations the additional contributors of the work package have
been asked to review the draft report. After an editorial step of the secretariat all
CE RFID project partners have been asked for their comments. The updated version
has been sent to the remaining stakeholders that have not been addressed yet as
additional contributors or partners. After processing all further comments and rec-
ommendations there will be a clearance step for the final report by the project offi-
cer. After the acceptance by EU reviewers the final report will be ready for publish-
ing.
The CE RFID project partners think this new review process will enable a broad co-
equal review process performed by a large group of stakeholders. The resulting
final report will represent a common overview of the work package topics reflecting
the contribution of representative groups of stakeholders.



34


3 State-of-the-art and Analysis
Work package 1 of the coordination action CE RFID is titled with RFID Roadmap.
One basic task in developing such a roadmap is to look at the present state-of-the-
art of RFID technologies. RFID stands for Radio Frequency Identification. It is
used as an umbrella term for a large range of different wireless technologies using
magnetic or electromagnetic fields for identification purposes.
At a very early stage, the project participants together with the additional contribu-
tors realised that RFID can be viewed from many different standpoints. RFID sys-
tems comprise many different technologies providing different properties and speci-
fications. They can be used for a broad range of applications, follow diverse stan-
dards and regulations, and serve different data processing systems.
In an attempt to present the whole range of technologies currently available on the
market, that claim to be RFID systems or use RFID technologies, the following
views have been used to categorise and describe the present state-of-the-art of
RFID.
Chapter Point of view Comments
4 Application RFID applications following the CE RFID
Reference Model
5 Transponder classes Classes of RFID systems have been intro-
duced
6 ISO/OSI network model Network communication models can be
used to describe parts of RFID systems
7 Technology RFID systems use a range of different tech-
nologies
8 Standards and regulations International standards and national regula-
tions have been established
9 Data processing Structure, protection, security and privacy
of data
10 Market Database of manufacturers, solution pro-
viders, backend system providers
11 Intellectual property Patents, utility patents, patent pools
Table 1 Table of RFID views
The RFID technology State-of-the-art views are discussed in the following chap-
ters 4 to 11.



35


4 Application View
The most important view on RFID technology from a users perspective is applica-
tions. The following table shows an overview, which connects system characteris-
tics, used frequency bands and typical application fields.
Frequency band Typical characteristics Applications
100-134 kHz
low frequency (LF)
Short to medium reading
range; Inexpensive; Low
reading rate
Access control (e.g. keyless entry,
keyless go for automobiles); Car
immobilisers;
Animal identification; Inventory
control; EAS (electronic article
surveillance);
RFID Reference Model application
fields: A, B, D
13.56 MHz
high frequency (HF)
Short to medium reading
range; Inexpensive; Me-
dium reading rate
Access control; Smart cards;
Supply Chain applications;
Warehouse management;
EAS;
RFID Reference Model application
fields: B, C, D, E, F
840-960 MHz
ultra-high frequency
(UHF)
Long reading range; High
reading rate; Inexpen-
sive
Supply chain applications, Ware-
house management;
EAS;
RFID Reference Model application
fields: B, C, D, E, F
2.4GHz
ultra-high frequency
(UHF)
5.8 GHz
super high fre-
quency (SHF)
Long reading range; High
reading speed; Expensive
Supply chain applications, Ware-
house management;
Inventory;
Automotive applications;
EAS;
RFID Reference Model application
fields: A, B, C, G, H
Table 2 Overview application characteristics, used frequencies, typical applications
4.1 RFID vs. barcode and OCR
The simplest application of RFID is the identification of objects via an ID number
over short distances. This can also be done by other well-established technologies
like barcode or OCR (optical character recognition).



36


The following listing shows the benefits and disadvantages between RFID and
widely used barcode and OCR systems.
Barcode / OCR (Optical Character Recognition)
Benefits Disadvantages
Very cheap Data capacity << 1kByte
Usually article type identification only
Requires large and flat surface to attach
Line of sight needed to acquire data
Data cant be changed
Reading range limited
No security features
Table 3 Benefits and disadvantages of barcode / OCR
RFID
Benefits Disadvantages
High data capacity and data rates Not as cheap as barcodes yet
Full object identification (privacy concerns)
Insensitive against dust and dirt
Security features
Reading range of passive tags up to 10 m
and active tags up to 300m

Simultaneous reading of many tags
Table 4 Benefits and disadvantages of RFID
RFID provides more data storage capacity even when compared to modern two-
dimensional barcode systems. The data stored on the tag can be changed according
to the needs of the application (e.g. protocol of test procedures). RFID tags do not
need direct line of sight while reading and do not need to be presented to the
reader on a flat and clean surface. Some RFID tags provide a much higher reading
range (up to 300m with active tags) than optical systems. Only basic security func-
tions (e.g. electronic signatures) can be implemented in optical systems (barcode,
OCR). Modern security methods like authentication that e.g. prevent label cloning
cannot be implemented on a barcode label due to the missing interaction. Tags can
provide additional functions (e.g. temperature sensor and -logger). Barcode sys-
tems have the advantage of very low costs. In many cases they are printed to-
gether with printing the package or other decoration on the item, so very low addi-
tional costs are caused by the barcode label printing. Barcode labels therefore are
often used when simple identification of very cheap items is needed. The limited
data storage capacities of barcode labels do not allow to label items individually,



37


generally just the type of item is marked. Because of their higher data storage ca-
pacity, RFID tags allow single item identification.

Figure 1 RFID applications
Figure 1 tries to show how system cost, tag quantities, and security features corre-
late with current RFID applications. E.g. access control systems do need security
(data protection, anti-cloning) but usually use low tag quantities. On item level
where identification is the main task of RFID security plays a low role providing low
system costs.
4.1.1 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 5 shows the mapping of auto-id technologies to the subcategories of the RFID
Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this auto-id technology ap-
plies to the corresponding subcategory.



38


Current use Possible use RFID application
field
Subcategories
R
F
I
D

B
a
r
c
o
d
e

O
C
R

R
F
I
D

B
a
r
c
o
d
e

O
C
R

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y
A: Logistical track-
ing & tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y
C: Product safety,
quality and informa-
tion
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y
D: Access control
and tracking & trac-
ing of individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y Y Y Y E: Loyalty, mem-
bership and pay-
ment
EB: Membership cards Y Y Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y Y G: Sports, leisure
and household
GD: Smart home Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y Y Y Y H: Public services
HC: Banknotes Y Y Y Y
Table 5 Mapping auto-id technologies to the RFID Reference Model
OCR (optical character recognition) and barcode systems are well established auto-
id systems. They provide advantages (e.g. very cheap, human readable) and disad-



39


vantages (e.g. line of sight required, soiling problems, low data capacity, read-only,
and no authentication). RFID can replace or supplement other auto-id technologies
while offering the additional advantages of RFID: no line of sight required, reading
in dirty environments, writable user data, high data capacity, high data rates, secu-
rity functions, robustness, etc. There are many subcategories that function with
RFID only or where RFID represents a major improvement: dangerous goods logis-
tics (e.g. temperature sensor, localisation), asset management (e.g. localisation,
itinerary), facility management (e.g. security features, access control), vehicles
(e.g. pressure sensors), aeroplanes (e.g. anti-counterfeiting), automation/process
control (e.g. user data), fresh/perishable foods (e.g. temperature sensors), phar-
maceutical (anti-counterfeiting, sensors), customer information systems (e.g. us-
ability), access control systems (e.g. authentication, anti-cloning), animal tracking
(e.g. easy handling, dirty environment, anti-cloning), person tracking (e.g. authen-
tication, anti-cloning), smart home (e.g. sensor functionality).
4.2 RFID Reference Model
In order to provide a common baseline for all work packages in the CE RFID project
as well as for other RFID-related projects, the consortium developed an RFID
Reference Model containing all application fields where RFID technology is presently
used. The CE RFID Reference Model is described in separate documents (see Ap-
pendix 17.5). Table 6 shows the basic systematic of the model. The complexity of
the systems is increasing from top to bottom of the table (A. to H.).



40


Reference RFID application fields Description
A. Logistical tracking &
tracing
Solely identification and location of goods
and returnable assets (e.g. pallets or con-
tainers)
B. Production, monitoring
and maintenance
Smart systems in combination with RFID
technology to support production, monitor-
ing, and maintenance of goods and proc-
esses
M
a
i
n
l
y

o
b
j
e
c
t

t
a
g
g
i
n
g

C. Product safety, quality
and information
Applications to insure quality (e.g. sensors
to monitor temperature) and product safety
(e.g. fight against counterfeiting)
D. Access control and
tracking & tracing of
individuals
Single function tags for identification and
authorisation applications for entries and
ticketing
E. Loyalty, membership
and payment
Smart Card based identification and
authorisation systems for multifunctional
applications (e.g. loyalty, payment, and
banking systems)
F. eHealth care Systems for hospital administration and
smart systems to support and monitor
health status
G. Sport, leisure and
household
Sports applications, rental systems (e.g.
cars or books), smart home
T
a
g
g
i
n
g

w
i
t
h

r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

o
r

p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

r
e
f
-
e
r
e
n
c
e

t
o

p
e
o
p
l
e

H. Public services Systems mandated by law or to fulfil public
duties (e.g. ID-cards, health insurance
cards, road tolling systems)
Table 6 CE RFID Reference Model main categories
In the following table the subcategories covered by work package 1 are marked by
X (column WP1).



41


Table 7 Subcategories covered by work package 1
RFID application field Subcategories WP1
AA. Inhouse logistics X
AB. Closed loop logistics X
AC. Open logistics X
AD. Postal applications X
AE. Dangerous goods logistics X
A. Logistical tracking
& tracing
AF. Manufacturing logistics X
BA. Archive systems X
BB. Asset management (incl. Environ-
mental monitoring)
X
BC. Facility management X
BD. Vehicles X
BE. Aeroplanes X
BF. Automation/process control X
B. Production, moni-
toring and mainte-
nance
BG. Food and consumer goods X
CA. Fast moving consumer goods X
CB. Electronic goods X
CC. Textile goods X
CD. Fresh/perishable foods X
CE. Pharmaceutical X
M
a
i
n
l
y

o
b
j
e
c
t

t
a
g
g
i
n
g

C. Product safety,
quality and informa-
tion
CF. Customer information systems X
DA. Access control systems X
DB. Animal tracking X
D. Access control
and tracking & trac-
ing of individuals
DC. Personal tracking X
EA. Loyalty cards X
EB. Membership cards X
EC. Contactless banking cards
E. Loyalty, member-
ship and payment
ED. Payment and advertising via mobile
phones

FA. Assistance for the disabled
FB. Hospital management X
FC. Implants X
FD. Medical monitoring
F. eHealth care
FE. Smart implants
GA. Sports applications
GB. Rental systems X
GC. Smart games
G. Sports, leisure
and household
GD. Smart home X
HA. Public service maintenance
HB. Road tolling systems X
HC. Banknotes X
HD. ID cards and passports T
a
g
g
i
n
g

w
i
t
h

r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

o
r

p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

t
o

i
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
s

H. Public services
HE. Health insurance cards



42


Systems where RFID is only a small part and that are dominated by other technolo-
gies are not investigated and described in work package 1. E.g. many systems in
field E, F, G, and H use additional sophisticated microcontrollers that provide com-
plex functions (e.g. encryption, money transfer, data processing). Work package 1
concentrates on the RFID applications logistics, ambient intelligence and public se-
curity/identity management.
4.3 Application examples
The following pages present some application examples with real systems available
on the market or applications that can be implemented with existing RFID tech-
nologies. This chapter shows how the combination of the different RFID views lead
to RFID systems that are used in many applications.
4.3.1 Logistics, supply chain management at Metro Group
The most important mass market application is logistics and the supply chain (see
RFID Reference Model field A [8]). Due to cost reasons only passive RFID label tags
with HF or UHF technology are used here. Some enterprises plan to use HF RFID on
item level and UHF RFID on case and pallet level (e.g. pharmaceutical industry).
There is also a trend to shift item level to UHF as well.
The METRO Group, the world's fourth largest retailer, will soon require that all pal-
lets shipped to 180 locations in Germany be equipped with RFID tags using EP-
Cglobals second-generation Electronic Product Code standard (Gen 2 tags [81]).
The company's RFID plans were communicated to about 650 suppliers. In 2007 all
Metro Cash & Carry stores as well as about 100 real hypermarkets in Germany
will be equipped with RFID portals in the goods entrance section. Each RFID tag
carries information on it such as a serial number, model number, colour or place of
assembly.
The use of RFID throughout the supply chain allows the tracking of the location of a
shipment and therefore renders a faster and more reliable flow of goods possible.
In 2006 the METRO group introduced EPC Class 1/Gen. 2 RFID chips. In August
2006 suppliers started labelling individual shipping boxes with smart chips.
4.3.2 Identity management, security, access control
Access control systems (RFID Reference Model fields D, E, F) need at least basic
security features like secure authentication. Otherwise an intruder might eavesdrop



43


the reader-to-tag communication and clone the tag. Authentication methods are
described in chapter 9.5. In order to provide additional security RFID technology
with low range capability like HF (13.56 MHz) is used. An eavesdropper has to be
very close to the system and the possibility of a mix-up of tags is being reduced.
An example is the TSI PRISM (http://www.tsiprism.com/) system, which tracks and
records the location and movement of inmates and officers, resulting in enhanced
facility safety and security. The proprietary RFID tracking technology provides real-
time inmate and officer identification. The tags cannot be cloned and must be
trackable otherwise an alarm will occur. Access control is combined with real-time
tracking and tracing.
4.3.3 Contactless smart card Mifare
Mifare is the most widely installed contactless smart card technology in the world,
with more than 500 million smart card ICs and 5 million reader components sold.
As an example for contactless smart card technology, the different Mifare types are
described in the following text. Mifare offers solutions for applications like loyalty
and vending cards, road tolling, city cards, access control and gaming. (RFID
Reference Model fields D, E).
Mifare is compliant with ISO 14443 A. It has 80% market share in the automatic
fare collection market (source: Frost & Sullivan 2001). The product portfolio covers
reader components as well as contactless and dual interface smart card ICs. Multi-
ple sourcing exists on all levels of the value-chain (ICs, readers, cards, etc.).
Tickets based on NXP Mifare Ultralight ICs can act as single trip tickets in public
transportation networks, loyalty cards or even day passes at big events. They are a
replacement for conventional ticketing solutions such as paper tickets, magnetic-
stripe tickets or coins.
Mifare Standard 1k is primarily used in closed loop systems, where value is ex-
tracted in a secure and authorised way from the card by the service provider, or for
fixed value tickets (e.g. weekly or monthly travel passes). Another important appli-
cation is physical access control. Here Mifare Standard 1k cards are widely used for
ID cards, employee cards and company or building access. Today Mifare Standard
1k ICs are in use around the globe in different applications like public transport,
road-tolling and parking meters, accessing car parks and paying at fuel pumps.
Mifare Mini is a further optimised version of the Mifare Standard 1k to meet the
requirements of the access control and loyalty cards market. It provides signifi-



44


cantly decreased memory size (320 Byte) making it the perfect solution for access
control or loyalty applications.
Mifare Standard 4k opens up new service opportunities by enabling public transport
authorities to implement multi-modal systems. It allows combination with contact-
less e-commerce and e-business applications on one single Mifare smart card. The
Mifare 4k Standard IC provides increased memory size for multi-application cards.
Mifare DESFire is based on open global standards for both air interface and crypto-
graphic methods. It is compliant to all 4 levels of ISO / IEC 14443A ([78], [79])
and uses optional ISO / IEC 7816-4 commands. Contactless ticketing and related
applications such as payment at vending machines, access control or event ticket-
ing are possible. Mifare DESFire is intended for service providers wanting to use
multi-application smart cards in transport schemes, e-government or identity appli-
cations. It complies with the requirements for fast and highly secure data transmis-
sion, flexible memory organisation and interoperability with existing infrastructure.
Mifare PROX is a high-security, high performance dual interface IC solution at the
high-end of the portfolio. Mifare PROX meets the requirements of financial applica-
tions and delivers the flexibility and security to support multiple applications and
service providers on a single card IC ranging from banking, e-commerce, e-
government, e-business, ID card and biometric applications to electronic ticketing
and other contactless services.
The cards support dynamic download of Java applications. This means that addi-
tional applications, such as payment for public transport, access to a public library
or a loyalty scheme can be added or removed even after the card has been issued.
SmartMX enables the easy implementation of state-of-the-art operating systems
and open platform solutions including Java Card Global Platform and MULTOS.
MULTOS (which stands for "Multiple Operating System") is an operating system that
allows multiple application programs to be installed and to reside separately and
securely on a smart card with the highest levels of security.
The SmartMX platform is positioned to service high volume, mono- and multi-
application markets such as e-government, banking/finance, mobile communica-
tions, public transportation, pay-TV, conditional access, and network access.
An anti-collision method (acc. ISO/IEC 14443-3) enables multiple cards to be han-
dled simultaneously.



45


4.3.4 Contactless smart card FeliCa
Sony Corp. offers a system very similar in function to the Mifare system, called Fe-
liCa. In Nov 2006 NXP and Sony have signed a memorandum of understanding to
create a joint venture that will develop, manufacture and market an integrated cir-
cuit (IC) combining NXP's Mifare technology and Sony's FeliCa platform on a single
chip (see http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/2842/ [9]). Contactless-
payment applications using FeliCa technology are widespread in parts of Asia, while
contactless payment applications using the Mifare platform are common in Europe.
(RFID Reference Model fields D, E)
In Hong Kong the Octopus Card was initially a payment system for public transport
(bus, metro, ferry boat and light rail). The services have expanded to pay for pur-
chases at a convenience stores, fast food stores, and vending machines. The card
also serves as employee ID, student ID and other ID cards, and has grown into a
major choice for office entry/exit control, parking area entry/exit control.
The "ez-link Card" an automatic public transport payment system for bus, metro
and railroad was introduced in April 2002 in Singapore using the FeliCa technology.
About 8 million cards are already issued in Singapore, daily processing adding up to
roughly 4 million transactions per day.
The metro system of Shenzhen (China) uses FeliCa technology for passenger tick-
ets. The passenger tickets are available in various forms and types depending on
their purpose of use. These include regular commuter passes called the Trans Card,
as well as student discount tickets and tokens as payment for a one-way metro
ride.
The metro in Delhi, the capital of India, started application of FeliCa technology in
December 2002 for the passenger ticketing system. The Travel Card, a card-shaped
ticket, is reusable by charging values to the card.
The first metro system in Thailand started operations in Bangkok in July 2004 and
employs FeliCa technology.
Suica, implementing FeliCa technology, was comprehensively introduced in the
Tokyo metropolitan area and the peripheral access by East Japan Railway Com-
pany.
After touching the reader with Suica, the automatic ticket gate reads and charges
the IC card. This way, the passage through the wicket is very convenient for the
passengers. Since it was first introduced, Suica has rapidly spread in use with 10



46


million cards in circulation in about 3 years, with the statistics rapidly over 14 mil-
lion today (source: Sony Corp.).
The "Tokyo-Mitsubishi VISA-Super IC Card is a multi-functional IC card. The dual
interface IC card system employed by the bank uses Sony's contactless FeliCa IC
card technology.
Iyo Railway Group kicked off the "IC e-Card" services, applying FeliCa technology,
for their public transport system in Matsuyama City, Ehime.
4.3.5 -chip
The -chip (Hitachi Ltd.) is a passive IC (tag chip) containing 128-bit read only
memory to store a unique ID. The ID is written by the manufacturer and cannot be
altered afterwards. It has no anti-collision control. In other words a reader cannot
read more than one chip at a time. Chip size is 0.4 mm x 0.4mm. The passive chip
does not contain a battery. A corresponding reader generates a microwave signal at
2.45 GHz. The tag chip converts the microwave into electric power and transmits its
-chip ID back to the reader. The maximum reading range is about 25 cm. The chip
needs an external antenna to form a complete tag. The antenna offered by Hitachi
has the size of 56 mm x 4.75 mm, which is smaller than the typical coil antenna
used for 13.56 MHz smart cards. A typical reader has 300 mW output power and a
4 patch antenna with circular polarisation. The response time of the chip is 20
msec. The -chip was used at the Expo 2005 in Nagoya, Aichi in Japan for admis-
sion tickets. (RFID Reference Model fields A. Logistical tracking & tracing, D. Access
control and tracking & tracing of individuals, H. Public services).
The -chip has been developed by Hitachi Ltd. for banknote identification (RFID
Reference Model subcategory Banknotes).
4.3.6 Animal identification
Destron

Technologies offers tamperproof full duplex (FDX-B) electronic transpond-

ers for the cattle industry. These tags are suited for harsh environments. They
carry a 15 digit numeric ID, by which the animal can be identified (RFID Reference
Modelfield D. Access control and tracking & tracing of individuals).
There are products for animal identification (compliant with ISO 11784 and ISO
11785 defining data structure and air interface), e.g. ear tags that can be also read
visually or glass embedded tags (about 23 mm x 4 mm), which is implanted. A bo-
lus (about 65 mm x 21 mm) may be placed in the rumen of an animal. Another



47


possibility would be to put a collar containing an RFID tag on the animal. This is
primarily used on pets, like cats or dogs, but may also be used on cows. These tags
are passive and work at 134.2 kHz. Security functions are not always needed
unless access control is required. In order to identify an animal or object unambi-
guously low range systems like HF RFID (13.56 MHz) and LF RFID (134.2 kHz) suit
well.
4.3.7 Automation, production management, manufacturing
A big industrial application field is the area of automation, production and manufac-
turing (RFID Reference Model field B). In most cases so-called closed loop sys-
tems without security functions are used. Tag and reader usually stay inside the
same production hall. Proprietary systems with special system parameters (e.g.
high robustness, high reliability) that do not need to follow standards like ISO/IEC
18000 ([78], [79]) or EPCglobal ([81]) can be used here. The choice of frequency
bands and system properties (memory capacity, temperature range, robustness,
etc.) directly follows system requirements of the application.
At the Munich plant of BMW, Moby identification systems (RFID Systems SIMATIC
RF by Siemens AG) are used for transmission and storage of quality and safety
relevant data.
Integrated data management is done by suitable tags. E.g. Moby E is used in the
front and rear axle assembly. The different work piece carriers are marked with
tags to bring them to the correct workstations. RFID is likewise used in the cable
harness assembly, the power train elements assembly, car body and final assembly
and for locating vehicles on the factory premises. The data stored on the tags dur-
ing production ensure that vehicle-specific parts are being assembled correctly and
the relevant quality data are recorded.
4.3.8 Automotive
In the automotive sector there are various RFID applications (Reference Model
fields D. Access control and tracking & tracing of individuals, E. Loyalty, member-
ship and payment, H. Public services). Data security, data protection and privacy
are most important system properties. Card type tags with built-in security func-
tions (authentication, secure data access, encryption) are needed to fight tag-
cloning, data tampering and deception. Dependant on the reading range the appli-
cation requires HF or UHF systems with security functions that are suited for these
applications.



48


A high security intelligent license tag system may be used to detect and prevent
vehicle misuse. Parked cars can be checked without owner/driver attendance. The
vehicle data can instantly be verified by authorities. The tag may contain public
data (e.g. license number) and/or protected data (owner, taxes, etc.).These data
could be used to enforce payments for registration, tax and/or insurance. Protected
storage levels can be licensed to private companies e.g. for access control.
4.3.9 Smart drug cabinet
A smart drug cabinet is a future scenario providing automatic information about
access and inventory (RFID Reference Model fields C. Product safety, quality and
information, F. eHealth care). Security functions are required (authentication, se-
cure data access, encryption) to fight tag-cloning, data tampering, deception. The
RFID reader at the drug cabinet reads the tag of the accessing person and decides
if access is granted. The same reader may register drugs that are taken out from
the cabinet or placed into it. This information can also be used to monitor the sup-
ply chain. If a patient tag is read, drug assignment and therapy control are possible
(see also next example).
4.3.10 Medical, pharmaceutical, health care
In eHealth care applications (RFID Reference Model field F) special high security
functions are required since patient data may be stored on the tag and transferred
to/from the tag (authentication, secure data access, secure data storage, encryp-
tion). Such high security functions are currently available on HF RFID (13.56 MHz)
only. Wrist bands with RFID tags can be used to identify the patient, confirm the
medicine and dose administered and even the time this has to be done. In contrast
to barcode systems, RFID tags can be read through and around the human body.
The data on the tag can be changed if needed, to always keep patient data up-to-
date. The U.S. navy tracks wounded in Iraq using RFID technology.
4.3.11 VeriChip
The U.S. based vendor VeriChip Corp. provides state-of-the-art security solutions
that identify, locate, and protect people, their assets, and their environments. It
offers infant protection, wander prevention, asset tracking, and patient identifica-
tion applications, especially for the healthcare industry (RFID Reference Model field
F).



49


Within their systems, VeriChip offers three main categories of tags for these pur-
poses. The first is a passive, human-implantable RFID microchip, measuring the
size of a grain of rice. It is inserted just under the skin of the patient's upper right
arm. This chip is approved by FDA (US- Food and Drug Administration). The chip
can be read through a fixed or handheld reader. The reading distance typically is a
few centimetres. The unique 16-digit identifier, which is the only information stored
on the chip, can be connected to an on-line patient information data base. The pa-
tient record can contain vital information related to the patient, e.g. lab test data
and pharmacy records. The implanted chip cannot easily be lost or stolen. Due to
the missing security functions the tag can be cloned. Patient data cannot be eaves-
dropped without access to the corresponding database system. Today, according to
VeriChip Corp., VeriChip systems are installed in over 4,000 locations worldwide in
healthcare, security, industrial, and government markets. Currently, 110 medical
facilities have committed to adopt the VeriMed Patient Identification System in their
emergency rooms while over 2,500 people have gotten a VeriChip microchip world-
wide.
Another kind of tag VeriChip offers are active RFID tags worn by individuals (usually
on the wrist or leg). These tags are used to help prevent infant abductions and ac-
cidental mother/baby switching and prevent residents from wandering out of desig-
nated areas.
VeriChip also offers a selection of active and passive RFID tags which can be affixed
to items. Items to be tagged include equipment, parts and consumables, facilitating
inventory management.
4.4 Niche applications
RFID can also be used for some non-mass or niche applications.
4.4.1 Tree identification
Tags can provide serial numbers for trees. The College of Forest Resources at the
University of Washington uses a system where tags are placed inside trees. The
tags can be read with a hand-held reader outside the tree. Security functions are
not needed here. Due to the small tag cases HF is mainly used here with small coils
as antennas. The system is used by the University of Washington for a self-guided
tree tour, where the participants carry a PDA with an integrated reader.



50


4.4.2 Identification of bees
RFID tags attached to bees make it possible to track the activities of single insects.
The bio centre at the University of Wrzburg, Germany uses very small tags for
identifying bees. The whole tag must fit on the head of a bee. The chip weighs 2.4
mg. Due to the small tag antenna the reading range is rather low. The reader an-
tenna has to be placed near the entrance of the beehive.
4.4.3 Railroad car identification
Figure 2 shows an application where railroad cars are to be identified. Major re-
quirements are: passive tag, high speed reading, high reading range, high robust-
ness and high temperature range. Classical RFID systems do not provide all these
properties in combination. Here an RFID system on 2.45 GHz based on surface
acoustic waves (SAW) is used (RFID system by Siemens AG). In the centre the
tags RF response signal is shown.

Figure 2 Passive and robust RFID systems for identification of railroad cars
4.5 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 8 shows the mapping of application examples to the subcategories of the
RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this application example
applies to the corresponding subcategory.



51


Table 8 Mapping application examples to the RFID Reference Model
Current use RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
L
o
g
i
s
t
i
c
s
,

s
u
p
p
l
y

c
h
a
i
n

m
a
n
-
a
g
e
m
e
n
t

a
t

M
e
t
r
o

G
r
o
u
p

I
d
e
n
t
i
t
y

m
a
n
a
g
e
m
e
n
t
,

s
e
c
u
r
i
t
y
,

a
c
c
e
s
s

c
o
n
t
r
o
l

C
o
n
t
a
c
t
l
e
s
s

s
m
a
r
t

c
a
r
d

M
i
f
a
r
e

C
o
n
t
a
c
t
l
e
s
s

s
m
a
r
t

c
a
r
d

F
e
l
i
C
a

-
c
h
i
p

A
n
i
m
a
l

i
d
e
n
t
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

A
u
t
o
m
a
t
i
o
n
,

p
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

m
a
n
-
a
g
e
m
e
n
t
,

m
a
n
u
f
a
c
t
u
r
i
n
g

A
u
t
o
m
o
t
i
v
e

S
m
a
r
t

d
r
u
g

c
a
b
i
n
e
t

M
e
d
i
c
a
l
,

p
h
a
r
m
a
c
e
u
t
i
c
a
l
,

h
e
a
l
t
h

c
a
r
e

V
e
r
i
C
h
i
p

T
r
e
e

i
d
e
n
t
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

I
d
e
n
t
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

b
e
e
s

R
a
i
l
r
o
a
d

c
a
r

i
d
e
n
t
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n


AA: Inhouse logistics Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y
AC: Open logistics Y
AD: Postal applications
AE: Dangerous goods logistics
A: Logistical
tracking & trac-
ing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y
BA: Archive systems
BB: Asset management Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes
BF: Autom./process control Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. Goods Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. Goods Y
CB: Electronic goods Y
CC: Textile goods Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, quality
and information
CF: Customer info. systems Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y
D: Access con-
trol and track.
& tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y
GB: Rental systems G: Sports, lei-
sure and
household
GD: Smart home
HB: Road tolling systems Y H: Public ser-
vices
HC: Banknotes Y



52


5 Transponder Classes View
Another view on RFID systems derives from the approach to classify RFID systems
by the capabilities of their tags. A meanwhile widely used classification system has
been established by the MIT Auto-ID Center and is now continued by EPCglobal Inc
[81].
5.1 EPCglobal classes
EPCglobal is a subscriber-driven organisation comprised of industry leaders and
organisations, focused on creating global standards for the EPCglobal Network [81].
EPCglobal was formed as the successor organisation to the MIT Auto-ID Center,
which started the EPC technology. The Electronic Product Code (EPC) should pro-
vide unique ID numbers for objects and support the use of radio frequency identifi-
cation (RFID) in trading networks. The goal is increased efficiency throughout the
supply chain and higher information flow between companies and their trading
partners.
EPC tag
class
Tag type Tag class capabilities
Class 0 Read only, (i.e., EPC number (64 bits) hard coded by
manufacturer)
Class 1 Read, write once (i.e., EPC number (96256 bits) can be
encoded onto the tag later in the field)
Class 2
passive
Read / write (larger memory, user data)
Class 3 semi-
passive
Class 2 capabilities plus a power source to provide in-
creased range and/or advanced functionality (e.g. sen-
sors)
Class 4 Class 3 capabilities plus active communication and inter-
tag communication
Class 5
active
Class 4 capabilities plus communication with passive tags
as well
Table 9 EPCglobal RFID technology classes
Table 9: EPCglobal RFID technology classes shows a system introduced by the
RFID user organisation EPCglobal [81]. It is one possible view of tag classes, which
classifies tags according to their data handling capabilities, energy source and
communication skills.
EPCglobal class 0 up to class 2 build the group of passive tags. Class-3-tags are
semi-passive and class 4 and 5 form the active tag group. From class 0 up to class



53


5 the RFID system performance and capabilities increase. Current systems on the
market do not cover all classes. Only class 0 and class 1 are accompanied by corre-
sponding international standards (here EPCglobal standards [81]). Although, in
principle, this classification system is not limited to tags defined by EPCglobal stan-
dards [81], it is used mainly by the EPCglobal community. In March 2007, the most
advanced passive tag technology is the so-called Class 1 Generation 2 (short
Gen2) technology, according to the EPCglobal UHF standard [81]. The air inter-
face is also compatible with the new ISO/IEC 18000-6c (2006) ([78], [79]).
5.1.1 Passive tags
Passive tags have no energy source. They take their power supply out of the
readers magnetic or electromagnetic field. Because they need no batteries, they
can be built very cheap and very small in size.
Class 0
Class 0 are the simplest passive tags, according to the EPCglobal system [81]. They
are read-only tags with a simple ID number. The ID number is built-in when the tag
(chip) is manufactured and can not be altered. The ID is typically a 64 or 96 bit
number, which can be the EPC (Electronic Product Code). For EAS (Electronic Article
Surveillance) systems, the tag may contain only one bit of information, carrying
just the information that something is in reading range of the reader. The compa-
nies Symbol and Impinj manufacture a programmable tag, which they call Class
0+. It is not broadly available. "Class 0+" is not an official standard, and Symbol
and Impinj tags are not interchangeable.
Class 1
Class 1 are read/write passive tags that can only be written once. They can store a
larger ID number and some additional data. The ID and data can be written by the
manufacturer or the customer. Once written, they can not be altered. Many compa-
nies offer tags that comply with the EPCglobal UHF Gen2 specification [81]. E.g.
Impinj Inc. (USA) offers tags named Monaco and Monza for item level tagging
which are certified by EPCglobal [81].
Class 2
Class 2 are read/write passive tags that can be written many times. They can store
a larger amount of additional data and may have additional functionality like data
logging and/or cryptography.



54


5.1.2 Semi-passive tags
Semi-passive tags use an auxiliary energy source (usually a battery). They use the
energy out of the source for supplying the tag and producing the response modula-
tion. The response signal itself is generated passively as with passive tags.
Class 3
Class 3 tags use their power source (battery) to provide additional functionality like
sensor(s) and/or increased reading range. A typical example is a semi-passive tag
offered by the Italian company CAEN S.p.A. (http://www.caen.it/rfid/index.php).
This tag samples the temperature in 6-second-intervals and transfers its data to the
reader when interrogated. The lithium battery has a life time of 3 years. Its typical
application fields are the transportation and the supply chain of medical products,
foods etc., since it allows continuous monitoring of the goods condition.
5.1.3 Active tags
Active tags use an auxiliary energy source (usually a battery). The energy from the
source is used for all functions of the tag. The tag is generating an RF signal by
itself without the support of the reader. The energy source may also be used for the
supply of additional components like sensors, actuators, crypto engines, data proc-
essing units, etc.
Class 4
Class 4 provides the same functionality as class 3 and in addition to that the tags
generate their own RF signal and can communicate with other active tags. Active
tags may send their data independently from interrogation signals of a reader (bea-
con tag). E.g. the US-based company Savi Technology (http://www.savi.com) of-
fers sensor tags that consist of a high performance active RFID tag for real-time
container tracking during transit, including sensors that detect any unauthorised
opening of the container. The sensor monitors the environmental conditions inside
the container. Any change in temperature, humidity and shock is detected.
Class 5
Class 5 provides the same functionality as class 4 and in addition to that the tags
can communicate with other active, semi-passive and passive tags. Class 5 tags
essentially have reader capabilities. An application field for these tags may be sen-
sor networks and ambient intelligence systems.



55


5.1.4 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 10 shows the mapping of basic transponder classes to the subcategories of
the RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this transponder
class can be used in the corresponding subcategory.



56


Table 10 Mapping basic transponder classes to the RFID Reference Model
Current use Possible use RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
P
a
s
s
i
v
e

t
a
g
s

S
e
m
i
-
p
a
s
s
i
v
e

t
a
g
s

A
c
t
i
v
e

t
a
g
s

P
a
s
s
i
v
e

t
a
g
s

S
e
m
i
-
p
a
s
s
i
v
e

t
a
g
s

A
c
t
i
v
e

t
a
g
s

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical
tracking & trac-
ing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, quality
and information
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y
D: Access con-
trol and track. &
tracing of indi-
viduals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y G: Sports, lei-
sure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y Y Y Y H: Public ser-
vices
HC: Banknotes Y Y



57


5.1.4.1 Passive tags
Passive tags get all their operational power from the readers field. They are used in
all subcategories, except fresh/perishable foods (due to the temperature sensors)
and road tolling systems (high reading ranges (>7 metres)). In the future, passive
temperature sensor tags might be developed that can be used here. But existing
technology uses active RFID with sensors. High reading range and high reliability in
road tolling systems are achieved with semi-passive or active tags.
5.1.4.2 Semi-passive and active tags
Semi-passive and active tags use an additional energy source (e.g. battery) to
power their circuitry. Semi-passive tags use the same air interface as passive tags
while active tags actively generate a radio frequency signal. Semi-passive tags
reach higher reading ranges than passive tags, since the main circuitry is powered
from the energy source rather than from the RF field. Active tags reach the highest
reading ranges since they generate their own RF signal out of the energy source
(e.g. battery). Due to the additional energy source, both tag classes are rather ex-
pensive in comparison to passive tags. Cost effective usage is therefore limited to
subcategories that need additional functionality (e.g. sensors, data processing,
networking) or very high reading ranges and reliability, as in dangerous goods lo-
gistics (e.g. temperature sensors), vehicles (sensors), automation/process control
(e.g. sensors), fresh/perishable foods (temperature sensors), pharmaceuticals
(temperature sensors), implants (temperature sensors), smart home (sensors) and
road tolling systems (high reading range, high reliability).



58


6 ISO/OSI Network Model View
RFID systems can be viewed from a networking perspective. An RFID system con-
sists of several components. Together with existing enterprise systems, a network
is built that may interact and communicate with other networks (e.g. business-to-
business (B2B)) as well. Figure 3 shows a typical RFID scenario.
RFID System Block Diagram
Edge server
Integration
server
Reader Tag
Enterprise
applications
RF ID tags on
goods or containers
RF ID transfers ID
RFID Reader as
hand-held or
stationary device
RFID Reader
transfers ID and
data from and to
the tag as well as
communicates
them to the server
Edge server
combines ID and
product within data
set
Management of
local tasks
Contains
middleware
Integration Server:
Communicates
relevant Information
to enterprise
applications
Integration point of
extra-corporate
information
Transfer of specific
information to
external partners

Figure 3 RFID system block diagram
A stationary or hand-held RFID reader (interrogator) communicates with one or
more RFID tags (transponders) via magnetic or electromagnetic radio frequency
(RF) fields. RF band used for RFID range from low frequency (LF), via high fre-
quency (HF) up to ultra high frequency (UHF) and super high frequency (SHF). The
reader reads at least the tags ID number. It may read auxiliary data from tags or
write it to tags that support additional data memory (read only, read/write).
Via another wired or wireless interface, the reader connects to an edge or RFID
middleware server. This server adapts and co-ordinates the data transfer from a
number of readers to enterprise resource planning systems (ERP), such as integra-
tion servers, production control servers, communication servers, etc. RFID middle-
ware running on the edge server helps to convert usually proprietary and incom-
patible interfaces between readers and enterprise systems. Due to performance and
organisational reasons it may also provide additional services as data collection and
distribution services, data base lookup and store services, etc.



59


Since the late 1970s the Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model (OSI)
provides a generic vendor independent description of point-to-point or point-to-
multi-point data connections between communication partners. After standardisa-
tion by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) [78] it is called the
ISO/OSI Network Model or ISO/OSI Layer Model [1]. It defines up to seven layers
on each end of the communication.
Layer number Layer designation
7 Application layer
6 Presentation layer
5 Session layer
4 Transport layer
3 Network layer
2 Data Link layer
1 Physical layer
Table 11 ISO/OSI layer model
The seven layers of the ISO/OSI Model describe different aspects of parts of a
communication system, forming a stack of protocols and procedures, starting from
the physical connection (communication medium) up to the applications that use
the whole stack. Usually all layers feature a set of functions and services that are
offered to upper layers. Each communication partner uses its own ISO/OSI stack.
During the communication each layer gets in contact with the corresponding layer
of the communication partner(s).
Physical layer
The physical layer (1) defines the electrical and physical specifications of the com-
munication medium as well as methods used to implement data transfer on the
medium, e.g. modulation, data conversion, data coding, flow control. Examples of
protocols and standards for physical layers are RS-232 (serial communication),
IEEE 802.3 (CSMA/CA) (Ethernet line communication) ([80]), IEEE 802.11
(Ethernet wireless LAN) ([80]).
Data link layer
Using services of the physical layer, the data link layer (2) provides correct data
transfer between the communication partners. It takes measures to control access
to the physical medium, to detect and correct transmission errors and to ensure,
that data arrive in correct order at the receiver. Examples of protocols and stan-
dards for data link layers are SDLC and HDLC (LAPB), IEEE 802.2 (Logical Link Con-
trol (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC)), PPP (Point-to-point protocol) [80],
Aloha (for wireless systems).



60


Network layer
The network layer (3) helps to establish a connection between source and destina-
tion and/or provides routing functions through a network. Routers operate at this
level enabling packet oriented data transfer (e.g. internet). Addressing schemes
might be introduced here in order to unambiguously identify all communication
partners (see IP address on the internet). Examples of protocols and standards for
network layers are the internet Protocol (IP), IPsec (secure IP), ARP, ICMP, X.25.
Transport layer
The transport layer (4) focuses on the end-to-end control of the communication
link. It provides services like the opening and closing of a logical connection be-
tween source and destination and the creation of a transparent communication
channel. Further tasks of this layer are stream control, congestion avoidance, flow
control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. The transport layer pro-
vides reliable end-to-end data connection channels. Upper layers (>=5) can use
these channels without the need of knowing details about the underlying layers
(<=4). Examples of protocols and standards for transport layers are Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Stream Control Transmis-
sion Protocol (SCTP).
Session layer
The communication between processes and/or applications on different communica-
tion partners are controlled by the session layer (5). Tasks like check-pointing, ad-
journment, termination, and restart of procedures provide an organised and syn-
chronised data exchange. Examples of protocols and standards for session layers
are Remote Procedure Call Protocol (RPC), Network File System (NFS), Layer 2
Tunnelling Protocol (L2TP).
Presentation layer
The presentation layer (6) performs services for a system-independent data pres-
entation like data coding and syntax (e.g. ASCII), data encryption (secure data
transfer), data compression. Examples of protocols and standards for presentation
layers are ASCII, ISO 8859-1, Unicode (e.g. UTF-8), Multipurpose internet Mail Ex-
tensions (MIME), Audio Compression (e.g. MP3), Video Compression (e.g. MPEG).
Application layer
Applications running on the systems of the communications end-points use ser-
vices and protocols provided by the application layer (7), which is the top layer of
the hierarchical ISO/OSI Model. Protocols and standards of this layer make the ser-
vices of all other layers available to applications. So usually this layer is the only
ISO/OSI layer that applications use for communication purposes. It provides ser-



61


vices to user-defined application processes but not to the end user. Also the appli-
cations (processes) themselves are not part of the ISO/OSI Layer Model. Examples
of protocols and standards for application layers are internet related protocols like
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Network File System (NFS), Telnet, Simple Mail Trans-
fer Protocol (SMTP), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP, World Wide Web).
Not all layers need to be implemented by a real communication system. Some pro-
tocols or standards combine aspects of more than one layer. So the ISO/OSI Layer
Model is not a one-to-one assignment to real world communication systems. It
rather specifies a method to easily classify, describe and compare protocols and
standards used in communication systems.
As seen above in Figure 3 the components of an RFID System communicate usually
in a well-defined way. In general, each link uses different protocols and standards,
i.e. their own ISO/OSI stack. Main differences apply between the tag-to-reader
(wireless), reader-to-edge server (serial) and the edge server-to-integration server
interfaces (network). Although similar data are transferred there, the media and
the protocols used are quite different. Most of the frequency allocations are in so-
called industrial scientific medical ISM bands. In many countries no special licens-
ing is necessary for the usage of these bands.
6.1 Tag/reader interface
The RFID reader (or interrogator) communicates to one or more tags (or trans-
ponders) at a time via the wireless tag/reader interface (see chapter 7.1). Due to
the wireless character of this communication link it is also called air interface.
On the physical layer (ISO/OSI model) the tag/reader interface uses alternating
magnetic, electric or electromagnetic fields with various radio frequencies as its
transport medium. On passive and semi-passive systems the same medium is used
for the power supply of the tags. Many frequency bands in the range of 9 kHz up to
24 GHz are theoretically available for RFID usage. Most of the frequency allocations
are in so-called industrial scientific medical ISM bands. In many countries no spe-
cial licensing is necessary for the usage of these bands.
The most commonly used frequency bands for RFID air interfaces in frequency or-
der:
Air Interface <135 kHz, low frequency (LF)
(usable worldwide)



62


Air Interface at 13.56 MHz, high frequency (HF)
(usable worldwide)
Air Interface at 433.92 MHz , ultra high frequency (UHF)
(not usable worldwide)
Air Interface at 840-960 MHz, ultra high frequency (UHF)
(usable worldwide, but different sub-bands)
Air Interface at 2.45 GHz, ultra high frequency (UHF)
(usable worldwide)
Air Interface at 5.8 GHz, super high frequency (SHF)
(usable worldwide, but different sub-bands)
A detailed discussion about air interfaces and their physical properties follows in the
technological view (chapter 7.1)
For the data exchange between reader and tag, several modulation and data coding
techniques are in use. These procedures belong to the data link layer (ISO/OSI
model) and some of them follow international standards. The most commonly stan-
dard protocols used for this interface are the ISO/IEC 18000 series ([78], [79]) and
the EPCglobal standards family ([81]).
Aloha
Protocol
Binary Tree
Protocol
Aloha
Protocol
Binary Tree
Protocol
Pulse
Interval
Encoding
Manchester
Coding
ASK
27% to
100%
reader type A type B reader type A type B
tag
ASK
18% to
100%
1 1 0 1 0
data
Manchester
coding
ASK
18% to
100%

Figure 4 Communication reader to tag



63


Figure 4 shows two widely used examples for the data communication in reader-to-
tag direction. The international RFID standard family ISO/IEC 18000 ([78], [79])
defines in part 6 (UHF RFID, 840-960 MHz) two types (A and B) of communication
protocols. Both variants are able to communicate with a large number of tags
within the reading area (multi-tag operation). When the reader transmits a request
signal and reaches more than one tag, the response signals of the tags might col-
lide and the reader cannot decode them. In order to avoid this situation, so-called
anti-collision protocols are used to address and detect single tags. For an anti-
collision protocol, Type A uses Slotted Aloha: the reader defines a number of time
slots for the response signals of the tags. Each addressed tag may select randomly
one of these slots for its response signal. For data encoding Pulse Interval Encod-
ing (PIE) is used: 0 and 1 bits are coded into signal pulses of different width.
The radio frequency carrier (UHF) itself, transmitted from the reader to the tag, is
modulated with a technique called Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): the amplitude of
the carrier is switched between 100% and 27%. Type B uses a binary tree proto-
col for anti-collision (tags are sequentially addressed in sets, becoming smaller at
each step), Manchester Coding as data coding (combination technique for data
and clock signals) and also Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) as a modulation tech-
nique for the reader-to-tag direction.
type A
type B
Aloha
Protocol
Binary Tree
Protocol
FM0
tag
reader
1 1 0 1 0
data
FM0
backscatter

Figure 5 Communication tag to reader, reader talks first
For the opposite direction (tag-to-reader direction, tag responds to reader) the
same two standard variants use the same bi-phase data coding (FM0) (see Figure
5). Data bits 0 and 1 are converted into the states space and mark that repre-
sent two states of low and high reflectivity at the tag antenna. This backscatter re-
flectivity modulation can be detected and decoded by the reader. Since the anti-
collision protocol applies to both data transfer directions, type A again follows Slot-
ted Aloha, while type B uses the binary tree protocol.



64


The network layer (ISO/OSI model) is limited here to complex variants of active
RFID systems (e.g. sensor networks, see Advanced systems below, 7.7), that
build networks between a set of tags and readers. Most of these systems are
closed loop systems with little need of standardisation. In consequence, such sys-
tems currently use proprietary protocols. All other RFID systems do not establish a
network on the tag/reader interface, so the network layer is not being used.
Simple RFID systems often do not need to open and close a logical connection from
the reader to the tag. There is also no process communication. Protocols of the
transport layer and session layer (ISO/OSI model) are not needed here. Systems,
however, that implement the network layer, might also apply functions of the
transport and session layer as well. Currently there are no international standards
concerning the transport and session layer.
The presentation layer (ISO/OSI model) handles data coding, data encryption and
data compression. There are internationally accepted standards (ISO [78], EP-
Cglobal [81]) that define global numbering systems (e.g. Electronic Product Code
(EPC)) in order to distinguish between different standards and protocols and to
uniquely identify the tags. These ID numbers are used for proper singulation (sepa-
ration) in case of a multi-tag arrangement, as well as for the global object assign-
ment (manufacturer, article, and object). For the structure of additional (user) data
programmable into the tag or permanently stored in the tag, there are current ef-
forts for standardisation in certain business areas.
In applications where the communication between reader and tag has to be se-
cured, i.e. reader and tag use authentication protocols, encryption of data transfer,
encryption of stored data, the protocols used are described in the presentation
layer. Currently there are no international standards for these protocols. Most
manufacturers for secure RFID systems currently use proprietary secret (non-
disclosed) communication procedures and methods, although some use standard-
ised symmetrical encryption standards internally (e.g. Data Encryption Standard
(DES), Triple Data Encryption Standards (DES)). There is a lack of standardised
crypto-tags communication that uses open, well-known and widely used encryption
standards. The introduction of asymmetric encryption methods (e.g. RSA, elliptical
curve cryptography) is still in an early stage. There are many reasons for that. For
more information see chapter 9.
The application layer (ISO/OSI model) offers system-dependent services for the
communication between reader and tags. These services are determined by the
RFID standard if used. Common basic services are
Identify all tags in reading range (multi-tag-read)



65


Read tag ID
Read tag user data
Write tag user data
Advanced RFID systems (e.g. sensor systems) may add further services here for
their additional functionality.
6.2 Reader/edge server interface
Via the reader/edge server interface, the reader or interrogator communicates with
the edge server where the so-called RFID middleware is running. This interface is
usually wired and uses well-known media and data communication standards. Al-
though there is some ongoing work to create international standards for this inter-
face and there are also first results (e.g. EPCglobal Reader Protocol Standard V1.1,
June 2006 [81]), most RFID readers still use proprietary protocols for the commu-
nication to edge servers. In consequence of that, one major task of the RFID mid-
dleware is to adapt the readers interface (from various manufacturers) to some
enterprise system (integration server).
On the physical layer (ISO/OSI model) the reader/edge server interface uses well-
known, standardised and widely used data communication interfaces. Most readers
provide at least a serial interface (e.g. RS-232 or RS-485 standard) and in addition
to that a network interface (e.g. 10 BASE-T, 100BASE-T Ethernet LAN interface).
Some new wireless technologies like WLAN or Bluetooth are optionally available.
Standards like RS-232 or RS-485 only define the physical layer. For the data link
layer up to the session layer proprietary protocols are used. Networking enabling
standards like Ethernet or Wireless LAN usually define the data link layer up to the
transport layer (e.g. Medium Access Control (MAC) on Ethernet/WLAN, internet Pro-
tocol (IP), and Transport Control Protocol (TCP/IP)).
The network layer (ISO/OSI model) is only used here if several readers are con-
nected to one or more edge servers in a separate or a common enterprise network.
In this case, standardised Ethernet and internet routing protocols apply here.
The presentation layer (ISO/OSI model) handles data coding, data encryption and
data compression. Since most readers still use proprietary reader/edge server in-
terfaces, only a few standards exist here. Some readers offer plain text commands
in standard code (e.g. American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII)). Others offer machine readable, manufacturer determined binary proto-
cols. Although desirable for secured applications, almost no reader provides secure



66


data communication on this interface. The lack of international standardisation on
protocols for the reader/edge server interface can be extended to secure data
transfer protocols on the same interface. Depending on the installation infrastruc-
ture, especially when using Wireless LAN on this interface, secured data transfer
may be required by some secure RFID applications. So not only the tag/reader but
also the reader/edge server interface should have the option of secured data trans-
fer.
Most readers offer their RFID services via a proprietary application layer (ISO/OSI
model). The services offered to the edge server (RFID middleware) are similar to
the tag/reader interface.
Identify all tags in reading range (multi-tag-read)
Read tag ID
Read tag user data
Write tag user data
Advanced RFID systems (e.g. sensor systems) may add further services here for
their additional functionality.
6.3 Edge server/integration server interface
Via the edge server/integration server interface the RFID middleware communi-
cates with the integration server running some enterprise resource planning system
(ERP) or similar. Many applications need a link to some databases or production
control information on enterprise level in order to associate tag data (e.g. ID num-
ber) to object data. This interface handles such enterprise applications.
On the physical layer (ISO/OSI model) the edge server/integration server interface
mostly uses wired LAN technology (Ethernet, 100BASE-T) is used (in-house net-
work infra-structure). Common LAN standards like Ethernet (e.g. 10 BASE-T,
100BASE-T Ethernet LAN interface) as well as the internet standards family often
apply here.
Networking enabling standards like Ethernet and internet standards define the data
link layer up to the transport layer (e.g. Medium Access Control (MAC) on
Ethernet/WLAN, internet Protocol (IP), and Transport Control Protocol (TCP/IP)).



67


The network layer (ISO/OSI model) is used here for building an in-house network
that connects all edge servers and integration servers at the enterprise level. Stan-
dardised Ethernet and internet routing protocols apply here.
On the session layer (ISO/OSI model) protocols for filter applications (tag data,
readers, etc.), data collection services, and database applications may apply.
The presentation layer (ISO/OSI model) handles data coding, data encryption and
data compression. Data presentation and the usage of encryption and compression
totally depend on the integration server (enterprise system) and the services it
provides. Therefore usually no international standards exist on this level. Protocols
used are manufacturer-dependent. There is almost no need for standardisation here
since the RFID middleware provides the adaptation between reader systems to in-
tegration servers in use. There is also only a small need for secure data transfer on
this interface unless the enterprise intends to use secure data communication for its
complete IT infrastructure.
The application services between the edge server and the integration server are
handled via the application layer (ISO/OSI model). They are determined by the
applications implemented on the integration server. Depending on the level of ab-
straction the edge server offers in a given installation, usually higher level opera-
tions are communicated here. Examples for the logistics sector could be:
Check delivery for completeness
Mark delivery date/time and incoming gate
Compare pallet level and item level information
Advanced RFID systems (e.g. sensor systems) may add further services here for
their additional functionality.
6.4 Integration server/integration server interface
Via the integration server/integration server interface, the integration servers are
communicating with each other. Also business-to-business (B2B) or customer-to-
business communication (C2B) is possible here.
There are many network protocols available. On the physical layer (ISO/OSI model)
the integration server/integration server interface mostly uses wired LAN technol-
ogy (Ethernet, 100BASE-T, in-house LAN and internet WAN network infra-
structure). Common LAN standards like Ethernet (e.g. 10 BASE-T, 100BASE-T



68


Ethernet LAN interface) as well as the internet standards family often apply here.
For communication via the internet, the IP protocol is mandatory.
Networking enabling standards like Ethernet and internet standards define the data
link layer up to the transport layer (e.g. Medium Access Control (MAC) on
Ethernet/WLAN, internet Protocol (IP), and Transport Control Protocol (TCP)).
The network layer (ISO/OSI model) is used here for building the in-house network,
connecting all integration servers as well as internet connections e.g. for business-
to-business (B2B) applications. Standardised Ethernet and internet routing proto-
cols apply here.
The presentation layer (ISO/OSI model) handles data coding, data encryption and
data compression. Data presentation and the usage of encryption and compression
totally depend on the integration server (enterprise system) and the services it
provides. When it comes to business-to-business (B2B) communication there is a
need for international standardisation, especially for worldwide supply chain appli-
cations. E.g. electronic exchange of delivery information could be handled easier via
standardised procedures rather than via proprietary protocols. There are some ef-
forts from standardisation organisations (like ISO and EPCglobal) to establish inter-
national standards in this field. The worldwide acceptance and implementation of
such standards, that might enable a construct like the Internet of Things, is still a
challenge. The need for data encryption and data compression increases again on
this interface since at least in the B2B or C2B case the data transfer runs over inse-
cure public networks (internet). The mentioned standards should also include this
functionality. Encrypted data channels via Virtual Private Network (VPN) systems
are commonly used here.
The application services between integration servers of the same or other enter-
prises are handled via the application layer (ISO/OSI model). They are determined
by the applications defined and implemented on each side. B2B and C2B examples
for the logistics sector could be:
Ordering and delivery management (ordering on demand, delivery check,
automated complaint and subsequent delivery)
Availability checks
Stock alignment
Improved just-in-time management



69


6.5 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
The ISO/OSI network model is related to the RFID Reference Model (see chapter
4.2), developed by the CE RFID project. The tag/reader interface applies to every
type of RFID system and is therefore relevant for all application fields. Table 12
shows the mapping of the remaining interfaces (reader/edge server, edge
server/integration server, integration server/integration server) to the subcatego-
ries of the RFID Reference Model. Y means: Yes, this interface is used in the
corresponding subcategory.



70


Table 12 Mapping network model to the RFID Reference Model
Current use Possible use RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
R
e
a
d
e
r
/
e
d
g
e

s
e
r
v
e
r

i
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

E
d
g
e

s
e
r
v
e
r
/
i
n
t
e
g
r
.

s
e
r
v
e
r

i
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

I
n
t
e
g
r
.

s
e
r
v
e
r
/
i
n
t
e
g
r
.

s
e
r
v
e
r

i
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

R
e
a
d
e
r
/
e
d
g
e

s
e
r
v
e
r

i
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

E
d
g
e

s
e
r
v
e
r
/
i
n
t
e
g
r
.

s
e
r
v
e
r

i
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

I
n
t
e
g
r
.

s
e
r
v
e
r
/
i
n
t
e
g
r
.

s
e
r
v
e
r

i
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical
tracking & trac-
ing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, quality
and information
CF: Customer info. Systems Y Y Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y
D: Access con-
trol and track.
& tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y Y Y Y Y E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y Y Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y Y Y G: Sports, lei-
sure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y Y Y Y Y Y H: Public ser-
vices
HC: Banknotes Y Y Y Y Y



71


According to the definition of the subcategories of the RFID Reference Model, the
reader/edge server interface as well as the edge server/integration server interface
is used in all subcategories regarded in work package 1. Applications where data
have to be exchanged with external systems (e.g. databases at business partners)
use the integration server/integration server interface for this purpose (business-
to-business (B2B), business-to-customer (B2C)). Closed loop and open logistics,
postal applications, the monitoring of dangerous goods, pharmaceuticals, implants,
loyalty and membership cards, rental systems, smart home, and road tolling sys-
tems need this external data exchange for maximum performance (e.g. consistency
of central database entries, itinerary updates). Manufacturing logistics, vehicles,
aeroplanes, automation / process control, goods (fast moving consumer, electronic,
textile) , fresh/perishable foods, customer information systems, and banknotes are
applications, where in (current) first step implementations external communication
is not yet used, but can be extended in the future.



72


7 Technological View
7.1 Air interfaces
RFID readers and transponders communicate wirelessly to each other via the so-
called air interface. Radio frequency bands used for RFID usually range from 125
kHz (low frequency (LF)) up to 5.8 GHz (super high frequency (SHF)). The air inter-
face uses two major principles: inductive or magnetic coupling and electromagnetic
field coupling.
Frequency Band Coupling Area of usage Comments
<135 kHz LF (low
frequency)
worldwide
1
ISM2
2
band
13.56 MHz HF (high
frequency)
inductive (mag-
netic) coupling
worldwide
1
ISM
2
band
433 MHz Europe ISM
2
band
842 MHz China
868 MHz Europe ISM
2
band
915 MHz USA, Canada ISM
2
band
922 MHz China
955 MHz Asia ISM
2
band
2.45 GHz
UHF (ultra
high fre-
quency)
worldwide
1
ISM
2
band
5.8 GHz SHF (super
high fre-
quency)
electromagnetic
field coupling
worldwide
1
Different frequency
allocations in differ-
ent countries
Table 13 RFID air interfaces
7.1.1 Inductive coupling
Inductive coupling uses an alternating magnetic field with frequencies usually below
40 MHz. The free space wavelengths of the two mostly used frequency bands are
2400 metres for the 125 kHz band (LF) and 22 metres for the 13.56 MHz band
(HF). The size of a typical and effective antenna is usually in the order of the wave-



1
worldwide means: usable in most countries via general licence
2
ISM means: bands allocated for industrial, scientific and medical usage



73


length. Due to the low frequencies shortened antennas, mostly magnetic antennas
or coils are used on the reader as well as on the tag side. The reader antenna (pri-
mary coil) together with the tag antenna (secondary coil) can be interpreted as a
transformer.
A passive tag gets its power supply from the magnetic field the reader antenna
generates. The simplest tags start sending their ID number in an endless loop as of
the moment the tag has gathered enough energy to operate. Some tags wait for
the reader to send a request signal via modulated signals to start the tag-to-reader
transmission. This mode is necessary e.g. for anti-collision algorithms in case of
multi-tag environments, so single tags can be encouraged to transmit to the
reader. In addition to that, writeable tags may receive further data from the reader
to be stored permanently in the tag, e.g. production status, reading history, re-
ports.
In case of inductive coupling the tag transmits its ID number and possible further
data back to the reader via load modulation. The tag modulates the electrical load,
which it presents to the reader, via the transformer arrangement (L1-L2).
Reader + Tag = Transformer
N
S
Reader
(primary
coil)
N
S
Reader
(primary
coil)
Tag
(secondary
coil)
Modulation
to transmit
data
L
1
L
2
R
L
R
Chip
L
1
L
2
R
L
R
Chip
Reader Tag

Figure 6 Inductive coupling (physical principle for radio frequencies below 40 MHz)
The load modulation of the tag results in a small amplitude modulation on the
reader antenna (coil) as indicated in Figure 6. In order to see this effect the modu-
lation amplitude is strongly exaggerated in Figure 7. In reality, the modulation am-
plitude is about up to 1000 times smaller than the total amplitude of the reader
antenna signal. This very weak amplitude modulation has to be amplified and de-
coded by the reader. The reading range is mainly limited by three factors. One is
the power supply of the tag through the magnetic field, the second factor is the
minimum power the tag IC requires for its operation and the third factor is the
readers ability to detect the small tag modulation. Most tag designs try to balance



74


the first and the second factor to optimise maximum reading range, while the third
one depends purely on reader sensitivity and selectivity.
Manchester
Coding
tag
reader
ASK
1 1 0 1 0
data
Total reader
signal amplitude
Modulated
amplitude
Amplitude shift
(exaggerated)

Figure 7 Example for communication tag to reader with Manchester coded binary
data
Advantages Disadvantages
Established technology for more than 40
years; cheap tags are available
Reading range may be significantly reduced by
ferromagnetic materials in the proximity of the
tag antenna (detuning)
The proximity to metals and liquids is
less interfering due to the characteris-
tics of the magnetic alternating field
Only the near field is used, resulting in a maxi-
mum range of about the antenna size (e.g. a
reader antenna with a diameter of 1.5 m leads to
a reading range of up to 1.5 m)
Single tags can be addressed accurately
due to low reading range
Large antennas compared to the reading range
No multi-path problems
Minimal interference between tags
Table 14 Advantages and disadvantages of inductive coupling
7.1.2 Electromagnetic field coupling
The second major principle uses an electromagnetic field (wave) with frequencies
usually above 40 MHz. The free space wavelengths of mostly used frequency bands
range from 70 centimetres (UHF, 433 MHz) down to 5 centimetres (SHF, 5.8 GHz).
Due to the higher frequencies and therefore lower wavelengths, the antennas get
smaller and are less shortened than low frequency antennas.



75


The electromagnetic wave separates from the reader antenna and is radiated to the
tag antenna. The propagation space of the electromagnetic wave is usually divided
into near field and far field areas with respect to the transmission antenna. Passive
UHF tags are typically designed to operate in the far field area. The strength of the
wave front diminishes as the distance from the radiating source increases. This is
called free space attenuation. Passive UHF RFID tags harvest the energy from the
wave front by using the tags antenna structures. The larger the effective antenna
area (antenna gain), the better is the antennas ability to collect field energy. Also
the matching circuit from the tag antenna to the RFID tag chip and the power re-
quirements of the chip influence the effective operational range (distance reader
antenna to tag antenna) of the RFID system.
dipole antenna
Modulation
to transmit
data
rectifier chip reader
directional
coupler
Tags
Reader Antenna

Figure 8 Electromagnetic field coupling (physical principle for radio frequencies
above 40 MHz)
Advantages Disadvantages
Due to the increased reading ranges addi-
tional functions (e.g. localisation of tags)
might be a sensible extension to the tag
reading
Due to the wave characteristics of electro-
magnetic fields destructive interferences may
create field areas where tags cannot be ad-
dressed
The higher communication frequencies allow
higher data transfer rates (compared to in-
ductively coupled systems)
The absorption of field energy by conductive
materials (e.g. metals or liquids) can also
affect the performance
Antenna design is much more flexible, e.g.
designs for tags can be adapted to surround-
ing materials
Direct mounting on metal is impossible. Spe-
cial antenna designs together with spacers
are required
Small antennas compared to reading range This technology is less mature and is still
evolving. Early investments might be critical
Reading ranges can be comparatively high Single tag addressing needs appropriate
multi-tag protocols due to possible high tag
population in reading range
Table 15 Advantages and disadvantages of electromagnetic field coupling



76


Passive tags
A passive tag receives its power supply solely from the magnetic or electromagnetic
field. The tag receives data via modulated signals from the reader and it sends data
back to the reader via load modulation or back-scatter modulation. Passive or semi-
passive tags alter the properties of the tag antenna. This can be detected by the
reader.
Semi-passive tags
A semi-passive tag uses an auxiliary energy source (in most cases a battery) to
power additional tag functions, e.g. clock, temperature sensor that need continuous
power supply.
Active tags
Active tags also use an auxiliary energy source, but they use it to actively generate
radio frequency signals transmitted to the reader. It contains a complete RF trans-
mitter.
With passive tags the limiting factor of the reading range is the power supply of the
tag via the electromagnetic field. Semi-passive and active tags allow higher reading
ranges because they use the magnetic or electromagnetic field for communication
purposes only. They do not need to supply their hardware from the field.
Semi-passive and active RFID systems mainly use electromagnetic coupling for
gaining very large reading ranges (up to several hundred meters).
Systems up to 40 MHz operating frequency usually use the alternating magnetic
field for supplying the tag (passive tag only) and for both reader-to-tag as well as
tag-to-reader communication. The magnetic field is almost homogenous. The mag-
netic field strength decreases much faster with reader-to-tag distance than the
electromagnetic field strength. Figure 9 illustrates the decrease of the strength of
the reception signal usable by passive transponders for power supply. This signal
declines with a factor of 1/R3 (R = distance reader-to-tag) for magnetic (inductive)
coupled transponders and with 1/R2 for electromagnetic field coupled tags. For
similar effective antenna areas, the electromagnetic coupling provides potentially
higher reading ranges.



77


S
i
g
n
a
l

L
e
v
e
l

a
t

R
e
c
e
i
v
e
r

(
L
o
g
a
r
i
t
h
m
i
c

S
c
a
l
e
)
Distance (Linear Scale)
Magnetic Field
Electromagnetic Field

Figure 9 Comparison of receiving level at a transponder between magnetic field
coupling and electromagnetic field coupling
Systems with an operating frequency above 40 MHz commonly use the electromag-
netic far field between the reader and tag antenna. All phenomena of far field radio
waves apply here. In the presence of reflections there are interference (positive and
negative), standing waves, field holes, scattering, deflection, refraction, shielding
effects, etc.
The left part of Figure 10 shows the near field distribution of the magnetic field
generated by coil antenna in the centre. Due to the very long wavelength together
with the strong decrease of the magnetic field strength, there is no classic far field
area where an electromagnetic wave may detach. In the right part (not to scale
with the left part) the much larger transition area from the near field to the far field
of an electromagnetic signal is displayed. We can see the separation of the electro-
magnetic wave from the antenna at the bottom of the picture. These properties
confirm the field characteristics shown in Figure 10.



78


Antenna coil

Antenna
Separating
electromagnetic
wave

Figure 10 Different field distribution of magnetic field (left) and electro magnetic
field (right)
Maximum distances are usually achieved by RFID systems using electromagnetic
field. For passive electromagnetic systems the powering of the tag is the most criti-
cal factor in the calculation of the maximum reader-to-tag distance. Using typical
values for system parameters like minimum power to operate the tag chip,
wavelength of the radio frequency carrier, maximum output power of the
readers RF signal, polarisation and matching losses of both antennas (tag and
reader), tag antenna gain, the maximum distance from reader to tag (d
max
) can
be calculated to:
Europe at 868 MHz: m d
max
4 . 6 ... 8 . 5 =
USA at 915 MHz: m d
max
7 . 6 ... 1 . 6 =
Although the range for systems operating at 915 MHz (USA) is not significantly
higher, there are other parameters that influence the performance for systems at
868 MHz for usage in Europe (e.g. bandwidth, additional requirements like listen-
before-talk, frequency hopping). For further information please see Standards and
Regulations below, chapter 8.
The following figure puts the facts together:



79



Figure 11 Tendencies of system capabilities
Inductive coupling is the physical principle mainly used for frequencies below
40 MHz.
Electromagnetic field is the mainly transfer medium above 40 MHz.
The reading range of low frequency (LF) and high frequency (HF) systems is
in the order of the average antenna diameter between reader and tag (usual
systems show a maximum range of about 1 meter).
The reading range of ultra high frequency (UHF) systems is significantly
higher
The available energy at the tag out of field is the limiting factor for high
ranges with passive tags. It can be increased by techniques like power scav-
enging. This limitation has more impact for higher frequencies because of in-
creasing free path loss and decreasing efficiencies of some electronic com-
ponents (e.g. rectifiers).
When trying to reach greater ranges the next boarder takes effect: the
maximum range for backscatter communication. Because of the weakness of
the reflected signal from the tag the range is limited. This affects the range
of passive and semi-passive tags. Higher frequencies are more affected be-
cause free path loss becomes dominant.



80


The active transmission of active tags enables to communicate over great
distances of several hundred meters.
The higher the operating frequency, the smaller the size of similar effective
antennas can be designed at a comparable maximum range.
In addition to tag size, the maximum read range is limited by the power re-
quirement of the tags RFID chip, which varies from one chip manufacturer
to another, chip-antenna interface matching, antenna design and reader
sensitivity and selectivity.
The operation environment may influence on maximum read range significantly.
Major radio frequency effects closely linked to the propagation of electromagnetic
fields are reflections, absorption, refraction, scattering and interference, to be ana-
lysed in next paragraph.



81


Transmitter
Receiver
Transmitter
Receiver
Slow Fading
Fast Fading
t
R
e
c
e
i
v
e
r

S
i
g
n
a
l
Slow Fading
Fast Fading
t
R
e
c
e
i
v
e
r

S
i
g
n
a
l
Slow Fading
Fast Fading
t
R
e
c
e
i
v
e
r

S
i
g
n
a
l
Slow Fading
Fast Fading
t
R
e
c
e
i
v
e
r

S
i
g
n
a
l
Transmitted
Signal
Shielding Reflection Refraction
Scattering Deflection

Figure 12 Effects that affect communication quality
Due to these effects an electromagnetic coupled tag may not be operational at
some points in the field because of destructive interference (field holes).
As seen in Figure 11, electromagnetic coupled systems have the potential of higher
reading ranges. With these ranges the probability of multiple paths from the reader
to the tag antenna rises. These multiple paths may positively or negatively interfere
at the position of the tag. So the operation of the tag can not be guaranteed, al-
though being within maximum range limits. Multi-path effects do usually not appear
at inductively coupled systems. There the magnetic field is decreasing very fast
with increasing tag distance. Hence the probability of more than one signal path
from the reader antenna to the tag antenna is fairly low. Other effects like polarisa-
tion and effective coupling area apply to both systems (inductive and electromag-
netic). So magnetically coupled tags may also not be operational in some orienta-
tions, although being within maximum range limits.



82


In addition to the inductive coupling and electromagnetic field coupling there are
further air interfaces usable for RFID.
One type of special air interface is used by widespread Electronic Article Surveil-
lance Systems (EAS). They use an alternating magnetic field generated by the
reader (like inductively coupled systems). Commonly used EAS tag technology is
acoustomagnetic, where a ferromagnetic component in the transponder starts vi-
brating in the presence of an alternating magnetic field. After switching off of the
magnetic field, the ferromagnetic part continues to vibrate for a while. This vibra-
tion itself generates an alternating magnetic field that can be detected by the
reader. Acoustomagnetic tags can be deactivated permanently by demagnetising
the ferromagnetic element (detuning effect) (see [75]). EAS tags may also be
based on HF or UHF range communication, similarly as with regular passive RFID
tags.
Another type of air interface uses the electric field as its coupling element. For ex-
ample, the reader antenna consists of two large metal planes. Between the planes a
very intensive electrical field is generated by supplying the planes with high fre-
quency and high voltage. One of these planes (electrodes) can be substituted by
the ground. Within the very intensive and highly frequent electrical field, a trans-
ponder that is similarly build of two electrodes can be supplied with energy and
data can be transferred. This principle is not widely used since the achievable read-
ing range for passive tags is rather limited.
7.1.3 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 16 shows the mapping of the air interfaces (<135 kHz, 13.56 MHz, 433 MHz,
840-960 MHz, 2.45 GHz, 5.8 GHz) to the subcategories of the RFID Reference
Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this air interface is used in the corre-
sponding subcategory.



83


Current use Possible use RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
<
1
3
5

k
H
z

1
3
.
5
6

M
H
z

4
3
3
.
9
2

M
H
z

8
4
0
-
9
6
0

M
H
z

2
.
4
5

G
H
z

5
.
8

G
H
z

<
1
3
5

k
H
z

1
3
.
5
6

M
H
z

4
3
3
.
9
2

M
H
z

8
4
0
-
9
6
0

M
H
z

2
.
4
5

G
H
z

5
.
8

G
H
z

AA: Inhouse logistics
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical
tracking &
tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics
Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems
Y Y Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring
and mainte-
nance
BG: Food and cons. goods
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods
Y Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, quality
and informa-
tion
CF: Customer info. systems
Y Y Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
D: Access
control and
tracking &
tracing of indi-
viduals
DC: Personal tracking
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards
Y Y Y Y Y Y
E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards
Y Y Y Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
F: eHealth
care
FC: Implants
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems
Y Y Y Y Y
G: Sports,
leisure and
household
GD: Smart home
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
H: Public ser-
vices
HC: Banknotes
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Table 16 Mapping air interfaces to the RFID Reference Model



84


7.1.3.1 <135 kHz
The low frequency (LF, <135 kHz) air interface uses magnetic coupling that pro-
vides only limited reading ranges (usually a few centimetres). There is an air inter-
face standard for RFID systems on this band (ISO/IEC 18000-2 [78], [79]). The
tags use mainly hard tag enclosures like coins, fobs, wedges, bars, etc. Label,
sticker, card and flexible type tags are very rare on LF. The LF air interface is used
in many logistics applications, except where label, sticker, card and flexible tags are
used (open logistics, manufacturing logistics, archive systems, fast moving con-
sumer goods, textile goods, fresh/perishable foods, pharmaceutical, customer in-
formation systems, loyalty and membership cards, rental systems). Smart home
systems tend not to use LF. Road tolling systems cannot use magnetic coupling (LF,
HF) because high reading ranges are required here.
7.1.3.2 13.56 MHz
The high frequency (HF, 13.56 MHz) air interface uses magnetic coupling that pro-
vides only limited reading ranges (< 1 meter). There are air interface standards for
RFID systems on this band (ISO/IEC 18000-3 [78], [79]), EPCglobal HF [81]). The
tags use almost all forms of tag enclosures. HF is a very popular air interface, used
in almost any subcategory. Only in road tolling systems HF cannot be used due to
the limited reading range and data transfer rate.
7.1.3.3 433 MHz
The 433 MHz (UHF) air interface uses electromagnetic field coupling. It is not us-
able worldwide. This air interface is not usable worldwide. There is an air interface
standard for active RFID systems on this band (ISO/IEC 18000-7 [78], [79]). Pas-
sive RFID rarely use this ISM frequency. Most current usage correlates with applica-
tions that may need active RFID systems, because of high reading ranges or the
combination with sensors: in-house and closed loop logistics, dangerous goods lo-
gistics, facility management, vehicles, aeroplanes, automation/process control,
fresh/perishable foods, implants, smart home, road tolling systems. Subcategories
where 433 MHz is currently not in use, but could also be used if the high costs of an
active RFID system are justified: open logistics, postal applications, asset manage-
ment, food and consumer goods, hospital management.



85


7.1.3.4 840-960 MHz
The broad range of 840-960 MHz is often called UHF air interface, although UHF
ranges from 300 to 3000 MHz. Electromagnetic field coupling is used as in all UHF
and SHF bands, leading to high reading ranges (approx. < 7 metres, passive).
There are air interface standards for RFID systems on this band (ISO/IEC 18000-6
[78], [79]), EPCglobal UHF [81]). Due to the universal properties (high reading
range; passive, semi-passive and active; low cost; moderate antenna size, etc.)
this air interface is one of the most popular RFID air interfaces. There are only
three drawbacks: firstly, the frequency range comprises many bands that can be
used locally only (e.g. 842 MHz in China, 915 MHz in USA, 868 MHz in Europe, 955
MHz in Asia). There are tags that claim to be globally usable (e.g. world tag, or
global tag), but these tags are a compromise between worldwide use and per-
formance (i.e. primarily optimised reading range).
Secondly, 840-960 MHz range passive tags are sensitive to radio wave phenomena
presented in Figure 12. Thirdly, there are only few tags with security functions that
use this air interface. Secure RFID systems are still a domain of the HF air inter-
face. So, in principle 840-960 MHz is used in all subcategories, but for security
relevant applications (e.g. authentication, encryption) HF is implemented. This fact
might change in future as new technologies emerge (see bottlenecks, chapter
13.2.1.2).
7.1.3.5 2.45 GHz
The 2.45 GHz air interface is also UHF and uses electromagnetic coupling that pro-
vides high reading ranges and smaller antenna structures compared to 840-960
MHz. It is used for passive, semi-passive, and active RFID systems. There is also an
air interface standard for this band (ISO/IEC 18000-4 [78], [79]). There are not
many systems on the market using this air interface (e.g. semi-passive card type
tags, -chip (Hitachi), SAW-RFID technology). Due to the heavy usage of this band
by other communication services (e.g. WLAN, Bluetooth, ZigBee, audio/video) it is
not so attractive for RFID suppliers and users. Although 2.45 GHz may be used in
all subcategories, the current usage is limited to: in-house and closed loop logistics,
dangerous goods logistics, vehicles, aeroplanes, automation/process control, food
and consumer goods, fast moving consumer goods, electronic goods,
fresh/perishable foods, pharmaceuticals, hospital management, implants, road toll-
ing systems, and banknotes (e.g. -chip).



86


7.1.3.6 5.8 GHz
5.8 GHz (SHF) is currently the highest RFID band in use. Electromagnetic field cou-
pling applies here as well. The exact frequency band varies for different countries
(5.2-5.8 GHz). This air interface is not usable worldwide. There is currently no air
interface standard for this air interface (there was ISO/IEC 18000-5, but it has
been withdrawn). Advantages are smaller antenna sizes, less band usage by other
services, and better resolution when combined with localisation. On the disadvan-
tage side: almost no tag chips and readers available, no standard, lower range than
on UHF. These facts render this air interface not very attractive for RFID suppliers
and users. It might develop in future and can be used currently by active RFID sys-
tems. Currently, 5.8 GHz is not used in any subcategory. If the number of available
chips and systems increase, almost all subcategories might benefit from this rather
new air interface.
7.2 Reader technology
Reader
mf
Reader
Antenna
HW
integr.
.
Standardi
zation
IC + Ant
Attach
IC design IC manuf.
Tag
design
Laminate
Standar
dization
SW
integr.
RFID
SW
WMS ERP Reader
design
Convert. Service
NETWORKING
RETAILERS
AND THEIR
SUPPLIERS
RFID INFRASTRUCTURE
RFID TAGS
Antenna
manuf.

Figure 13 RFID networking
Figure 13 shows the influence chain for the tag and reader network. Tag-integrated
circuits (IC, chip) for open systems are designed and manufactured according to
standards. Tag chip together with the tag antenna forms the RFID tag or label. The
reader is also designed and manufactured according to standards. The reader soft-
ware (firmware) reads from / writes to the tag and communicates via RFID middle-
ware to the enterprise system.
As mentioned in the last chapter, there are different types of air interfaces. For all
these types several bands for radio frequency communication can be identified.
There are many approaches to define standardised protocols that determine how to



87


use these bands for RFID purposes (see Standards and Regulations below, chap-
ter 8). An RFID reader has to comply with the requirements of such standards and
the regulations in the different countries for using radio frequencies.
The reader offers an interface to the tag as well as to the edge server (RFID mid-
dleware), that relays RFID information to warehouse management systems (WMS)
or enterprise resource planning systems (ERP). The main tasks of the reader are:
receive commands from the RFID software that is controlled by the
ERP/WMS system via an edge server and communicate events to them
detect tags in range/field, separate them (multi-tag functions like singula-
tion and anti-collision), get their ID numbers, figure out which data are
available from the tag
read data from and write data to the tag
execute special commands like kill-command to disable tag (deactivation of
tag tag cannot be operated any more to ensure privacy no tracking and
tracing after main usage of the tag)
read and write additional components of the tag (e.g. activate and read out
sensors that are associated to the tag or blinking of an LED to make activa-
tion visible)
provide cryptographic functions (if implemented in the system)
provide settings for:
required transmitting and receiving strength depending on country
requirements and connected antennas
standards and modulation types
operational mode (e.g. standby, multi reader environment, listen-
before-talk, etc.)
communicate with the RFID middleware and therefore provide interfaces
(e.g. RS232, RS485, LAN, WAN or proprietary interface)
To implement the requirements of a communication protocol or standard, the
reader must provide several features to be compatible with the intended range of
applications. The proprietary or standardised protocol defines the necessary techni-
cal specifications of the reader, e.g.:



88


Frequencies
Bandwidth
Transmission power and receiver sensitivity
Request and response procedures
Duplex capabilities (full duplex, half duplex)
Types of modulation (AM, ASK, PSK, FSK, etc.)
Coding techniques (Manchester, Biphase (FM0, FM1), CRC, etc.)
Operation modes (Listen-before-talk, etc.)
Most readers provide only one type of air interface or standard. Some readers offer
two different air interfaces or standards. In some cases it seems useful to put the
advantages of two different air interfaces or standards together, e.g. using long
range UHF for identification and short range HF to securely write data wirelessly,
when the tag is placed in a cradle.
Controller
Signal
generator
Interfaces
Power
amplifier
Directional
coupler
Edge server
(Middleware system)
Amplifier Filter
Antenna
Reader

Figure 14 Function blocks that are integrated into most RFID readers
The components of a reader that are shown in Figure 14 are used in almost all
reader types. Independent from implemented standard and air interface, these



89


functional blocks are rather irreplaceable. But they widely vary in dimension and
complexity. The controller coordinates the execution of commands, collects infor-
mation and communicates via the available interfaces with the edge server (RFID
middleware). The controller has an integrated signal generator or controls an ex-
ternal one. The generated signal must be amplified, in most cases by a power am-
plifier. If transmit and receive signal do not need to be separated, the directional
coupler can be very simple. Since the received signal from the antenna contains
much more information than needed, the signal is filtered and the useful part is
amplified. The resulting signal can be interpreted by the controller itself or by spe-
cially designed, external components.
The need of a directional coupler is also a question of the duplex capabilities of the
reader. Full duplex describes the ability of the system to simultaneously transmit
data and receive data at the same time. Half duplex systems have to alternate be-
tween the two directions of communication. There are multiple ways to implement
full duplex systems. The limiting component of a duplex system is the access to the
medium that carries the information. E.g. the medium can be divided in time (Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA)), in frequency (Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA)), in space (Spatial Division Multiple Access (SDMA)) or in code space (Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA)). Full duplex and half duplex modes have their as-
sets and drawbacks. While full duplex enables more sophisticated and faster com-
munication protocols, the half duplex systems can offer a quite better reading
range because of their higher receive sensitivity. The receive sensitivity can be
maximised because there is no other signal on the used channel (no transmit signal
as with full duplex systems) that disturbs the receiver.
RFID readers are available in a wide range of enclosure sizes, performance, stan-
dards, active/semi-passive/passive, open/closed systems, etc. There are even
reader modules without any casing e.g. for integration into other products (mobile
phones, PDAs, mobile multi-media devices, notebooks, handhelds, etc.). Stationary
readers especially for industrial purposes with high protection rating and high power
transmission often have additional features like antenna switches to use multiple
antenna arrangements. Small reader modules in most cases have reduced trans-
mission power and therefore cannot reach the maximum distances to read tags.
They are usually designed for hand-readers.



90


Type of system / manufacturer
A
c
t
i
v
e

P
a
s
s
i
v
e

S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
i
s
e
d

P
r
o
p
r
i
e
t
a
r
y

O
p
e
n

s
y
s
t
e
m

C
l
o
s
e
d

s
y
s
t
e
m

Intermec Y Y Y
CAEN Y Y Y
Deister ? Y Y Y
EM Microelectronics ? Y Y Y
Feig ? Y Y Y
Identec Solutions Y Y Y Y
Euchner ? Y Y
Pepperl & Fuchs Y Y Y Y Y
Hitachi Y Y
Magellan ? Y Y
Motorola (ex. Symbol, ex. Matrix) ? Y Y Y
RF Code Y ? Y
Siemens Y Y Y Y Y Y
Table 17 Exemplary list of some RFID manufacturers versus offered system types
Most RFID reader manufacturers provide passive standardised RFID systems for
open logistics applications (see Table 17). Active systems often implement their
own proprietary air interface protocols and are used mainly in closed loop applica-
tions. Standardisation is hardly required and licensing costs are minimised.
7.2.1 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 18 shows the mapping of reader functions (identify all tags in reading range
(multi-tag read), read tag ID, read tag user data, write tag user data, additional
functionality (e.g. sensors, crypto functions)) to the subcategories of the RFID
Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this reader function is used in
the corresponding subcategory.



91


Table 18 Mapping reader functions to the RFID Reference Model
Current use Possible use RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
I
d
e
n
t
i
f
y

a
l
l

t
a
g
s

i
n

r
e
a
d
i
n
g

r
a
n
g
e

(
m
u
l
t
i
-
t
a
g
-
r
e
a
d
)

R
e
a
d

t
a
g

I
D

R
e
a
d

t
a
g

u
s
e
r

d
a
t
a

W
r
i
t
e

t
a
g

u
s
e
r

d
a
t
a

A
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
a
l
i
t
y

I
d
e
n
t
i
f
y

a
l
l

t
a
g
s

i
n

r
e
a
d
i
n
g

r
a
n
g
e

(
m
u
l
t
i
-
t
a
g
-
r
e
a
d
)

R
e
a
d

t
a
g

I
D

R
e
a
d

t
a
g

u
s
e
r

d
a
t
a

W
r
i
t
e

t
a
g

u
s
e
r

d
a
t
a

A
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
a
l
i
t
y

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical
tracking &
tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
B: Produc-
tion, moni-
toring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, qual-
ity and in-
formation
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
D: Access
control and
tracking &
tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y Y Y Y Y Y E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth
care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y Y Y G: Sports,
leisure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H: Public
services
HC: Banknotes Y Y Y Y Y Y Y



92


Identify all tags in reading range (multi-tag read)
Multi-tag reading is an important feature in almost any application. The only excep-
tions where single tag reading is preferred are: customer information systems, ac-
cess control systems, loyalty and membership cards, and hospital management.
Possible usage is in all subcategories.
Read tag ID
Reading the tag ID is the basic feature of any RFID system. Readers have to sup-
port and use this function in any application.
Read tag user data
Besides the tag ID number there are also tag user data to be received by the
reader in most subcategories. Only applications using simplest ID only tags, e.g.
fast moving consumer goods, animal tracking, loyalty cards, rental systems, road
tolling systems, and banknotes do not need user data. They manage their tasks
with a link from the ID to one or more databases, although user data can play a
role in the future.
Write tag user data
This function means that the user data are not only written once (e.g. during an
initialisation phase), they rather have to be changed many times during the life-
cycle of the tag. Most subcategories that use user data also benefit from the write
many times functionality. Reasons for updating the tags user data are numerous:
supplement itinerary information, status updates, delivery pedigree, processed
manufacturing steps, etc. Some categories currently work with one time pro-
grammed user data: manufacturing logistics, archive systems, fast moving con-
sumer goods, electronic goods, textile goods, pharmaceutical, animal tracking, loy-
alty cards, hospital management, rental systems, road tolling systems, and bank-
notes. Except for fast moving goods and textile goods all subcategories could use
the write feature for extended functionality.
Additional functionality
Additional functionality means that tags provide more than an ID number and
read/write user data. Additional functions comprise sensor and actuator functions,
data encryption and decryption, authentication, data processing, data logging, net-
works functions, etc. Such functions are currently used in: facility management
(e.g. sensors, cryptography, data processing and logging), automation/process con-
trol (e.g. sensors, actuators, data processing and logging), fresh/perishable foods
(e.g. temperature sensor), access control systems (cryptography, data logging),
loyalty and membership cards (cryptography, data processing and logging), im-
plants (e.g. temperature sensor), smart home (sensors, actuators, data processing



93


and logging), road tolling systems (e.g. cryptography). Only applications that have
to use the simplest and cheapest tag types abandon the option of additional func-
tionality (e.g. fast moving consumer goods, electronic goods, textile goods), and
rental systems).
7.3 Antenna arrangements
Depending on the RFID technology, RFID readers use one or more antennas (usu-
ally max. four). The antennas for inductive coupling (LF, HF) are magnetic antennas
or coils. Electromagnetic field coupling (UHF, SHF) often uses area antennas.
Antenna concepts
LF/HF: coil antennas with different forms.
UHF: patch antennas with circular polarisation. Reflector antennas, sector
and directional antennas.
Antenna arrangements
Single antenna
Passive systems: transmitter and receiver share the same antenna
(transmission and reception at the same time)
Active systems: usually only one antenna is used (no need for trans-
mission and reception at the same time)

Advantages:
Simple mounting and easy to use
Multi-antenna
Passive and active systems: one antenna is used for transmission
and one or more antennas are used for reception.

Advantages:
Antenna diversity (strongest reception signal is used)
With the use of separate transmission and reception antennas
no isolation components between reader transmitter and re-



94


ceiver is needed. This improves reader sensitivity and selectiv-
ity.
The use of multiple antennas is often multiplexed over time.
This means that each of the antennas operates as transmitter
and receiver antenna. The role of the transmission antenna is
switched sequentially through the set. This arrangement typi-
cally increases identification area and enables the identifica-
tion of a large population of tags, e.g. with reader gate appli-
cations. Many commercial readers utilise this approach.
7.4 Transponder technology
An RFID tag consists of at least three basic components:
The chip, which holds information about the object to which it is attached.
The chip is also responsible for communication with the reader. Data proc-
essing may be required depending on the application.
The antenna, which allows transmission of the information to/from a reader.
The packaging, which encases chip and antenna and allows attaching the tag
to an object to be identified.
Tags can be divided into passive (no energy source on tag), semi-passive and ac-
tive tags. In the case of semi-passive and active tags (see chapters 5.1.2 and
5.1.3) an energy source (e.g. battery, photo cell) may be included into the tag;
semi-passive tags may use this energy source for tag functions except communica-
tion with the reader, active tags may use the energy source for all functions includ-
ing reader communication.
Depending on the packaging material, tags may be divided into hard tags and soft
tags. Hard tags contain chips and antenna in a hard case (e.g. glass tags, plastic
cases). Examples of soft tags are smart labels, where the antenna is printed on
paper or plastic foil to which the chip is attached. Soft labels often have an adhe-
sive film, so they can easily be glued to the object.
Figure 15 shows a more sophisticated view of a tag, with the tag structure in more
detail. For receiving maximum power from the reader, the antenna impedance has



95


to be matched to the chip input. For UHF tags this can be done by adequate an-
tenna design. Coil antennas often use capacitors for matching. Backscatter tags use
a modulator to change the antenna matching. This results in modulation of the
power, reflected back to the reader, which is used to transmit data from the tag to
the reader.
With passive tags, a part of the received power may be used as power supply for
specific functions of the tag. This may include writing of data to the memory, op-
eration of the controller (i.e. state machine) and crypto applications (if needed).
The power that can be transferred from the reader to the tag is limited; therefore
especially for distances of more than a few centimetres power-saving schemes
have to be used. These include sleep modes for currently not needed parts of chip,
power saving crypto algorithms, low power consuming controllers, etc. Semi pas-
sive tags use a battery to power some chip functions when the tag is in the mag-
netic or electromagnetic field of a reader. Data transfer is still done without use of
the battery. Active tags use the battery for all functions of the tag, including data
transfer. Active tags may also signal their presence or other data in fixed time in-
tervals, independent from interrogation signals of a reader (beacon tag).
Controller
with
Memory
Buffer for
supply
voltage
Power-
rectifier
Power-on-
reset
Crypto-
circuit
Modulator
Clock-
recovery
Tag antenna
Tag chip
Antenna-
matching
and
RF-
Limiter
Charge
pump

Figure 15 Typical block diagram of a transponder. Not all blocks need to be present
7.4.1 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 19 shows the mapping of reader antenna arrangements (single vs. multi-
antenna) and tag types (hard and soft tags) to the subcategories of the RFID
Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this arrangement or tag type
is used in the corresponding subcategory.



96


Table 19 Mapping reader antenna arrangements and tag types to the RFID Refer-
ence Model
Current use Possible use RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
S
i
n
g
l
e

a
n
t
e
n
n
a

M
u
l
t
i
-
a
n
t
e
n
n
a

H
a
r
d

t
a
g

S
o
f
t

t
a
g

S
i
n
g
l
e

a
n
t
e
n
n
a

M
u
l
t
i
-
a
n
t
e
n
n
a

H
a
r
d

t
a
g

S
o
f
t

t
a
g

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logis-
tics
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical
tracking &
tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring
and mainte-
nance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, quality
and informa-
tion
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y Y Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y Y
D: Access
control and
tracking &
tracing of indi-
viduals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y Y Y E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth
care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y G: Sports,
leisure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y Y Y Y Y Y H: Public ser-
vices
HC: Banknotes Y Y Y Y Y Y



97


Single reader antenna arrangement
Reader with a single antenna is the basic RFID arrangement. It is used for any ap-
plication, also for logistics of commodities. There is always the demand for hand
reader checking. A hand reader usually uses a single antenna.
Multi-antenna arrangement at the reader
Readers can use more than one antenna in order to improve reading rates and
multi-tag performance, as well as reduce interference problems. Multi-Antenna ar-
rangements (mostly with two, three or four antennas) are commonly used in mass
read applications. Subcategories using hard tags and card type tags, as well as sin-
gle tag reading applications usually prefer one reader antenna only: archive sys-
tems, automation and process control, fresh/perishable foods, customer informa-
tion services, access control systems, animal and personal tracking, loyalty and
membership cards.
Hard tag
Hard tags (including card type tags and moulded tags) are more expensive than
label type tags. Therefore, they are used in applications where slightly higher costs
are acceptable. Some applications (e.g. re-usable tags, card type tags, sensor tags,
secure tags) require hard tags. They are used in closed loop logistics, postal appli-
cations, dangerous goods logistics, manufacturing logistics, all subcategories in the
field B. Production, monitoring and maintenance (except food and consumer
goods), fresh/perishable foods, customer information services, all subcategories
regarded in the field D, E, F, and G, as well as road tolling systems.
Soft tag
For most applications soft tags are the most cost-effective RFID solution. In par-
ticular, logistics and goods applications and categories where flexible tags are re-
quired, soft tags (e.g. labels, stickers) are applied: field A (logistical tracking &
tracing), archive systems, vehicles, aeroplanes, food and consumer goods, fast
moving consumer goods, electronic and textile goods, pharmaceutical, hospital
management, implants, rental systems, smart home, and banknotes.
7.4.2 Performance
Figure 16 shows the dependency of transponder performance parameters on their
physical properties.



98



Figure 16 Dependency of performance parameters of transponders on their physical
properties
One of the most important performance parameters of RFID systems is the reading
range (maximum reader to tag distance).
Passive HF RFID tags usually provide a reading range up to one metre. Passive UHF
RFID tags usually show a reading range of up to 10 metres. Active systems with
additional energy sources at the tag side provide reading ranges of up to several
hundred metres. The reading distance of all systems depends on the tag and reader
antenna performance. The reading range may be maximised by optimising the an-
tenna structures and by increasing the transmitter power of the tag and/or the
reader. However the effectively radiated transmitting power is limited by national
radio regulations. For security and privacy reasons it may be desirable to have lim-
ited reading ranges for the tags.



99


Thus the working frequency is not only determined by the allowed frequency bands,
but also by the required reading range and coupling principle (mostly magnetic or
electro magnetic).
If more than one tag is present in the reading range, anti-collision protocols such as
Slotted ALOHA or Adaptive Binary Tree may be needed to distinguish between tags
and to guarantee correct data transfer for all tags (see chapter 8, ISO/IEC 18000
[78], [79]).
Another performance parameter is the amount of data which the tag must hold and
transmit. I.e. the data on the chip can be built-in when manufacturing the chip
(read only, e.g. ID number, serial number), write once (by customer) or read/write
for a specified number of cycles. The amount of data the tag must be able to store
depends on the requirements of the application. The following table shows an over-
view where the complexity of the data on the chip is increasing from top to bottom.
Memory size Reader tag
communication
Possible infor-
mation
Application example
1 Bit Read only Presence informa-
tion
Detection of the presence
of a tag in the proximity
of the reader without
identification. EAS (Elec-
tronic article surveil-
lance).
Several Bytes
(e.g. EPC 96bit)
Read only Unique ID, unique
serial number
Identification of tag in
the proximity of the
reader.
Several Bytes to
several hundred
kBytes
Read / Write ID, user data Identification and other
item-specific data, possi-
bility of writing data to
the tag.
Several Bytes to
several hundred
kBytes
Read / Write ID, user data,
processed and/or
recorded data,
encryption
Identification and other
item-specific data, possi-
bility of writing data to
the tag.
Table 20 Tag memory sizes / possible data usage on tags
Performance also includes the necessary protection of the tag from the environ-
ment, which directly affects the durability of the tag. The size and form factor are
generally determined by the object to which the tag is attached.



100


Passive tags Semi-passive tags Active tags
Power Consumption high mid low
Range low mid high
Localisation mid high high
Memory Size mid high high
Cost high mid low
Standard Tags high high mid
Degree of Integration high mid low
Table 21 Degree of achievement of characteristic properties of passive, semi-
passive and active tags
Table 21 compares active, semi-passive and passive tags. High, mid, low indi-
cate how much the property is achieved or advantageous for this tag-type.
7.4.2.1 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 22 shows the mapping of tag performance parameters to the subcategories of
the RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this performance
parameter is of particular importance for the corresponding subcategory.



101


Table 22 Mapping tag performance to the RFID Reference Model
Current use Possible use RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
R
a
n
g
e

I
D

s
i
z
e

D
a
t
a

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

A
n
t
i
-
c
o
l
l
i
s
i
o
n

S
e
c
u
r
i
t
y

F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

r
a
n
g
e

R
o
b
u
s
t
n
e
s
s

R
a
n
g
e

I
D

s
i
z
e

D
a
t
a

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

A
n
t
i
-
c
o
l
l
i
s
i
o
n

S
e
c
u
r
i
t
y

F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

r
a
n
g
e

R
o
b
u
s
t
n
e
s
s

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical
tracking &
tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y Y
B: Produc-
tion, moni-
toring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, qual-
ity and in-
formation
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
D: Access
control and
tracking &
tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y Y Y E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y Y Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth
care
FC: implants Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y G: Sports,
leisure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H: Public
services
HC: Banknotes Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y



102


Range
Reading range is one of the most important performance parameters. It has to be
considered in almost all subcategories. Each application requires its optimum read-
ing range (e.g. low range for single tag security applications, high range for inven-
tory applications).
ID size
The minimum size of the ID number (in bits) of most tags suffices for many appli-
cations. Only the subcategories marked with Y need further checking here (e.g.
for EPC or other globally unique numbering systems).
Data capacity
Most subcategories can work with read-only tags providing an ID number only.
Some applications do need more data capacity (user memory) that can be read or
written: dangerous goods logistics, asset management, facility management, auto-
mation/process control, fresh/perishable foods, customer information systems, ac-
cess control systems, membership cards, smart home.
Anti-collision
Applications where many tags are within the reading range need anti-collision pro-
tocols for addressing each tag individually (tag singulation). Only a few subcatego-
ries can omit anti-collision techniques: dangerous goods logistics, facility manage-
ment, automation/process control, customer information systems, access control
systems, loyalty and membership cards.
Security
Security features (e.g. authentication, data encryption) are necessary and impor-
tant for applications where tag data have to be protected from unauthorised access
(e.g. tag cloning, eavesdropping, tampering). Especially when tag data can be
linked to humans, privacy and data, protection features are required. Special atten-
tion for security functions should apply to these subcategories: dangerous goods
logistics, asset management, facility management, access control systems, loyalty
and membership cards. In principle secure RFID systems can be used in all applica-
tions but these systems are significantly more expensive and implementation ef-
forts are higher.
Frequency range
Tagged objects that have to be read/written globally, do need a broad operating
frequency range (especially on 840-960 MHz), due to different band allocations
worldwide.



103


Robustness
Robust RFID systems are in the upper price region and therefore only applications
that require robustness use these systems.
7.4.3 Manufacturing
For the manufacturing of the chips well known semiconductor processes may be
used.
Design considerations for chips include
Costs
Power consumption
Size of the chip
Integration of the antenna on the chip
Technology for semiconductor production is well developed, and although progress
can be achieved, no major break-through can be expected with respect to massive
cost reduction or reduction of chip size for given tasks. Currently, low cost silicon-
based RFID tags are about ten cents at higher quantities, the price strongly de-
pendent on the function of the tag and the needed chip size. A widely discussed
price goal of 0.05 per RFID tag is still a challenge for the near future.
European chip manufacturers are e.g.:
EM Microelectronic SA, Switzerland
STMicroelectronics, Switzerland
Texas Instruments, German RFID department
NXP (Mifare chip; former Philips Semiconductor), Austria
Infineon (Mifare, my-D), Germany, Austria
International chip manufacturers comprise e.g.:
Hitachi (-Chip), Japan
Impinj, USA



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Alien Technology, USA
Atmel, USA
Melexis, USA
Texas Instruments (Tag-It), USA.
In the attempt to further reduce tag costs, alternative technologies are in develop-
ment, e.g. printable electronics on the base of polymer electronics. The idea is to
combine the manufacturing of conductive and semi-conductive elements (antenna
and electronic structures) into one printing process. The resulting organic tags (e.g.
developed by companies like PolyIC, ORFID, OrganicID and NXP) are supposed to
cut down costs to approximately 0.01 per tag or even below. PolyIC showed a
first product of a printed 13.56 MHz HF tag in 2007
(http://www.polyic.com/en/press-releases.php). Researchers estimate that it will
take several years (up to 2015) to gain mass production capability for these tags,
even though first applications in fields like electronic brand protection will come
soon. According to current knowledge, the highest frequencies for organic tags will
be 13.56 MHz in the near future. But in the long term, even the UHF range might
be possible to reach with organic respectively printed electronics.
The antenna structure, and therefore the manufacturing process for the antennas,
strongly depends on the used frequency, the coupling principle and the reading dis-
tance. Generally, the size of the antenna structure decreases with increasing fre-
quency.
For inductive coupling (usually for frequencies below 40 MHz) of HF RFID tags, coils
or magnetic antennas are used as the transceiving elements. Coils may be manu-
factured using wound wires, screen printing or etch processes, also used in printed
circuit board manufacturing. The coils are generally much bigger in size than the
chip; therefore they are manufactured separately from the chip.
For near proximity tags coils can be integrated on the chip. Microsensys
(http://www.microsensys.de/) manufactures closed coupling read/write transpond-
ers in mic3 technology. These HF tags work at 13.56 MHz and meet the require-
ments of ISO 14443A [78]. The coils are built on a CMOS wafer using a galvanic
process. The chip size is about 3 x 3 x 0.5 mm. Reading distance is a few millime-
tres.
Hitachi Maxell offers a coil-on-chip read/write tag (2.5 x 2.5 mm) at 13.56 MHz,
memory capacity 1 kbits, reading distance up to 2 mm (http://www.maxell-
usa.com/index.aspx?id=4;41;438;0).



105


For Electromagnetic field coupling at higher frequencies (usually above 40 MHz),
planar antennas (e.g. shortened antennas, dipole type antennas) are used, which
may also be included on the chip.
Figure 17 and Figure 18 show a typical RFID tag manufacturing process (UPM Ra-
flatac).
After chip and antenna structure have been manufactured individually, the chips
are attached to the antenna structure. In the process shown in Figure 17, the tag
chips are directly (flip chip) connected to the antenna structure.

Figure 17 Assembly / chip attachment
The next step is the lamination process, where the chip and antenna structure are
encased as described in Figure 18.

Figure 18 Assembly / lamination
After the lamination process, the tags are inspected for
Positional tolerance
On-tune (correct frequency)



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Functional test (100%)
Statistical tests of the chip data
Statistical reliability testing: humidity, temperature and label bending
This final inspection guarantees tag performance according to test specifications.
ICs (chips) are very sensitive to electrostatic discharge (ESD). To avoid ESD in-
duced death, the static electricity created by web based processes must be man-
aged by
Conductive wires for discharge
Humidity control
Ion sprays, ESD blowers and brushes
Tag design DC shunt
Early covering and insulation of the IC
Continuous ESD monitoring throughout manufacturing process
Employee ESD protection
Use of ESD materials throughout the manufacturing process,
e.g. carpets and table covers
Inlays or complete tags have to follow strict tag specification in order to provide
system performance for the intended application. Specified parameters may in-
clude:
Max and min pitch of inlays
Max and min inlay size
Registration mark needed
Packaging structure. E.g. wet (adhesive / release liner) or dry (continuous)
Max inlay thickness
Inlay stiffness / min bend radius



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Outer roll diameter / inner core diameter
Bad inlay removal / marking
Incoming quality alignment
Bad label removal / marking
Minimise consecutive bad inlays or labels
Performance requirements
Communication protocol requirements
Reliability requirements
Durability
Very fast and cost effective assembly of tags is achieved by Alien Technology.
Alien Technology claims their fluidic self assembly (FSA) process is able to package
chips at rates of 2,000,000 per hour, in contrast with approximately 10,000 per
hour possible with conventional methods. The chip package is called a strap that
must be further assembled onto the tag antenna.
7.4.4 Antenna designs
Antennas for inductive coupling (usually below 40 MHz) are magnetic antennas or
coils, whereas area antennas are used for electromagnetic coupling (usually above
40 MHz).
The reading range is influenced by various parameters like antenna diagram
(reader and tag) as well as field polarisation (reader and tag) and interference pat-
tern. Antenna / tag polarisation has low influence on HF (13.56 MHz) tags. UHF
(433 MHz, 840-960 MHz, 2450 MHz) is very sensitive to polarisation effects (direc-
tion of field vectors). Improvements can be achieved by using circular polarised
antennas at least at one end. Typically reader antennas are chosen due to their
easy availability. Tag antennas may also operate in several polarisations. The an-
tenna contains multiple dipole elements connected to dual port RFID tag chip (dual-
port tags) or an orientation free structure, such as spiral. Orientation effects exist
however with all antennas at some level since an omni-directional isotropic antenna
does not exist in reality.




108


Depending on the application, antennas may be designed e.g. for wide frequency
band, high gain, or small size. These optimisations have always tradeoffs, and they
cannot be achieved simultaneously, but only by worsening the other ones.
Examples of coil antennas (inductive coupling) are shown in Figure 19. Coils may
be screen printed, etched or made of wound wires. The sensitivity/reading distance
increases with the size of the coil (effective coil or antenna area).

Figure 19 Top left: Mifare card with coil antenna and chip; bottom: miscellaneous coil
antennas; ISO 15 693: 13.56 MHz vicinity;
The following Figure 20 shows typical antennas of UHF RFID tags (electromagnetic
coupling).



109



Figure 20 Top: dipole antenna; bottom: miscellaneous tag antennas layouts; UHF;
7.4.4.1 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 23 shows the mapping of manufacturing and tag antenna parameters to the
subcategories of the RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes,
this parameters is of particular importance for the corresponding subcategory.



110


Current use Possible use RFID-
Application
Field
Subcategories
T
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c
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AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical
tracking &
tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
B: Produc-
tion, moni-
toring and
mainte-
nance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/Perishable goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product
safety,
quality and
information
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
D: Access
control and
tracking &
tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth
Care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y G: Sports,
leisure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y



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Current use Possible use RFID-
Application
Field
Subcategories
T
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c
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HB: Road tolling systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H: Public
services
HC: Banknotes Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Table 23 Mapping tag manufacturing and antenna to the RFID Reference Model
Tag costs
Although tag costs are important for all applications, for many logistics and goods
applications low tag costs are the crucial factor.
Power consumption
Low power consumption is one of the main parameters for high reading ranges. So
the development of low power tag circuits (main circuitry, crypto engines, sensors,
user memory, etc.) is very important for all subcategories.
Chip size
During recent years, chip sizes decreased due to technology development. Chapter
7.4.5 shows that the current silicon CMOS technology (2006-2007) is near the op-
timum in terms of power consumption. Further reduction in chip size not necessar-
ily results in even lower power consumption. New nano power technologies might
help to integrate more functionality into the same chip size and power consump-
tion. Chip size itself is an important parameter only for some subcategories, where
the physical dimensions play a vital role (e.g. banknotes) or additional functionality
is required (e.g. sensors, cryptography, big user memory).
Reliability
Reliability is one of the most important tag parameters, depending on several fac-
tors (e.g. 100 % tested tags, fast and reliable anti-collision, reading rates near 100
%). Reliability applies to all subcategories.
On-chip antenna
Usually the tag antenna is manufactured separately from the tag chip. The chip is
electrically connected and mounted onto the antenna structure. Although many



112


RFID users ask for smaller tag antennas, there are only very few applications with
an extremely small space requirement, where an on-chip antenna has to be used.
The consequence is a very low reading range, because of the inefficiency of the
small antenna in chip size dimensions. Even with applications where very small
chips are used (e.g. Hitachis -chip, see chapter 4.3.5), there is enough room for a
normal sized antenna (e.g. banknote tagging). Candidates for on-chip tag antennas
are applications where very small objects need to be tagged (e.g. coil-on-chip an-
tenna for tagging of small insects (e.g. bees, see chapter 4.4.2), animal tracking).
Coil antenna
Coil type antennas are used in air interfaces with magnetic coupling (<135 kHz
(LF), 13.56 MHz (HF)). Except on road tolling systems, where high reading range is
required, coil antennas with magnetic coupling are used in almost all subcategories.
Dipole antenna
Dipole type antennas are used in air interfaces with electromagnetic field coupling
(433 MHz (UHF), 840-960 MHz (UHF), 2.45 GHz (UHF), 5.8 GHz (SHF)). They are
used in all subcategories.
7.4.5 Low power designs
Tags can use energy harvesting for their power supply. Passive tags take all, semi-
passive or active tags may take a part of the energy needed from a magnetic or
electromagnetic field (usually from the reader). The energy can be stored in a ca-
pacitor (typically short time) or a rechargeable battery (typically long time) and
retrieved by the circuits on the tag if needed. This requires efficient RF-to-DC power
conversion. Figure 21 shows a block diagram of a circuit that filters and rectifies the
RF signal, which is incident on port S. The harmonic-filter takes care of the match-
ing between the antenna and the following components to get the maximal possible
power out of the magnetic or electromagnetic field. In case of magnetic coupling,
the harmonic-filter and the coil of the tag are tuned as an oscillating circuit at the
reader frequency. For electromagnetic coupling (e.g. via dipole antennas), imped-
ance matching is needed for maximum power transfer. The received RF power is
then rectified and the voltage is multiplied by capacitors and diodes of the following
components. The resulting DC-signal is used to power the load.



113



Figure 21 Block diagram of circuit for energy harvesting
Backscatter modulation (modulation of the antenna impedance of the tag) is ap-
plied by a shunt resistor or a shunt capacitor. The shunt element modulates the
reflection of the RF energy at the tag antenna from 0 to about 0.8. The signal
strength varies considerably with the distance between reader and tag (see chapter
7.1). Therefore an efficient and controlled power limitation is required, both for pro-
tection of the tag device and for a reasonable dynamic range of the receiving cir-
cuit.
For analogue to digital conversion and for signal processing, ultra-low-power multi-
standard filtering, and ultra-low-power analogue to digital conversion are used. The
high frequency analogue reader signal is converted to a low frequency digital signal
via band-pass and comparator. The band pass filter removes frequencies from the
signal, which are lower or higher than the working frequency of the digital circuits.
The comparator forms a clean digital signal by switching the signal level between
minimum and maximum desired voltages. To define the switching threshold, stable
current or voltage references are needed. Stable frequency references are needed if
the clock cannot be recovered from the reader signal. All circuits on the tag have to
be stable and ultra-low-power consuming.



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These typical RFID circuits are topologically simple, but it is difficult to approach
technological limits. Correct device modelling is critical (not only for RF!) and there
are several technological limits from CMOS device physics (i.e. weak inversion limi-
tations, leakage limitations, etc.). Also state-of-the-art measurement equipment
reaches its limits, concerning the device characterisation.
To realise an ultra low power chip design, efficient protocol-specific finite state ma-
chines are used. The data are stored in read-only memory (ROM) for read-only
tags, or in electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) for
read/write tags.
Knowledge from general CMOS technology development can be applied to optimise
the static and dynamic power consumption. The total CMOS power consumption
consists of a static component and a dynamic component. The static component is
a clock-independent basic current flow mostly due to leakage effects. The dynamic
component is mostly linear to the maximum internal clock signals, due to peak cur-
rents during level switching.
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018
Year
P
_
l
e
a
k

[
m
W

/

g
a
t
e
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
S
u
p
p
l
y

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
[
V
]
P_leak[mW / gate]
Vdd [V]

Figure 22 Tendencies for supply voltage and power efficiency for CMOS circuits
Due to further miniaturisation, the supply voltage decreases with smaller struc-
tures. On the other hand leakage currents are rising. From an RFID and total power
consumption point of view, the CMOS technology around year 2006 is optimal. Fu-
ture technology processes will be less optimal for RFID tag IC implementations.



115


7.5 RFID middleware systems
Conventional middleware usually connects internal and external applications to en-
terprise systems. Typical tasks of middleware are translating different data formats
and protocols, routing of data through various systems. User interfaces like web
services offer necessary interaction and application control. RFID middleware is a
new variant that connects RFID readers with conventional middleware.
It facilitates communication between enterprise systems and a variety of auto-
matic identification devices RFID readers and bar code scanners and performs
the functions outlined by EPCglobal's savant specification and the broader EPC net-
work. Savants, as defined by EPCglobal, are distributed RFID middleware applica-
tions designed to process the streams of tag or sensor data coming in from one or
more (EPC) readers. RFID middleware supports this core savant functionality, plus
broader functions such as EPC commissioning, where tags are commissioned
(physically written to) using unique EPC numbers assigned to the individual items
they are tracking. (see http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleprint/858/-1/82/
[2]). Conventional middleware is not well equipped to handle this range of devices,
unless all hardware devices and their interfaces are programmatically exposed,
meaning accessible via easy-to-use software services using web services standards
and a service-oriented architecture. (see
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleprint/858/-1/82/ [2]).
RFID middleware is located in the middle between reader and integration server
(enterprise backend system) in an RFID system. In chapter 4 the system running
the RFID middleware was called edge server. It builds the edge to the RFID sys-
tems (readers and tags). Although different RFID applications require different data
processing infra-structure, some common properties prevail. Most RFID middleware
systems are offered by specialised software companies. They combine all the know-
how necessary to address a variety of RFID systems on the one hand, and a num-
ber of backend systems on the other.
7.5.1 Hardware
Edge servers are usually not delivered by the RFID reader or tag manufacturer.
Many customers prefer their on-site computer systems for running the RFID mid-
dleware. The RFID middleware arbitrates between the reader infra-structure and
the enterprise system (integration server, ERP system). The edge server offers all
hardware interfaces used by RFID systems from different vendors (serial interfaces
(e.g. RS-232 or RS-485 standard), wired network interfaces (e.g. 10 BASE-T, 100
BASE-T Ethernet LAN interface), wireless network interface (e.g. WLAN or Blue-
tooth)). On the edge server/integration server interface, wired LAN systems are



116


almost solely used. Edge computing allows users to reduce bandwidth by distribut-
ing data to the readers. Intelligence at the edge server enables systems to work
faster and more efficiently. Many RFID middleware systems support central and de-
central approaches.
Central
Edge Server
IT Backend
Systems
In-House LAN
Decentral RFID
Workstation
LAN connected
Gate Reader
RFID
Middle-
ware
RFID
Middle-
ware

Figure 23 Central and de-central RFID middleware approach
In cases where RFID readers are directly connected to the main enterprise commu-
nication system (e.g. in-house LAN) and no graphical user interface or local busi-
ness logic is required at the identification point, the RFID middleware can operate
on a central edge server. At consignment locations where user interaction is re-
quired, de-central workstations must run parts of the RFID middleware (see hand-
held reader in Figure 23).
In combination with process control systems, the RFID middleware can also read
sensors and control actuators or alarm systems (e.g. warning lights) via additional
digital or analogue hardware, or via general purpose I/O ports of RFID readers. E.g.
goods on a conveyor belt can be detected via a photoelectric barrier in order to de-
tect false or missed RFID readings. The belt can be stopped and an acoustic/optic
alarm is activated directly by the RFID middleware.



117


7.5.2 Software
The software that directly controls the RFID readers and runs on edge servers or
RFID workstations is usually called RFID middleware. It provides glue software to
control readers, collect and aggregate tags data and to prepare RFID data for en-
terprise applications (e.g. enterprise resource planning (ERP), warehouse manage-
ment systems (WMS), manufacturing execution systems (MES), supply chain man-
agement (SCM)) running on integration servers (backend systems). Some RFID
middleware vendors also provide additional functions to address non-RFID auto-ID
technologies like barcode systems, sensors, and interfaces to automation and proc-
ess control systems. There are four main tasks for RFID middleware.
7.5.2.1 Device monitoring and management
Currently most RFID readers use proprietary protocols on the reader/edge server
interface (see chapter 6.2). The RFID middleware has to adapt to the requirements
of these protocols and of the different RFID technologies (LF, HF, UHF, SHF, pas-
sive, semi-passive, active, etc.). Reading/writing of tag data, configuring of pa-
rameters and operational modes has to be translated into the reader language
provided by its manufacturer. The future will tell whether and how quick the manu-
facturers will comply with standardised low level reader protocols (e.g. EPCglobal
Reader Protocol Standard V1.1, June 2006 [81]), in order to harmonise
reader/edge server interfaces as well as to reduce complexity and costs of individ-
ual adaptations. Many readers provide general purpose in- and outputs that take
digital or analogue signals from sensors (e.g. events from photoelectric barriers,
movement sensors, physical values (light, temperature, pressure, etc.)) or control
actuators and local logic systems (e.g. motors, alarm systems, optic/acoustic warn-
ings). RFID middleware directly controls these systems via the reader I/O ports or
via additional I/O hardware without consulting the backend systems. Most RFID
middleware also offers control of RFID printers, digital I/O devices, barcode scan-
ners and sensor systems. Central modules provide the surveillance of all devices
connected, mostly via user-friendly web interfaces. Fault situations may be indi-
cated to controllers or administrators via alert functions (e.g. E-Mail, SNMP-Traps,
etc.). Readers that allow the update of their firmware via the reader/edge server
interface can be upgraded to new or customised firmware via the RFID middleware.
7.5.2.2 Data monitoring and management
Sometimes at a specific identification point only transponders of a particular prod-
uct or vendor category are of interest to the backend system (integration server).
RFID middleware provides precast filter functions for that. The enterprise applica-



118


tion on the integration server gets only those RFID events that passed the filters. In
order to minimise any menace through malware (malicious code) (e.g. viruses,
Trojan horses, worms) transported in tag data, an increasingly important procedure
is proper input and output format checking as well as attacking detection functions
(e.g. see http://www.rfidvirus.org [3]). Many of the imaginable scenarios base on
poor format checking. Further data management tasks are data aggregation (e.g.
real-time collection of ID numbers of a specific category, integration into lists, crea-
tion and management of Electronic Product Codes (EPCs), minimisation of RFID
data flow to the integration server, real-time event notification, network support to
enable enhanced decision support, as well as decision-making based on enterprise-
wide information. In case the connection to the integration server (backend enter-
prise system) is down or congested, the RFID middleware may provide bidirectional
data buffering and intermediate decision services. Writeable RFID tags (LF, HF,
UHF, SHF) often carry a user memory. The RFID middleware can do the mapping of
business variables to memory locations in the user memory and takes care of the
reading and writing of these data. So the enterprise applications can concentrate on
database and business variable operations without knowing the transponders
memory structure. Addressing or changing of different tag types might require
small or no changes in the RFID middleware only. RFID middleware may also man-
age short loop database applications (e.g. completeness check of incoming goods,
comparison to delivery order). In case of secure RFID applications, the RFID mid-
dleware offers the appropriate interfaces for authentication and key management
and might also offer secure data transfer channels to communication end points.
7.5.2.3 Enterprise application integration
RFID middleware platforms support several interfaces in order to deliver filtered
and processed data to enterprise applications:
Almost all RFID middleware packages provide a common application pro-
grammable interface (API)
Standardised protocols like the Application Level Events Protocol (ALE) from
EPCglobal [81] are getting more and more supported.
Web services and web interfaces become the preferred user interfaces in
many RFID middleware packages.
Direct database access interface from the RFID middleware
Data feed interface to EPCglobals standardised EPCIS (Electronic Product
Code Information Service) [81]



119


Standard communication interfaces via Files (XML, CSV, binary, etc.), TCP
(Transport Control Protocol) Sockets, HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
and others.
Message queuing as another data exchange interface
7.5.2.4 Local business processes
RFID middleware packages partly offer support for local business logic. graphical
user interfaces (GUIs) present the current reading result at the goods issuing de-
partment. The assignment to a specific packaging or delivering unit, up to the ad-
vance shipment notification (ASN) is managed by RFID middleware. At the incom-
ing goods department the business logic includes completeness check and delivery
order check. Out-of-the-box standard solutions are:
Initialisation (e.g. for mandates)
Incoming and issuing goods management
Consignment sales
Inventory control
Forrester Research evaluated US RFID middleware vendors in 2004 (see
http://www.forrester.com/Research/Document/Excerpt/0,7211,34390,00.html [4]).
The report, Evaluating RFID Middleware, rates RFID middleware players and po-
tential entrants within two broad studies. The first study evaluated current offerings
and compared their potential for early adopters today; the second looked at each
vendors ability to offer features essential in broad, long-term RFID deployments.
Forrester interviewed 13 US vendor companies, including: ConnecTerra, GlobeR-
anger, IBM, Manhattan Associates, Microsoft, OATSystems, Oracle, RF Code, SAP,
Savi Technology, Sun Microsystems, TIBCO Software, and webMethods (see
http://www.forrester.com/Research/Document/Excerpt/0,7211,34390,00.html [4]).
The software vendors covered in the report fall into four broad areas: RFID pure
plays ConnecTerra, GlobeRanger, OATSystems, Savi Technology and RF Code; ap-
plication vendors Manhattan Associates and SAP; platform giants Sun Microsys-
tems, IBM, Oracle, and Microsoft; and integration specialists webMethods and Tibco
Software. Provia Software and RedPrairie were compared with the others in the
report because their RFID middleware functionality relies on software from two
companies already includednamely Sun and RF Code (see
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleprint/1106/-1/1/ [5]). The report con-
cludes that for companies deploying RFID systems (in 2004), Manhattan Associates,



120


OATSystems and SAP provide the best RFID middleware features such as reader
integration, data filtering and EPC track-and-trace tools.
A recent lookup (Aug. 2007) in Online Buyer's Guide of the RFID Journal (see
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/findvendor [6]) for providers of RFID middle-
ware in USA and Europe lists 26 companies (in alphabetical order):
Focus USA and Europe (16 companies):
Accu-Sort Systems, Inc.; Alvin Systems; BEA Systems, Inc.; CYBRA Corpo-
ration; GlobeRanger Corporation; IBM Corporation; InSync Software, Inc.;
Loftware, Inc.; Manhattan Associates, Inc.; NCR Corporation; Oracle; Pro-
gress Software; SAP; Skandsoft Technologies Pvt Ltd.; Sybase iAnywhere;
TrenStar Inc.
Focus USA only (6 companies):
Bent Systems; CODE Plus, Inc.; RFideaWorks Corp.; Smart Label Solutions;
Stratum Global; Supply Insight Inc.
Focus Europe only (3 companies):
7iD Technologies GmbH; IDxS; RF-iT Solutions GmbH; Trackway Oy
Well known players of the enterprise system world (e.g. ERP, WMS) are also offer-
ing RFID middleware: IBM Corporation, Oracle, SAP.
7.6 Backend systems
Depending on the kind of business and applications various backend systems (inte-
gration server in Figure 3) are in use. Early enterprise business software systems
were mostly based on mainframe computers (e.g. from IBM Corp., Sun Microsys-
tems) and connected dumb terminals for user access. Meanwhile these systems
have been replaced by or migrated to more flexible client/server systems using
elaborate graphical user interfaces (GUI). The client software usually runs on vari-
ous platforms ranging from office PCs to mobile devices (laptops, PDAs, mobile
phones, ). The enterprise software operates on mainframe computers, server farms
or clusters.
Most systems fall into one of these categories:
Enterprise resource planning (ERP)
Material requirements planning (MRP)
Manufacturing resource(s) planning II (MRP II)



121


Warehouse management systems (WMS)
Manufacturing execution systems (MES)
Supply chain management (SCM)
Transportation management system (TMS)
Order management systems (OMS)
Yard management systems (YMS)
Customer relationship management (CRM)
Advanced planning & scheduling (APS)
Enterprise business software ranges in price from a few thousand Euros to millions.
Popular vendors with example software packages in parentheses include (sorted
alphabetically):
Epicor (Epicor Enterprise)
Industrial and Financial Systems (IFS Applications)
Infor Global Solutions (ERP LN, Visual Enterprise)
Lawson Software (Lawson Financials)
Microsoft Dynamics (formerly: Microsoft Business Solutions) (Microsoft Dy-
namics)
NetSuite (NetERP)
Oracle (Oracle e-Business Suite, PeopleSoft)
QAD (MFG/PRO)
Ramco Systems (Ramco e.Applications)
The Sage Group (Accpac, Sage MAS 500)
SAP (SAP R/3, mySAP)
SIV.AG (kVASy4)



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Unit 4 Agresso (Agresso Business World)
Visma (Visma CRM, Visma L7)
Some enterprise business software vendors have started to integrate RFID inter-
faces or offer additional RFID middleware (e.g. IBM Corporation, Oracle, SAP).
Besides the big players there are many vendors of smaller solutions (e.g. for
SMEs) and there are even free and open source ERP software (see
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ERP_software_packages [7]): Adempiere,
Compiere, ERP5, GNU Enterprise, JFire, OFBiz, OpenBlueLab, Opentaps, Tiny ERP,
WebERP.
RFID middleware and conventional middleware is used to adapt the auto-ID infra-
structure (RFID readers/printers, Barcode Systems, OCR Systems, etc.) to the en-
terprise business system. RFID usually generates and needs a huge amount of
data. RFID middleware disburdens or supports the enterprise software from/in
tasks like Device Monitoring and Management, Data Monitoring and Manage-
ment, Enterprise Application Integration, Local Business Processes.
7.6.1 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Functions of RFID middleware and backend systems are used in any subcategory
application of the RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Although there are spe-
cial applications where these functions are concentrated on one system there is no
elementary difference regarding their usage in the subcategories.
7.7 Advanced systems
7.7.1 Sensors
Active RFID tags can easily be extended with some sensors measuring or detecting
e.g. the following physical values:
pressure
humidity
mechanical strain
temperature



123


smoke
noise
localisation
The physical value is measured by the tag and communicated back together with its
ID number and tag data to the reader. Because of the increased power consump-
tion of the sensor element itself, the electronics to measure the output of the sen-
sor element and the power to write the information reliably into a memory, tags
with such functionality are semi-passive or active tags (see 7.1) in most cases to
ensure a regular measurement.
The sensors information can also be distributed via a sensor network (see 7.7.4) to
enable, for example, an ambient intelligence system (see 7.7.3).

Figure 24 In the case of localisation systems the concepts of sensor fusion offer im-
pressively enhanced results
The concept of sensor fusion (see 0) is to combine information of several sensors
to form a network or ambient intelligence system. To quote Aristotle The whole is
more than the sum of its parts. The data may be transferred to a data processing
system where it can be filtered in order to build a visualised status view for the
user.



124


7.7.2 Localisation
One of the most challenging functions of an RFID tag is its localisation. Localising,
in the sense of this chapter, means more than knowing in which stock a product is
stored. With localisation an accuracy of one meter or even more precise for real
time tracking is aimed. The Figure 25 illustrates a possible future service of an RFID
enabled localisation system: when going through the super market, the shopping
list is matched with the shortest way through the market and to the appropriate
shelves. Even more powerful systems can be designed e.g. with the combination of
localisation and networking (see 1.3.4, systems for fire detection and assistance for
fire fighting).

Figure 25 Localisation enabled services in future RFID applications
The localisation of RFID tags consumes much more computing power and more so-
phisticated radio transmission parts than pure ID tags. So this feature can only be
supplemented for active or semi-passive systems at the moment.



125


RFID Localisation with active tags
Reader
Tag
Freq.-mod.
TX-signal
t
f
time-of-flight
Reader
Tag
Distance Determination Localisation with two readers possible
Triangulation

Figure 26 RFID localisation with active tags: the reader is able not only to read the
tags ID and data, but can also locate the tag and provide the tags coordi-
nates.
For low resolution systems (>1 m) the strength of the RF signal can be used for the
determination of the reader-to-tag range. For higher resolutions (<20 cm) other
methods like time of arrival are used for the localisation. Such systems often use
proprietary protocols or protocol extensions since there are no international local-
isation standards at present.
7.7.3 Ambient intelligence
RFID sensors, actuators and some network in-between may form a so-called am-
bient intelligence network. Data from all sensors may be combined, processed and
used for sophisticated high level decisions of the controlling system (e.g. opening or
closing windows for passive room climate management).



126


Emergency call system
Telemonitoring
Fall sensor
Entry monitoring
Equipment checked / switched off
when inhabitant leaves apartment
Presence simulation
Fall sensor
Protection against scalding
Emergency call system
All rooms monitored by sensors
(smoke, fire, water, climate)
Glass breakage
sensor

Figure 27 Smart home enabled by RFID sensor networks
Figure 27 shows the interaction of building and sensor technology, data transmis-
sion and services let old and handicapped people live relatively independent lives.
7.7.4 Networks
RFID tags and reader may form networks in order to implement complex functions
where the communication of one tag and one reader is not sufficient. One of these
functions could be the range enhancement by distributing messages over multiple
network nodes. Static network nodes could also locate each other and moving
nodes within the network.



127


Network
Management
Communication
Sensing
Unit
Security
Localization /
Positioning
Wireless
Sensor
Networks
User Interface
Smart
Processing
Power Supply

Figure 28 Wireless sensor networks: what is important?
Figure 28 gives an overview of various aspects of wireless sensor networks. The
network controller (centralised or distributed) manages the establishment and the
data processing inside the network. Additional functions like security (e.g. secure
data transfer) or localisation/positioning can be included besides the main (multi-
)sensor functionality. Network services are presented and visualised via the user
interface.



128



Figure 29 Application area for RFID networks: the origin of a fire is detected and the
information is transmitted via the network. Also the position of the auto-
mated fire fighting system is estimated by the network
Figure 29 shows a typical application for a self-organising RFID sensor network. The
sensor detects smoke and measures the temperature in order to identify open fire.
Many sensors are easily distributed over a building without physical interconnection
to each other and without the need of individual configuration. All sensors and
some active units (e.g. fire extinction robots or navigation units to assist fire fight-
ers) build nodes in a self-organising network. All nodes communicate with each
other via radio frequency (active RFID). The RF link is also used to locate each node
and to create a physical map of the network. Active units may navigate though the
building and help to find the origins of the fire and where it is safe to pass for ro-
bots or humans. Each node is able to store network status data (e.g. recorded sen-
sor data and their source, movement data) from all nodes of the system. In case of
the physical damage of a node, all data collected from the node remain available in



129


all other operational nodes. Such self-organising sensor networks are also examples
for ambient intelligent systems (see 7.7.4).
7.7.5 Robust systems
Some applications have special requirements that cannot be met by common large-
scale produced, cost-optimised RFID systems. Some system requirements that
need the usage of robust RFID systems are listed below.
Harsh environments
High temperatures (silicon-based technology is limited to approx. 200C)
High or low pressures
High radiation
Dangerous neighbouring substances
Humidity
Intensive vibration (frequency, amplitude)
High accelerations
Mechanical strains
Presence of strong magnetic, electric or electromagnetic fields
Special requirements
Reading range
High data transfer rates
High reader-to-tag velocity
High reliability (MTBF),
High durability
Low maintenance rate
Low repair time (MTTR)



130


Tags that have to operate in the neighbourhood of dangerous substances (e.g. ac-
ids) may be integrated into protection enclosures (e.g. glass). The protective enclo-
sure may influence the tag properties and therefore has to be considered during the
tag design (especially the antenna design).
Another important example for a robust RFID system that provides a couple of re-
quirements is shown in Figure 30.
Transponder
antenna
In
t
e
r
r
o
g
a
t
io
n
s
ig
n
a
l
R
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
s
ig
n
a
l
In
t
e
r
r
o
g
a
t
io
n
s
ig
n
a
l
R
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
s
ig
n
a
l
SAW-Transponder
Interdigital
converter
Reflectors
Transponder
antenna
Surface Surface- -wave wave
substrate substrate
Surface Surface- -wave wave
substrate substrate

Figure 30 SAW identification system process
The SAW system is a passive UHF RFID system. The UHF signal from the reader is
converted to an acoustic wave. The wave is reflected multiple times on a substrate.
The multiple reflection signals are converted back into an UHF signal and transmit-
ted back to the reader.
The SAW system offers the following remarkable properties that cannot be imple-
mented by standardised RFID systems:
High temperature resistance (400 C), Sterilisation
Readable at high velocity (420 km/h)
High data rate (1000 queries/sec)
Additional sensor features like: temperature, pressure, strain gauge
Long range (10 m, fully passive)



131


7.7.6 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
0 shows the mapping of advanced systems to the subcategories of the RFID
Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this advanced system can be
used in the corresponding subcategory.



132


Table 24 Mapping advanced systems to the RFID Reference Model
Current use Possible use RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
S
e
n
s
o
r
s

L
o
c
a
l
i
s
a
t
i
o
n

A
m
b
i
e
n
t

i
n
t
e
l
l
i
g
e
n
c
e

N
e
t
w
o
r
k
s

R
o
b
u
s
t

s
y
s
t
e
m
s

S
e
n
s
o
r
s

L
o
c
a
l
i
s
a
t
i
o
n

A
m
b
i
e
n
t

i
n
t
e
l
l
i
g
e
n
c
e

N
e
t
w
o
r
k
s

R
o
b
u
s
t

s
y
s
t
e
m
s

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical
tracking & trac-
ing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods
CB: Electronic goods
CC: Textile goods
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical
C: Product
safety, quality
and information
CF: Customer info. systems
DA: Access control systems
DB: Animal tracking Y Y
D: Access control
and track. &
tracing of indi-
viduals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards E: Loyalty, emb.
and payment
EB: Membership cards
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y
GB: Rental systems Y G: Sports, lei-
sure and house-
hold
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y Y H: Public ser-
vices
HC: Banknotes Y Y



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Except robust systems all current advanced systems require an additional energy
source (active RFID with a battery).
Sensors
RFID systems that use tags with integrated sensor functions can be used in all sub-
categories of the fields: logistical tracking & tracing and production, monitoring and
maintenance. Cost-effective usage is limited to only a few current subcategories
where sensor functions are mandatory. E.g. objects that need temperature moni-
toring may use temperature sensor tags to record temperature profiles during the
objects lifecycle. This example might be extremely important for dangerous goods
(e.g. chemicals) that must not exceed a maximum temperature on transportation.
Localisation
RFID systems that use tags with additional localisation functionality can be used in
all subcategories of the fields: logistical tracking & tracing and production, monitor-
ing and maintenance. Cost-effective usage is limited to only a few current subcate-
gories where localisation functions are needed. Especially tracking, process control,
and smart home applications may benefit from localisation functionality. In applica-
tions where many tagged objects may be identified in one read (long range multi-
tag reading), the position of the tags might be necessary to find a single object.
Dangerous goods might have to keep predefined distances to certain positions in-
side a building or to other dangerous goods. RFID localisation may help to enforce
and monitor such requirements.
Ambient intelligence
RFID systems that combine a number of additional sensor and networking functions
may build an ambient intelligence system. Such systems are mainly used in more
static applications where the tagged objects stay within defined areas, as in the
subcategories: facility management, automation/process control, smart home. Pos-
sible use may be extended to other subcategories.
Networks
RFID systems that build networks between a set of tags and readers are closely
related to ambient intelligence systems. So they cover the same set of subcatego-
ries: facility management, automation/process control, smart home. Possible use
may be extended to other subcategories.
Robust systems
Robust RFID systems provide operation under special environments or require-
ments. They are often used in the same static arrangements as for ambient intelli-
gence or network systems, as in the subcategories: automation/process control,



134


hospital management, banknotes. Possible use may be extended to other subcate-
gories. High temperature or pressure environments may afford highly robust tags,
e.g. areas permanently above 250 degrees Celsius. Common silicon based technol-
ogy fails in such temperature areas.



135


8 Standards and Regulations View
Standards and regulations do have an important influence on the development and
implementation of RFID systems. They build a further view on RFID. Standards are
created by the industry or organisations, on national or international level. Interna-
tional standards are usually established by standardisation organisations that oper-
ate globally (e.g. "International Organisation for Standardisation" (ISO) [78], In-
ternational Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) [79], Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers(IEEE) [80], GS1-EPCglobal [81]). Some of the international
standards in the electrotechnical field are jointly developed (e.g. ISO together with
IEC (marked as ISO/IEC)).
There are also international organisations that create recommendations on radio
regulations (e.g. ITU) but the controlling and the enforcement still operates on a
national level. Radio regulations are a matter of local legislations. This is the reason
why the process to reach common continental or even global regulations (e.g. fre-
quency allocations, limits for effectively radiated power, operational modes) is very
difficult and time-consuming. International standards, e.g. for air interfaces, are
usually faster available than the corresponding regulations for a particular country
in order to legally operate systems that comply with such a standard.
RFID standards and radio regulations is the topic of CE RFID work package 3. This
report only lists a subset of the most important regulations and standards in order
to present RFID technologies from this perspective. A complete list of RFID stan-
dards and regulations can be seen in the documentation of work package 3.
8.1 Radio regulations
Table 25 contains the harmonised radio regulations in the European Union for the
most important air interfaces allocated for RFID usage (sources: European Stan-
dards and Recommendations: REC 70-03, EN 300 220, EN 300330, EN 300440
[82]). None of them is exclusively for RFID. Most allocations must also follow a
spectrum mask containing maximum power levels in neighbouring frequencies.



136


Frequency Max. power limit Standard etc.
13.553 13.567 MHz 42 dBA/m @ 10 m (ITU ISM Band)
13.553 13.567 MHz 60 dBA/m @ 10 m only for RFID and EAS
433.05 434.76 MHz 10 mW (ERP) <10% duty cycle (ITU ISM Band)
433.05 434.76 MHz 1 mW (ERP) up to 100% duty cycle (ITU ISM
Band)
434.04 434.76 MHz 10 mW (ERP) <10% duty cycle (ITU ISM Band)
865.00 868.00 MHz 100 mW (ERP) LBT, 200 kHz channel spacing
865.60 867.60 MHz 2 W (ERP) LBT, 200 kHz channel spacing
865.60 868.00 MHz 500 mW (ERP) LBT, 200 kHz channel spacing
2400.0 2483.5 MHz 10 mW (EIRP) (ITU ISM Band)
5725.0 5875.0 MHz 25 mW (EIRP) (ITU ISM Band)
Table 25 European harmonised radio regulations for RFID usage
Depending on the frequency band limits of the power of the radio signal transmitted
by the reader are presented in units of magnetic or electrical field strengths (e.g.
dBA, dBV) or as effective radiated power (ERP, see below) in watts (e.g. mW
milliwatts). For the upcoming UHF range 840-960 MHz it is particularly difficult
since frequency allocations, definition of maximum power levels (ERP) and opera-
tional modes (e.g. FHSS, LBT, see below) differ significantly all over the world. In
order to manufacture UHF tags that can be used for a global supply chain, means to
design them for the very broad frequency range of 840-960 MHz. This means in
practice a significant compromise in the tag antenna design and a drop in the tags
performance (e.g. reading range) compared to single band tags. To find a world-
wide harmonised frequency band, power and mode allocation in this UHF area
seems to be impossible due to different adjacent allocations worldwide (e.g. for
mobile telephone services), that represent huge investments. The conditions in this
frequency band (840-960 MHz) might be fixed for many years until major technol-
ogy changes will arrive. Table 26 clarifies this situation for some of the largest
countries worldwide. The data derive from an ongoing report of EPCglobal Inc. (GS1
EPCglobal, Regulatory status for using RFID in the UHF spectrum [71]) and other
sources.



137


Country / region UHF RFID spectrum alloca-
tion
Max. power limit (ERP)
Europe 865 868 MHz 2 W (LBT)
U.S. 902 928 MHz 2.4 W (FHSS)
Argentina 902 928 MHz 2.4 W (FHSS)
Australia 920 926 MHz confirmed
until July 2008
2.4 W
902-907.5 MHz 2.4 W (FHSS) Brazil
915-928 MHz 2.4 W (FHSS)
Canada 902-928 MHz 2.4 W (FHSS)
840.5-844.5 MHz 2 W (FHSS) China
920.5-924.5 MHz 2 W (FHSS)
865 868 MHz 2 W Hong Kong, China
920 925 MHz 2.4 W
Indonesia 923 925 MHz (considered) -
Japan 952 954 MHz 2.4 W (LBT) (License required)
Korea 908.5 910 MHz 2.4 W (LBT)
868.1 MHz (considered) 50 mW
2 W (unlicensed use)
Malaysia
919 923 MHz (considering)
4 W (under license)
Norway 865.6 867-6 MHz (expect.) 2 W (LBT)
Russian Federation 865.6 867.6 MHz 2 W (LBT, under license)
866 869 MHz 500 mW
500 mW (unlicensed use)
Singapore
920 925 MHz
2 W (under license)
865.6-867.6 MHz 2 W (LBT) South Africa
917-921 MHz 2.4 W (FHSS)
Switzerland 865.6 867.6 MHz 2 W (LBT)
Uruguay 902-928 MHz 2.4 W (FHSS)
Table 26 RFID radio regulations worldwide
FHSS means Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum. This is a method of widening
the used spectrum by quick frequency changes. Some countries require this opera-
tional mode. One reason might be to reduce potential interferences with other ser-
vices inside the same frequency band.
LBT means Listen Before Talk. The RFID reader has to listen with high sensitivity
into the radio channel it desires to use for the communication with the tag. It is not
allowed to transmit on this frequency until the channel is unused for a period of



138


time. This limitation is required in Europe, the Russian Federation, South Africa,
some Asian and other countries. A possible reason for this restriction might also be
the reduction of potential interference with other in-band services. But on the other
hand, in critical cases an RFID reader may remain blocked for a long period of time
by even a small RF signal on the operating frequency. In consequence, RFID opera-
tion can be stopped and some operator might assume a technical malfunction of
the RFID system. In North and South America, as well as in Australia, this restric-
tion does not apply.
The power of the readers transmission signal is measured as ERP or EIRP, respec-
tively. In this context ERP means Effective Radiated Power. ERP values can easily
be converted into EIRP values (Effective Isotropic Radiated Power) by multiplying
them with the factor 1.64. The two values derive from different measurement defi-
nitions. ERP is often used in European regulations while EIRP values dominate US
regulations.
Together with the slightly higher power allocation, the easier reader design (no LBT
stage) and the wider frequency allocation, North and South America, as well as
Australia do still have an advantage in RFID technology that results in higher sys-
tem performance and lower system price.
The EPCglobal report claims that the offered list represents a total of 98.46 percent
of the world Gross National Income (GNI). The following statistics can be derived
from the data that are currently available (reference date: 25 June 2007):
Regulations are in place or will be in place shortly in 52 countries represent-
ing 87.43% of the global GNI.
Regulations should be settled within 6 months in 17 countries representing
8.32% of the global GNI.
Information is not yet available for 47 countries representing 2.71% of the
global GNI.
8.1.1 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 27 shows the mapping of radio regulation parameters to the subcategories of
the RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this radio regulation
parameter applies or has major impact to the corresponding subcategory.



139


Table 27 Mapping radio regulation parameters to the RFID Reference Model
Current use Possible use RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
L
o
w

t
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

p
o
w
e
r

(
<
=
1
0

m
W
)

M
e
d
i
u
m

t
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

p
o
w
e
r

(
1
0
0

m
W
)

H
i
g
h

t
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

p
o
w
e
r

(
1

W
)

L
B
T

F
H
S
S

L
o
w

t
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

p
o
w
e
r

(
<
=
1
0

m
W
)

M
e
d
i
u
m

t
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

p
o
w
e
r

(
1
0
0

m
W
)

H
i
g
h

t
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

p
o
w
e
r

(
1

W
)

L
B
T

F
H
S
S

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical
tracking &
tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
B: Produc-
tion, moni-
toring and
mainte-
nance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product
safety,
quality and
information
CF: Customer Info. systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
D: Access
control and
tracking &
tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth
care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y G: Sports,
leisure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y Y Y Y Y Y H: Public
services
HC: Banknotes Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y



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Low transmission power
Low reader transmission power (<= 10 mW EIRP) is used in applications where the
reading range should be limited or where there is not enough power supply for
more transmission power (e.g. battery driven handheld readers): customer infor-
mation systems (low power for battery usage), loyalty (limited range) and mem-
bership cards (limited range), hospital management (limited range for security and
safety reasons), smart home (battery driven devices), banknotes (for low range
applications).
Medium transmission power
Medium reader transmission power (100 mW EIRP) is used in applications where
medium reading range is sufficient.
High transmission power
High reader transmission power (1-4 W EIRP) is used in applications where maxi-
mum reading range and maximum reliability is needed. Almost all subcategories
work with this power range except battery driven systems or limited reading range
applications.
LBT
Listen before talk (LBT) is an operational mode. The RFID reader has to listen
with high sensitivity into the radio channel it desires to use for the communication
with the tag. It is not allowed to transmit on this frequency until the channel is un-
used for a period of time. This limitation is required in Europe, the Russian Federa-
tion, South Africa, some Asian and other countries on UHF frequency bands. It ap-
plies to all subcategories operated in the specified countries because UHF tags can
be used in any applications.
FHSS
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) is an operational mode. This is a
method of widening the used spectrum by quick frequency changes. Some coun-
tries require this operational mode on UHF frequency bands (e.g. USA, North and
South America). One reason might be to reduce potential interferences with other
services (e.g. other readers) inside the same frequency band. It applies to all sub-
categories operated in the specified countries because UHF tags can be used in any
applications.



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8.2 Air interface standards
The list of most important RFID standards starts with the so-called air interface
standards. These international standards define parameters for the tag/reader in-
terface or radio link (air interface), i.e. operation frequency, coupling types, modu-
lation methods, data coding, etc. The two most important standard families are the
ISO/IEC 18000 series (from ISO [78] and IEC [79]) and the EPCglobal series (from
GS1, EPCglobal [81]). Until 2006, these two different organisations developed their
incompatible standards independently. As of 2006 there is a small intersection. The
EPCglobal Class 1 Generation 2 air interface protocol standard V1.0.9 has been
adopted as type C in amendment 1 to ISO/IEC 18000 part 6: air interfaces at 860-
960 MHz (short: ISO/IEC 18000-6c [78], [79]). EPCglobal [81] is an RFID user or-
ganisation (with subscribed members) and not an internationally accepted stan-
dardisation organisation. Some customers require RFID systems that comply with
international standards derived from notified bodies. They do not accept EPCglobal
standards [81], as well as national or industry standards. The amendment of
ISO/IEC 18000-6 ([78], [79]) removed this hurdle for the UHF band (840-960
MHz).

Figure 31 Main international RFID standards
There are still differences in the HF area (13.56 MHz). Other frequency bands (e.g.
<135 kHz (LF), 433 MHz, 2.45 GHz) are not covered by EPCglobal standards [81]
so far. ISO/IEC 18000-5 (air interface for 5.8 GHz) has been withdrawn. A com-
plete list of RFID standards is provided in the documentation of work package 3.



142


8.3 Application standards
There are international standards that define the use of RFID technology for par-
ticular applications. Some of them define their own air interface and some refer for
their air interface to non-application-specific air interface standards. Various RFID
technologies are used in these standards, most of them in the low frequency (LF)
and high frequency (HF) area. A complete list of current application standards can
be found in the documentation of work package 3. Here are a few widely used ex-
amples:
The international standards for freight containers address technical protocols, inter-
faces, and frequencies.
ISO 18185 [78] is an international standard for electronic container tags. It in-
cludes passive and active protocols, enabling both simple low cost and more robust
tags. The standard describes communication protocol, application requirements,
environmental characteristics, data protection, sensor interface, message sets for
transfer between reader and host computer and the physical layer.
ISO 10374 [78] is the standard for RFID automatic identification of freight contain-
ers. It is a dual frequency passive read-only standard that includes two frequency
bands, 850-950 MHz and 2400-2500 MHz.
ISO 17363 [78] defines the usage of read/write RFID tags on freight containers for
supply chain management. It contains recommendations for a containerised cargo
supply chain RFID system. It defines the set of required and optional data struc-
tures, the air interface and communication parameters for active radio-frequency
identification communications using ISO/IEC 18000-7 ([78], [79]). ISO 17363
complements ISO 10374 for permanent container license-plate tags.
ISO 17364 [78] and ISO 17365 [78] are under development and address return-
able transport items and transport units respectively.
ISO 17366 [78] and ISO 17367 [78] describe standards for package and items re-
spectively. Figure 32 illustrates how ISO 17363-17367 [78] apply to the different
levels of items transportation in freight containers.



143


Products Tagging:
Layer 0
ISO 17367 (13.56MHz, 860 - 960 MHz)
Product Packages:
Layer 1
ISO 17367 (13.56MHz, 860 - 960 MHz)
Transport Units:
Layer 2
ISO 17365 (860 - 960 MHz)
Returnable Transport Items:
e.g. Reusable Pallets
ISO 17364 (13.56MHz, 860 - 960 MHz)
Freight Containers:
Layer 4
ISO 17363 (433 MHz)
Transport Vehicle:
Lorry, Train, Aircraft. Container Ship
Layer 5
Layer 3

Figure 32 ISO standards hierarchy for logistic units
ISO standards on RFID for animals [78] address data structure, air interface (used
frequencies) and advanced systems. ISO 11784 [78] describes the code structure
used for ID tags on animals. ISO 11785 [78] specifies the air interface, i.e. how the
transponder is activated and how the stored information is transferred to the
reader.
ISO 14223 [78] is an extension of ISO 11784 [78] and ISO 11785 [78] and speci-
fies the air interface, code and command structure and applications for advanced
transponders for RFID for animals.
RFID cards (contactless integrated circuit cards) are standardised in ISO 10536
(close coupling) [78], ISO 14443 (proximity) [78] or ISO 15693 (vicinity) [78].
Close coupling integrated chip cards (CICC) cover distances up to 1 cm. ISO 10536
[78] specifies their physical characteristics, dimensions and locations of coupling
areas, electronic signals and reset, as well as transmission protocols.
Proximity coupling integrated chip cards (PICC) are readable up to 10 cm. Their
physical characteristics, radio frequency power and signal interface, anti-collision
and transmission protocols are documented in ISO 14443 [78].



144


Vicinity coupling integrated chip cards (VICC) allow a reading distance of up to 1 m.
Their physical characteristics, anti-collision and transmission protocols are de-
scribed in ISO 15693 [78].
In ISO 10373 [78] standards for test methods for contactless integrated circuit
cards are defined. This standard relates to other standards (i.e. ISO 1810 [78],
which defines four formats for identity or identification cards).
8.4 Standards for test methods
There are also standards that describe test methods for RFID systems. They can
apply to many air interfaces and applications.
ISO/IEC 18046 ([78], [79]) provides a framework for performance evaluation of
RFID systems for various applications in the transportation and logistics field (e.g.
freight containers, returnable transport items (RTIs), transport units, product pack-
aging, product tagging, see also Figure 32). There are tests for identification range
and identification rate, reading range and reading rate (additional (user) data),
writing range and writing rate. This standard does not test for conformity to other
standards (like air interface or data standards) or to national radio regulations.
ISO/IEC TR 18047 ([78], [79]) provides test methods for conformance with the
various parts of ISO/IEC 18000 ([78], [79]). There are test procedures for all air
interfaces (<135 kHz, 13.56 MHz, 433 MHz, 840-960 MHz, 2.45 GHz) and all sub-
types defined in the ISO/IEC 18000 standard series ([78], [79]). This standard
does not apply to the testing of conformity with regulatory or similar requirements.
8.5 Data management standards
Another family of standards focus on the data management related to RFID sys-
tems. Currently many systems on the market use proprietary protocols for data
transfer and data handling, especially on the interfaces reader/edge server (RFID
middleware) and edge server/integration server (e.g. ERP system). There are ongo-
ing efforts to establish international standards in this field in order to improve data
management and interoperability between systems from different manufacturers.
On the long term, cost reduction accompanied by multiple sources (vendors) of
RFID systems may be achieved.
The standards family around ISO/IEC 15961, ISO/IEC 15962, ISO/IEC 15963 ([78],
[79]) addresses the reader/edge server interface (15961), deals with the process-



145


ing of data and its presentation to the RF tag (15962) and describes numbering
systems for unique tag ID numbers (15963).
A new standard family currently under development is ISO/IEC 24791 ([78], [79]).
It is an extension to the previous family (ISO/IEC 15961 [78], [79], ISO/IEC 15962
[78], [79]) and defines a comprehensive software infrastructure. The framework
addresses architecture, data management, device management, application inter-
face and security issues.
A comparable counterpart to ISO/IEC 24791 ([78], [79]) on the EPCglobal side is
the EPC Information Services (EPCIS) Standard Family [81]. There is a Reader
Protocol Standard (EPC RP 1.1) for the reader/edge server interface, the Object
Naming Service (ONS) standard (EPC ONS 1.0) as one possible base of a so-called
Internet of Things", the EPCglobal Certificate Profile Standard (EPC CPF) for the
definition of a public key infrastructure (PKI) with issuance of X.509 certificates to
support secure data transfer and handling (authentication and encryption).
8.6 Data structure standards
For global logistics applications and supply chains a consistent definition of data
contents and structure in RFID tags is very important.
EPCglobal [81] focussed from the beginning on defining data structures (EPC) and
unique numbering systems. The EPC Tag Data Standards 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 (EPC TDS)
define tag data structures as well as encodings in the information systems layers of
the EPC Systems Network (i.e. the Uniform Resource Identifier Encodings (EPC
URI)).
ISO/IEC ([78], [79]) also defines data structures for RFID tags. ISO/IEC 15418
specifies sets of data and application identifiers for the purpose of identifying en-
coded data. It also identifies the organisations responsible for their maintenance.
ISO/IEC 15434 ([78], [79]) defines transfer methods of data from a suppliers in-
formation system to high-capacity automatic data capture media (ADC), e.g. an
RFID tag. It defines the syntax for high-capacity ADC media, so as to enable ADC
users to utilise a single mapping utility, regardless of which high-capacity ADC me-
dium is employed. The standard specifies a transfer structure, syntax, and coding
of messages and data formats when using high-capacity ADC media between trad-
ing partners.



146


8.7 Sensor standards
RFID systems that include sensor functions can be used in closed loop systems
where the importance of standardisation is low. If they shift to open loop systems
(e.g. temperature sensors for perishable foods) the demand for international stan-
dards for such sensor systems increase.
ISO/IEC 24753 ([78], [79]) is an example for an international standard under de-
velopment. It defines rules for encoding and processing for an active RFID system
for item management using sensors and batteries.
The IEEE 1451 [80] group develops standards for smart sensor networking and
integration. The IEEE 1451, a family of smart transducer interface standards, de-
scribes a set of open, common, network-independent communication interfaces for
connecting transducers (sensors or actuators) to microprocessors, instrumentation
systems, and control/field networks. The key feature of these standards is the defi-
nition of transducer electronic data sheets (TEDS). Many applications and products,
including supply chain integration, pharmaceutical products, and defence applica-
tions, require sensor data integrated with RFID data. The ISO committee SC31 [78]
is considering the current IEEE 1451.4 standard [80] for possible integration with
ISO RFID standards.
8.8 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 28 shows the mapping of RFID standards to the subcategories of the RFID
Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this group of standards is
relevant for the corresponding subcategory.



147


Table 28 Mapping RFID standards to the RFID Reference Model
Current use Possible use RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
A
i
r

i
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

s
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s

A
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

s
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s

S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s

f
o
r

t
e
s
t

m
e
t
h
o
d
s

D
a
t
a

m
a
n
a
g
e
m
e
n
t

s
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s

D
a
t
a

s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e

s
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s

S
e
n
s
o
r

s
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s

A
i
r

i
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

s
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s

A
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

s
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s

S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s

f
o
r

t
e
s
t

m
e
t
h
o
d
s

D
a
t
a

m
a
n
a
g
e
m
e
n
t

s
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s

D
a
t
a

s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e

s
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s

S
e
n
s
o
r

s
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical
tracking &
tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
B: Produc-
tion, moni-
toring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, qual-
ity and in-
formation
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y Y Y
D: Access
control and
tracking &
tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y Y Y Y Y E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y Y Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth
care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y Y Y G: Sports,
leisure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y Y Y Y H: Public
services
HC: Banknotes Y Y



148


Air interface standards
The existing air interface standards are used for almost all subcategories. Standard-
ised systems provide interoperability and reduce costs. For banknotes, no existing
air interface standard has been used yet, although possible.
Application standards
Application standards exist for many subcategories of the RFID Reference Model.
The exceptions are: fresh/perishable foods, customer information systems, road
tolling systems, banknotes.
Standards for test methods
Standards for test methods have been developed for compliance to air interfaces
and for general performance tests. They apply to many subcategories of the RFID
Reference Model except: fresh/perishable foods, customer information systems,
road tolling systems, banknotes.
Data management standards
Data management standards exist mainly for logistics and goods applications. The
application fields A to C of the RFID Reference Model can be applied with two ex-
ceptions: fresh/perishable foods (no standards for the handling of sensor data),
customer information system (proprietary data processing).
Data structure standards
For the data structure standards the same mapping as for the data management
standards applies.
Sensor standards
Sensor standards are currently under development. There are no applications using
sensor standards at present. When the new standards are available, typical sensor
applications can use them: dangerous goods logistics, vehicles, automation/process
control, fresh/perishable foods, pharmaceutical, implants, smart home.



149


9 Data Processing View
RFID systems process data and communicate with other data processing systems.
In Figure 3 in the network model view (chapter 6), we have seen the typical com-
ponents and communication partners of an RFID system. The reader transfers data
to the tag and as well reads data from the tag through the tag/reader interface. It
stores tag and configuration data and can also do some processing on the data
(e.g. filtering on ID numbers, anti-collision protocols, authentication and encryption
algorithms). Additional data procession tasks are handled by the edge server (e.g.
database lookup, data filtering, script processing) and exchanges data with the
reader as well as with the integration server. We are focussing here on the tag and
the reader being the basic components of an RFID system. Regarding the data
processing that is done in the tag and in the reader, a further view can be estab-
lished.
What kinds of data processing can be done in RFID tags? Due to the very small
amount of energy available on passive tags, the range of data processing tasks is
rather limited. More processing means more circuits in the tag that consume more
precious energy out of the readers supplying field.
Class 0 tags (passive, read-only ID number) represent the simplest form of tags. As
soon as such a tag gets enough energy from the reader (via a magnetic, electric or
electromagnetic field), the state machine of the tag starts reading the ID out of the
tags internal fixed memory, serialising it and transmitting the bits back to the
reader via the tag/reader air interface.
In addition to that, class 1 tags (passive, read, write once) need a writable memory
and must provide a decoding and writing circuit. Write-data coming from the reader
are decoded, collected and stored in the tags memory.
Class 2 tags address a larger memory. The data processing tasks are similar to
class 1 tags. Data logging and data encryption might be included.
Class 3, class 4 and class 5 tags dispose of an additional power source (e.g. bat-
tery). From this power source, circuits for additional functionality (e.g. sensors,
actuators, encryption units, data processing units) can be supplied. More advanced
data processing tasks are now possible, e.g. measuring and processing of sensor
data, processing and controlling actuator data, authentication algorithms, data en-
cryption, data decryption.
One of the more sophisticated types of data processing are used with security func-
tions. Since security is mandatory for many RFID applications, the following chap-
ters will address security and safety related issues of RFID. What does security



150


mean when it comes to RFID? What technologies do exist to achieve a secure RFID
system? What kind of security areas are concerned with RFID technologies? Which
RFID applications do need security functions? Which RFID applications affect pri-
vacy?
9.1 Data security, data protection, data confidentiality and
integrity
Data security issues are often linked to data protection and data privacy matters.
Before approaching the questions mentioned above, the discussion of several secu-
rity threats in the RFID environment might help. Proposals of counteractive meas-
ures in order to mitigate or resolve these problems are presented if possible. Per-
sons or organisations that are mainly affected by these threats vary from RFID
manufacturers to RFID users, associated persons (e.g. patient, consumer, em-
ployee, user) and others.
9.1.1 Tag cloning
A major difference of RFID technology compared to other identification technologies
(e.g. barcodes) is that RFID provides the identification of each particular item, not
only the type of article as most barcodes do. That means, the ID number of an
RFID tag (maybe together with its serial number) may be unique for all tagged
items or associated persons. This property can be used to link this unique ID infor-
mation to certain rights (e.g. access right) or to mark objects e.g. for anti-
counterfeiting. In these cases it is very important that the tag itself cannot be
cloned. Otherwise access might be granted to unauthorised people or counterfeited
objects cannot be detected anymore. Tag cloning here means physical and electri-
cal cloning, i.e. the tag is not only emulated but also the physical appearance (e.g.
enclosure) is duplicated. The cloned tags cannot be distinguished from the original
tags (optically and electrically).
Possible counteractive measures
Simple read-only and read/write tags can be cloned easily. It is sufficient to read-
out the tags data contents and to write the data into a writeable tag of the same or
compatible type. Sophisticated tags (secure tags) that have to authenticate
themselves to the reader before reading or writing tag data, effectively prevent the
cloning of the tag. The authentication process and the subsequent encrypted data
transfer use cryptographic procedures that assure the tag cannot be read or written
without knowing secret information (see below for details).



151


Another approach does not prevent tag cloning but relies on the detection of clones.
In case all readers that are used for access control or genuine detection have ac-
cess to the same data base storing all reading events, the appearance of more than
one tag with the same ID (ID + serial number) can easily be detected. In this case
other measures have to be taken to distinguish genuine from cloned tags.
9.1.2 Eavesdropping
The reader exchanges data with the tag via the wireless tag/reader interface. With
an appropriate receiver this communication can be eavesdropped. Under certain
conditions the eavesdropping system might even be located at a larger distance
than the reader-to-tag distance, depending on the antenna size and sensitivity of
the eavesdroppers receiver. The eavesdropper can use all intercepted information
(tag data, number of tags, types of tags, etc.) for unauthorised purposes.
Possible counteractive measures
Tag-to-reader authentication and encrypted data transfer (as described above) help
in this situation. The eavesdropper still can read the data transfer between reader
and tags, but she or he cannot decipher the encrypted data read from or written to
the tags memory. The type of tags and the number of tags the reader addresses
currently might remain detectable by the eavesdropper depending on the anti-
collision protocol used.
9.1.3 Man-in-the-middle-attack
A well-known scenario in cryptography is the so-called man-in-the-middle-attack.
An attacker intercepts the communication between reader and tag, pretending a
tag to the reader as well as a reader to the tag. This scenario can be used only if
the reader cannot reach the tag directly. Otherwise the reader will communicate
with the tag disregarding the attacker. The attacker can change any parameters of
the reader/tag communication (e.g. changing tag data, mocking other tags or read-
ers). In practise, a special variant of this attack is often used, the relay attack (see
below).
Possible counteractive measures
Tag-to-reader authentication and encrypted data transfer (as described above) help
in this situation. Without knowing secret information, the attacker is not able to
pretend a reader or a tag correctly. For the case that the attacker does not alter the
data transfer see relay attack below.



152


9.1.4 Relay attack
A special variant of the man-in-the-middle attack is the relay attack. An attacker
intercepts the communication between reader and tag, pretending a tag to the
reader as well as a reader to the tag. In this case the attackers intention is not to
modify the reader/tag communication, she or he just tries to bridge the gap be-
tween the reader and the tag. Without the relaying attacker, the tag would be out
of the readers reach. A famous example of this attack is used with keyless entry
system in automobiles. If the cars RFID key is in the vicinity of the car, the driver
can open the cars door without unlocking it. The reader inside the car detects the
RFID tag in the car key and opens the door lock as long as the tag is in the reading
range. In the case the car key is located too far from the car to open it but close
enough for the relay attackers system to closes the gap via an additional RF link
system, the reader in the car talks to the tag and does not detect that the key is
not in its vicinity. Authentication of the tag to the reader does not prevent this at-
tack, because the relay system only transfers the original authentication signals to
and from the reader.
Possible counteractive measures
Authentication does not help here. One possible measure is that the reader has to
measure the distance to the tag, e.g. through measurement of the time of flight
of the signals on the tag/reader interface. The relaying system of the attacker adds
some delay to these signals, so the reader thinks the tag is too far away for
proper communication and therefore blocks the relay attack.
9.1.5 Replay attack
The attacker eavesdrops and records the reader/tag communication. With the re-
corded data it is able to emulate or imitate the reader as well as the tag. This ac-
tion can be seen as functional cloning, i.e. the data communication of a reader or
a tag can be duplicated (replayed) without the need of physical cloning of the
reader or the tag. In many applications (e.g. access control) it is sufficient that the
reader sees a signal that looks identical to a tag signal, regardless of the distance
or origin to the signal source. All effects of a wrong tag or reader association might
apply here (unauthorised access, counterfeiting, etc.).
Possible counteractive measures
Tag-to-reader authentication and encrypted data transfer (as described above) help
in this situation. Without knowing secret information, the attacker is not able to
pretend a reader or a tag correctly. The authentication process changes from read-



153


ing to reading action, so replayed recordings of old sessions are not accepted by
the reader. It can be detected as attempts of a system attack.
9.1.6 Unauthorised reading/writing
This kind of threat comprises a wide range of possible actions, unauthorised dele-
tion, change, addition of tag data, unauthorised access to tag data, disclosure of
confidential data (e.g. unauthorised reading of tag data by competitors, compro-
mising data, surreptitious collection of information). Most of the data security, data
protection and privacy issues apply here. An attacker eavesdrops a reader/tag
communication or uses her/his own reader to access the tag. In the latter case tag
data can be altered.
Possible counteractive measures
Tag-to-reader authentication and encrypted data transfer (as described above) help
in this situation. Without knowing secret information the attacker is not able to suc-
cessfully talk to the tag. A sophisticated tag could detect or register fake attempts.
The correct reader may read this information and may inform the user of such at-
tempts.
9.1.7 Tampering with tickets, payment or money cards
An area where great damage may occur is with RFID cards that include payment
(e.g. ticketing) or electronic money. Assuming a great criminal interest here, pro-
tection from these attacks is very important for both sides, the consumer and the
provider. An attacker analyses the reader/tag communication and tries to break
into the tag (card) in order to increase the amount of virtual money (e-money),
prevent the debit operation during usage, resets the tag or card in the unused
state (e.g. tickets) and do other tampering.
Possible counteractive measures
Tag-to-reader authentication and encrypted data transfer (as described above) help
in this situation. Without knowing secret information, the attacker is not able to
successfully talk to the tag. It is of great importance that the authentication and
encryption procedures are properly and securely implemented. Most security ex-
ploits are not based upon insecure cryptographic procedures but on design flaws
(e.g. buffer overflows, poor implementation). Resilience to cryptographic attacks
and so-called side channel attacks is also most important.



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9.1.8 Denial of service
In case a attacker intends to stop or interrupt the usage of RFID or particular ser-
vices, there are some methods. Jamming means the attacker sets up an RF signal
strong enough to disrupt reader/tag communication. As long as the jamming
transmitter generates its signal the reader might not talk to the tag. In case of lis-
ten before talk (see standards and regulations, chapter 8), the reader is not even
allowed to transmit as long the jamming signals exists. The degree of legality of
such an action depends on national regulations and laws. So-called blocking tags
are not transmitting actively (at least the passive variant) but they emulate one to
many tags in the reading range of the reader, interfering with the readers anti-
collision protocol. In consequence, the response of other tags is covered and de-
stroyed. Blocking tags can be designed to block particular tags, groups of tags or all
tags of the used tag protocol.
Possible counteractive measures
Using authentication protocols or special tag designs will not help here. One possi-
ble approach is to detect such situations by the reader and to display that via its
user interface. The user of the RFID system will be alerted and can follow other
activities like locating the jamming transmitter or the blocking tag.
9.1.9 Unauthorised deactivation of tags
Some tags provide a so-called kill command (EPCglobal [81], Class1, Gen 2 tags)
that the reader may send to the tag. In response the tag will deactivate itself and
stop any further operation. This is a feature that simplifies the deactivation of the
tag after proper usage. Beyond the point of sale, tagged goods do not need to be
read anymore. Therefore the logical deactivation of the tag prevents further tag
reading, enhancing the consumers privacy. Besides this sensible use, the kill
command could be used by an attacker to deactivate tags unauthorisedly. Another
command is the delete command. In this case the tags ID number (e.g. the EPC)
is cleared (all bits zero). Usually the tags unique serial number is not deletable.
This command does not deactivate the tag. It will still be readable afterwards.
Possible counteractive measures
Kill or delete commands are usually protected from unintentional activation. One
way is to use passwords and/or authentication procedures to operate these com-
mands. Passwords should be transmitted only in encrypted format to prevent deac-
tivation replay attacks.



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9.1.10 Physical destruction of tags or readers
The tag can also be destroyed physically, e.g. by exerting pressure on the chip,
separating the tag chip from the tag antenna, carving the tag antenna, exposure to
intense electromagnetic fields.
Possible counteractive measures
Physical destruction of the tag cannot be prevented. In this case the non-
functioning tag has to be detected by other means (e.g. optical investigation, obvi-
ously non-functioning read).
9.1.11 Privacy threats
From the perspective of an individual being associated with an RFID read/write op-
eration or with tag data (consumer, patient, employee, etc.), there are several se-
curity threats. Misuse of personal data or individual-related data, linking of individ-
ual-related data with position information, tracking and tracing of individuals
movements, profiling of individuals, surveillance of individuals, massive data aggre-
gation and usage of data-mining technologies in the context of RFID operations,
surreptitious tag reading, etc.
RFID tags can be read/ written without line of sight to the reader. Tags can be un-
recognisable, e.g. integrated into packaging. Readers and their antennas can be
arranged invisibly. Tags can be read from a distance. The usage of RFID technology
may not be readily apparent, making it impossible for consumers to know when,
where and if they are being scanned`.
Possible counteractive measures
In case a consumer purchased a tagged good and there is no need for the tag to
function beyond the point-of-sale, the tag may be physically destroyed or detached
from the tagged object. Best methods to achieve that is by exerting pressure on
the chip (e.g. by means of a ballpoint pen), separating the tag chip from the tag
antenna or carving the tag antenna. Exposure to intense electromagnetic fields
(e.g. in a microwave oven) is not recommended, because this could be dangerous
and could damage not only the tag itself. The retailer might provide access to a tag
deactivator behind the point-of-sale that issues the kill command, so the tag will
be not operational anymore.
Tags that have to remain functional can temporarily be rendered unread-
able/unwritable by surrounding them with shielding material. In case of electro-
magnetic coupling (UHF, SHF), this is any kind of metal (e.g. metallic envelope,



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aluminium foil), in case of magnetic coupling it is some ferromagnetic material (e.g.
metal oxides). Test readers shall be available in order to prove effective shielding.
9.1.12 Intentional or accidental assignment of tags (ID
number) to wrong objects or individuals
Sticking RFID labels or badge type tags might be detached from their object and
attached to another one (e.g. deception by swapping labels from low price to high
price articles). Similarly, when an individual is associated to one or more tags or if
personal data are stored on a tag (e.g. medical data) the association can be done
to the wrong person, by accident or intentional (e.g. at an RFID supported point-of-
sale, a thief might assign stolen goods to honest customers).
Possible counteractive measures
Swapping of RFID tags on goods can be hampered by integrating the tag into the
packaging or by permanently tying the tag onto the object.
False associations of objects to individuals can be reduced by giving optical (display
of list of goods) and acoustical feedback (beep) while reading/writing tags, similar
to barcode reading at the point-of-sale. The customer can detect mistakes or fraud.
9.1.13 Mistaken tag reading
Depending on the reader, the antenna arrangement, interference and reflections of
the radio signals, there is a chance to get false readings (or writings), e.g. not the
obvious object gets scanned but another object near-by. The wrong read might
result in wrong processing steps, wrong destination shipping in logistics, and the
like.
Possible counteractive measures
Suppression of interference and reflections of RF signals, multi-antenna arrange-
ments at the reader and multiple reading stations may reduce the likelihood of false
readings (/ writings).
9.1.14 Injection of malware
RFID tags data storage media. So in principle, they can store codes that can be
injected into the RFID network at the tag/reader interface. This peace of code might
contain malware (malicious code) as well as disruptive or corrupt information (e.g.



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see http://www.rfidvirus.org [3]). At the other interfaces of an RFID network (up to
the integration server) there is also a chance to inject malicious code that has ad-
verse effect on the system (e.g. wrong configurations, wrong data base contents).
Manipulations on all system components (tags, reader, edge server, integration
server) may be directed through these channels.
Possible counteractive measures
Proper input checks and appropriate data filtering usually eliminate such threats.
Tampering and intrusion detection systems help to detect and investigate such
events, before significant damage propagates.
Work package 1 focuses on technological aspects of RFID. The technological answer
to some of the security threats is the usage of secure RFID systems i.e. RFID
combined with some privacy enhancing technologies (PET) like cryptographic pro-
cedures, such as authentication and data encryption. In addition to that, passwords
can be used, e.g. to prevent unintentional deactivation of tags (kill command).
Authentication of the tag to the reader means the reader only accepts tags that
pass the authentication process and the tag can only be accessed through this
process and through subsequent encrypted data transfer. Security threats like tag
cloning, eavesdropping, man-in-the-middle-attack, replay attack, unauthorised
reading/writing, and tampering with ticket, payment or money cards as well as
some safety threats that are based on these security threats are effectively averted
via this procedure. There are various ways to integrate authentication and encryp-
tion into RFID systems. In any case the tags need a cryptographic unit or engine
that requires chip area and additional energy. In consequence, so-called crypto
tags (tags of secure RFID systems) are more expensive than ordinary tags and
need more energy to operate resulting in less reading/writing range on passive
tags. Currently most crypto tags are available on low frequency (LF) and high
frequency (HF) band. Secure UHF RFID is still a challenge. See chapter 9.5 for de-
tails.
9.2 Addressing data protection and privacy concerns
RFID technology is not the first auto-id technology in use. The privacy threats out-
lined in the previous chapter (9.1.11) can occur in principle with improper usage of
other auto-id technologies (e.g. barcodes, optical character recognition (OCR)) as
well. There are some new aspects introduced by RFID. E.g. RFID tag can be read
unnoticed by the tag carrier (including surreptitious tag reading) or a large number
of tags can be read in the same relatively short reading session. Nevertheless many
of the data protection and privacy concerns already apply to alternative auto-id
technologies. Implementers of such systems in Europe that process individual-



158


related data should/must comply with the existing privacy legal framework set out
in the EU general data protection directive (95/46/EC) and in the electronic com-
munications directive (2002/58/EC) supplemented by national data protection laws
(see [76]). In that regard the migration to RFID is not a giant step. The same di-
rectives will apply here. There is an ongoing controversy between consumer organi-
sations and the industry implementing auto-id (including RFID), about which appli-
cations include the processing of individual-related data and which do not. In the
latter case RFID implementers (e.g. retailers) do not feel obliged to comply with the
data protection directive. In cases where individual-related or even personal data is
clearly involved and processed the principles of the data protection directive have
to be implemented (see [77]):
Limitation principle (purpose principle)
Personal data (including individual-related data) are processed for the in-
tended purpose only. Further processing is prohibited.
Data quality principle
All collected data must be relevant for the intended purpose. Further data,
not relevant for the purpose, must not be collected.
Conservation principle
Personal data (including individual-related data) are no longer stored and/or
processed as necessary for the intended purpose. After the purpose has fin-
ished, these data have to be deleted.
In addition to these principles, an appropriate legal ground must exist to collect
personal or individual-related data in the first place. The EU data protection direc-
tive lists these legal grounds in article 7 (see [77]):
Consent
The person affected by the collected individual-related data has unambigu-
ously given her/his consent.
Contract
The person affected by the collected individual-related data is party of a
contract that renders the data processing necessary.
Legal obligation
Due to compliance with a legal obligation, processing of individual-related
data is necessary.
Vital interests
The processing of individual-related data is in vital interest of the affected
person.



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Public interest
The processing of individual-related data is necessary for the performance of
a task in public interest.
Legitimate interests
The processing of individual-related data is necessary for legitimate interests
of the data collector, unless fundamental rights and the freedom of the af-
fected person are impaired.
9.3 European values
There is an ongoing discussion about the common essential shared values within
the growing European Union. The European Values Study has been initiated by the
European Value Systems Study Group (EVSSG) in 1978 in order to investigate and
monitor the development of common values shared by European citizens (see
[83]). The study is intended to be repeated every ten years. While the study cur-
rently focuses the topics like religion and morality, politics, work and leisure and
primary relations, the discussion is often extended to other social and environ-
mental values as well, e. g. dignity, liberties, equality, solidarity, citizenship, jus-
tice, respect for nature and life, responsibility. With increasing dissemination and
acceptance of information society technologies topics like data security, data pro-
tection and data privacy becomes more and more important in order to retain and
reach other social values. Many vital regulations as the European Charter of Fun-
damental Rights (2001), the Amsterdam Treaty, the European Convention on Hu-
man rights (1951), as well as the EU general DataP Directive (95/46/EC) are di-
rectly influenced by all these values and principles.
The implementation and usage of RFID technologies might affect data privacy and
data security issues as other information technologies do as well. In cases where
data that can be related to individuals are handled, processed and/or stored in
components of RFID systems (e.g. tags, readers, backend systems) data protection
and data privacy issues apply. While in principle this property may apply to all ap-
plication subcategories of the RFID Reference Model, Table 29 shows the applica-
tions where data protection and privacy issues usually apply. In these cases the
appropriate measures and principles outlined in chapter 9.1 and 9.2 have to be fol-
lowed in order to meet data protection and data privacy requirements.



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9.4 Safety-related issues
At first glance, safety-related issues do not appear to be directly linked to data
processing questions. On the other hand, while discussing security issues accompa-
nying RFID applications, many safety aspects might emerge as well.
In health- or even life-threatening situations some of the already discussed security
issues may lead to serious and dangerous physical threats.
9.4.1 Pharmaceutical applications
Counterfeited drugs with cloned or wrong RFID tags might pretend genuine drugs
while having no or adverse effects on the patient.
Mixing-up of drugs or the attached tags might have similar dangerous conse-
quences for patients.
Possible counteractive measures
Tag-to-reader authentication and encrypted data transfer (as described above) pre-
vent tag cloning successfully. Integrated or well attached RFID labels at the manu-
facturer reduce the chance of mixed-up drugs or tags.
9.4.2 Tampering with medical data
Read/write tags that are assigned to patients and that may store medical data (e.g.
diagnosis, medication, and anamnesis).
Possible counteractive measures
Tag-to-reader authentication and encrypted data transfer (as described above) pre-
vents tampering of medical data in patient tags. Applying cross checks in the RFID
reading systems as well as giving the medical personnel (physicians, nurses, etc.)
and the patient close feed-back, helps reducing possible tampering or wrong data.
9.4.3 Unauthorised or accidental access to dangerous ar-
eas
RFID technology can be used to limit access to dangerous areas (e.g. radiation or
chemical environment, industrial plants). Unauthorised writing to RFID access
cards or interchange of such cards might extend access for people that are not



161


permitted to enter certain dangerous areas. In consequence, a person might get
hurt due to the unexpected access.
Possible counteractive measures
Tag-to-reader authentication and encrypted data transfer (as described above) pre-
vents unauthorised writing to RFID tags/cards. Very dangerous areas can be se-
cured with multi-layer security systems. One corrupted or swapped tag is not suffi-
cient to get access.
9.4.4 Tampering with best-before dates stored on RFID
tags
A retailer or supplier may shift the best-before date stored on tags on perishable
foods. The receiving inspection accepts the products causing food poisoning of con-
sumers. A similar effect may emerge with faked temperature profiles in RFID tem-
perature sensor tags on frozen food.
Possible counteractive measures
This kind of criminal action is hard to detect by automated systems. Plausibility
checks may be a good starting point. The usage of RFID is not supposed to replace
other checks and investigations.
9.4.5 Exposure to magnetic and electromagnetic fields
With the increasing density of RFID readers the presence of magnetic or electro-
magnetic fields also rises, contributing to the overall electromagnetic pollution.
Possible counteractive measures
RFID systems (readers, tags) have to meet the requirements of the national regula-
tions regarding the type and power level of radio transmissions. Worldwide, the
level of the effectively radiated power (ERP) is limited. So the exposure to magnetic
and electromagnetic fields is restricted within non-hazardous limits according to
international standards. The usage of high gain antennas does not infringe these
limits since the readers transmit power must be reduced in this case.
9.5 Secure RFID systems
Many security and subsequent safety threats can be avoided by usage of secure
RFID systems, i.e. RFID systems that are using privacy enhancing technologies



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(PET) like cryptographic methods in order to suppress unauthorised access and
eavesdropping of confidential data. One exemplary approach to secure RFID sys-
tems are secure smartcards. Common properties of secure RFID cards/tags are:
Any access to the card/tag has to be verified by the authentication unit
(challenge response procedure)
The crypto unit supports authentication, encrypted data transfer, and if nec-
essary, encrypted data storage
Main problem in cryptographic operations on RFID chips is the high power
consumption compared to the basic tag functions

Figure 33 The architecture of the MIFARE tag

Figure 34 MIFARE tag and reader



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Figure 33 and Figure 34 show the MIFARE system manufactured e.g. by NXP (for-
mer Philips Semiconductor) and Infineon. It offers a secure variant (Mifare DES-
Fire) including a crypto and an authentication unit. The DESFire chip uses stan-
dardised symmetric encryption (Open DES, 3DES). While the tag uses its crypto
unit (engine), the reader can do the encryption/decryption in its main controller in
firmware. Via authentication and encryption, the communication between reader
and tag can be limited to the intended partners.
In this case, the number can be eavesdropped
and copied to other tags. In effect, the first original tag is cloned.
RFID-tags usually send out their serial number in plaintext.
database query
13A3B342
electromagnetic field
electromagnetic field
request request request
13A3B342 13A3B342
13A3B342
Tamiflu, Roche
13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342 13A3B342

Figure 35 RFID plaintext communication cloning
Simple RFID tags send out their ID number in plaintext without any encryption.
Eavesdroppers can read this number while travelling from the tag to the reader and
include it into their own tag clones. In Figure 35 the tag of a drug Tamiflu by
manufacturer Roche is cloned. The reader cannot see any difference between the
genuine drug tag and possible clones.
In order to render eavesdropping useless, authentication and encryption techniques
can be introduced using cryptographic algorithms. Most encryption methods use a
cryptographic algorithm together with a so-called key. The key is a string of bi-
nary data (numbers or letters) with a length usually ranging from 32 up to thou-
sands of bits. The level of security increases with the length of the key in bits. The
security of the encrypted data of highly secure systems does not depend on the
secrecy of the cryptographic algorithm. The security is linked only to the secrecy of
the key that is used during the encryption/decryption process. Usually the algo-
rithm is published for worldwide peer-reviewing. Experts may find weaknesses of
the algorithm that might lead to a possible decryption of encrypted data without the
knowledge of the secret key. Some of the cryptographic algorithms use the same



164


key for encryption as well as for decryption. The encryption and decryption proc-
esses look symmetric. Systems based on such algorithms are called symmetric en-
cryption or symmetric authentication systems. Another family of cryptographic sys-
tems uses one key for encryption and a different one for decryption. The encryption
and decryption processes look asymmetric. Systems based on such algorithms are
called asymmetric encryption or asymmetric authentication systems. In the case of
public key systems one key of this key pair is to be held secret and one can be
made public. The public key can derived from the secret key via a so-called
mathematical one-way function, i.e. the public key can be easily calculated from
the secret key, but the secret key cannot be build back from the public key even
with a massive amount of computation power. Data that is encrypted with the help
of the secret key part can only be decrypted with the public key part and vice
versa, i.e. data encrypted with the public key can be decrypted with the secret key
only.
Both cryptographic systems, symmetric and asymmetric have their advantages and
disadvantages. Currently most secure RFID systems on the market use symmetric
encryption and authentication. It is important to carefully watch the advantages
and disadvantages of these systems in order to assess their security level for vari-
ous RFID applications.

Figure 36 Symmetric authentication
Figure 36 shows one example of tag-to-reader authentication using symmetric se-
cret keys (symmetric authentication). At the tag and the reader a common secret



165


key has to be securely stored. The reader sends a random challenge signal to the
tag. The tag encrypts this signal with its secret key and responds the result back to
the reader. The reader decrypts the response with the secret key and compares the
result with its challenge signal. If they are identical a correct tag has been read.
Otherwise the tag is rejected.
Benefits of symmetric authentication:
Symmetric cryptography is feasible on a low cost chip.
High performance can be achieved.
Disadvantages of symmetric authentication:
The reader must hold the secret keys of all tags (many individual keys or
master key principle) and therefore needs to be protected.
The main disadvantage of symmetric authentication is the key handling. A secret
key has to be distributed into every tag and reader and must be securely stored in
these devices. While the secret key is rather secure in the tag (e.g. write-once
memory), the key handling and the protection of the secret keys in the reader is a
challenging task.

Figure 37 Asymmetric authentication



166


Figure 37 shows the alternative method of asymmetric authentication. Tag and
reader use a pair of linked tag keys together with an electronic signature build from
another pair of linked signature keys. One key part of the tag key pair is secret and
securely stored in the tag only (e.g. in a write-once memory). The other part of the
tag key pair is public and can be known by anyone (including the reader). In addi-
tion to that the tag carries a certificate issued by a so-called certificate authority
(CA). The certificate contains the public part of the tag key together with an elec-
tronic signature of this key, generated with the help of the secret part of the signa-
ture key by the CA. Such a certificate can only be issued by the certificate authority
and its contents (i.e. the public tag key and the signature) cannot be faked.
The tag sends its certificate to the reader. The reader checks the authenticity of
certificate with the public signature key. If the certificate is wrong, the tag is re-
jected. If the certificate is valid, the public part of the tag key is extracted. The rest
is similar to the previous example. The reader sends a random challenge signal to
the tag. The tag encrypts this signal with its secret tag key part and responds the
result back to the reader. The reader decrypts the response with the public tag key
part out of the certificate and compares the result with its challenge signal. If they
are identical a correct tag has been read. Otherwise the tag will be rejected.
Benefits of asymmetric authentication:
No secret keys need to be stored in the readers or in back-end databases.
No public tag keys need to be stored in the reader.
RFID authenticity can be verified without online connection.
High level of security by trustworthiness of the certificate authority.
Disadvantages of asymmetric authentication (technological challenges):
Larger parameter sizes compared to symmetric cryptography.
Large chip size is required.
Lower performance than symmetric systems.
Very few systems provide asymmetric cryptography at present. This is a
challenge for future crypto-tag development.
With asymmetric authentication each tag sends its own public keys in a certificate
to the reader. The reader does not have to store any keys of the tag. Each tag
could have its own individual key (pair). The reader can check whether it has re-



167


ceived the public key from a genuine tag by examining the surrounding certificate.
A possible tag duplicator cannot forge the certificate since such a certificate can
only be issued with the secret certificate key owned by the certificate authority
only. The reader only stores public keys (permanent certificate public key and the
temporary public tag keys), so there is no need for special hardware and firmware
protection since there is no secret information inside the reader an attacker might
use. The downside of this is twofold. First, asymmetric cryptography needs a more
complex crypto engine requiring more energy and calculation time than their sym-
metric counterpart. Much more chip size and lower reading/writing range is the re-
sult. Second, asymmetric crypto RFID systems are very new and are currently lim-
ited to HF RFID. Implementing new concepts (e.g. elliptic curve asymmetric cryp-
tography), also for UHF RFID, is still a subject for R&D activities.
After the authentication the reader and tag can easily exchange a secret so-called
session key that is used for encrypted data transfer (encrypted reading/writing of
the tag). An attacker that eavesdrops and records a complete reading/writing ses-
sion between reader and tag cannot use any part of this data. According to the
challenge/response principle, any subsequent reader/tag session will use other
randomly generated challenges. Any replay of recorded data by the eavesdropper is
useless and can be detected as an intrusion or fraud attempt. The actual read or
write data from/to the tag is encrypted for the transfer and cannot be deciphered
by the eavesdropper. As long as the cryptographic algorithms are assessed to be
safe and the implementation is flawless (mainly the most important part), this pro-
cedure is safe and cannot be broken by an attacker.
Most manufacturers for secure RFID systems currently use proprietary secret (non-
disclosed) communication procedures and cryptographic algorithms easy to imple-
ment, although some use standardised symmetrical encryption standards internally
(e.g. Data Encryption Standard (DES), Triple Data Encryption Standards (DES)).
There is a lack of standardised crypto-tag communication that uses open, well-
known and widely used encryption standards. The introduction of asymmetric en-
cryption methods (e.g. RSA or elliptical curve cryptography) is still at an early
stage. The usage of proprietary secret cryptographic algorithms means that these
algorithms are not peer-reviewed by many experts. There is the risk that weak-
nesses of the algorithm remain undetected and can be used by malicious hackers to
circumvent security functions of RFID systems. So the introduction of well-known
and secure algorithms into RFID systems is highly recommended.
9.6 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 29 shows the mapping of data processing variants to the subcategories of the
RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). In principle, all aspects mentioned there



168


might apply to all application subcategories in case certain conditions apply, e. g.
individual-related or personal data are involved (security, protection, privacy is re-
quired); safety relevant processes are directly linked to RFID systems (safety re-
lated issues apply). Y means: Yes, this data processing variant is usually af-
fected by the corresponding application subcategory.



169


Current use Possible use RFID-application
field
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AA: Inhouse logistics
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical track-
ing & tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y
BB: Asset management Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y
C: Product safety,
quality and infor-
mation
CF: Customer info. systems Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y
D: Access control
and tracking &
tracing of indi-
viduals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y Y E: Loyalty, memb.
and payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y G: Sports, leisure
and household
GD: Smart home Y Y



170


Current use Possible use RFID-application
field
Subcategories
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s

HB: Road tolling systems Y Y H: Public services
HC: Banknotes Y
Table 29 Mapping data processing variants to the RFID Reference Model
Data security, data protection, data privacy
In some RFID scenarios data security, data protection, and privacy issues can be
resolved with technological measures (e.g. authentication, encryption): pharmaceu-
tical (e.g. anti-counterfeiting), access control systems (authentication), member-
ship cards (authentication), hospital management (authentication, data protection,
privacy), implants (anti-counterfeiting, anti-cloning), road tolling systems (authen-
tication). Other applications require appropriate guidelines or even legislative activi-
ties in order to properly address data protection and privacy issues: open logistics,
postal applications, dangerous goods logistics, food and consumer goods, fast mov-
ing consumer goods, electronic goods, textile goods, fresh/perishable foods, animal
tracking, and personal tracking.
Safety-related issues
Safety issues always apply if hazardous situations might occur. Some subcategories
are safety relevant: dangerous goods logistics, manufacturing logistics (e.g. quality
management), facility management (e.g. limited access to hazardous areas), vehi-
cles (e.g. tyre pressure measurement), aeroplanes (e.g. quality management, anti-
counterfeiting), automation/process control (e.g. safety control systems),
fresh/perishable food (e.g. cool chain monitoring), pharmaceutical (e.g. anti-
counterfeiting), access control systems, animal tracking (e.g. disease monitoring),
personal tracking (e.g. inmate tracking), hospital management (e.g. prevention of
patient data mix-ups), implants (e.g. anti-counterfeiting).



171


Secure RFID on smartcards
Smartcards with secure RFID functionality are used in the following subcategories:
closed loop logistics (re-usable smartcards), dangerous goods logistics (re-usable
smartcards, access control, anti-counterfeiting), facility management (e.g. access
control), electronic goods, access control systems, loyalty and membership cards,
and hospital management (e.g. access control cards).



172


10 Market View
The previous chapters presented RFID technology as seen from different perspec-
tives and properties. Not all combinations are currently implemented or available as
products on the market. In order to give an overview of the RFID systems that are
currently available, a market investigation has been done in Work Package 1. Data
sources were internet enquiry, literature, publications, project partners and addi-
tional contributors. The results have been entered into a database (see Appendix
17.1). The database contains 207 vendors and includes the following categories:
Company name (207 companies)
Country (location of headquarters; 23 countries)
internet link
Field of expertise (i.e. tag, reader, antennas, consultant, )
Short description of company
Air interfaces (used frequencies 125 kHz, 134.2 kHz, 13.56 MHz, 433 MHz,
840/868/915 MHz, 2450 MHz, 5800 MHz)
Standards (i.e. ISO/IEC 18000 [78], [79]), EPCglobal [81], ISO/IEC 14443,
ISO/IEC 15693, ISO 11784/5)
Tag types (passive, semi-passive, active)
Application fields (logistics, identity/security, automation, automotive, medi-
cal/health, ambient intelligence)
Not all of these categories apply to all companies and sometimes not all necessary
information is disclosed by the companies (e.g. there are solution providers which
do not reveal the frequency their systems work at.). In some cases it is unclear
who is manufacturer and who is reseller. Only companies with internet presenta-
tions in English or German could be captured. The following distribution charts re-
flect the number of vendors found in the respective category. This is no indication
of their share of the market or sales volume, even though it has been tried to en-
compass the most important players.



173


10.1 Vendors of RFID equipment
The following charts show the distribution of RFID vendors by different aspects.
These data are extracted from the database available at the project website (see
Appendix 17.1).
10.1.1 RFID vendors by countries and continents
Figure 38 and Figure 39 show the number of vendors by country and by continent
respectively. All vendors are considered even those that do not specify their indi-
vidual activities in certain RFID sectors. When looking for single countries, the mar-
ket is clearly dominated by the USA. The number of vendors on the American conti-
nent (most of them in USA and Canada) and all other countries is approximately
equal. The market share of Asia may be underrepresented, because Asia is a sepa-
rate market and smaller Asian companies may have no English internet presence
and publications. Germany holds the biggest share of RFID vendors on the Euro-
pean RFID market. Even relatively small European countries are active on the RFID
market, i.e. Finland, Switzerland and Austria.



174


RFID vendors by countries
USA
48%
Germany
20%
United Kingdom
6%
Canada
3%
Switzerland
2%
Austria
2%
Finland
2%
Netherlands
2%
Japan
2%
Misc.
13%

Figure 38 RFID vendors by countries



175


RFID vendors by continent
America 50%
Europe 41%
Asia 7%
Oceania 1%
Africa 1%

Figure 39 RFID vendors by continent
10.1.2 RFID vendors by frequency
Figure 40 to Figure 42 show the share of vendors by continent, additionally sepa-
rated by the used frequencies (LF, HF, and UHF). Only those vendors are consid-
ered that clearly specify their engagement in the three frequency ranges. Compari-
son of these figures shows that about two thirds of the vendors of LF and HF RFID
equipment originate from Europe. For UHF systems the American market share
rises to about 50 %. Europes strong position on LF and HF RFID might be a reason
for the current trend of US RFID vendors to shift all applications to UHF RFID (915
MHz).



176


America 27%
Europe 65%
Asia 6%
Oceania 2%
Africa 0%

Figure 40 LF RFID suppliers by continent
America 33%
Europe 57%
Asia 8%
Oceania 2%
Africa 0%

Figure 41 HF RFID suppliers by continent



177


America 49%
Europe 40%
Asia 9%
Oceania 0%
Africa 2%

Figure 42 UHF RFID suppliers by continent
The distribution of RFID vendors between different frequency bands, regardless of
countries is shown in the following Figure 43.
125kHz
19%
134.2kHz
8%
13.56MHz
32%
433MHz
3%
2450MHz
9%
840 to 915MHz
29%
5800MHz
0%

Figure 43 RFID vendors by frequency
The frequency distribution shows high shares at 125/134 kHz, 13.56 MHz and in
the frequency band of 840 to 915 MHz. This reflects the applications where RFID is
most used today, namely
At 125/134 kHz (LF)
Access control (e.g. keyless entry, keyless go for automobiles)



178


Animal identification
Inventory control
Car immobilisers
EAS (electronic article surveillance)
(RFID Reference Model fields: logistical tracking & tracing; produc-
tion, monitoring and maintenance; Access control and tracking &
tracing of individuals)
At 13.56 MHz (HF)
Access control
Smart Cards
Supply Chain applications,
Warehouse management
EAS
(RFID Reference Model fields: production, monitoring and mainte-
nance; product safety, quality and information; access control and
tracking & tracing of individuals; loyalty, membership and payment;
eHealth care)
At 840-960 MHz (UHF)
Supply chain applications
Warehouse management
EAS
(RFID Reference Model fields: B, C, D, E, F)
At frequencies of 2.45 GHz and above applications like advanced supply chain ap-
plications, warehouse management, inventory, automotive applications are domi-
nant.
There is a big market at 125 kHz and at 134 kHz (e.g. car immobilisers, injectable
glass tags for animal ID), the number of vendors does not reflect the total revenue
or the number of sold tags in this area. The global number of vendors at 13.56 MHz
is slightly higher than the number at 840 to 915 MHz. This does not match with the
fact that many USA manufacturers tend to 915 MHz. A possible explanation may be



179


a bigger market with fewer competitors (less vendors but higher quantities). The
share at 2.45 GHz is comparatively high; this may be caused by real time location
systems, working on the WLAN bands (2.45 GHz and 5.1-5.8 GHz).
LF
25%
HF
37%
UHF
38%

Figure 44 RFID vendors by frequency range
Figure 44 shows a less detailed distribution of the used frequency ranges. LF: below
13.56 MHz (mainly 124 kHz and 134 kHz); HF: 13.56 MHz; UHF: above 13.56 MHz
(mainly 840 to 915 MHz, 2.45 GHz). The number of vendors seems to be almost
equally distributed between LF, HF and UHF.



180


10.1.3 RFID vendors by standards
ISO18000
20%
EPCglobal
33%
ISO14443
15%
ISO15693
28%
ISO11784/5
4%

Figure 45 RFID systems by standards
Figure 45 shows the information the vendors provide on standards (if any). About
half of the vendors provide information on their web sides about conformity to
standards. EPCglobal share seems to be unrealistically underrepresented, possible
reasons are that the new EPCglobal standards are now integrated into ISO stan-
dards (e.g. EPCglobal class 1 Gen. 2 [81] = ISO/IEC 18000-6C [78], [79]) and
vendors prefer to comply with ISO standards.



181


10.1.4 RFID systems by tag power supply
passive
60%
semi-passive
5%
active
35%

Figure 46 RFID systems by tag power supply
A tag that contains no energy source of its own is called passive. It uses the energy
of the field of the reader for transmission of its information. If the tag has its own
energy source for tag internal processes, but not for transmission of information, it
is called semi-passive. If the energy source is used for data transmission to the
reader, the tag is called active. Figure 46 shows the relation of vendors in these
categories. This is not to be confused with the number of sold active versus passive
tags. Supposedly the number of sold passive tags is much higher, due to lower
cost, than the number of active or semi-passive tags.



182


10.1.5 RFID vendors by applications
Logistics
30%
Identity,Security
27%
Automation
15%
Automotive
16%
Medical/Health
6%
Ambient
Intelligence
6%

Figure 47 RFID systems by applications
A breakdown of vendors by applications is shown in Figure 47. The biggest shares
of the market with almost equal size are in logistics (RFID Reference Model
field: logistical tracking & tracing) and identity/security (access control and tracking
& tracing of individuals; loyalty, membership and payment; eHealth care). Automo-
tive applications (e.g. intelligent license tag system; access control and tracking &
tracing of individuals; loyalty, membership and payment; public services) and
automation (e.g. manufacturing; production, monitoring and maintenance) cover
about a seventh of the market each. Ambient intelligence in most cases is for a
very specific application and expensive, therefore offered by very few vendors. The
healthcare market (eHealth care) is shown rather small, but logistics, identification
and security can also contribute to this sector, without explicitly being advertised as
healthcare application.
10.2 System specifications and properties
When designing or selecting an RFID system, a lot of parameters have to be con-
sidered. The most important factors are the allowed distance between reader and
tag and the amount of data to transmit. The physical dimensions of the tags in
most cases are limited by the object they are attached to. The lifetime of the tag in
case of passive tags is mainly determined by its protection against the environment
(packaging). Active tags may have rechargeable, changeable or fixed batteries,
which define the lifetime. Readable/writable tags usually achieve a limited number



183


of read/write cycles only. For security reasons it may be necessary to encrypt the
data stored on the tag. For privacy reasons, some tags have a kill tag feature,
that allows deleting of the data contents or eliminating the whole tag functionality.
The reliability of the tag data is an important aspect, especially if sensors (e.g. tem-
perature, light, pressure, position, acceleration, sound) are included. Depending on
the environment (i.e. different countries), there are restrictions in allowed fre-
quency bands and power.
The following list tries to give the system parameters that have to be considered
when looking for an RFID system that matches most of the applications require-
ments.
Considerations on RFID system products:
costs (reader, tags, mounting, labelling)
reading range (read/write)
restrictions (frequency bands, bandwidth, power, dimensions)
lifetime (material of tag, battery, read/write-cycles)
multiple tags (single, several, multi)
interface (RS 232, RS 485, Ethernet, WLAN, )
supported standards (ISO, EPC, )
velocity (relative tag-to-reader; single person recognition, fast moving ob-
jects)
tag data storage capacity (1-bit, ID-only, read/write data, )
data transfer rate (read/write data rate)
security features (authentication and data encryption protocols)
privacy (kill tag feature, data mining policy)
attached sensors (temp., pressure, vibrations, light, sound, )
reliability (accuracy and completeness of multi-tag recognition)
environmental conditions (IP rating)



184


Table 30 correlates tag properties and frequency ranges. Possible combinations are
marked by X, typical combinations are marked by X
1
(e.g. at 13.56 MHz, tags
are typically passive, but there are some active tags on the market).
Magnetic coupling
Reading distance
less than 1 m
Electromagnetic coupling
Reading distance up to 300 m
125 kHz,
134 kHz
13.56
MHz
433
MHz
840 MHz to
960 MHz
2450
MHz
5800
MHz
Active X X
1
X X X
Semi-passive X
Passive X X
1
X
1
X X
ISO 18000 X X
1
X
1
X
1
X
EPCglobal X
1
X
1

ISO 14443 X
1

ISO 15693 X
1

ISO 11784
ISO 11785
X
1

ISO 17363 X
1

ID only, read only X
1
X
1
X
1
X
Read only X X X X
WORM (write once
read multiple)
X X
Read / write X
1
X
1
X
1
X
Patents X X X X X X
Table 30 Correlation of RFID system properties and frequency ranges
ISO/IEC 18000 ([78], [79]) defines air interfaces only. EPCglobal standards [81]
combine air interface with data standards. ISO 11784/5 standardise RFID for ani-
mals. ISO 17363 defines the usage of read/write RFID tags on freight containers.
RFID cards are standardised in ISO/IEC 14443 and ISO/IEC 15693. The relevant
standards are explained in more detail in chapter 8 and in chapter 5.1 respectively.
Standards are covered in more detail by Work Package 3. The patent line at the
end of the Table 30 characterises the presence of intellectual property that can be
applied to specific or all frequency bands or types of coupling.



185


11 Intellectual Property View
11.1 Patents, utility patents
The basic principle of RFID dates back to World War II. The British Military invented
so-called IFF transponders (identification, friend or foe) in 1939. They were rou-
tinely used by the allied forces in World War II to identify aeroplanes as friend or
foe
(see also
http://www.aimglobal.org/technologies/rfid/resources/shrouds_of_time.pdf [10]).
Transponders are still used by military and commercial aircraft to this day.
Nevertheless RFID technologies are still evolving since that time and new patents
and utility patents are created. A current search for patents with the keyword
RFID (in any text field) on the database of World Intellectual Property Organisa-
tion (WIPO) (see http://www.wipo.int [11]) results in 6570 records (date: 2007-7-
26). So patents (and utility patents when it comes to tags) can be used to build a
further view on RFID technologies.
Companies who have participated in the development of the ISO/IEC International
RFID Standards ([78], [79]) have declared that they hold patents which may have
an impact on the use of ISO/IEC 18000 ([78], [79]) (one of the most important
RFID air interface standards).



186


Table 31 ISO/IEC 18000 (2004) declared patents

Assignee ISO/IEC 18000
part [78], [79]
Number
of pat-
ents
Comments
Siemens Part 4, mode 2
(2.45 GHz)
1 Siemens AG (manufacturer of tags,
readers, systems, LF, HF, UHF)
TagSys Part 3, mode 1
(13.56 MHz)
part 6, type A
(860-960 MHz)
6 TagSys Australia (manufacturer of
tags, readers, systems, HF, UHF),
purchased IP from Gemplus and Inte-
grated Silicon Design
Intermec Part 4 (2.45 GHz),
part 6 (860-
960 MHz)
11 Intermec Technologies Corporation
(manufacturer tags, readers, systems,
UHF, EPCglobal), purchased IP from
IBM and Amtech
NXP Part 3, part 2
(13.56 MHz,
<135 kHz)
part 6, part 4
(860-960 MHz)
part 2 (<135 kHz)
4


2

3
NXP (former: Philips Semiconductor;
manufacturer of chips for tags, labels,
cards, readers, LF, HF, UHF), pur-
chased IP from Mikron
ATMEL Part 2 (<135 kHz)
part 3, mode 1
1
1
ATMEL Germany GmbH(manufacturer
of chips for tags, readers, LF, HF, UHF)
Magellan Part 3, mode 2
(13.56 MHz)
5 Magellan Technology Pty
Ltd.(manufacturer of chips, tags,
inlays, labels, antennas, readers, HF
only)
EM Microelec-
tronic Marin
Part 3, mode 1
(13.56 MHz)
1 EM Microelectronic Marin (manufac-
turer of chips for tags, readers, LF,
HF)
Texas Instru-
ments (TI)
Part 2 (<135 kHz)
part 3, mode 1
(13.56 MHz)
4 Texas Instruments (manufacturer of
chips for tags, readers, antennas, LF,
HF, UHF)
Supersensor
(BiStar)
Part 6, type A
(860-960 MHz)
1
Intercode /
Spacecode
Parts 2, 3, 4, 6, 7
(<135 kHz
2.45 GHz)
4 Intercode/Spacecode (manufacturer
and system integrator)
Motorola (ex
Symbol, ex
Matrics)
Parts 2, 3, 4, 6, 7
(<135 kHz
2.45 GHz)
1 Motorola (purchased Symbol 2007-1-
9, Symbol purchased Matrics 2004-7-
27; manufacturer of readers, anten-
nas, UHF, EPCglobal)
BTG Part 6
(860-960 MHz)
9 BTG plc (medical science company)
Sirit Part 6
(860-960 MHz)
1 Sirit Inc. (purchased SAMsys Tech-
nologies Inc. 2006-4-13; manufacturer
of tags, readers, LF, HF, UHF)
Savi Part 7
(433 MHz)
3 Savi Technology (manufacturer of
tags, readers, sensors)



187


Table 31 lists these companies and the parts of ISO/IEC 18000 ([78], [79]) on
which a number of their patents might have an impact. It has been derived from
ISO/IEC 18000 ([78], [79]) (see also
http://www.autoid.org/SC31/new_IP_20030601.htm [12]). In order to be listed in
the ISO/IEC standard, all companies had to declare they will abide by the rules for
patented technology as established by ISO. No representation is made by ISO/IEC
as to the completeness or validity of this list. Only companies who have participated
in the development of this standard have been invited to be listed by ISO/IEC. Each
possible user of the technology, described in the standard, may use this list for a
first assessment of intellectual property holders, but there is no information
whether this list is correct and complete. ISO/IEC ([78], [79]) offer three different
situations:
a) The patent holder is willing to negotiate licences free of charge with other
parties on a non-discriminatory basis on reasonable terms and conditions.
Such negotiations are left to the parties concerned and are performed out-
side ITU-T/ITU-R/ISO/IEC.
b) The patent holder is willing to negotiate licences with other parties on a non-
discriminatory basis on reasonable terms and conditions. Such negotiations
are left to the parties concerned and are performed outside ITU-T/ITU-
R/ISO/IEC.
c) The patent holder is not willing to comply with the provisions of either a) or
b); in such case, the recommendation / deliverable shall not include provi-
sions depending on the patent.
Only the first two options may apply for companies that desire to be listed. Non-
discriminatory is conceivable but there is no clear definition of reasonable terms
and conditions.
EPCglobal [81] started with the idea of developing international RFID standards
with no intellectual property (IP) and no licensing involved. Meanwhile they estab-
lished the EPCglobal Intellectual Property Policy. EPCglobal seeks to encourage the
development, exploitation and competition of proprietary technology and innovative
approaches to implementing specifications, while avoiding blocking proprietary
claims or monopolisation of use of the specifications. Each participant of a working
group of EPCglobal claiming IP in EPCglobal standards, has to agree to EPCglobals
IP policy, i.e. it shall provide a worldwide royalty-free and non-discriminatory li-
cence to use this IP upon request to other participants of the working group. In the
event that the participant is unwilling to provide such a free license to a work-in-
progress of the working group in which participant has joined, such participant
agrees to promptly provide written notification to EPCglobal of such participants



188


intent not to license. Such notification shall specifically disclose and identify the
claim(s) believed to be necessary claims and which are not subject to licence. The
participant shall also identify any portion of a draft specification or other work-in-
progress, which is not subject to licence. EPCglobal shall have the discretion to re-
turn the draft specification to the working group for revision to avoid the identified
claim(s), to proceed under the provisions of RAND licensing (see below), or to de-
cline to ratify the specification. EPCglobal shall have the option, upon notification of
determining, whether identified necessary claims shall be permitted for inclusion in
the specification. Such option will be granted only in extraordinary circumstances.
In such circumstances, the participant shall agree to licence such necessary claims
on reasonable and non-discriminatory (RAND) terms, and the specification shall
identify the necessary claims available for such license. EPCglobal may require the
participant affirm, that the participant is willing to offer a license to its necessary
claims on RAND terms to all implementers of the specification, and to specifically
state the terms of such licence, including the manner in which any royalty is to be
computed (for further information see EPCglobal Intellectual Property Policy Rev.
12/15/2003 A;
http://www.epcglobalinc.org/what/ip_policy/031223EPCglobalIPPolicy12152003A.p
df [13])
The situation for an implementer or user of ISO/IEC ([78], [79]) or EPCglobal stan-
dards [81] is still unsatisfactory. Patent holders that are not listed in an ISO/IEC
standard and that are not a member of EPCglobal are not bound to RAND licensing
terms of ISO or EPCglobal. Also members may decide not to offer a royalty-free
and non-discriminatory licence to anybody.
On Dec. 16, 2004 EPCglobal [81] announced the ratification of their currently most
advanced UHF RFID EPC standard Class 1 Generation 2 Specification. It stated
that this standard is royalty-free. As part of the ratification process, EPCglobal en-
gaged legal counsel to examine claims made by Intermec Technologies, an Everett,
Washington-based RFID systems provider, declaring the Gen 2 spec contains IP
that Intermec has patented. After exhaustive examination, the lawyers concluded
that Intermec's patents are not essential to implementing the standard and there-
fore the standard is royalty-free. RFID vendors that produce tags and readers
based on the Gen 2 standard will take many different approaches, and some of
those approaches might infringe Intermec's patents. It would be incumbent upon
those companies to negotiate licensing fees with Intermec. In other words, if a
vendor wants to make a reader that performs well, it might need Intermec's pat-
ents, but that is between the vendor and Intermec. Intermec indicated it believed
that its patents would be infringed by any products built to the new standard (see
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/1293/1/1/ [14]).



189


Intermec claims to have 145 patents in the RFID area. When it comes to the ques-
tion whether there are blocking RFID patents hampering the growth of the RFID
market, Intermec seems to be one of the candidate holders. UNOVA, Intermec's
parent company, acquired RFID semiconductor technology from IBM Corporation in
December 1997. Intermec acquired all of IBMs RFID IP on the technological level.
IBM kept their RFID IP on the solutions level only (see
http://www.informationweek.com/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=52601496 [15]). As
of June 1998, the Transportation Systems Group of Amtech Corporation also be-
came a part of Intermec Technologies Corporation together with their RFID IP.
Intermec decided to make five patents of their Gen 2 IP available on a royalty-free
basis. Nine issued patents and five pending patents have been made available on a
RAND royalty-bearing basis, called RFID rapid start licensing program (starting
June 1, 2005, and concluding Aug. 31, 2005). Intermecs intent is to licence manu-
facturers of RFID chips, inlays, tags, labels, readers and printer-encoders, not the
end user who purchased appropriately licensed products. Manufacturers developing
microchips, inlays, tags and labels based on the current Gen 2 specification are ap-
plied to a 5 percent royalty on unit sales with payments to be made quarterly, in-
cluding a royalty prepayment of $750,000. For manufacturers of RFID readers and
printers Intermec requires a 7.5 percent fee on unit sales plus a $1 million royalty
prepayment (see http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/1084/1/1/ [16]).
After the end of the program (Aug. 31, 2005), Intermec offers individual patents for
licence only, and those patents declared on a reasonable and non-discriminatory
basis (RAND), as part of standards-setting activities, at less favourable rates and
terms than those available in the Rapid Start Licensing Program (see
http://www.intermec.com [17]). A total of 19 companies joined the program.
Although there has not been much litigation so far regarding RFID intellectual prop-
erty rights, the RFID vendor Intermec has been involved in litigation over its RFID
patents since June 2004, when it sued Matrics (later purchased by Symbol Tech-
nologies, now owned by Motorola), claiming the company violated four of its pat-
ents. This was the first of a spate of suits and countersuits between Intermec and
Symbol. In September 2005, the two firms agreed to settle the first of these mat-
ters, and they have since agreed to resolve the other suits (see
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/2386/ [18]). They cross-licence each
others patents, and have released each other from patent-infringement damage
claims. They have also signed a four-year accord that includes an agreement not to
sue one another over remaining patents.
Another RFID manufacturer not-joining Intermecs licensing program is Alien Tech-
nology Corporation. On June 2, 2006 Alien announced that the company has filed
suit against Intermec Inc. in federal district court in the District of North Dakota,
seeking a declaratory judgment for patent non-infringement and invalidity on ten
Intermec patents for RFID products and processes. After conducting a review of the



190


Intermec RFID patents and a comparison of those patents with the design elements
and operation of Alien products, Alien believes its products do not infringe Intermec
intellectual property. In response to public statements by Intermec, including re-
cent public threats of IP litigation against Alien and others companies, who have not
licensed Intermec's RFID technology, Alien has taken this action to seek ratification
of Alien's position from the district court (see
http://www.alientechnology.com/newsevents/2006/press060106.php [19]). About
a month later, Intermec in turn filed suit against Alien Technology in the U.S. Dis-
trict Court for the District of Delaware for patent infringement. Intermec alleges
that Alien's Generation 2 RFID readers and tags infringe 10 Intermec patents.
Intermec is seeking an injunction prohibiting Alien from selling the infringing RFID
products, as well as monetary damages (see
http://www.intermec.com/about_us/newsroom/pr_detail.aspx?c=107429&p=irol-
newsArticle&ID=877708 [20]).
11.2 Patent pools
In order to avoid such RFID patent woes, a group of 20 companies that develop
RFID-based products chips, tags, labels and readers have formed an intellectual
property licensing consortium in 2005, to ease the pain increasingly associated with
both hardware and software development. The goal of the group is twofold: to offer
an efficient patent management system for those companies applying for a radio-
frequency-identification-based patent, and to provide access to RFID patents for
manufacturers and users.
The group, dubbed the RFID Consortium, will base its work on the standards and
specifications put out by EPCglobal [81]. It will also take into account those stan-
dards created by ISO/IEC. The consortium is proposing a license agreement
whereby all patents owned by members will be pooled and available to interested
companies via a single licence at a fair and reasonable price. The licence model is
based on those already in place with DVD formatting and MPG-2 video decoding
technology vendors that also pool patents and hire an independent party to distrib-
ute license fees. The RFID Consortium member roster includes:

Alien Technology Corporation
Applied Wireless Identifications Group Inc. (AWID)
Avery Dennison



191


Moore Wallace (an RR Donnelley & Sons Co. company)
Symbol Technologies Inc. (acquired by Motorola, Jan. 2007)
ThingMagic LLC
Tyco Fire & Security (a segment of Tyco International Ltd.)
Zebra Technologies Corporation
Intermec Technologies Corp. demonstratively did not join this consortium (see
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_zddvs/is_200508/ai_n14906258/print [21]).
Larger enterprises usually do not use patent pools. They defend their intellectual
property rights themselves.
On Oct. 16, 2006 the RFID Consortium hired Via Licensing Corporation as the ad-
ministrator of the ultra high frequency (UHF) RFID licensing program. In associa-
tion with the RFID Consortium, Via Licensing Corp. announced a call for essential
patents with respect to the air interface standards and specifications announced by
EPCglobal Inc. and ISO/IEC for UHF RFID. An issued patent is determined to be
"essential", if one or more of its claims is necessarily infringed by a product de-
signed to practice the relevant RFID standards. The UHF RFID standards covered by
this call are: the EPCglobal air interfaces standards generation 1 (Class 0, Class 0+
and Class 1) and generation 2 (Class 1) [81]; and ISO/IEC 18000-Part 6 (including
Amendment 1 [78], [79]) and the communications and interface protocols and con-
formance specifications referred to in those documents. An independent third-party
patent examiner will review patents related to label and reader products for essen-
tiality to the UHF RFID standard. Patent holders are encouraged to submit essential
patents for either or both types of products.
Via Licensing Corporation is issuing this call for patents to identify owners of pat-
ents that are necessary for the practice of the UHF RFID standards listed above.
Any entity that believes it has a granted patent that is essential to the UHF RFID
standard and wishes to participate in a group of essential patent holders jointly of-
fering to license their patents is invited to contact Via Licensing Corporation for in-
formation about how to submit patents for evaluation. The deadline for submitting
patents was December 1, 2006. Any company that submitted a patent by this
deadline which then was subsequently found to be essential was invited to join the
consortium of the essential patent holders in discussing the formation of the joint
licensing program (see http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-154057982.html
[22]).



192


12 RFID Technologies International R&D Activities
12.1 Introduction
Work package 1 of the coordination action CE RFID is titled with RFID Roadmap.
The second task in developing such a roadmap is to look at international research
and development activities relevant for RFID technologies.
All CE RFID participants and the additional contributors for WP1 have been invited
to give their inputs regarding the list of international R&D activities.
12.2 Sources of international R&D activities
The following lists of sources have been investigated in order to get a comprehen-
sive overview of relevant international R&D activities in the RFID field in recent
years:
Desktop research on the internet, literature (textbooks, magazines (paper and
online), studies, white papers, learned journals (microwave, RFID, research)), pub-
lication databases, conferences and workshops (proceedings, papers), standardisa-
tion organisations (ISO [78], EPCglobal [81], IEC [79], IEEE [80], IEE, etc.), regu-
latory organisations (FCC, FDA, ITU, ETSI [82], CEPT, CENELEC, CEN, etc.), as well
as consultation of CE RFID partners and additional contributors.
Relevant international R&D activities in the RFID area have been found at universi-
ties (USA, Canada, Australia, China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, Spain, Austria, Germany
and the Netherlands), research Institutes (Auto-ID Lab Network, Fraunhofer Insti-
tutes, IMT Technple de Chteau-Gombert Marseille, Institute of Microelectronics
Singapore), research centres (Auto-ID Lab Network, Fraunhofer Institutes, LogMo-
tionLab, Smart Health Lab, RFID Support Center, openID-Center, inHaus, intelli-
gent business estates, DHL Innovation Centre, Innovation Centre, RSA Laborato-
ries, Ko-RFID, FLog - LogIDLab

), and in the RFID industry. For some areas (e.g.

RFID R&D in the industry) it is difficult to get information, in particular in the case
of non-public and confidential projects. All information of R&D activities presented
in this document is publicly available through one or more sources outlined above.



193


12.3 R&D Database
All R&D activities found during the investigation and collection phase can be found
in a database file at the project website (http://www.rfid-in-action.eu). It contains
more than 270 international RFID R&D activities (R&D projects (industrial, national
and international funded), studies, activities of RFID centres). Since work package
1 and 2 had an overlap on funded R&D projects in the European Union, these have
been included from the information collected in work package 2 and the common
workshops.
All entries have been categorised into these filterable columns:
R&D subject / title (subject or title of the project, study, activity, white pa-
per)
Participants / authors (authors of papers, studies; participants of activities)
Objectives / abstracts / conclusions (summary of activity)
Topic (R&D topic, see below)
Funded by (funding organisation if applicable)
Funding volume (if available)
Target market (if applicable)
Country (country or countries of activity origin)
Time schedule / date of publishing /project timeframe / period of activity
Link (internet Link if available)
The column topic allows fast filtering for R&D topics. It contains one or more of
these research topics:
Tags
Materials
Technology
Manufacturing
Reader



194


Applications
Systems
Procedures
Standards and regulations
Networks
RFID middleware
Software
Socio-economic aspects
Security, data protection, privacy
Environment and safety
Supply chain management
In the following chapters some interesting and relevant example activities are pre-
sented. They are structured in the categories: technology aspects (tags, readers,
systems), application-specific topics, software, systems, networks, socio-economic
aspects (security, data protection, privacy, environmental and safety aspects, gen-
eral aspects).
12.4 Technology aspects
12.4.1 Transponder technology
The technology aspects of the International R&D activity section starts with trans-
ponder (tag) related technologies. Activities presented here are considered by the
work package partners to be relevant for the various RFID system subtopics. This
list is not meant to be exhaustive. The activities are examples of most important
contributions to RFID transponder technologies.



195


12.4.1.1 General tag topics
Optimisation of manufacturing
The tag consists of at least three basic components, the chip, the antenna, and the
packaging, which connects and holds chip and antenna. In most applications today,
the chip is based on well known silicon technology. The chips are processed on wa-
fers, separated and then mounted on a carrier, which usually holds the antenna.
Especially for simple passive tags (see EPCglobal class 0 and class 1 tags, chapter
5.1), which can be used to replace barcode systems, cost reduction is a crucial is-
sue. There are two ways followed by industrial research to achieve this, namely
optimising the existing manufacturing processes or finding new ways for tag manu-
facturing.
12.4.1.1.1 Alien Technology
An example of process optimisation has been introduced by Alien Technology
(USA). Silicon wafers are processed by MEMS (Micro Electronic Mechanical System).
The company claims to obtain 15% to 20% more chips per wafer compared to
other methods. The chips are packaged using a patented process called Fluidic Self
Assembly (FSA). According to Alien Technology their process is able to package
chips at rates of 2,000,000 per hour, in contrast with approximately 10,000 per
hour possible with conventional methods (see also chapters 12.4.1.3.1, 12.4.2.6).
http://www.alientechnology.com
12.4.1.1.2 PolyIC
Another approach to manufacturing cheaper tags is the polymer technology. By
printing complete tags (chip and antennas) in one step using organic semiconduc-
tors, the manufacturing process is simplified significantly. Companies like PolyIC,
ORFID, OrganicID, and NXP are pursuing research in this direction. Costs for mass
production of organic tags are estimated as low as 0.01 per tag. PolyIC showed a
prototype of an HF tag (13.56 MHz) in 2005. Researchers estimate that it will take
about ten years (up to 2015) to mass production capability for these tags. Accord-
ing to current knowledge the highest frequencies for organic tags will be 13.56
MHz.
http://www.polyic.com/en/index.php [23]
12.4.1.1.3 CISC Semiconductor Design+Consulting GmbH
In the project "RFID Application Optimiser" funded by the Austrian Ministry of La-
bour and Economy, CISC Semiconductor developed a high performance hardware



196


unit for RFID tag emulations of up to 64 tags simultaneous. The Metro group has
used the tag emulator to simulate their system setup prior to installation.
12.4.1.1.4 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 32 shows the mapping of general tag topics to the subcategories of the RFID
Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this general tag topic is re-
lated to the corresponding subcategory.



197


Table 32 Mapping general tag topics to the RFID Reference Model
Current use Possible use RFID-application
field
Subcategories
A
l
i
e
n

T
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
g
y
,

F
l
u
i
d
i
c

S
e
l
f

A
s
s
e
m
b
l
y


P
o
l
y
I
C

C
I
S
C

S
e
m
i
c
o
n
d
u
c
t
o
r

D
e
-
s
i
g
n
+
C
o
n
s
u
l
t
i
n
g

G
m
b
H

A
l
i
e
n

T
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
g
y
,

F
l
u
i
d
i
c

S
e
l
f

A
s
s
e
m
b
l
y


P
o
l
y
I
C

C
I
S
C

S
e
m
i
c
o
n
d
u
c
t
o
r

D
e
-
s
i
g
n
+
C
o
n
s
u
l
t
i
n
g

G
m
b
H

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical track-
ing & tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y
C: Product safety,
quality and infor-
mation
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y
D: Access control
and tracking &
tracing of indi-
viduals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards E: Loyalty, memb.
and payment
EB: Membership cards
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y G: Sports, leisure
and household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems H: Public services
HC: Banknotes Y



198


The Fluidic Self Assembly (FSA) from Alien Technology applies to mass-production
UHF tags. Polymer technology and organic semiconductors (e.g. PolyIC) are still in
the development phase and currently not used except for prototypes. Market usage
for first applications like electronic brand protection will be realised soon, while
mass production will still take several years. CISCs tag emulator system for UHF
tags is used for tests in logistics and goods applications.
12.4.1.2 Passive tags
The reading range of tags may be optimised by antenna design and especially in
the case of passive tags by intelligent power management.
12.4.1.2.1 University of Erlangen
The Institute for Technical Electronics at University of Erlangen is working on vari-
ous RFID topics.
Since decades, the institute is dealing with RFICs and ultra-low-power ICs
for communication systems
Focus: system design, component modelling, IC design, system characteri-
sation
Since four years the institute is working on passive integrated RFID-ICs in
CMOS together with industrial partners (Infineon, NXP, Fraunhofer IIS, etc)
http://www.lfte.de [24]
12.4.1.2.2 Ferroxtag
Within EUREKA (a pan-European network for market-oriented, industrial R&D), the
project FERROXTAG aims to optimise tags at 13.56 MHz for identifying pharmaceu-
tical products with metallic packaging. Currently Ferroxtag (Ferroxcube) offers pas-
sive tags which can be mounted on metal and still have a reading range of about 30
centimetres. The tag dimensions are 25 x 12.5 x 5 mm.
http://www.ferroxtag.com [25]
12.4.1.2.3 PolyIC, Bartsch
Within the PRISMA (printed smart RFID Labels) project (Project coordinator:
PolyIC; funded by BMBF; BMBF Bundesministerium fr Bildung und Forschung
Germany's Federal Ministry of Education and Research; 8.2 M), low cost polymer



199


RFID tags are developed and evaluated. At the Organic Electronics Conference,
24th-26th September 2007 in Germany, the consortium announced a test of the
first printed low cost organic tickets developed by the PRISMA Project.
http://www.prisma-projekt.de/home
http://www.polyic.com [23]
12.4.1.2.4 Impinj
Impinj Inc., founded in May 2000, is privately held and has raised over $98 Million
in funding mostly from venture capital firms. The fabless semiconductor company is
active in the development of UHF RFID tag chips (families Monza and Monaco)
and UHF RFID readers (EPCglobal-certified reader Speedway). Impinj holds nu-
merous patents on the company's core technologies (Self-Adaptive Silicon) and is
a leading contributor to the RFID standards for high volume supply-chain applica-
tions worldwide.
They claim to provide the industry's only EPCglobal Class 1 Gen 2 standard tag
chips (families Monza and Monaco) that:
Feature dual antenna ports for maximum flexibility in pallet, case, and item
level tagging
Demonstrate high-performance for item-level tagging
Deliver a 100% tested solution
According to Impinj, the field-proven Monza and Monaco chip families exhibit:
High receptivity (high sensitivity combined with interference rejection)
Controlled read range for item-level applications
Ability to be read on liquid-filled items and objects high in metallic content
Excellent depth (ability to be read even when buried deep within a pallet of
tagged goods)
(see also chapter 12.4.2.2)
http://www.impinj.com [26]



200


12.4.1.2.5 Hitachi
Hitachis central research laboratory in Tokyo presented the prototype of an RFID
chip with a size of 0.05 mm 0.05 mm 5 m. The chip contains a 128-Bit-ROM
to which an ID is written at production time. At 2.45 GHz the reading range is
about 30 centimetres. Serial production is supposed to start 2009. In 2007 Hitachi
intends to bring the "-chip", with a size of 0.4 mm 0.4 mm to market (see also
chapter 4.3.5).
http://www.hitachi.co.jp [27]
12.4.1.2.6 FEC International
Malaysias FEC International (a company owned and backed by the Malaysian gov-
ernment) announced its own RFID chip. Its size is 0.5 mm 0.5 mm 0.07 mm.
The chip has an integrated antenna at 2.45 GHz. At other frequencies the chip
works with external antennas. The tag is able to operate at multiple frequencies
from 13.56 MHz to 2.45 GHz (e.g. 13.56 MHz, 868 MHz, 915 MHz, 950 MHz, and
2.45 GHz). Reading distances range from a few millimetres to 1.7 metres. The chip
brochure is not very clear about this, but supposedly for higher reading ranges
(above a few millimetres) an antenna booster is needed.
http://www.fecinc.com.my [28]
12.4.1.2.7 Maxell
Maxell invented a coil on a chip RFID system (chip size: 2.5 mm 2.5 mm) at
13.56 MHz, reading range 1...3 mm. The chip does not need an external antenna
and holds up to 4 KBytes of data. Data can be rewritten, as long as no write protec-
tion is set. Once a data block is protected, it cannot be set back to the rewritable
mode.
http://www.maxell.co.jp/e/products/industrial/rfid [29]
12.4.1.2.8 Texas Instruments
The RFID department of Texas Instruments develops and offers chips and ICs for
tags and readers for passive RFID at LF, HF and UHF. TI also delivers complete
tags, tag inlays, reader antennas, evaluation kits and RFID accessories. TI claims to
be an industry leader in RFID technology and the worlds largest integrated manu-
facturer of RFID tags, RFID smart labels, and RFID reader systems. TI is an active
member of many standards bodies, including EPCglobal [81], ISO [78], IEC [79],



201


ECMA International, ETSI [82], and several national standardisation bodies working
to drive the adoption of global standards for RFID.
On their web site (http://www.ti.com/rfid/shtml/doc-center-brochures.shtml [31])
they present a couple of white papers embracing various RFID topics:
Automatic recognition of consumers
Improving consumers' contactless payment experience
Privacy in radio frequency identity documents
RFID tag data security infrastructure: a common ground approach for phar-
maceutical supply chain safety
Contactless commerce enables a world beyond payment cards
Practical performance expectations for smart packaging
Increasing security in the supply chain with electronic security markers
RFID packaging innovations: from smart labels to smart packages
Recommendations for using secure contactless technology vs. RFID
Scaling from pilot to implementation
Maximising RFID performance on consumer product cases and pallets
Understanding the Gen 2 smart label supply chain: what retail supply chain
professionals need to know
Securing the pharmaceutical supply chain with RFID and public-key infra-
structure technologies
Texas Instruments is also an important manufacturer and vendor of secure RFID
system components (e.g. crypto tag chips). In 2005 Texas Instruments announced
plans to deliver ISO/IEC 14443 compliant RFID chips designed to meet the strin-
gent security requirements for MasterCard International's PayPass line of RFID
payment cards and tokens. TI' s new 13.56 MHz RFID chip is the latest to be intro-
duced in a series of solutions based on the company's ISO/IEC 14443 technology
platform. This proven platform features products with universally accepted and
standardised cryptography, using National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) approved crypto algorithms, including Triple DES and SHA-1
(http://www.ti.com/rfid/shtml/news-releases-rel01-17-05a.shtml [32]).



202


http://www.ti.com/rfid/default.htm [30]
12.4.1.2.9 Gemplus Developpement / EM Microelectronic Marin S.A.
The companies Gemplus Developpement, EM Microelectronic Marin S.A. and IER
participated in the EUREKA project DELTA. The aim was to develop very low-cost,
disposable RFID tags for item logistics.
http://www.eureka.be [33]
12.4.1.2.10 Hanita Coatings Ltd. (Israel)/ Arcotronics Industries S.P.A.
(Italy)
Hanita Coatings and Arcotronics Industries co-operate in the project TIRAL (within
EUREKA). They develop very cheap RFID antennas. A plastic film is coated with a
material that prevents the metal from sticking to the substrate in vacuum deposi-
tion. Coated in pre-designed shapes, kilometre-long rolls could be obtained.
http://www.eureka.be [33]
12.4.1.2.11 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 33 shows the mapping of passive tag topics to the subcategories of the RFID
Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this passive tag topic is re-
lated to the corresponding subcategory.



203


Table 33 Mapping passive tag topics to the RFID Reference Model
Current use RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

E
r
l
a
n
g
e
n

F
e
r
r
o
x
t
a
g

P
o
l
y
I
C
,

B
a
r
t
s
c
h

I
m
p
i
n
j

H
i
t
a
c
h
i

F
E
C

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

M
a
x
e
l
l

T
e
x
a
s

I
n
s
t
r
u
m
e
n
t
s

G
e
m
p
l
u
s

D
e
v
.
/
E
M

M
i
c
r
o
-
e
l
e
c
t
r
.

M
a
r
i
n

S
.
A
.

H
a
n
i
t
a

C
o
a
t
i
n
g
s

L
t
d
.

/

A
r
c
o
t
r
o
n
i
c
s

I
n
d
.

S
.
P
.
A

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical
tracking & trac-
ing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, quality
and information
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y
D: Access con-
trol and tracking
& tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y G: Sports, lei-
sure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y Y H: Public ser-
vices
HC: Banknotes Y Y Y



204


Low Power CMOS tag chip technology (University of Erlangen) is a cross-sectional
technology that applies to every subcategory. Polymer technology and organic
semiconductors (e.g. PolyIC) are still in the development phase and currently not
used except for prototypes. First products will come to the market soon, while mass
production will take several years. Hitachis -chip has been used in a prototype
ticketing application (access control). Serial production is planned to start 2009,
e.g. for banknotes. Current usage of FECs alternative micro chip has not been pub-
lished yet. Maxells coil-on-chip HF tags provide a very limited reading range of 1-3
mm resulting in a small set of applications (see chapter 4.4.2). Texas Instruments
broad RFID portfolio is suitable for all subcategories. Project DELTA (Gemplus De-
veloppement/EM Microelectronic Marin S.A.) develops low-cost disposable tags for
item level tagging in logistics. Project TIRAL (Hanita Coatings Ltd. (Is-
rael)/Arcotronics Industries S.P.A. (Italy)) develops manufacturing techniques of
very cheap tag antennas.
12.4.1.3 Semi-passive tags
12.4.1.3.1 Alien Technology
Alien Technology develops passive and semi-passive RFID chips that meet the EPC
standards for both Generation 1 and 2, and ISO 18000-6C ([78], [79]). These
global standards are used in asset tracking and identification for supply chain appli-
cations. Alien also does research on optimising production processes and antenna
design (see also chapters 12.4.1.1.1, 12.4.2.6).
http://www.alientechnology.com [34]
12.4.1.4 Active tags
12.4.1.4.1 Identec Solutions
Identec Solutions developed active tags that operate in the UHF bands with a read-
ing range of up to 100 m. These tags are deployed in many applications worldwide,
ranging from manufacturing to shipping and personnel monitoring (see also chap-
ters 12.4.2.7, 12.5.7).
http://www.identecsolutions.com [35]



205


12.4.1.4.2 Melexis
Melexis merges an analog frontend for internal and external sensors, with wireless
interface possibilities, enabling sensor networking. The interface complies with the
ISO/IEC 15693 international standard in the 13.56 MHz frequency band. The IC
MLX90129 can run in stand alone mode, be controlled by a microcontroller or be
connected to a ZigBee device.
http://www.melexis.com [36]
12.4.1.4.3 KSW Microtec/ ELMOS / TU Chemnitz / Schenker AG
An active smart ID label for transport surveillance of valuable goods, with inte-
grated micro mechanical sensor for tilt/shock loading was developed within the
BMBF (BMBF Bundesministerium fr Bildung und Forschung Germany's Federal
Ministry of Education and Research) project ASIL (Active Smart ID Label).
12.4.1.4.4 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 34 shows the mapping of semi-passive and active tag topics to the subcate-
gories of the RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this semi-
passive or active tag topic is related to the corresponding subcategory.



206


Table 34 Mapping semi-passive and active tag topics to the RFID Reference Model
Current use RFID-application
field
Subcategories
A
l
i
e
n

T
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
g
y

I
d
e
n
t
e
c

S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
s

M
e
l
e
x
i
s

K
S
W

M
i
c
r
o
t
e
c

/

E
L
M
O
S

/

T
U

C
h
e
m
n
i
t
z

/

S
c
h
e
n
-
k
e
r

A
G

AA: Inhouse logistics Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y
AC: Open logistics Y
AD: Postal applications Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y
A: Logistical track-
ing & tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y
CB: Electronic goods Y
CC: Textile goods Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y
C: Product safety,
quality and infor-
mation
CF: Customer info. systems
DA: Access control systems
DB: Animal tracking Y
D: Access control
and tracking &
tracing of individu-
als
DC: Personal tracking Y
EA: Loyalty cards E: Loyalty, memb.
and payment
EB: Membership cards
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y
GB: Rental systems Y G: Sports, leisure
and household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y H: Public services
HC: Banknotes



207


Alien Technology offers passive and semi-passive tag chips, antennas development,
and manufactures tags. Their solutions apply to a broad set of logistics and goods
applications. Identec Solutions provides high reading range active RFID systems,
suitable for high range application like road tolling, tracking, and vehicles. Melexis
produce sensor tags that can build sensor networks. All sensor applications benefit
from this technology. Project ASIL (KSW Microtec/ELMOS/TU Chemnitz/Schenker
AG) develops active smart labels for asset tracking.
12.4.2 Interrogator technology
The next section of technology aspects of the International R&D activity regards
interrogator (reader) related technologies. Activities presented here are considered
by the work package partners to be relevant for the various RFID system subtopics.
This list is not meant to be exhaustive. The activities are examples of most impor-
tant contributions to RFID reader technologies.
12.4.2.1 Infineon Technologies Austria AG / Graz University of Technol-
ogy
Under the Austrian programme FIT-IT (Forschung, Innovation und Technologie fr
Informationstechnologien Research, Innovation and Technology for IT) the pro-
ject ReadRF with its partners Infineon and Graz University of Technology is work-
ing on reader technology employing new modulation and coding schemes. Promis-
ing solutions are realised as prototypes and their feasibility is proven by manufac-
tured monolithic chips.
12.4.2.2 Impinj
Impinj develops high-performance UHF reader antennas featuring form factors and
RF properties, suited to highly specialised applications, such as pharmaceutical
manufacturing and fill-line applications, smart shelves, smart racks, and automated
point-of-sale terminals. The EPCglobal-certified Speedway reader, a key element
of Impinj's GrandPrix RFID solution, is the first high-performance reader designed
from the ground up (not merely upgraded) to support the EPCglobal UHF Gen 2
standard in its entirety (see also chapter 12.4.1.2.4).
http://www.impinj.com [26]



208


12.4.2.3 Sirit
Sirit is developing LF (134 kHz), HF (13.56 MHz) and UHF (915 MHz) readers and
systems. Possible applications are: vehicle identification, supply chain automation,
asset tracking, medical applications, people tracking, manufacturing, retail tracking,
animal tracking, sports event timing.
http://www.sirit.com [37]
12.4.2.4 Feig
Feig electronic has developed readers at LF, HF, and UHF for many areas of usage,
such as: access control (persons and vehicles), ticketing systems, electronic locking
systems and identification of goods in material management, manufacturing, inven-
tory control and supply chain.
http://www.feig.de [38]
12.4.2.5 Intermec
Intermec offers readers in the UHF region, ranging from simple readers to readers
containing an Intel Celeron processor, capable of running complex RFID applica-
tions.
http://www.intermec.com [17]
12.4.2.6 Alien Technology
Alien Technology provides an array of high-performance, flexible UHF RFID readers.
The multi-protocol readers are designed from the ground up for EPC Class 1 Gen 2
compliance with highest read performance. There are readers for US (FCC) as well
as European (ETSI, EN 302-208) requirements (see also chapters 12.4.1.1.1,
12.4.1.3.1).
http://www.alientechnology.com [34]



209


12.4.2.7 Identec Solutions
Identec Solutions offers an array of long range and mid range RFID readers from
stationary to handheld and card type readers. The readers support UHF passive
tags (e.g. EPC class 1 Gen 0, 1, 2 passive) and active tags (proprietary active tags
and ISO/IEC 18000-7 [78], [79] compliant tags) (see also chapters 12.4.1.4.1,
12.5.7).
http://www.identecsolutions.com [35]
12.4.2.8 Nederlandse Apparatenfabriek Nedap N.V./ Melexis
The Nederlandse Apparatenfabriek Nedap N.V. and Melexis (Switzerland) are
working on radio frequency dynamic antenna technologies (within EUREKA) that are
used for contactless reading and writing of information on/from labels. The aim is to
substantially improve the capacity of systems in this domain by research and de-
velopment in reader and antenna technologies.
12.4.2.9 Tracetel /Asicentrum Spol.S.R.O.
Tracetel (France) and Asicentrum Spol.S.R.O.(Czech Republic) work together in the
project RFID UHF Encoder (within EUREKA) to expand the market with an passive
UHF reader geared towards industrial logistic solutions and compatible with the lat-
est computer chip technology.
12.4.2.10 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 35 shows the mapping of interrogator technology to the subcategories of the
RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this interrogator tech-
nology is related to the corresponding subcategory.



210


Table 35 Mapping interrogator technology to the RFID Reference Model
Current use RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
I
n
f
i
n
e
o
n

T
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
g
i
e
s

A
u
s
-
t
r
i
a

A
G

/

T
U

G
r
a
z

I
m
p
i
n
j

S
i
r
i
t

F
e
i
g

I
n
t
e
r
m
e
c

A
l
i
e
n

T
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
g
y

I
d
e
n
t
e
c

S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
s

N
e
d
e
r
l
a
n
d
s
e

A
p
p
a
r
a
t
e
n
f
a
b
.

N
e
d
a
p

N
.
V
.
/
M
e
l
e
x
i
s

T
r
a
c
e
t
e
l

/
A
s
i
c
e
n
t
r
u
m

S
p
o
l
.
S
.
R
.
O
.

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical
tracking & trac-
ing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, quality
and information
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
D: Access con-
trol and tracking
& tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y G: Sports, lei-
sure and house-
hold
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y H: Public sevices
HC: Banknotes



211


The interrogator (reader) technology presented in the previous chapter is used for
almost all subcategories. The exceptions are fresh/perishable foods (semi-passive
or active sensor tags are needed, that currently require proprietary readers) and
banknotes (usage planned, most likely with proprietary readers).
12.4.3 System technology
The following section of technology aspects of the international R&D activity dis-
cusses general RFID system technology issues not directly related to tag or reader
technologies. Activities presented here are considered by the work package part-
ners to be relevant for the various RFID system subtopics. This list is not meant to
be exhaustive. The activities are examples of most important contributions to RFID
system technologies.
12.4.3.1 University of Clausthal
The Institute for Electrical Information Technology at University of Clausthal is an
additional contributor to CE RFID. It is working on various RFID topics:
Physical layer of RFID, localisation and wireless sensor systems
(RF-/antenna design, digital and analogue baseband hardware, signal proc-
essing)
Technical consulting and prototyping for customer-specific applications
http://www.iei.tu-clausthal.de [39]
12.4.3.2 University of Freiburg
The Institute for Technical Electronics at University of Freiburg is an additional con-
tributor to CE RFID. It is working on various RFID topics:
Different RFID technologies (e.g. SAW-RFID, energy harvesting)
http://www.imtek.uni-freiburg.de [40]



212


12.4.3.3 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 36 shows the mapping of system technology to the subcategories of the RFID
Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this system technology is
related to the corresponding subcategory.



213


Current use RFID-application field Subcategories
U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

C
l
a
u
s
t
h
a
l

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

F
r
e
i
b
u
r
g

AA: Inhouse logistics Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y
AC: Open logistics Y
AD: Postal applications Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y
A: Logistical tracking &
tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y
BB: Asset management Y
BC: Facility management Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y
B: Production, monitoring
and maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y
CB: Electronic goods Y
CC: Textile goods Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y
C: Product safety, quality
and information
CF: Customer info. systems
DA: Access control systems Y
DB: Animal tracking Y
D: Access control and
tracking & tracing of indi-
viduals
DC: Personal tracking Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y E: Loyalty, memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y
FB: Hospital management Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y G: Sports, leisure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y H: Public services
HC: Banknotes
Table 36 Mapping system technology to the RFID Reference Model
University of Clausthal (Germany) works on wireless Sensors (RADAR-RFID), gen-
eral RFID technologies (LF, HF, UHF, SAW), special antenna designs, as well as



214


simulations of field distributions and reading ranges. Except customer information
systems and banknotes all regarded subcategories use these system technologies.
University of Freiburg (Germany) develops general RFID technologies (e.g. SAW-
RFID and energy harvesting). Robust and sensor applications benefit from these
technologies.
12.5 Application-specific topics
Application-specific aspects of the International R&D activity section are presented
here. The activities are considered by the work package partners to be relevant for
the various RFID system applications. This list is not meant to be exhaustive. The
activities are examples of most important contributions to RFID applications.
12.5.1 Fraunhofer Institutes (Germany)
The following Fraunhofer Institutes are working on various application-specific RFID
topics.
http://www.fraunhofer.de [41]
12.5.1.1 IML
Fraunhofer Institute IML conducted the following studies:
RFID 2004 Study trends in logistics for industry and retail market
Established overview of the RFID market on the demand as well as
on the supply side
Evaluation of the requirements and expectations of the retail market
and the industry on auto-id in particular RFID systems
Determination of the state-of-the-art and future potential of RFID
technology
Feasibility study to the implementation of RFID technology for fittings and
sanitary systems
Optimum integration of the identification system into the ERP system
Investigation of the practicability of several project objectives



215


Testing of automatic registration of carton on delivery pallets
12.5.1.2 ISST
Fraunhofer Institute ISST conducted the following study:
Study Business Opportunities for the Application RFID technology in the
German Health Service
RFID technology as a remedy for the German health service?
16 examples have been investigated with regard to objectives, costs,
benefit, technology and perspectives (baby surveillance system, bed
logistics, laundry management, etc.)
The study demonstrates the advantages as well as disadvantages
and obstacles
12.5.2 LogMotionLab
The LogMotionLab tests and neutrally evaluates RFID technologies for their
suitability for practical application for specific company processes.
http://www.logmotionlab.de [42]
12.5.3 openID-center
The pilot plant represents all stages of a complete logistic chain.
When the tests have been finished a functioning, extendable test field will be
available at Fraunhofer IML.
Interested partners are always welcome to contribute to this project with
new logistic applications and technologies.
http://www.openid-center.de [43]
12.5.4 Ko-RFID
Transparency and trust in logistic networks



216


Cost benefit analysis and the role of logistics service providers
Data protection and data security
Provider models and integration of RFID into ERP-supported infrastructure
Data aggregation and predictive analysis
RFID-based logistic event-tracking (concepts)
http://ko-rfid.hu-berlin.de [44]
12.5.5 FLog LogIDLab

The main research activities:
Transportations, trade and distribution
Packaging
Waste management
Special areas of logistics:
Dangerous goods
Hospital distribution and waste management
http://www.logidlab.de [45]
12.5.6 Sokymat Automotive
The Sokymat Automotive researches, develops, and produces tags for automotive
applications such as: car immobilisers, remote control, tyre pressure monitoring
and passive keyless car systems. Their products are in use in many applications
throughout the world.
http://www.sokymat-automotive.de [46]



217


12.5.7 Identec Solutions
Identec Solutions develops wireless tracking and tracing solutions that include long
range active RFID technology. Their RFID technology and products are utilised to
facilitate and manage critical processes or to help track valuable assets. Identec
Solutions claims that their intelligent long range active RFID system can identify,
locate, track and communicate with assets at a distance of up to 500 meters. Their
systems are used in the automotive, transportation, logistics, and aerospace indus-
tries.
http://www.identecsolutions.com [35]
12.5.8 Philips/NXP
Philips/NXP conducts two projects which are funded by the Austrian FFG (For-
schungsfrderungsgesellschaft mbH; Industrial R&D Promotion Fund). Generally,
projects funded by the FFG are not published or otherwise available. Input to the
following two projects came from work package 2:
Tyre pressure monitoring: the project was carried out from 2004 to 2005. The ob-
jective was the design and development of a tyre pressure sensor and RFID
send/receive functionality.
RFID Reference Design Centre: this project (2006-2007) has the aim to design UHF
EPC Gen2 ICs and setup a complete test lab infrastructure for integrated application
evaluation.
http://www.nxp.com [47]
12.5.9 Plefo Ab / Mannings
Plefo Ab (Sweden) and Mannings (UK) worked together on the project ARTSAFE
(within EUREKA). The ARTSAFE project is developing data collection and communi-
cation services for protecting and monitoring high-value or hazardous objects. The
ARTSAFE system combines four major components: a wireless RFID tag; a wireless
tag reader; a control computer; and an alarm communication system. ARTSAFE can
keep track of the actual location of items that are not supposed to leave assigned
areas, and the system can be configured to record an automatic log of events.
http://www.eureka.be [33]



218


12.5.10 Philips Semiconductors / Graz University of Technol-
ogy
PROACT is an initiative of Philips Semiconductors and Graz University of Technology
to promote RFID-related topics in teaching and research. Major activities of PROACT
will include
intensifying training for students in RFID-related topics
promoting research in several fields connected with RFID systems
installing a professorship ("Stiftungsprofessur") at the Graz University of
Technology
serving as a communication platform between academia and industry
Development of an UHF passive reader to expand the market with an UHF reader
geared towards industrial logistic solutions and compatible with the latest computer
chip technology. Partners are Tracetel (France) and Asicentrum Spol.S.R.O.(Czech
Republic).
http://proact.tugraz.at/about/index.htm [48]
12.5.11 Traffic Supervision Systems A/S
Traffic Supervision Systems A/S (Denmark) together with IfB (Institut Fr
Bahntechnik Gmbh Germany), Mav Co. Ltd. (Hungarian State Railways), Iarnrod
Eireann Suburban Rail (Ireland), Danske Stats Baner Materiel Teknik (Denmark)
developed technology for a Train Position Locator For Electric Railways (TRAPOLO;
within EUREKA). The system uses RFID technology to enhance future train position-
ing.
http://www.eureka.be [33]
12.5.12 Immotec Systems / Homenet
Immotec Systems (France) and Homenet Com Ltd. (Israel) developed an innovative
site security solution with localisation of people and objects simultaneously. Based
on smart card, access control and surveillance elements integrated with an expert
supervision system. The project is called HISS and was accomplished within
EUREKA.



219


http://www.eureka.be [33]
12.5.13 Eczacibasi Bilisim
The Turkish company Eczacibasi Bilisim prepares a project dubbed Wireless PSMS
(within EUREKA) to realise a wireless patient monitoring system for the prevention
of incorrect medical treatment of patients through medical error checking.
http://www.eureka.be [33]
12.5.14 Internic Data Communications GmbH / Smart-ID
The Austrian companies Internic Data communications GmbH and Smart-ID work
together to develop an RFID application for theft prevention and anti-counterfeiting.
In the project called DIMA high flexibility, compatibility to standards and high secu-
rity (especially on the tag side) are realised.
12.5.15 EOSS Innovation Management
EOSS Innovation Management works on a project called Smart Care for RFID-
based asset tracking and logistic management systems for hospitals.
http://www.eos-consultingllc.com/govinnovation.htm [49]
12.5.16 Follow Me
The Austrian company Follow Me developed an access control / person tracking
system with escape route indicator in case of emergency based on RFID technol-
ogy. The information on the RFID card is used to provide persons with route infor-
mation, when the card is placed near a reader terminal.
http://www.followme.at [50]
12.5.17 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 37 shows the mapping of application-specific topics to the subcategories of
the RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this application-
specific topic is related to the corresponding subcategory.



220


Current use RFID-
application
field
Subcatego-
ries
F
r
a
u
n
h
o
f
e
r

I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
e

I
M
L

F
r
a
u
n
h
o
f
e
r

I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
e

I
S
S
T

L
o
g
M
o
t
i
o
n
L
a
b

o
p
e
n
I
D
-
c
e
n
t
e
r

K
o
-
R
F
I
D

(
H
U
B
)

F
L
o
g

-

L
o
g
I
D
L
a
b

S
o
k
y
m
a
t

A
u
t
o
m
o
t
i
v
e

I
d
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n
t
e
c

S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
s

P
h
i
l
i
p
s
/
N
X
P

P
l
e
f
o

A
b

/

M
a
n
n
i
n
g
s

P
h
i
l
i
p
s

S
e
m
i
c
o
n
d
u
c
t
o
r
s

/

G
r
a
z

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

T
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
g
y

T
r
a
f
f
i
c

S
u
p
e
r
v
i
s
i
o
n

S
y
s
t
e
m
s

A
/
S

I
m
m
o
t
e
c

S
y
s
t
e
m
s

/

H
o
m
e
n
e
t

E
c
z
a
c
i
b
a
s
i

B
i
l
i
s
i
m

I
n
t
e
r
n
i
c

D
a
t
a

c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s

G
m
b
H

/

S
m
a
r
t
-
I
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E
O
S
S

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t
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n

M
a
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a
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e
m
e
n
t

F
o
l
l
o
w

M
e

AA: Inhouse
logistics
Y Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed
loop logistics
Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open
logistics
Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal
applications
Y Y Y Y
AE: Danger-
ous goods
logistics
Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical
tracking &
tracing
AF: Manufac-
turing logistics
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive
systems
Y Y Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset
management
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility
management
Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aero-
planes
Y Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom. /
process con-
trol
Y Y Y Y
B: Produc-
tion, moni-
toring and
maintenance
BG: Food and
cons. goods
Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov.
cons. goods
Y Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic
goods
Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, qual-
ity and in-
formation
CC: Textile
goods
Y Y Y Y Y Y



221


Current use RFID-
application
field
Subcatego-
ries
F
r
a
u
n
h
o
f
e
r

I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
e

I
M
L

F
r
a
u
n
h
o
f
e
r

I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
e

I
S
S
T

L
o
g
M
o
t
i
o
n
L
a
b

o
p
e
n
I
D
-
c
e
n
t
e
r

K
o
-
R
F
I
D

(
H
U
B
)

F
L
o
g

-

L
o
g
I
D
L
a
b

S
o
k
y
m
a
t

A
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t
o
m
o
t
i
v
e

I
d
e
n
t
e
c

S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
s

P
h
i
l
i
p
s
/
N
X
P

P
l
e
f
o

A
b

/

M
a
n
n
i
n
g
s

P
h
i
l
i
p
s

S
e
m
i
c
o
n
d
u
c
t
o
r
s

/

G
r
a
z

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

T
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
g
y

T
r
a
f
f
i
c

S
u
p
e
r
v
i
s
i
o
n

S
y
s
t
e
m
s

A
/
S

I
m
m
o
t
e
c

S
y
s
t
e
m
s

/

H
o
m
e
n
e
t

E
c
z
a
c
i
b
a
s
i

B
i
l
i
s
i
m

I
n
t
e
r
n
i
c

D
a
t
a

c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s

G
m
b
H

/

S
m
a
r
t
-
I
D

E
O
S
S

I
n
n
o
v
a
t
i
o
n

M
a
n
a
g
e
m
e
n
t

F
o
l
l
o
w

M
e

CD: Fresh /
perishable
foods
Y
CE: Pharma-
ceutical
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CF: Customer
info. systems

DA: Access
control sys-
tems
Y Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal
tracking
Y Y
D: Access
control and
tracking &
tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal
tracking
Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty
cards
E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Member-
ship cards
Y
FB: Hospital
management
Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth
care
FC: Implants
GB: Rental
systems
G: Sports,
leisure and
household
GD: Smart
home
Y
HB: Road
tolling sys-
tems
Y H: Public
services
HC: Bank-
notes

Table 37 Mapping application-specific topics to the RFID Reference Model
The selected application-specific R&D activities cover many of the regarded sub-
categories.



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12.6 Software, systems, and networks
The following chapter addressed aspects of the international R&D activity section
that are related to software, network, and general system technologies. Activities
presented here are considered by the work package partners to be relevant for the
various RFID system subtopics. This list is not meant to be exhaustive. The activi-
ties are examples of most important contributions to RFID system technologies.
12.6.1 RFID middleware
12.6.1.1 Smepp
The main objective of this project is to develop a new RFID middleware, based on a
new network centric abstract model and trying to overcome the main problems of
the currently existing domain-specific RFID middleware proposals. The RFID mid-
dleware will be secure, generic and highly customisable, allowing adaptation to dif-
ferent devices (from PDAs and new generation mobile phones to embedded sensor
actuator systems) and domains (from critical systems to consumer entertainment
or communication). Its suitability will be demonstrated by the development of two
different innovative real-life applications.
Two validation applications will be developed: one in the field of environmental
monitoring of industrial plants and in mobile telephony and context aware comput-
ing. These applications will be used to obtain the main requisites of the RFID mid-
dleware and will help to demonstrate the suitability of the new RFID middleware for
the development of applications for this type of environments. The applications do-
mains are different enough to study the flexibility and adaptability of the RFID mid-
dleware and its associated tools.
http://www.smepp.org/ [51]
12.6.1.2 Skandsoft
Skandsofts SETUTM is an RFID middleware platform that allows solution develop-
ment to help comply with multiple RFID mandates on a single platform. The soft-
ware helps business organisations to filter and process the data thrown up by RFID
technology.
http://www.skandsoft.com/company.html [52]



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12.6.1.3 IBM
IBMs WebSphere

RFID Premises Server provides the RFID middleware infrastruc-

ture to deploy RFID solutions in a range of industries. It enables RFID data capture,
filtering, correlation, and delivery. The open architecture supports multiple RFID
device types. Additional software is available from IBM to support RFID deploy-
ments. The WebSphere RFID Information Center provides a scalable, secure, EP-
Cglobal standards-based repository for information. High volumes of data can be
managed and shared securely. The software supports Windows and Linux plat-
forms.
http://www.ibm.com [53]
12.6.1.4 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 38 shows the mapping of RFID middleware R&D to the subcategories of the
RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this RFID middleware
R&D is related to the corresponding subcategory.



224


Current use RFID-application
field
Subcategories
S
M
E
P
P

S
k
a
n
d
s
o
f
t

I
B
M

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics
A: Logistical tracking &
tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y
BB: Asset management Y
BC: Facility management Y
BD: Vehicles
BE: Aeroplanes
BF: Autom./process control
B: Production, monitor-
ing and maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y
C: Product safety, qual-
ity and information
CF: Customer info. systems
DA: Access control systems
DB: Animal tracking Y
D: Access control and
tracking & tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y
EA: Loyalty cards E: Loyalty, memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards
FB: Hospital management F: eHealth care
FC: Implants
GB: Rental systems G: Sports, leisure and
household
GD: Smart home
HB: Road tolling systems H: Public services
HC: Banknotes
Table 38 Mapping RFID middleware to the RFID Reference Model
Although many activities with respect to RFID middleware concentrate on mass
applications like logistics and goods applications, some RFID middleware functions
are required for all subcategories.



225


12.6.2 Software, Systems and networks
The following nine projects (12.6.2.1 to 12.6.2.9) are conducted by the Cluster of
European RFID Projects (CERP) funded by the EU. The objectives of the cluster
are:
Facilitate networking of different projects in Europe
Coordinate research activities
Assure coherence of work in Europe
Leverage expertise, talents, and resources and maximise impact
Establish synergies between projects
12.6.2.1 BRIDGE
BRIDGE: Building Radio Frequency IDentification for the Global Environment
The objective of the European funded (FP6, IP) project BRIGDE is to research,
develop and implement tools to enable the deployment of EPCglobal applications in
Europe. Thirty interdisciplinary partners from 12 different countries (from Europe
and Asia) are working together on: hardware development, serial look-up service,
serial-level supply chain control, security, anti-counterfeiting, drug pedigree, supply
chain management, manufacturing process application, reusable asset manage-
ment, products in service, and item level tagging for non-food items.
GS1 Global Office is the project coordinator. Partners are the GS1 organisations in
France, United Kingdom, Germany, Spain, Poland and China.
Academic research is represented by the University of Cambridge (United King-
dom), ETH Zurich (Switzerland), Fudan (Shanghai, China), UPC Barcelona (Spain),
Graz University of Technology (Austria)
RFID users involved in BRIDGE are Carrefour (France), Bndicta (France), Kaufhof
(Germany), Gardeur (Germany), Nestl UK, Sony (Japan),and El corte Ingls
(Spain).
Solution Providers are BT (United Kingdom), SAP (Germany), AIDA (Spain), CAEN
(Italy), Confidex (Finland), AT4Wireless (Spain), UPM Raflatac (Finland), Verisign
UK, Melior (United Kingdom), Domino (United Kingdom), and JJ Associates (United
Kingdom).



226


This project will deliver hardware and software components that will meet the re-
quirements of users. Concrete experiments will be carried out to validate the tech-
nology, to study the impact in real-life situations and to re-engineer business proc-
esses in a most efficient way. The aim of BRIDGE is to provide implementable solu-
tions for the following aspects of RFID technology and application:
1) Network
- Simple and cost-effective software tools targeted at SMEs
- Serial-level lookup service to enable unique item level product informa-
tion storage and retrieval
- Identification and authentication of tags and readers
- Data of extremely large amounts of real-time data
2) Application software
- Serial-level inventory management
- Management of large networks of EPC readers
- Models to exploit environmental data (temperature, humidity, etc.)
3) Security
- Security for privacy and to prevent illicit use of the EPC
- Prevention of cloning and emulation of tags in EPC
- Secure transmission of data between readers and tags
4) Hardware
- High performance readers for the European requirements
- Low-cost and scalable tag disabling technology
- Low cost sensors (temperature, humidity) linked to EPC tags
5) Implementation
- Impact on information systems design and functionality



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- Pilot projects demonstrating the effective benefits of the technology
- Social implication of RFID Network
The outcome of the project is intended to:
Increase the influence of the European organisations in global standard
processes
Address through relevant research the barriers to successful implementa-
tions of the EPC technology in Europe
Practical application guidelines and adoption tools enabling the roll-out of
the technology in Europe.
http://www.rfid-in-action.eu/cerp [54]
12.6.2.2 TraSer
The main project objectives of TraSer are:
1) Open source software platform for product and product-data track and trace
allowing for:
- Low initial systems investment
- Applicability with legacy and low-end standard systems
- Lean implementation and maintenance, to minimise the requirements
for IT specialist staff
- SME access to logistics service providers (LSPs) tracking infrastructure
and RFID readers
2) Industrial implementations
3) Reports on the implementation cases
4) Descriptions of specific SME business scenarios and models of potential
benefits of developing product-centric applications in the scenario situations
5) Advancing theory on product-centric service innovation, the evolution paths
for product-centric information architectures and applications.



228


Participants of TRASER: Computer and Automation Research Institute (Hungary),
Academy of Sciences (coordinator, Hungary), Helsinki University of Technology
(Finland), University of Groningen (The Netherlands), Innotec Magyar (Hungary),
Finland Post Corporation, TNO Information and Communication Technology (The
Netherlands), Wittmann & Partner Computer Systems (Romania).
http://www.rfid-in-action.eu/cerp [54]
12.6.2.3 AMI-4-SME
Focussing on the human actor as the main actor in industry is the next revolution-
ary step in industrial process innovation. This will radically change the whole indus-
trial working environment. The application of ambient intelligence (AmI) technology
can be considered as a key enabler to achieve such advances in working environ-
ments in the context of networked enterprises. One major challenge is to system-
atically enable small and medium-sized enterprises (SME) to actively take part in
this revolution. Therefore, the AMI-4-SME project is aiming at the realisation of the
following key results:
Easy reusable service oriented architecture (SOA) based technological solu-
tions so called "AMI-4-SME Building Blocks" enable SME to realise intel-
ligent features in manufacturing processes such as multi-modal user inter-
faces, RFID tags or speech recognition compatible to the "Reference
Model for AmI in Manufacturing Industry".
A coaching oriented methodology, for supporting SME and similar organisa-
tions in the systemic innovation of their manufacturing processes based
on a "Reference Structure for an AmI based Business Process Innovation".
http://www.rfid-in-action.eu/cerp [54]
12.6.2.4 CoBIs
Knowing the exact whereabouts of physical objects such as goods or tools in enter-
prise environments to optimise business processes has been a long-standing desire
of several industries. The Collaborative Business Items (CoBIs) project develops a
new approach to business processes involving physical objects. Business logic is
directly embedded into the physical entities, therefore making it possible to relate
more closely the state of an enterprise as represented in business processes, to
what is actually happening in the real world and furthermore extending the busi-
ness process to the point of action. CoBIs has developed an open platform based



229


on a service-oriented architecture (SOA) that makes it possible to apply networked
embedded systems technologies in large-scale business processes and enterprise
systems. CoBIs evaluates its approach in real world application trials in the oil and
gas industry. Items have a unique digital identity, embody sensors to monitor their
state and environmental conditions, communicate peer-to-peer and collaborate in
order to fulfil collective services (such as observation of conditions that no single
item could obtain independently). Interface backend systems make their service
integral with overarching business processes.
http://www.rfid-in-action.eu/cerp [54]
12.6.2.5 Dynamite
The maintenance of machinery is a huge cost to European industry. Studies over
the last 20 years have indicated that around Europe, the direct cost of maintenance
is equivalent to between 4 percent and 8 percent of the total sales turnover. The
monitoring of machines and processes for predictive maintenance and control is
crucial for a sustainable and competitive industry in Europe. Distributed, autono-
mous monitoring is fundamental to the penetration of e-maintenance to the cutting
edge of a high capital and highly productive plant. DYNAMITE (Dynamic Decisions in
Maintenance) will create an infrastructure for mobile monitoring technology and
create new devices which will make major advances in capability for decision sys-
tems incorporating sensors and algorithms. The key features include wireless te-
lemetry, intelligent local history in smart tags, and online instrumentation.
http://www.rfid-in-action.eu/cerp [54]
12.6.2.6 Promise
The core innovation of PROMISE is the concept of smart products that are able to
sense their condition and environment. PROMISE-Product Lifecycle Management
(PLM) addresses gaps in information flow and creates better understanding, and
extends control of products over the lifecycle, giving manufacturers effective in-
struments to create more value to the end users and win market share. PROMISE
will develop appropriate technology, including product lifecycle models, product
embedded information devices (including firmware and software components) as
well as tools for decision making based on data gathered throughout a product life-
cycle. This is done to enable and exploit the seamless flow, tracing and updating of
information about a product, from its delivery to the customer to its final destina-
tion (deregistration, decommissioning) and back to the designer and producer. The
key result will be a new IT infrastructure and ubiquitous product lifecycle manage-



230


ment software which maximises strengths of existing hardware and legacy systems.
Achieving maximum advantage may require the development of industry- or prod-
uct-specific product embedded information devices (PEIDs), which are based on a
combination of existing technologies, such as barcode, RFID transponders and
short- as well as long-range wireless communication technologies. Applications are
being tested in 10 PROMISE demonstrators in the automotive, railway, heavy load
vehicle, electronics and white goods sectors. Activities also address integration and
standardisation, business development, and training issues.
http://www.rfid-in-action.eu/cerp [54]
12.6.2.7 SMART
The SMART research project aims to support intelligent business networking and
consumer services based on efficient information sharing and collaboration across
supply chain partners. This can be realised, because products are uniquely and
automatically identified with the use of RFID technology. In this context, processes
like collaborative planning and replenishment, product tracking and traceability,
promotions management and consumer in-store support can be improved. The
SMART project will provide the infrastructure, electronic services and software ap-
plications to enable supply chain collaboration and innovative consumer services.
These services will be based on a scalable distributed-architecture and building on
the possibilities provided by peer-to-peer networks, web service orchestration and
choreography, data-stream systems and smart tagging technologies. The SMART
collaboration infrastructure shall be in close integration with the EPCglobal network
information infrastructures. It will provide a complete and solid collaboration
framework, offering innovation to specific supply chain processes and consumer
services.
http://www.rfid-in-action.eu/cerp [54]
12.6.2.8 SMMART
The project System for Mobile Maintenance Accessible in Real Time (SMMART)
aims at defining a new integrated concept to answer the maintenance challenges of
the transport industry aeronautics, road transport, marine transport. It will help
to reduce the time and cost for scheduled and unscheduled maintenance inspec-
tions of increasingly sophisticated and complex products. SMMART wants to re-
motely provide the adequate up-to-date information to assist the mobile workers in
all their tasks wherever they operate, also minimising the cost penalties of un-
scheduled downtime on large transport fleets. Lastly, SMMART aims at offering new



231


services for the maintenance of vehicles in order to simplify and secure the exploi-
tation.
http://www.rfid-in-action.eu/cerp [54]
12.6.2.9 StoLPaN
Store Logistics and Payment with NFC (StoLPaN) is a pan-European consortium
supported by the European Commissions IST program. StoLPaN will examine the
potential for bringing together the new kind of local wireless interface, near field
communication (NFC) and mobile communication. The project is expected to define
the business rules and technical specifications required for the successful commer-
cial deployment and operation of third party applications in the secure chip in an
NFC enabled mobile device. The project will establish a smart retail environment,
including support devices and business processes to demonstrate the new solu-
tions. NFC as well as RFID systems may be used for ticketing, access control or
payment processes and complement one another.
http://www.rfid-in-action.eu/cerp [54]
12.6.2.10 PADABISPROMISE
Future manufacturing will require high flexibility/adaptability and speed with re-
spect to organisation of production and supply-chain management and require an
increasing amount of services and inter-company collaboration.
The PABADIS'PROMISE project will develop a new control architecture based on
distributed intelligence, a new manufacturing ontology, a first embedded real-time
agent platform for control, a new generation of RFID systems, a new generation of
field control devices, and building blocks for a new generation of enterprise re-
source planning systems.
Project partners of PABADIS'PROMISE:
SAP AG (Germany), Siemens AG (Germany), Austrian Academy of Sciences (Aus-
tria), Identec Solutions AG (Austria), Politecnico di Milano (Italy), Machining Cen-
ters Manufacturing S.p.A. (Italy), CR Fiat (Italy), Business Information Technologies
(Italy), ARMINES Ecole des Mines d'Ales (France), Defi Systemes (France), and In-
dustrial Systems Institute (Greece), ACE Advanced Concepts Enterprises S.A.
(Greece).
http://www.pabadis-promise.org/ [55]



232


12.6.2.11 Auto-ID Lab Network
The MIT Auto-ID Laboratory is dedicated to creating the Internet of Things
using RFID and wireless sensor networks.
The aim from the start was to create a global system for tracking goods us-
ing a single numbering system called the electronic product code.
The Auto-ID labs are the leading global network of academic research labo-
ratories in the field of networked RFID.
The labs comprise seven of the world's most renowned research universities
located on four different continents.
http://www.autoidlabs.org [56]
12.6.2.11.1 Auto-ID Lab (MIT, USA)
The Auto-ID Lab at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) currently (2007)
lists 145 white papers to RFID topics.
Some highlights are:
The electronic product code (EPC)
A naming scheme for physical objects (2001)
The physical markup language
A universal language for physical objects (2001)
An analysis of the fundamental constraints on low cost passive radio fre-
quency identification system design (2001)
Standardisation requirements within the RFID class structure framework
(2005)
Identification of functional elements within an RFID tag that must be
standardised
Review the RFID class structure
Auto ID 21st century supply chain technology (2005)
(together with the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, the Uni-
versity of Adelaide, Adelaide)



233


http://autoid.mit.edu [57]
12.6.2.11.2 Auto-ID Lab (Cambridge, UK)
The Auto-ID Lab at Cambridge University, UK currently (2007) lists 28 white papers
to RFID topics.
Some highlights are:
Assessing the benefits of Auto-ID technology in the consumer industry
(2001)
University of Cambridge Auto-ID Centre from 2001-2003 going global
(2002)
The intelligent product driven supply chain (2002)
Auto-ID based control an overview (2002)
http://www.autoidlabs.org.uk [58]
12.6.2.11.3 Fudan University, Shanghai (China)
The Auto-ID Lab at Fudan University, Shanghai, China concentrates on:
Brief introduction to the application and development of RFID technology in
China
More areas rather than a deep analysis in any one area
Auto-ID Centre China
Expanding application of RFID technology in China
Supply chain of RFID products, which include tags and readers
RFID standards being drafted and proposed
Special interest group for the adoption of Auto-ID technology
Survey result of RFID technology to potential clients
http://www.autoidcenter.cn [59]



234


12.6.2.11.4 Auto-ID Lab at University of St. Gallen (Switzerland)
Combines the strength of a leading business school (University St.Gallen)
with those of a leading technical institution (Swiss Federal Institute of Tech-
nology, ETH Zurich)
The main research topics of the St.Gallen Lab are:
Next generation of the EPC network (together with EPCglobal and
other Auto-ID Labs)
Active tags and sensors
Addressing uncertainty in RFID
Smart products and services
Infrastructure of the Internet of Things
New Industries Automotive and health care
Managing the EPC network
Business impact (processes, products, services)
http://www.autoidlabs.org/the-labs/stgallen [60]
12.6.2.11.5 Auto-ID Lab at Keio University (Japan)
The Auto-ID Centre at Keio University is a Japan-based affiliate of the Auto-
ID Centre at MIT
Focus on the development of the network aspects
Outline of research activity plans:
Real-space internet
Study on real-space identifiers
Establishment of an information management body for objects
Study of mark-up language for objects
Technology for supporting interpersonal communication



235


System applications
Consideration and modification of ID resolution system
Study and improvement of mark-up language for objects
Study and improvement of system software
Development
Run experiments
Standardisation of Auto-ID technology
Study on information distribution security
http://www.kri.sfc.keio.ac.jp/en [61]
12.6.2.11.6 Auto-ID Lab at Adelaide University (Australia)
The Adelaide Auto-ID Lab is a part of the Department of Electrical and Elec-
tronic Engineering, which is based within the School of Electrical and Elec-
tronic Engineering, the University of Adelaide.
The lab focuses on research and providing technical and educational ser-
vices. The lab is involved in the following activities:
Core research: hardware and software development
Applied research: integration and applications
Technical services
Education
http://autoidlab.eleceng.adelaide.edu.au [62]
12.6.2.11.7 Auto-ID Lab at ICU (Korea)
Presently, the labs are involved in more than 100 research projects which
can be classified into 3 categories:
hardware projects that deal with RF and chip design



236


software & networking projects that involve the development of a
more advanced network and system architecture to support future
business processes
business projects that focus on business case studies, industrial ap-
plications, and privacy and security issues.
ICU's Auto-ID Lab will leverage Korea's RFID technologies through collabora-
tion
Personnel exchanges and research partnerships with other Auto-ID Labs will
allow ICU to cultivate more internationalised talent
moving ICU closer to its goal of becoming a global institution with the
world's best research capabilities
http://www.autoid.or.kr [63]
12.6.2.12 inHaus
Thematically and organisationally unique and integral concept in the field of
product-oriented innovations for a networked life.
The basis of the project is the inHaus facility in Duisburg which includes a
residential home, a workshop, a networked car and a networked garden.
17 prominent national and international companies, which hold five-year
contracts with the Fraunhofer Institute, are involved in this project.
http://www.inhaus-zentrum.de [64]
12.6.2.13 DHL Innovation Centre
The centre supports the development of cutting edge innovations in the field
of global logistics, including the mail and express segments.
Development work will focus on RFID technology, geo-data technology for
optimising travel routes and networks, as well as logistics-related GPS appli-
cations.
http://www.dpwn.de [65]



237


12.6.2.14 inLogic
The USA based company inLogic, Inc. provides software, enabling customers to
accurately and efficiently inventory their assets, monitor critical assets in real-time
and track the movement of those assets using RFID technology.
http://www.inlogic.com/home/home.aspx [66]
12.6.2.15 METRO Group Innovation Centre
At the METRO Group RFID Innovation Centre, which has been opened in July 2004
in Neuss (Germany), partners of the Metro Retailing Group can acquaint themselves
with this key technology for the future of retail and test it under realistic conditions.
More than 40 systems are available for test purposes in a total area of around
1,400 square metres.
http://www.innovation-center.metrogroup.de [67]
12.6.2.16 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 39 shows the mapping of the topic systems and networks to the subcatego-
ries of the RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this system
or network topic is related to the corresponding subcategory.



238


Current use RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
B
R
I
D
G
E

T
R
A
S
E
R

A
M
I
-
4
-
S
M
E

C
o
B
I
s

D
y
n
a
m
i
t
e

P
r
o
m
i
s
e

S
M
A
R
T

S
M
M
A
R
T

S
t
o
L
P
a
N

P
a
b
a
d
i
s

P
r
o
m
i
s
e

A
u
t
o
-
I
D

L
a
b

N
e
t
w
o
r
k

i
n
H
a
u
s

D
H
L

I
n
n
o
v
a
t
i
o
n

C
e
n
t
r
e

i
n
L
o
g
i
c

M
E
T
R
O

G
r
o
u
p

I
n
n
o
v
a
t
i
o
n

C
e
n
t
r
e

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logis-
tics
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y
Y
Y Y Y
AD: Postal applica-
tions
Y Y
Y
Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods
logistics
Y Y
Y
Y
A: Logistical
tracking &
tracing
AF: Manufacturing
logistics
Y Y Y Y Y
Y
Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y
Y
Y
BB: Asset manage-
ment
Y Y Y
Y
Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility manage-
ment
Y Y

Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y
Y
Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y
Y
Y
BF: Autom./process
control
Y Y Y Y Y
Y
Y
B: Produc-
tion, moni-
toring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons.
goods
Y Y Y
Y
Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons.
goods
Y Y Y
Y
Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y
Y
Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, qual-
ity and in-
formation
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y
Y
Y Y



239


Current use RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
B
R
I
D
G
E

T
R
A
S
E
R

A
M
I
-
4
-
S
M
E

C
o
B
I
s

D
y
n
a
m
i
t
e

P
r
o
m
i
s
e

S
M
A
R
T

S
M
M
A
R
T

S
t
o
L
P
a
N

P
a
b
a
d
i
s

P
r
o
m
i
s
e

A
u
t
o
-
I
D

L
a
b

N
e
t
w
o
r
k

i
n
H
a
u
s

D
H
L

I
n
n
o
v
a
t
i
o
n

C
e
n
t
r
e

i
n
L
o
g
i
c

M
E
T
R
O

G
r
o
u
p

I
n
n
o
v
a
t
i
o
n

C
e
n
t
r
e

CD: Fresh/perishable
foods
Y

Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y
Y
Y Y Y
CF: Customer info.
systems
Y

Y
DA: Access control
systems
Y Y Y


DB: Animal tracking
D: Access
control and
tracking &
tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking
EA: Loyalty cards E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y
FB: Hospital man-
agement
Y Y Y F: eHealth
care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y G: Sports,
leisure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling sys-
tems
H: Public
services
HC: Banknotes
Table 39 Mapping systems and networks to the RFID Reference Model
The Auto-ID Labs network now spreading over almost all continents conducts many
R&D activities. European projects like BRIDGE and PADABISPROMISE, also cover
many aspects of RFID technologies.



240


12.7 Socio-economic aspects
The final chapter of the international R&D activity section is related to socio-
economic aspects of RFID technologies. Activities presented here are considered by
the work package partners to be relevant for the various RFID system subtopics.
This list is not meant to be exhaustive. The activities are examples of most impor-
tant contributions to the socio-economic side of RFID technologies.
12.7.1 Security, data protection, privacy
12.7.1.1 RSA Laboratories
An academic environment within a commercial organisation, RSA Laborato-
ries is the research centre of RSA Security Inc.
Through its research program, standards development, and educational ac-
tivities, RSA Laboratories provides state-of-the-art expertise in cryptography
and security technology for the benefit of RSA security and its customers.
http://www.rsasecurity.com [68]
12.7.1.2 Graz University of Technology
Graz University of Technology works on several RFID topics:
Secure RFID tags: the Challenges:
Passive tags
Receive power from reader
Limited computational power
RFID principles
Reader powers tag(s)
magnetic coupling, UHF
Reader talks first



241


initiates communication
Tag answers
Half duplex communication
Stringent constraints
Limited power
Small chip area
<< 1 mm
2
silicon
Analogue circuit
Communication, power
Digital circuit
Computation, storage
RFID and security: Graz University of Technology: Research projects
ART (national, Fit-IT)
Authentication for RFID technology
SNAP (national, Fit-IT)
secure e-coupons using NFC
Workshops in Graz
RFID Security 2006
RFID and light-weight crypto 2005
http://www.tugraz.at [69]
12.7.1.3 Graz University of Technology, NXP
TOPAS (Trust Oriented Platform for Advanced Security) is a project funded by the
Austrian FIT-IT programme. Objective of TOPAS is the development of trusted



242


computing technology including RFID. Application examples are electronic ticket-
ing, contactless banking cards and digital rights management (DRM).
http://www.ffg.at [70]
12.7.1.4 PRIME
In the online world, every person has to handle numerous accounts and data sets.
These so-called partial identities will increasingly play a key role in future elec-
tronic services as well as in public security. They may very well convey sensitive
personal data, such as patient health data, employee data, credit card data, etc.
The project Privacy and Identity Management for Europe (PRIME) aims at devel-
oping a working prototype of a privacy-enhancing identity management system.
The project focuses on solutions for identity management that support end-users'
sovereignty over their private sphere and enterprises' privacy-compliant data proc-
essing. To foster market adoption, novel solutions for managing identities will be
demonstrated in challenging real-world scenarios, e.g., from internet communica-
tion, airline and airport passenger processes to location-based services and collabo-
rative e-learning.
The PRIME project envisions user-controlled identity management systems within
which the players concerned act together, mediated by technology to enforce the
rules set by law and the contracting partners. In these systems, the user has con-
trol of personal information and discloses it only after agreeing to the service's pri-
vacy policy. Such privacy policies describe the data processing, e.g., purpose, pos-
sible transfers to other parties and retention. All parties act within the strict bounds
of law, under anonymity, pseudonymity, or on the basis of explicitly agreed terms
between the parties. In all cases, technology supports accountability and recourse.
The PRIME concept contrasts with approaches from other identity management sys-
tems under development by strongly focusing on putting the user in control and
enforcing the individual's privacy needs, based on privacy-enhancing solutions (in
particular an innovative credential system). All PRIME results are being evaluated
by legal, social, economic, usability and assurance experts.
http://www.rfid-in-action.eu/cerp [54]
12.7.1.5 SToP
The project Stop Tampering of Products (SToP) aims at providing solutions for the
authentication of products based on RFID and related ambient intelligence tech-
nologies. The technologies employed must be adequate for the specific environ-



243


ments regarding the structure of products and the environments in which they are
produced, stored, transported, and traded. Technical challenges that currently pro-
hibit the use of RFID in many areas are targeted as well as the integration of the
verification technologies and processes into enterprise system architectures, such
as supply chain management systems. Finally, the overall solution must be eco-
nomically feasible. The SToP project is an international research consortium lead by
SAP and comprises Hochschule St. Gallen, Oria Computers, Spacecode, Richemont,
Novartis, Airbus, and Bundesdruckerei. The consortium members provide substan-
tial knowledge in the areas of RFID product integration, product tracking, economi-
cal issues of counterfeiting, and enterprise processes. Besides a thorough require-
ments analysis, the development of a product verification infrastructure, and eco-
nomic models, extensive trials to evaluate the proposed solutions will be important
components of the project.
http://www.rfid-in-action.eu/cerp [54]
12.7.2 Environmental and safety aspects
12.7.2.1 INDISPUTABLE KEY
Our forests are invaluable eco-systems and habitat for flora and fauna alike. How-
ever, forests also provide industry with important resources and raw materials.
INDISPUTABLE KEY strives to develop a methodology and advanced technologies
that can improve the use of wood and optimise the forest production through the
chain of transformation, minimising environmental impacts and supporting the prin-
ciple of sustainability in the field of forestry. Whereas the majority of the industrial
sectors have developed systems of traceability, allowing the tracing of the entire
production process from the supplies of raw materials of components to the final
products in the market, the forestry and wood network is yet at an early stage of
ensuring full traceability. This is partly due to a complicated supply chain structure.
The INDISPUTABLE KEY project will enable the forestry industry to improve the effi-
ciency of the value chain and make it more competitive. The efficiency of produc-
tion in sawmills will increase, maximising the value of wood. The project will im-
prove logistic operations and minimise environmental impacts. This will have many
positive consequences on the wood product life cycle as well as the environment.

http://www.rfid-in-action.eu/cerp [54]



244


12.7.3 General aspects
12.7.3.1 Auto-ID Lab at University of St. Gallen
Business Impact of Pervasive Technologies: Opportunities and Risks
Despite heavy investment in integrated information systems, many business prob-
lems still prevail due to a lack of integration between the real and virtual world.
Low data granularity presently limits enterprise computing. In order to solve these
problems, data granularity needs to be increased and the digital management con-
trol loop must to be closed. Pervasive computing, including automatic identification,
is the technological enabler. Once closed digital management control loops are in
place and generating high data granularity, incremental process changes such as an
automatic quality check, enhance the overall efficiency of controlling intensive
processes. Object value logging and embedded services are examples of more radi-
cal changes, which not only affect processes, but also business models. However,
although the pervasive technology-based development road map of future enter-
prise computing systems seems to be straightforward, various risks and challenges
have the potential to strongly influence the technology adoption path.
http://www.autoidlabs.org/the-labs/stgallen [60]
12.7.3.2 Auto-ID Lab at Keio University
RFID as Consumer Empowering Technology Unique Opportunities for RFID De-
ployment in Japan
Unique opportunities exist in Japan for the deployment of RFID technology, quite
possibly right down to consumers hands, fuelled by strong demand (willingness to
accept and to pay) for mobility, convenience, and safety. Consumer empowerment
strategies are recommended to deal with some critical issues involved, including
privacy. Studies of Seven-Eleven, NTT-DOCOMO, and ISHII FOOD Co., Ltd., are
offered to illustrate the points. If positioned correctly as consumer empowering
technology, rather than supplier control technology, RFID will be accepted by Japa-
nese consumers as a convenient and people-friendly tool, and its potential benefits
will be fully realised.
http://www.kri.sfc.keio.ac.jp/en [61]



245


12.7.4 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 40 shows the mapping of international R&D activities that have been identi-
fied to be partly related to socio-economic aspects to the subcategories of the RFID
Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this R&D activity might apply
to the corresponding subcategory.



246


Current use RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
R
S
A

L
a
b
o
r
a
t
o
r
i
e
s

G
r
a
z

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

T
e
c
h
n
o
l
.

G
r
a
z

U
n
i
v
.

o
f

T
e
c
h
n
.
,

N
X
P

P
R
I
M
E

S
T
o
P

I
N
D
I
S
P
U
T
A
B
L
E

K
E
Y


A
u
t
o
-
I
D

L
a
b

a
t

U
n
i
v
.

o
f

S
t
.

G
a
l
l
e
n

A
u
t
o
-
I
D

L
a
b

a
t

K
e
i
o

U
n
i
v
.

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics
A: Logistical
tracking &
tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y
BC: Facility management
BD: Vehicles Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y
BF: Autom./process control
B: Produc-
tion, moni-
toring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, qual-
ity and in-
formation
CF: Customer info. systems
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking
D: Access
control and
tracking &
tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y F: eHealth
care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems G: Sports,
leisure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y



247


Current use RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
R
S
A

L
a
b
o
r
a
t
o
r
i
e
s

G
r
a
z

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

T
e
c
h
n
o
l
.

G
r
a
z

U
n
i
v
.

o
f

T
e
c
h
n
.
,

N
X
P

P
R
I
M
E

S
T
o
P

I
N
D
I
S
P
U
T
A
B
L
E

K
E
Y


A
u
t
o
-
I
D

L
a
b

a
t

U
n
i
v
.

o
f

S
t
.

G
a
l
l
e
n

A
u
t
o
-
I
D

L
a
b

a
t

K
e
i
o

U
n
i
v
.

HB: Road tolling systems H: Public
Services

HC: Banknotes
Table 40 Mapping R&D activities related to socio-economic aspects to the RFID
Reference Model
Most R&D activities regarding security, data protection, and privacy issues are re-
lated to subcategories where features like anti-cloning, anti-counterfeiting, authen-
tication, encrypted data transfer play a vital role. Only a few activities focus on
more general aspects of RFID technology, e.g. RFID as consumer empowering
technology.



248


13 RFID Technology Bottlenecks and R&D Ap-
proaches
13.1 Introduction
Work package 1 of the coordination action CE RFID is titled with RFID Roadmap.
The third task in developing such a roadmap is to identify technology bottlenecks
and foreseeable R&D approaches to overcome these bottlenecks in RFID technolo-
gies.
All CE RFID participants and the additional contributors for WP1 have been invited
to give their inputs regarding these technology bottlenecks and R&D approaches. In
a combined workshop with work package 2, examples for bottlenecks and R&D rec-
ommendations have been collected. Work package 1 tries to present these topics
from the bottleneck/approach perspective.
In order to provide easy comparison to the R&D activities investigated in chapter
10, the technology bottlenecks and R&D approaches have been structured to simi-
lar categories: technology aspects (tag, reader, systems), application-specific topics
(RFID Reference Model), software, systems, and networks (RFID middleware,
software, systems and networks), and socio-economic aspects.
13.2 Technology aspects
Technology aspects range from transponder technology (general tag topics, passive
tags, semi-passive tags, and active tags), via interrogator technology (reader) to
system technology.
13.2.1 Transponder technology
13.2.1.1 General tag topics
The following topics apply to all types of tag technology (passive tags, semi-passive
tags, and active tags).



249


13.2.1.1.1 Environmentally independent tags
Technology bottlenecks
Adverse environmental conditions (e.g. liquids, metal) usually detune the tag an-
tenna or coil, which results in a significant reduction of the reading range if not a
breakdown of the tag communication. Simultaneously, inter-tag interference due to
small tag-to-tag distance is still a problem in applications with high tag densities for
item tagging (e.g. garments).
R&D approaches
Although some concepts exist on the market to cope with adverse environmental
situations (on-metal-tags, on-liquid-tags), there is still room for improvements for
all RFID tag types (passive, semi-active, active, LF, HF, UHF). Inter-tag interference
(especially for but not limited to UHF tags) should be reduced through optimised
antenna design (including multi-port antennas). A first step is so-called universal
tags (wide band), that are also more tolerant to detuning by the environment. An-
other example is tags with metal backing. A comparatively expensive solution.
13.2.1.1.2 Ultra low power tag ICs
Technology bottlenecks
The maximum reading range of passive read-only tags mostly depends on two fac-
tors. The amount of energy the tag needs for proper operation and enough signal-
to-noise ratio (SNR) to read the tags data with the reader. New technologies for
less power consumption on the tag side can enlarge the reading range.
R&D approaches
In order to improve reading range and reliability, the development of new ultra low
power designs for RFID tag circuits is desirable. Nano power technologies, intelli-
gent power management, system-on-chip are the main drivers in this effort. New
approaches can promote many different tag technologies (passive, semi-passive,
active tags; various air interfaces, operating frequencies). Lower power consump-
tion for the tags main circuit also clears the way for additional tag functionality
(sensors, crypto engines, data processing, etc.).
13.2.1.1.3 Increased reading reliability
Technology bottlenecks
An ongoing user demand still is an identification rate near 100 % of the tag popula-
tion. This is an important requirement for all multi-tag RFID systems (LF, HF, UHF).
Some reading environments do not yield above 95 % identification rate.



250


R&D approaches
Better anti-collision methods, reduction of destructive interference, improved an-
tenna designs, quality control, 100 % testing are some of the promising approaches
to reach better identification rates. Presently 4 out of 20 k tags (99.98 %) are
deemed acceptable. Most tag tests are done in near field. That does not cover ade-
quately far field properties. So standardised far field tests and statistics, as well as
clear user instructions/guidelines, may help here.
13.2.1.1.4 Tags with display
Technology bottlenecks
Optical identification systems (e.g. barcodes) can easily be combined with display-
ing static information (e.g. numbers, text, images). For some applications there is a
need for displaying varying visible information to the user. With respect to RFID
tags, this information could be related to the tags data contents (ID number, ob-
ject designator, etc.) or additional information (e.g. sensor data).
R&D approaches
RFID tags can be combined with visual displays (e.g. bi-stable nano power displays)
showing some tag related data to the user without the need of a reader (e.g. tem-
perature, itinerary, manipulation attempts, etc.). With the help of bi-stable nano
power displays, this concept may even be combined with passive tags. The display
does not need any power to show the information. During a read/write operation by
the reader the contents of the display might be changed, e.g. together with the
tags user memory. The display retains its visual contents until the next read/write
cycle. With semi-passive and active tags, regularly or event-driven display changes
are possible.
13.2.1.1.5 Robustness
Technology bottlenecks
One of the advantages of RFID technology is that it does not require line-of-sight to
the reader and it can operate in harsh environments (humid, cold, warm, dusty).
There is room for research and development for systems that can cope with even
harsher environments (e.g. read/write systems for low (< -40 C) or high tempera-
tures (> 200 C)). Silicon-based semiconductor chip technology is usually limited to
the temperature range from -40 C up to approx. 200 C.



251


R&D approaches
Technologies not based on silicon semiconductors (e.g. surface acoustic wave
(SAW), see chapter 7.7.5) may extend the operation conditions for tags into more
robust environments.
13.2.1.1.6 Packaging and mounting
Technology bottlenecks
The broader the application fields of RFID the more variants of mounting tags onto
objects or integrating tags into various types of packaging are required.
R&D approaches
New and more cost-effective concepts for the integration of RFID tags into packag-
ing. New mounting and connection technologies help to improve tag reliability and
durability.
13.2.1.1.7 Modular RFID manufacturing platform
Technology bottlenecks
Many potential RFID users still see the total costs of tagging (tag cost plus mount-
ing/packaging) as the essential factor of gaining enough return-on-investment
(ROI). So the whole manufacturing process from the raw materials up to the func-
tional tag on the object has to be cost optimised.
R&D approaches
A common modular technological platform enables the mass production of tags at
very low cost. This also includes materials science, production technology (e.g.
reel-to-reel), printing of passive and active components, packaging and mounting
technology, etc.
13.2.1.1.8 Low cost tag technology
Low cost tag technology is only a part of the modular RFID manufacturing platform
discussed in 13.2.1.1.7. The same bottlenecks and approaches as in 13.2.1.1.7
apply here.



252


13.2.1.1.9 Tag integrated with product /packaging
Technology bottlenecks
A step further as to inlay tags into the transport packaging of objects, is to inte-
grate tags directly into the object/product. So no separate carrier or packaging is
needed for the attachment of the tag.
R&D approaches
Technologies like transfer moulding of tag chip plus tag antenna into plastic boxes,
direct printing of antennas on flexible substrates (textiles, etc.), using the product
as a substrate, may help to further reduce costs of tagging (chip-in-paper, chip-in-
foil, chip-in-substrate). Another topic is stretchable electronics (stretchable an-
tennas and their production). Sample applications: garments, shoes, containers,
banknotes (chip-in-substrate), authentication of documents.
13.2.1.1.10 Improvement of test coverage
Technology bottlenecks
Individual testing of each tag of a production lot is an indispensable factor when
striving 100 % identification rates. Most current tests are done in the near field, so
reliable conclusions for the far field operation are hardly achieved. There is a need
for standardised methods for the measurement of product reliability, test coverage,
functional test. Finding the relevant parameters is most important. Some customers
ask for 100 % tested tags.
R&D approaches
New functional tests should be developed, allowing conclusive correlation between
the test results in near field with behaviour in the far field (normal operating
mode). Testing methods (including compliance tests) should be standardised.
13.2.1.1.11 Combination of EAS and RFID functionality
Technology bottlenecks
Some RFID experts count EAS (electronic article surveillance/anti-theft systems)
systems as one-bit RFID systems. The presence of an activated tag can be de-
tected. Others see EAS as a related but different class of systems, since EAS often
uses different technologies. Anyway, there is a demand to combine the functionality
of EAS systems and (multi-bit) RFID on the same object/product.



253


R&D approaches
Investigations have to show whether it is a reasonable alternative to integrate both
functionalities into one tag device or even into one RFID chip. Regulative and legis-
lative issues should also be addressed.
13.2.1.1.12 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 41 shows the mapping of general tag bottlenecks to the subcategories of the
RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this general tag bottle-
neck is related to the corresponding subcategory.



254


Bottleneck RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
E
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
a
l
l
y

i
n
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t

t
a
g
s

U
l
t
r
a

l
o
w

p
o
w
e
r

t
a
g

I
C
s

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
d

r
e
a
d
i
n
g

r
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

T
a
g
s

w
i
t
h

d
i
s
p
l
a
y

R
o
b
u
s
t
n
e
s
s

P
a
c
k
a
g
i
n
g

a
n
d

m
o
u
n
t
i
n
g

M
o
d
u
l
a
r

R
F
I
D

m
a
n
u
f
a
c
t
u
r
i
n
g

p
l
a
t
f
o
r
m

L
o
w

c
o
s
t

t
a
g

t
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
g
y

T
a
g

i
n
t
e
g
r
a
t
e
d

w
i
t
h

p
r
o
d
u
c
t

/
p
a
c
k
a
g
i
n
g

I
m
p
r
o
v
e
m
e
n
t

o
f

t
e
s
t

c
o
v
e
r
a
g
e

C
o
m
b
i
n
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

E
A
S

a
n
d

R
F
I
D

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
a
l
i
t
y

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Danger. goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical
tracking &
tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y
B: Produc-
tion, moni-
toring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, qual-
ity and in-
formation
CF: Customer info. systems Y
DA: Access control systems Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y
D: Access
control and
tracking &
tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y F: eHealth
care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y G: Sports,
leisure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y



255


Bottleneck RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
E
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
a
l
l
y

i
n
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t

t
a
g
s

U
l
t
r
a

l
o
w

p
o
w
e
r

t
a
g

I
C
s

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
d

r
e
a
d
i
n
g

r
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

T
a
g
s

w
i
t
h

d
i
s
p
l
a
y

R
o
b
u
s
t
n
e
s
s

P
a
c
k
a
g
i
n
g

a
n
d

m
o
u
n
t
i
n
g

M
o
d
u
l
a
r

R
F
I
D

m
a
n
u
f
a
c
t
u
r
i
n
g

p
l
a
t
f
o
r
m

L
o
w

c
o
s
t

t
a
g

t
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
g
y

T
a
g

i
n
t
e
g
r
a
t
e
d

w
i
t
h

p
r
o
d
u
c
t

/
p
a
c
k
a
g
i
n
g

I
m
p
r
o
v
e
m
e
n
t

o
f

t
e
s
t

c
o
v
e
r
a
g
e

C
o
m
b
i
n
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

E
A
S

a
n
d

R
F
I
D

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
a
l
i
t
y

HB: Road tolling systems Y Y Y Y H: Public
services
HC: Banknotes Y Y Y Y Y Y
Table 41 Mapping general tag bottlenecks to the RFID Reference Model
The mapping table of the general tag topics show the high relevance of the ad-
dressed bottlenecks for almost all regarded subcategories. Although many RFID
technologies are rather mature there are still unresolved problems and there is
plenty of room for improvements.
13.2.1.2 Passive tags
Passive RFID tags receive their power supply solely from the magnetic or electro-
magnetic field generated by the reader. The tag receives data via modulated sig-
nals from the reader and it transmits data back to the reader via load modulation or
back-scatter modulation. Passive or semi-passive tags alter the properties of the
tag antenna. This can be detected by the reader.
13.2.1.2.1 Passive crypto tags
Technology bottlenecks
For mass applications that require security functions, sophisticated crypto engines
have to be developed and integrated into passive tags. Since these engines also
must be supplied (powered) by the magnetic or electromagnetic field of the reader,
there is a trade-off between complexity of the crypto engine and the achievable
reading range. There is a lack of crypto tags on UHF, and a lack of asymmetric
crypto tags on all air interfaces (frequencies).



256


R&D approaches
The combination of new nano power technologies and new optimised crypto engines
may pave the way to passive crypto tags with acceptable reading ranges and crypto
performance.
13.2.1.2.2 Nano power sensors
Technology bottlenecks
The combination of classic RFID tags with sensor functions usually needs an addi-
tional energy source (e.g. a battery). Therefore sensor tags are often semi-passive
or active, i.e. the tags are rather large and expensive. The idea is to develop sen-
sors with very low power consumption (nano power sensors) that can be integrated
into passive tags. The energy out of the reader field has to supply the complete
RFID tag including the sensor. The result would be a cost effective sensor tag with
reasonable reading range.
R&D approaches
New concepts of sensors with very low power consumption (nano power sensors)
can be combined with passive RFID tags (system-on-chip, monolithic integration of
the sensor into the chip), in order to provide sensor functionality without additional
energy source. Since the sensor will be supplied from the tags power source (mag-
netic or electromagnetic field), the reading range of the sensor tag will drop.
13.2.1.2.3 No-power sensors
Technology bottlenecks
For the extension of passive RFID tags with sensor functions, sensors are preferred,
which do not need any power for reading their physical value or which extract
enough energy from alternative sources.
R&D approaches
This is an extension to 13.2.1.2.2 (nano power sensors). Sensors that use a bi-
stable effect or that do not need energy from the tag in order to deliver the physical
value, can be used as no-power sensors. The result will be a sensor tag that pro-
vides the same reading range as the corresponding non-sensor tag (no reading
range dip).



257


13.2.1.2.4 Printable electronics
Technology bottlenecks
The classic RFID tag manufacturing process comprises the manufacturing of a chip,
the contacting of the chip onto an antenna structure and the moulding of both
components into a tag carrier or directly into the product packaging. In order to
reduce the number of production steps and simultaneously the tag costs, new
manufacturing methods have to be developed.
R&D approaches
One way to further easier mass production and therefore cost reduction is to use
new non-silicon based technologies like polymer (organic) electronics and reel-to-
reel manufacturing procedures. The antenna and circuitry can be printed and as a
vision, the whole tag can be integrated into the packaging with a simple printing
process (similar to bar codes).
13.2.1.2.5 Multi-band tags
Technology bottlenecks
For some RFID air interface standards there is no common worldwide frequency
allocation (e.g. UHF; 840 MHz in China, 868 MHz in EU, 915 MHz in USA, 960 MHz
in Asia). For worldwide logistics applications the tags must be designed to operate
in all allocated frequency bands (multi-band tags). A tag antenna that is optimised
for 868 MHz has very low performance on 960 MHz and vice versa. I.e. the reading
range drops down radically when the tag is used on the wrong frequency. There are
some tags on the market that use a compromising broadband approach that
achieves reduced reading ranges on the edge frequencies. Another trade-off for
wideband RFID tags is the tag antenna size. Thus, small tag antennas can be de-
signed to have wideband but overall poor performance. There is also a need for
RFID tags that support more than one air interface (e.g. HF + UHF, LF + HF).
R&D approaches
New technologies might improve the reading ranges and performance over all allo-
cated frequency bands (multi-band, multi-port, multi-antenna, multi-polarisation).
This is one of the major business challenges (e.g. worldwide supply chain manage-
ment). A possible alternative are multi-antenna tags with multi mode IC, e.g. cov-
ering both HF and UHF.



258


13.2.1.2.6 Combined near field/far field UHF tags
Technology bottlenecks
Some applications require two different reading range scenarios with the same tag.
An UHF tag has e.g. a low reading range (like HF tag) in one scenario in order to
only read one or few tags in the vicinity. The same UHF tag supports long range
reading and multi-tag reading with the appropriate reader or reading mode. Physics
laws however limit the pure near field operation to approximate less than 5cm
range from the radiator, and far field operation over approximately 50cm, depend-
ing on reader antenna size and used frequency. Within the gap between these re-
gions, so called radiating near field region, the propagation of electromagnetic
field is not predictable and tags' operation is extremely difficult to forecast.
R&D approaches
An appropriate design of a combined near field/far field tag antenna will end up in
an UHF tag with HF-like properties in near field. One way could be to use only the
magnetic field in the near field scenario, while using the classic electromagnetic
approach for the far field scenario. Both modes can be used with the same infra-
structure (same UHF tag, same reader). The reader might require an additional
near field antenna.
13.2.1.2.7 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 42 shows the mapping of passive tag bottlenecks to the subcategories of the
RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this passive tag bottle-
neck is related to the corresponding subcategory.



259


Table 42 Mapping passive tag bottlenecks to the RFID Reference Model
Bottleneck RFID-application
field
Subcategories
P
a
s
s
i
v
e

c
r
y
p
t
o

t
a
g
s

N
a
n
o

p
o
w
e
r

s
e
n
s
o
r
s

N
o

p
o
w
e
r

s
e
n
s
o
r
s

P
r
i
n
t
a
b
l
e

e
l
e
c
t
r
o
n
i
c
s

M
u
l
t
i
-
b
a
n
d

t
a
g
s

C
o
m
b
i
n
e
d

n
e
a
r

f
i
e
l
d

/

f
a
r

f
i
e
l
d

U
H
F

t
a
g
s

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical tracking
& tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y
BB: Asset management Y Y
BC: Facility management
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y
B: Production, moni-
toring and mainte-
nance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product safety,
quality and informa-
tion
CF: Customer info. systems
DA: Access control systems Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y
D: Access control
and tracking & trac-
ing of individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y E: Loyalty, memb.
and payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y G: Sports, leisure
and household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y H: Public services
HC: Banknotes Y Y



260


Even the bottlenecks that are linked to passive tags cover almost all regarded sub-
categories. This fact shows the great importance of passive RFID and the need of
improved crypto functionality, nano power technologies, printable electronics,
multi-band tags, and near field/far field tags.
13.2.1.3 Semi-passive tags
A semi-passive tag uses an auxiliary energy source (in most cases a battery) to
power the main and/or additional tag functions, e.g. clock, temperature sensor that
need continuous power supply. The tag receives data via modulated signals from
the reader and it transmits data back to the reader via load modulation or back-
scatter modulation, identically to passive tags. Passive or semi-passive tags alter
the properties of the tag antenna. This can be detected by the reader. With the ex-
ception of the data transfer stages for the communication between tag and reader,
all remaining functions of the tag circuitry are supplied by the energy source. The
energy for the modulation is taken from the reader field. The additional energy
source can be used for increasing the reading range as well as for additional func-
tionality (sensors, crypto functions, data processing, etc.). With passive tags the
limiting factor of the reading range is the power supply of the tag via the electro-
magnetic field. Semi-passive and active tags allow higher reading ranges because
they use the magnetic or electromagnetic field for communication purposes only.
They do not need to supply their hardware from the field. Semi-passive and active
RFID systems mainly use electromagnetic coupling for gaining very large reading
ranges (up to several hundred meters).
13.2.1.3.1 Tags with additional functionality
Technology bottlenecks
For applications that require additional functions (e.g. sensor, crypto engine) but do
not need very long reading ranges, semi-passive tags help to build cost-effective
design.
R&D approaches
Semi-passive tags use the same air interface as passive tags. They achieve the
same mid reading ranges. Due to the auxiliary energy source (e.g. polymer bat-
tery) more complex and power consuming additional hardware (e.g. crypto en-
gines, sensors, micro systems) may be included compared to passive tags.



261


13.2.1.3.2 Tags with alternative energy sources
Technology bottlenecks
Semi-passive tags use an additional energy source. This is usually a primary bat-
tery. In order to avoid expensive batteries, there are other energy sources that can
be used here.
R&D approaches
Power scavenging (energy harvesting) technologies that convert energy out of
physical energy sources (e.g. temperature difference, pressure, vibration, light,
magnetic field, electromagnetic field) may help to replace conventional batteries.
The obtainable amount of energy from these sources is usually rather small but
may suffice to increase reading range on ID-only tags or to supply additional hard-
ware on semi-passive tags.
13.2.1.3.3 New battery concepts
Technology bottlenecks
Most semi-passive tags use a primary battery as their additional energy source. In
order to reduce battery cost or to elongate battery lifetime, new battery concepts
are required.
R&D approaches
New battery technologies (e.g. polymer battery, fuel-cell, paper battery (power
paper)) can be combined with semi-passive RFID tags, in order to increase func-
tionality or battery lifetime.
13.2.1.3.4 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 43 shows the mapping of semi-passive tag bottlenecks to the subcategories
of the RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this semi-passive
tag bottleneck is related to the corresponding subcategory.



262


Table 43 Mapping semi-passive tag bottlenecks to the RFID Reference Model
Bottleneck RFID-application
field
Subcategories
T
a
g
s

w
i
t
h

a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
a
l
i
t
y

T
a
g
s

w
i
t
h

a
l
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
v
e

e
n
e
r
g
y

s
o
u
r
c
e
s

N
e
w

b
a
t
t
e
r
y

c
o
n
c
e
p
t
s

AA: Inhouse logistics
AB: Closed loop logistics
AC: Open logistics
AD: Postal applications
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y
A: Logistical tracking &
tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics
BA: Archive systems
BB: Asset management
BC: Facility management
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y
B: Production, monitor-
ing and maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods
CB: Electronic goods
CC: Textile goods
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y
C: Product safety, qual-
ity and information
CF: Customer info. systems
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking
D: Access control and
tracking & tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking
EA: Loyalty cards E: Loyalty, memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems G: Sports, leisure and
household
GD: Smart home
HB: Road tolling systems Y Y Y H: Public services
HC: Banknotes



263


Although semi-passive tags can be used in all application fields, they are not the
most cost-effective solution for all subcategories. The bottlenecks focus on the clas-
sic semi-passive tag applications with additional functionality (e.g. sensors, security
(cryptography), data processing, high reading range).
13.2.1.4 Active tags
Active tags (as well as semi-passive tags) use an auxiliary energy source, but they
use it to actively generate radio frequency signals transmitted to the reader. They
contain a complete RF transmitter. With passive tags, the limiting factor of the
reading range is the power supply of the tag via the electromagnetic field. Semi-
passive and active tags allow higher reading ranges, because they use the magnetic
or electromagnetic field for communication purposes only. They do not need to
supply their hardware from the field. Semi-passive and active RFID systems mainly
use electromagnetic coupling for gaining very large reading ranges (up to several
hundred meters). Due to more complex circuitry and battery usage, active tags are
significantly more expensive than semi-passive or passive tags.
13.2.1.4.1 Tags with additional functionality
For applications that require additional functions (e.g. sensor, crypto engine) as
well as very long reading ranges, active tags with expensive components are re-
quired.
The auxiliary energy source of active tags can be dimensioned for supporting addi-
tional hardware.
I) Sensors of physical parameters
Technology bottlenecks
Many applications do not only require the identification and data function of an
RFID tag, they also need to measure and monitor physical parameters (e.g. tem-
perature, pressure, humidity, strain, brightness, chemical substances (gas, liquid,
biological), vibration, etc.).
R&D approaches
Apart from the ID functionality, the tag supplies an integrated sensor and responds
the physical sensor value via the RFID communication link to the reader. The addi-
tional energy source (e.g. primary battery) supplies the RFID tag together with the
sensor. New low power sensors and high capacity batteries may lead to long RFID
sensor lifetimes.



264


II) Data processing, decision making, intelligence, storage
Technology bottlenecks
Some RFID applications require more computing performance than the limited
hardware of an RFID tag may provide. Intelligent tags need additional hardware to
meet the requirements.
R&D approaches
Thinking tags: the additional energy may be used to support microcontroller func-
tions like data processing, decisions out of processing steps or intelligent storage
management (e.g. for flash memory).
Application example: a tag that tunes itself to the systems frequency (for multi-
band applications).
III) Data communication
Technology bottlenecks
In some applications (e.g. sensor networks, ambient intelligence systems) it might
be useful if the tag not only communicates with the reader but is also able to ex-
change data with other devices (tags, sensors, network nodes, routers, etc.)
R&D approaches
Since active tags commonly use full RF transceiver chips, they are able to establish
additional communication links apart from the RFID link. A cost effective solution
might require a monolithic/single chip device integrating RFID tag, a microcontrol-
ler, and additional RF components (e.g. for Bluetooth, ZigBee, WLAN, FM function-
ality). Such integrations are a topic in the communications industry. RFID, up to
now, has not addressed these integrations yet.
IV) Networking functions
Technology bottlenecks
RFID applications that need networking functionality (e.g. sensor networks, ambi-
ent intelligence systems) require RFID tags with data communication capability (see
III) above), but also need networking functions to build networks with other com-
munication partners (e.g. tags, nodes, sensors, routers, hubs).
R&D approaches
Active tags can use their increased communication capabilities to connect to net-
works or to build networks (e.g. with other tags, mesh network). Smart tag net-
working, inter-tag communication (ad-hoc) and in general wireless (sensor) net-



265


works may be established. Such networks help to achieve higher reading rates
(time and completeness) and/or higher reading ranges (multi-hop reads). RFID tag
systems may interoperate with other networks (e.g. low power sensor networks
based on ZigBee technology).
V) Miniaturisation
Technology bottlenecks
Current active tags often use conventional RF, analogue and digital components.
There is still room for further miniaturisation that might be required for some appli-
cations and for cost reduction.
R&D approaches
Further miniaturisation and integration of active RFID tag functions into single chip
designs help to reduce currently high costs of active tags significantly.
VI) Nano power sensors
Technology bottlenecks
RFID sensors with high reading rates of their physical parameter may not be im-
plemented without additional energy source. The higher the reading (update) rate
the higher the power consumption and the lower the battery lifetime.
R&D approaches
New concepts of nano power sensors with very low power consumption can be
combined with active RFID tags in order to increase battery lifetime or the number
of measurements per time period.
13.2.1.4.2 New battery concepts
Technology bottlenecks
RFID sensors with mid range power consumption require new and more efficient
battery concepts in order to cut down maintenance cycles and costs.
R&D approaches
As with semi-passive tags, new battery technologies (e.g. polymer battery, fuel-
cell, paper battery (power paper)) can be combined with active RFID tags, in order
to increase functionality or battery lifetime.



266


13.2.1.4.3 Nano power wake-up receivers
Technology bottlenecks
On active tags that receive and transmit RF signals, the tag has to be waken-up by
the reader or the tag wakes-up itself periodically. A significant part of energy has to
be used for the wake-up process. Most RF chips available on the market support
the general reception mode only. There is no very low power wake-up mode.
R&D approaches
The development of a special receiving mode (nano power wake-up) together with
high sensitivity, will help to increase battery lifetime explicitly or to decrease vol-
ume and cost of the battery.
13.2.1.4.4 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 44 shows the mapping of active tag bottlenecks to the subcategories of the
RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this active tag bottle-
neck is related to the corresponding subcategory.



267


Bottleneck RFID-application
field
Subcategories
S
e
n
s
o
r
s

o
f

p
h
y
s
i
c
a
l

p
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
s

D
a
t
a

p
r
o
c
e
s
s
.
,

d
e
c
i
s
i
o
n

m
a
k
i
n
g

D
a
t
a

c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

N
e
t
w
o
r
k
i
n
g

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
s

M
i
n
i
a
t
u
r
i
s
a
t
i
o
n

N
a
n
o

P
o
w
e
r

S
e
n
s
o
r
s

N
e
w

b
a
t
t
e
r
y

c
o
n
c
e
p
t
s

N
a
n
o

p
o
w
e
r

w
a
k
e
-
u
p

r
e
c
e
i
v
e
r
s

AA: Inhouse logistics
AB: Closed loop logistics
AC: Open logistics
AD: Postal applications
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical track-
ing & tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods
CB: Electronic goods
CC: Textile goods
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product safety,
quality and informa-
tion
CF: Customer info. systems
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y
D: Access control
and tracking & trac-
ing of individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards E: Loyalty, memb.
and payment
EB: Membership cards Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y G: Sports, leisure
and household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y



268


Bottleneck RFID-application
field
Subcategories
S
e
n
s
o
r
s

o
f

p
h
y
s
i
c
a
l

p
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
s

D
a
t
a

p
r
o
c
e
s
s
.
,

d
e
c
i
s
i
o
n

m
a
k
i
n
g

D
a
t
a

c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

N
e
t
w
o
r
k
i
n
g

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
s

M
i
n
i
a
t
u
r
i
s
a
t
i
o
n

N
a
n
o

P
o
w
e
r

S
e
n
s
o
r
s

N
e
w

b
a
t
t
e
r
y

c
o
n
c
e
p
t
s

N
a
n
o

p
o
w
e
r

w
a
k
e
-
u
p

r
e
c
e
i
v
e
r
s

HB: Road tolling systems Y Y Y Y H: Public services
HC: Banknotes
Table 44 Mapping active tag bottlenecks to the RFID Reference Model
Active tags take a step further than their semi-passive relatives. Even higher read-
ing ranges, more complex air interfaces and higher data rates are possible. In addi-
tion to the subcategories addressed by semi-passive tags (e.g. sensors, security
(cryptography), data processing, high reading range), there are applications with
networking, localisation, as well as very high reading range and reliability require-
ments (e.g. road tolling systems).
13.2.2 Interrogator technology
RFID interrogators or readers directly communicate with RFID tags. The following
bottlenecks and R&D approaches relate to the reader part of RFID systems.
13.2.2.1 Multi-frequency, multi-standard readers
Technology bottlenecks
In some applications, tags with more than one air interface (e.g. HF and UHF) are
being used. Usually, readers are designed for operation on one specific air interface
only. In order to read all tags with one reader within such applications (e.g. hand
reader for manual checks), multi air interface readers would provide easier handling
and cost reduction.



269


R&D approaches
There is a demand for multi-frequency, multi-standard readers for some applica-
tions. Readers that may operate on several LF, HF and UHF standards simultane-
ously may recognise many kinds of RFID tags (ISO, EPC). Reader/edge server in-
terface and parts of the control logic may be used in common for several air inter-
faces, reducing total cost of reader and RFID middleware.
13.2.2.2 Low-cost mini and micro readers
Technology bottlenecks
The ongoing miniaturisation of communication devices in general raise a demand
for RFID readers or reader modules in mini or even micro format (e.g. Compact-
Flash, SD-Card, MiniSD-Card format). E.g. the integration into mobile phones will
surely increase the usage and acceptance of RFID technology, as well as enable
new applications.
R&D approaches
New intelligent reader concepts will not only reduce the size but also the cost of the
readers to enable large-scale integration in small communication devices.
13.2.2.3 Low-cost stationary readers
Technology bottlenecks
Apart from the mini and micro RFID reader modules there is also a demand for less
expensive stationary RFID systems. In order to achieve better coverage, e.g. at
gate systems, multi-antenna and multi-reader arrangements might improve identi-
fication rates up to 100 %.
R&D approaches
Standardised reader interfaces will help to further reduce total system costs. New
steps into single chip integration will help to reduce development and manufactur-
ing costs.



270


13.2.2.4 Reader-to-reader communication
Technology bottlenecks
In order to provide higher reader densities (coverage) and better reader interop-
erability, the readers must be synchronised. New procedures and standards must
be developed and introduced to reach this goal.
R&D approaches
Reader networks may help to increase reading rates (time and completeness) and
reading ranges, as well as help to support inter-tag communication, adaptive read-
ing scenarios, etc.
13.2.2.5 More effective anti-collision protocols
Technology bottlenecks
In some applications, a big number of tags within reach of the reader must be iden-
tified completely in a short period of time. An anti-collision technology is used to be
able to address each tag individually. Reading rates in terms of completeness and
speed is still a challenge, especially with big numbers of tags.
R&D approaches
New anti-collision protocols might improve multi-tag reading reliability (complete-
ness) as well as reduce reading time (fast reading).
13.2.2.6 Increased reading reliability
Technology bottlenecks
Tag identification rates near 100 % not only require improvements on the tag side
but also on the reader side.
R&D approaches
New and improved concepts in readers (e.g. additional signal processing of back-
scatter signals, improved antenna diversity schemes) help to reach almost 100 %
identification/reading/writing rates.



271


13.2.2.7 Defined reading range in UHF RFID
Technology bottlenecks
In some applications variable reading ranges or sector reading would be useful fea-
tures to reduce multi-tag mix-up reads.
R&D approaches
Intelligent reading procedures (e.g. changing antenna lobes in the far field, using
specific antenna arrays) could lead to different reading areas. In combination with
range measurement methods (ranging, time-of-flight) false positive reads may be
avoided or reduced.
13.2.2.8 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 45 shows the mapping of interrogator (reader) bottlenecks to the subcatego-
ries of the RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this interro-
gator (reader) bottleneck is related to the corresponding subcategory.



272


Bottleneck RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
M
u
l
t
i
-
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
,

m
u
l
t
i
-
s
t
a
n
d
a
r
d

r
e
a
d
e
r
s

L
o
w
-
c
o
s
t

m
i
n
i

a
n
d

m
i
-
c
r
o

r
e
a
d
e
r
s

L
o
w
-
c
o
s
t

s
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
r
y

r
e
a
d
e
r
s

R
e
a
d
e
r
-
t
o
-
r
e
a
d
e
r

c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

M
o
r
e

e
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

a
n
t
i
-
c
o
l
l
i
s
i
o
n

p
r
o
t
o
c
o
l
s

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
d

r
e
a
d
i
n
g

r
e
l
i
-
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

D
e
f
i
n
e
d

r
e
a
d
i
n
g

r
a
n
g
e

i
n

U
H
F

R
F
I
D

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical
tracking & trac-
ing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, quality
and information
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y
D: Access con-
trol and track-
ing & tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y Y G: Sports, lei-
sure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y Y Y Y H: Public ser-
vices
HC: Banknotes Y Y
Table 45 Mapping interrogator bottlenecks to the RFID Reference Model



273


Without surprise many reader bottlenecks affect almost all subcategories of the
RFID Reference Model. The demand for low-cost stationary readers and increased
reading reliability applies to all subcategories regarded.
13.2.3 System technology
Topics that address RFID systems as a whole rather than specifically reader or tag
technology, are presented in this paragraph.
13.2.3.1 Higher frequencies
Technology bottlenecks
The current number of RFID systems and standards on higher frequencies ( 2.45
GHz) is very small. On the other hand, there is a growing demand for smaller an-
tennas, compact hand-held readers and modules as well as enhanced positioning
resolution for localisation systems.
R&D approaches
The usage of higher frequencies is one key answer to these demands. A proposed
air interface standard at 5.8 GHz has been withdrawn. New standardisation at-
tempts for this and higher bands would be helpful.
13.2.3.2 Ultra-wideband (UWB)
Technology bottlenecks
Most RFID systems provide data rates in the low or mid range sector. For applica-
tions requiring the transfer of large amounts of data in short periods, new commu-
nication concepts are welcome.
R&D approaches
An interesting approach for low (nano) power communication with high bandwidth
efficiency is ultra-wideband technology. This technology might be used to introduce
new RFID systems, which require high data rates together with moderate reading
ranges.



274


13.2.3.3 Real-time localisation and tracking
Technology bottlenecks
Localisation is one add-on capability to RFID systems. Some applications do not
only require the exchange of the ID number and some data of a tag, they also need
the absolute or relative position of the RFID tag.
R&D approaches
Although there are some active RFID systems with this functionality on the market,
there is plenty of room for improvements in terms of positioning resolution, maxi-
mum tracking speed, reading reliability, passive RFID, etc.
13.2.3.4 High data rates
Technology bottlenecks
The more functionality is packed into the tag chips, the more data have to be ex-
changed with the reader. Although today the requirements come primarily from e
government applications, in the future this might also be an issue for logistics and
supply chain management.
R&D approaches
Ultra-wideband technology and other high speed data communication methods will
help to resolve the growing demand for high data transfer rates.
13.2.3.5 New modulation formats
Technology bottlenecks
Most RFID systems use load modulation or backscatter modulation in combination
with basic modulation types (e.g. amplitude or phase modulation). The demand for
higher data rates also raises the questions for combined and more complex modu-
lation schemes.
R&D approaches
Investigation of new modulation formats for passive backscatter, higher order
modulation methods (e.g. quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), quadrature
phase shift keying (QPSK)) and their impact on higher data rates and increased
read out range.



275


13.2.3.6 Improved system integration
Technology bottlenecks
System enhancements and the introduction of new technologies should include all
interfaces of the RFID system to RFID middleware systems. In order to provide
second source capability, easy replacement and cost reduction, these interfaces
should be standardised.
R&D approaches
Standardisation efforts should not only be limited to air interfaces and data struc-
tures but should be also extended to the reader/edge server interface. Interopera-
bility, second source, easy maintenance and replacement, as well as cost reductions
beyond the tag/reader system will be the consequences.
13.2.3.7 Plug and play infrastructure
Technology bottlenecks
Implemented RFID systems often face a variety of different environments e.g. in
terms of reflections and interference situations. Usually the system user cannot
assess the actual environment and is unable to improve it for RFID usage. The RFID
system itself should be able to adapt to various environments in order to approxi-
mate such a thing as a plug and play RFID infrastructure.
R&D approaches
Automatic environment measurements, RF self tuning antennas, adaptive filters
and signal processing depending on the environment are some factors contributing
to this plug and play scenario.
13.2.3.8 Increased interference immunity
Technology bottlenecks
Many RFID systems can easily be interfered with simple jamming devices or other
RF equipment that use the same frequency allocation. Such devices might even be
legally operated in some countries. There is a need to identify such problems and
plead in banning these devices or to develop techniques to easily detect such de-
vices, or turn them ineffective. This is an extremely important topic, as there are no
really satisfactory solutions in sight.



276


R&D approaches
Intrusion or jamming detection technologies have to be implemented also into RFID
systems. The reader identifies sources of interference, avoids erroneous tag reads
and writes, and as well is able to warn the system user. These efforts need to be
accompanied by regulatory measures (banning jamming devices).
13.2.3.9 Modelling and simulation
Technology bottlenecks
Today modelling and simulation S/W and systems are very slow, expensive, and
limited to certain system parts. The results are quite unreliable. There is a demand
to simulate the entire RFID system (analogue, digital, mixed signal parts).
R&D approaches
Existing simulation technologies have to be combined and adapted for RFID re-
quirements and environments. The results will be optimised RFID systems providing
maximum reading/writing ranges and maximum reliability and identification rates.
13.2.3.10 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 46 shows the mapping of system technology bottlenecks to the subcategories
of the RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this system tech-
nology bottleneck is related to the corresponding subcategory.



277


Bottleneck RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
H
i
g
h
e
r

f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
i
e
s

U
l
t
r
a
-
w
i
d
e
b
a
n
d

(
U
W
B
)

R
e
a
l
-
t
i
m
e

l
o
c
a
l
i
s
.

a
.

t
r
a
c
k
i
n
g

H
i
g
h

d
a
t
a

r
a
t
e
s

N
e
w

m
o
d
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

f
o
r
m
a
t
s

I
m
p
r
o
v
e
d

s
y
s
t
e
m

i
n
t
e
g
r
a
t
.

P
l
u
g

a
n
d

p
l
a
y

i
n
f
r
a
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
d

i
n
t
e
r
f
e
r
.

i
m
m
u
n
i
t
y

M
o
d
e
l
l
i
n
g

a
n
d

s
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical
tracking &
tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring
and mainte-
nance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product
safety, quality
and informa-
tion
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y Y Y
D: Access
control and
tracking &
tracing of ind.
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y Y E: Loyalty,
memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth
care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y G: Sports,
leisure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y



278


Bottleneck RFID-
application
field
Subcategories
H
i
g
h
e
r

f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
i
e
s

U
l
t
r
a
-
w
i
d
e
b
a
n
d

(
U
W
B
)

R
e
a
l
-
t
i
m
e

l
o
c
a
l
i
s
.

a
.

t
r
a
c
k
i
n
g

H
i
g
h

d
a
t
a

r
a
t
e
s

N
e
w

m
o
d
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

f
o
r
m
a
t
s

I
m
p
r
o
v
e
d

s
y
s
t
e
m

i
n
t
e
g
r
a
t
.

P
l
u
g

a
n
d

p
l
a
y

i
n
f
r
a
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
d

i
n
t
e
r
f
e
r
.

i
m
m
u
n
i
t
y

M
o
d
e
l
l
i
n
g

a
n
d

s
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

HB: Road tolling systems Y Y Y H: Public ser-
vices
HC: Banknotes Y Y Y
Table 46 Mapping system technology bottlenecks to the RFID Reference Model
System technology addresses more than a single component of an RFID system
(not tags only or readers only). Cross-section topics like increased interference im-
munity as well as modelling and simulation apply to all subcategories. More specific
bottlenecks affect their targeted subcategories.
13.3 Application-specific topics
Apart from technology-related issues, there are also demands and bottlenecks in
possible application scenarios.
13.3.1 The real-time-enterprise
Technology bottlenecks
Efficient logistics, real-time manufacturing, just-in-time production are important
factors for competitive enterprises.
R&D approaches
The potentials for efficient logistics and manufacturing practices are improved by
RFID technology. Just-in-time philosophy minimises stock times and costs.
RFID helps to monitor and control the manufacturing process. Product quality and
production safety is improved. Widely accepted standards support business-to-
business communication (information exchange between enterprises).



279


13.3.2 Standardisation of application layers
Technology bottlenecks
There are some standards accepted worldwide, that define the air interfaces and
data structures of RFID systems. Although there are some application-focussed
standards as well, there still is a need for other application layer standards that are
widely used.
R&D approaches
Standardisation efforts should be expanded to various RFID application scenarios.
Guidelines can be of supplementary help.
13.3.3 Traffic control and safety aspects
Technology bottlenecks
New communication technologies enable new concepts for enhancing traffic control
and traffic safety. RFID technologies might support these concepts (e.g. vehicle
identification).
R&D approaches
Smart systems may improve traffic control and traffic safety (e.g. car-to-car com-
munication, car-to-road signs communication). Some parts of these systems might
use RFID technologies.
13.3.4 Pairing objects
Technology bottlenecks
Pairing applications range from smart refills (e.g. toner or ink cartridges) for print-
ers and fax machines, tools for kitchen machines, brush heads for electronic
toothbrushes, types of motor oil or fuel for car engines, etc. The idea is to match
disposable or refill parts with consumer electronic devices.
R&D approaches
RFID technology may help in matching disposable or refill parts with consumer
electronic devices. The device accepts only parts that are designed for the device
and may adapt its settings according to the part. Some of these applications need
coordination or standardisation work in order to provide a cost-effective service
across many companies and countries.



280


13.3.5 Improving of medication compliance
Technology bottlenecks
Patients sometimes do not take their prescribed medication at the right time or in
the right dosage. Technologies to assist the patient and to provide monitoring for
the physician are welcome.
R&D approaches
An intelligent pharmaceutical packaging (IPP) can be developed with the help of
RFID technology. Each time a pill is taken from the blister pack, an electric conduc-
tor is physically broken. A time stamp is recorded when the pill was taken from the
package. The pharmacist or the doctor may read the time stamps with a special
reader and monitor the medication compliance of the patient.
13.3.6 Supporting blind people
Technology bottlenecks
The orientation in new environments is a difficult task for blind people. Smart elec-
tronic devices could help in this process and reduce dangerous situations.
R&D approaches
RFID technology might help to locate blind people, giving them appropriate feed-
back for better orientation. Another application to improve orientation is a Smart
Glove: an RFID reader integrated into a glove helps to identify RFID tagged items
(e.g. via acoustical messages).
13.3.7 Anti-counterfeiting, RFID for DRM
Technology bottlenecks
The topic is not new to use RFID tags in compact discs (CDs) and digital versatile
discs (DVDs) for digital rights management (DRM). There are no real solutions yet
for this chip-in-disc scenario.
R&D approaches
One idea is to integrate RFID tags into the disc carrier or the jewel case. The
CD/DVD will be playable only, if the RFID chip has been activated at the point of
sale (PoS).



281


13.3.8 Support of pilot operations
Technology bottlenecks
Specific support of pilot operations should not end at the demonstration and proto-
type level. Especially SMEs do not have the clout to push projects further to the
market.
R&D approaches
There should be support including the last mile of product development in order
to bring a prototype to a product, especially for small companies.
13.3.9 E-tax-free with RFID
Technology bottlenecks
The whole process of reimbursement of value-added tax (VAT) could be simplified
with the usage of RFID. The successful implementation of such a system might
need standardisation and multi-national coordination.
R&D approaches
Since many national authorities and companies are involved in such an e-tax-free
system, R&D through a funded EU-wide project would be helpful.
13.3.10 Market studies
Technology bottlenecks
There is still a demand for market studies regarding RFID applications.
R&D approaches
Funded market studies with supportive actions to generate sufficient input. The
results of the studies should be made public.
13.3.11 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 47 shows the mapping of application-specific bottlenecks to the subcategories
of the RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this application-
specific bottleneck is related to the corresponding subcategory.



282


Bottleneck RFID-application
field
Subcategories
T
h
e

r
e
a
l
-
t
i
m
e
-
e
n
t
e
r
p
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i
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t
a
n
d
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d
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s
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f

a
p
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l
.

l
a
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r
a
f
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c
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a
.

s
a
f
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t
y

a
s
p
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s

P
a
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r
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n
g

o
b
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e
c
t
s

I
m
p
r
o
v
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g

o
f

m
e
d
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c
.

c
o
m
p
l
i
a
n
c
e

S
u
p
p
o
r
t
i
n
g

b
l
i
n
d

p
e
o
p
l
e

A
n
t
i
-
c
o
u
n
t
e
r
f
e
i
t
.
,

R
F
I
D

f
o
r

D
R
M

S
u
p
p
o
r
t

o
f

p
i
l
o
t

o
p
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
s

E
-
t
a
x
f
r
e
e

w
i
t
h

R
F
I
D

M
a
r
k
e
t

s
t
u
d
i
e
s

AA: Inhouse logistics Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y
AC: Open logistics Y
AD: Postal applications Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y
A: Logistical tracking
& tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y
B: Production, moni-
toring and mainte-
nance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product safety,
quality and informa-
tion
CF: Customer info. systems
DA: Access control systems Y Y
DB: Animal tracking
D: Access control and
tracking & tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y
EA: Loyalty cards E: Loyalty, memb.
and payment
EB: Membership cards Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y G: Sports, leisure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y



283


Bottleneck RFID-application
field
Subcategories
T
h
e

r
e
a
l
-
t
i
m
e
-
e
n
t
e
r
p
r
i
s
e

S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
i
s
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

a
p
p
l
.

l
a
y
e
r
s

T
r
a
f
f
i
c

c
o
n
t
r
o
l

a
.

s
a
f
e
t
y

a
s
p
e
c
t
s

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HB: Road tolling systems Y H: Public services
HC: Banknotes
Table 47 Mapping application-specific bottlenecks to the RFID Reference Model
It is an expected fact that application-specific bottlenecks are related to their corre-
sponding subcategories. Nevertheless, solutions to these gaps will significantly push
RFID technology forward in these categories and even pave the way to new applica-
tions.
13.4 Software, systems, and networks
In some applications RFID systems perform their full potentials only in the coopera-
tion with other systems (e.g. data networks, databases, data processing systems).
13.4.1 Internet of Things
Technology bottlenecks
In order to realise the idea of the Internet of Things, the ID number of a tag has to
be associated with a link to corresponding data systems.
R&D approaches
The idea of the Internet of Things tries to combine RFID technology with techniques
of the internet. The Object Naming Service (ONS) e.g. uses the Domain Name Sys-
tem (DNS) of the internet in order to provide links to further information about a
tags ID number. This service is pushed by one big RFID user organisation (GS1,
EPCglobal) and is currently limited to EPCglobal RFID tags. In order to build a real



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Internet of Things , this principle should be extended to many other RFID systems
as well.
13.5 Socio-economic aspects
There is a strong need to complement the research on certain fields of RFID tech-
nology by socio-economic studies, which deal with matters like new RFID applica-
tion areas apart from logistics, like health care or ambient intelligence, technology
acceptance, data protection, privacy, environmental aspects, and economic effects.
These studies should provide recommendations for public institutions, companies,
and NGOs how to cope with the impacts of RFID technology.
13.5.1 Trust and acceptance
Technology bottlenecks
Consumers or users that get into contact with RFID technology ask for their benefit
and ask about the risks of this technology. The bottlenecks from a users perspec-
tive are rather the lack of information she/he gets about RFID technology and im-
pacts on data protection and privacy, than on technology bottlenecks of RFID.

R&D approaches
There is a need of research into the issue, how to improve the acceptance and will-
ingness of the consumer to adopt RFID, how to remove perceived barriers to RFID
introduction. Trust and acceptance of RFID technology will only grow with correct
information about the properties of the various RFID technologies and how the
technology is used in a specific application.
13.5.2 Security, data protection, privacy
Technology bottlenecks
Many present and future RFID applications require securing of data transfer and
data storage on the RFID tag. Research and development is needed, in order to
effectively prevent tag cloning, compromising (private) data, eavesdropping, man-
in-the-middle attacks, etc.
Some techniques like secure authentication, secure authorisation and data encryp-
tion use cryptographic procedures. Tags with integrated crypto engines exist merely



285


for HF RFID (13.56 MHz). Most of them use proprietary symmetrical cryptography.
There is a need to expand these technologies to other bands (LF, UHF) as well.
R&D approaches
Secure RFID systems should be extended into the UHF area. The introduction of
energy efficient asymmetric encryption will help to ease key deployment and key
management. With asymmetric encryption, the reader does not need to store se-
cret information, although it can communicate with the tag via an encrypted data
stream.
13.5.3 Environmental and safety aspects
Technology bottlenecks
For many applications, where huge numbers of tags are used (item tagging) but
where the tags cannot be re-used, environmentally compatible or neutral RFID tags
are needed, in order to avoid electronic waste.
R&D approaches
The introduction of non-toxic electronics (e.g. polymer) may help to achieve envi-
ronmentally compatible tags.
13.5.4 Mapping to the RFID Reference Model
Table 48 shows the mapping of software, systems, and networks, as well as socio-
economic bottlenecks related to the subcategories of the RFID Reference Model
(see chapter 4.2). Y means: Yes, this bottleneck is related to the corresponding
subcategory.



286


Table 48 Mapping software, systems, and networks, as well as
socio-economic bottlenecks to the RFID Reference Model
Bottleneck RFID-application
field
Subcategories
I
n
t
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r
n
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t

o
f

T
h
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t
a

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,

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E
n
v
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t
a
l
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y

c
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t
a
g
s

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y
A: Logistical tracking
& tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y
BB: Asset management Y Y
BC: Facility management Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y
B: Production, moni-
toring and mainte-
nance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y
C: Product safety,
quality and informa-
tion
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y
D: Access control and
tracking & tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y E: Loyalty, memb. and
payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y G: Sports, leisure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y
HB: Road tolling systems Y Y H: Public services
HC: Banknotes Y Y



287


The Internet of Things is a challenging idea, but depending on details of the imple-
mentation, it does not affect or apply to all subcategories of the RFID Reference
Model. E.g. access control or tracking systems, in-house and closed loop logistics
might not need the internet link. Applications where tag data or reading events may
be assigned to persons, might want to avoid such internet lookups for security rea-
sons (data protection, privacy).



288


14 RFID technology roadmap
14.1 Introduction
Work package 1 of the coordination action CE RFID is titled with RFID Roadmap.
This technological roadmap is presented based on the previous chapters.
All CE RFID participants and the additional contributors for WP1 have been invited
to give their inputs. Work package 1 attempts to outline a roadmap for the RFID
technologies.
Chapter 3 to 11 analysed the current state-of-the-art of RFID technologies. The
various technologies summarised as RFID have been beheld from several points of
view:
Application view (What application examples do really exist? How do they
match to the RFID Reference Model?)
Transponder classes view (Are there different kinds of transponders (tags)?
How can they be classified?)
ISO/OSI network model view (What are the components and communication
partners of an RFID system? How do they communicate?)
Technological view (What technologies and components exist? What are the
common parameters and properties of RFID systems? Are there extensions
to other technologies?)
Standards and regulations view (What are the main international standards
and regulations for RFID?)
Data processing view (How are RFID data handled? Are there data security,
data protection, privacy and safety issues? What kind of technological and
other solutions are adequate?)
Market view (What systems are on the market? Who are the vendors world-
wide? What are the system specifications and properties?)
Intellectual property view (How is the current IPR situation in RFID tech-
nologies? Are there major IPR stakeholders? Do patent pools exist?).



289


Chapter 12 looked for relevant international R&D activities with respect to RFID
technologies. A database with more than 270 international activities (studies, R&D
from academia and industry, etc.) has been collected and classified. Representative
examples have been extracted and described concerning technology aspects, appli-
cation-specific topics, and socio-economic aspects.
Out of the presentation of the current state-of-the-art and relevant R&D activities
regarding RFID technology, chapter 13 derived still existing bottlenecks and appro-
priate approaches to overcome these bottlenecks. This chapter attempts to sketch a
technology roadmap for RFID containing short, mid, and long-term topics based on
the information disclosed in the previous chapters. An organisation that has a tan-
gible conception about their RFID roadmap is EPCglobal, respectively GS1 [81].
14.2 EPCglobal roadmap
EPCglobal [81] is an organisation comprised of industry leaders and organisations
focused on creating global standards for the EPCglobal network. An electronic prod-
uct code (EPC) provides a unique ID number for each object to identify. This EPC is
assigned to the object and attached to it by use of an RFID tag. The EPC is fed into
a global data base together with information about the object. The database can be
accessed by authorised manufacturers, retailers, and third-party companies. EP-
Cglobal has published a roadmap, which is intended to further the deployment of
their EPCglobal standards [81]. Because the EPCglobal standards are widely ac-
cepted, this roadmap is shown in the following. EPCglobal focuses primarily on the
supply chain (RFID Reference Model categories A, B, and C; i.e. RFID applications
with reference to object tagging).



290


Action Plan for the Industry Responsible
1. Communications and Marketing
Large-scale adoption of the EPC vision requires that more
companies understand the concept behind the vision its
technology and the business benefits for manufacturers,
retailers, and third-party companies. This wider adoption
should be promoted by developing and publishing consistent
marketing and communications materials to increase the
awareness of EPC in the industry.
Standards
bodies Trade
associations
Industry
2. Sharing Best Practices
A limited number of manufacturers and retailers are con-
ducting field trials with the available technology and have
developed considerable knowledge to date. These insights
and experiences should be shared with others who are not
so far along on the EPC journey or with those who have yet
to begin the journey. A best practice group for knowledge
and experience sharing should be established for this pur-
pose.
Industry
3. Wider-Scale Adoption
Wider-scale adoption of the EPC vision will also require
other companies to participate. Encourage third-party logis-
tics providers, contract manufacturers, contract packers,
and packaging suppliers to develop approaches for adopting
and implementing the EPC network to service the future
tagging requirements of manufacturers and retailers.
Industry
4. Supporting Open Standards
A common and open standards-based approach is required
for the development of the EPC vision technology architec-
ture. This can be achieved by getting a critical mass of im-
portant retailers and manufacturers to announce their sup-
port for an open and standards-based development ap-
proach. Communication should be planned with clarity on
the points of commonality, focusing on messages to give
confidence that there is a recommended way forward.
Industry
Trade associa-
tions
5. Migration Path for EANUCC Numbering System
There will be a period of time as existing identification
schemes (e.g., GTIN) migrate to EPC. To facilitate this move
and allow the use of both schemes as transition occurs, the
industry should agree and develop an industry standard for
the inclusion of GTIN in the EPC number. In addition, other
EANUCC standards require definition for migration into the
EPC numbering system.
Standards
bodies
6. Integration of PML With EANUCC System
Develop agreed-upon EPCIS and PML specifications inte-
grated with the EANUCC Global Data Dictionary.
Standards
bodies



291


Action Plan for the Industry Responsible
7. EPC Application Scenarios
The implementation roadmap to move pilot trials from the
four walls of a company to collaboration with trading part-
ners is complex. Data management structures should be
agreed upon and infrastructures established. For example:
application scenarios should be defined for the location-to-
location delivery process, and as such an EPC scenario goes
outside the four walls of one company, shows how advance
ship notices (ASNs) will be sent, how the EPC numbers will
be communicated between trading partners, who will own
and hold what data, and what levels of data security and
integration are required?
Standards
bodies
Industry
8. Tag Specifications
The technical development, enhanced functionality, and in-
novation in the various types of tags are progressing within
the industry. As a result, tag specifications should be pro-
vided that are open standards-compliant, interoperable and
upwardly compatible, as new versions are designed. Manu-
facturers should be encouraged to develop products that
meet the latest specification of these criteria.
Standards
bodies Indus-
try
Hardware
providers
9. Reader Specifications
In tandem with tags, reader specifications also should be
developed that are open standards-compliant, interoper-
able, and upwardly compatible. Manufacturers should be
encouraged to develop products that meet the latest specifi-
cation of these criteria.
Standards
bodies Indus-
try
Hardware
providers
10. Harmonisation of Radio Frequency
Clarity of the regulations harmonisation process is required
across the industry, and details on what has been already
agreed upon should be published. Statements from regula-
tory groups, e.g., International Organisation for Standardi-
sation (ISO), European Telecommunications Standards In-
stitute (ETSI) etc., should be obtained to help define what
information should be given to CEOs so they can help to
influence government and regulatory bodies in this har-
monisation process.
Standards
bodies Indus-
try
11. EPC Software
The EPC network is the infrastructure for the adoption of the
EPC vision, with the principle building blocks of the savant
software, ONS and EPCIS as components of this infrastruc-
ture. Technology vendors should be encouraged to provide
open standards-based products that work with savant and
standard application program interface.
Industry
Software pro-
viders



292


Action Plan for the Industry Responsible
12. Quality Assurance & Compliance
The availability, performance, and efficiency of tag and
reader equipment need to match if not exceed cur-
rently available technological solutions. Quality assurance
and certification should be encouraged from tag and reader
suppliers on their products compliance with technical speci-
fications, including robustness, reliability, read distances,
read rates, etc.
Industry
Software pro-
viders
13. Public Policy
Agree on public policy issues and privacy statements and
commit to implementing these.
Trade associa-
tions
Standards
bodies Indus-
try
Table 49 Roadmap of EPCglobal
In the above table there are four critical issues, including:
The need for a usable radio frequency spectrum around the globe.
The need for interoperable, EPC-compliant tags and readers at a market-
acceptable cost.
The need for EPC standards-compliant software and RFID middleware that is
truly interoperable and available commercially at affordable prices.
The need for a framework for addressing public policy/privacy issues.
These issues are not confined to the EPCglobal initiative or to specific applications,
but may be applied to the use of RFID technology in general, when substituting
EPCglobal with ISO/IEC or any standards agreed upon.
EPCglobal [81] has also defined tag classes. From class 0 up to class 5 the RFID
system performance and capabilities of the tags increase. Only class 0 and class 1
are accompanied by corresponding EPCglobal standards [81] at present (March
2007). This classification system is used mainly by the EPCglobal community. The
currently most advanced tag technology is the so-called Class 1 Generation 2 (short
Gen2) technology, describing passive read/write tags at UHF (840-960 MHz). Speci-
fications for tag classes 2 to 5 (semi-passive to active tags) are still to be defined.
The EPCglobal roadmap is not very specific on technological aspects of RFID. The
following sections will fill this gap.



293


14.3 CE RFID roadmap
RFID is a technology, which comprises many aspects, starting with chip design and
ending with systems which are able to identify items in a global network. Based on
the results accomplished in work package 1, a possible CE RFID roadmap has been
established compatible to the research priorities and strategies outlined in the Stra-
tegic Research Agenda (SRA) of the European Technology Platform on Smart Sys-
tems Integration (EPoSS) (see http://www.smart-systems-
integra-
tion.org/public/documents/eposs_publications/070306_EPoSS_SRA_v1.02.pdf
[72]).
Appendix 17.3 contains a combined view of the CE RFID roadmap timeframes for
short, mid, and long-term topics, listed separately in the following paragraphs.
14.3.1 Packaging
At present most tags are based on silicon technology. The chip is mounted onto a
substrate and connected to the antenna, typically by pick and place of the chip (see
chapter 7.4.3). This causes about half of the tag costs. New concepts for mounting
tags onto objects and integrating them into packaging may help reducing costs and
help to improve tag reliability and durability. Technologies like transfer moulding of
tag chip plus tag antenna into plastic boxes, direct printing of antennas on flexible
substrates (textiles etc), using the product as a substrate, may help to further re-
duce costs of tagging (chip-in-paper, chip-in-foil, chip-in-substrate, see chapter
13.2.1.1.6).

Figure 48 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID packaging



294


14.3.2 Chip design
Current active tags often use conventional RF, analogue and digital components.
Since active tags commonly use full RF transceiver chips they are able to establish
additional communication links apart from the RFID link. A cost effective solution
might require a monolithic/single chip device integrating RFID tag, microcontroller,
and additional RF components (e.g. for Bluetooth, ZigBee, Wireless LAN, FM func-
tionality). Further miniaturisation and integration of active RFID tag functions into
single chip designs help to reduce currently high costs of active tags significantly
(see chapter 13.2.1.4). Many current readers do not use highly integrated technol-
ogy. For LF and HF there are integrated circuits available, which include major
reader functions. Most of the UHF readers use conventional discrete components,
especially in the RF section, which makes the reader expensive. Designing reader
chips (including UHF) is a challenging task for reducing reader costs and reader
size. Low-cost mini and micro readers enable new applications, e.g. integration of
reader functionality into communication devices as PDAs, mobile phones, note-
books, navigational systems, etc. Chips may also be designed for low power con-
sumption (see next section, as well as chapter 13.2.2).

Figure 49 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for chip design
14.3.3 Energy aspects
Power consumption is a great challenge for RFID tags. The maximum reading range
of passive tags mostly depends on how much energy the tag can send back to the
reader. The amount of energy the tag needs for proper operation therefore reduces
the available energy for answering. New technologies for less power consumption
on the tag side can enlarge the reading range and improve the reading reliability.
In order to increase the reading range the development of new ultra low power de-
signs for RFID tag circuits is desirable. Lower power consumption for the tags main
circuit also clears the way for additional tag functionality (sensors, crypto engines,
data processing, etc.; see chapter 13.2.1).
Power scavenging (energy harvesting) technologies, that convert energy out of
physical energy sources (e.g. temperature difference, pressure, vibration, light,



295


magnetic field, electromagnetic field), may help to replace conventional batteries.
The combination of RFID tags with sensor functions usually requires an additional
energy source, usually provided by semi-passive or active tags. New battery tech-
nologies (e.g. polymer battery, fuel-cell, paper battery (power paper)) support in-
creasing functionality or longer battery lifetime. The development of special receiv-
ing modes (nano power wake-up) together with high sensitivity will also help to
extend battery lifetime (see chapter 13.2.1).
An interesting approach for low (nano) power communication with high bandwidth
efficiency is ultra-wideband technology. This technology might be used to introduce
new RFID systems that require high data rates together with moderate reading
ranges (see chapter 13.2.3.2).

Figure 50 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID energy aspects
14.3.4 RF technology
Ideally tags should work under all environmental conditions. Especially when at-
tached to metal or near liquids, the reading range of tags may be significantly re-
duced. When many tags have to be read simultaneously, inter-tag interference may
occur, especially for UHF tags. These issues can be resolved or at least improved by
optimised antenna design and by tags supporting multiple antenna connections.
For some RFID air interface standards there is no common worldwide frequency
allocation (e.g. UHF; 840 MHz in China, 868 MHz in EU, 915 MHz in USA, and 960
MHz in Asia). For worldwide logistics applications the tags must be designed to op-
erate in all allocated frequency bands (multi-band tags). A tag antenna that is op-



296


timised for 868 MHz has very low performance on 960 MHz and vice versa resulting
in reduced reading range when the tag is used on the wrong frequency. There are
some tags on the market that use a compromising broadband approach achieving
reduced reading ranges on the edge frequencies.
There is also a need for RFID tags that support more than one air interface (e.g. HF
+ UHF, LF + HF). New technologies might improve the reading ranges and per-
formance over all allocated frequency bands (multi-band, multi-port, multi-
antenna, multi-polarisation; see chapter 13.2.1). This is one of the major business
challenges (e.g. worldwide supply chain management).

Figure 51 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID RF technology
14.3.5 Manufacturing
Low cost high quality tags are essential for potential RFID users for gaining enough
return-on-investment (ROI). Currently, low-cost silicon-based RFID tags are about
0.10 at higher quantities, a price goal of 0.05 or less per RFID tag (chip + an-
tenna + substrate) is still a challenge.
To reduce the tag costs the whole manufacturing process from the raw materials up
to the functional tag on the object has to be cost optimised. An example of process
optimisation for silicon based processes has been introduced by Alien Technology
(USA). They claim that using optimised wafer processing called MEMS (Micro Elec-
tronic Mechanical System) and FSA (Fluidic Self Assembly) they get about 15 % to
20 % higher yield and about 200 times higher assembly rates than conventional
methods (see also chapters 12.4.1.1.1, 12.4.2.6).



297


Another approach to manufacturing cheaper tags is the polymer technology. Costs
for mass production of organic tags are estimated around 0.01 per tag. By print-
ing tags (chip and/or antenna) using organic semiconductors, the manufacturing
process is simplified significantly. Companies like PolyIC, ORFID, OrganicID, and
NXP are pursuing research in this direction. PolyIC showed a first printed HF tag
(13.56 MHz) in 2007. Even though first products will be realised soon, researchers
estimate that it will take several years (up to 2015) to mass production capability
for these tags. According to current knowledge the highest frequencies for organic
tags in the next years will be 13.56 MHz (see chapter 7.4.3). In a later stage, also
the UHF range might be reachable.

Figure 52 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID manufacturing
14.3.6 Systems
Ultra-wideband technology and other high speed data communication methods can
help to resolve the growing demand for high data transfer rates. Most RFID sys-
tems use load modulation or backscatter modulation in combination with basic
modulation types (e.g. amplitude or phase modulation). The demand for higher
data rates could be met by combined and more complex modulation schemes, like
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK);
see chapter 13.2.3).
The current number of RFID systems and standards on higher frequencies ( 2.45
GHz) is very small. On the other hand there is a growing demand for smaller an-
tennas, compact hand-held readers and modules as well as enhanced positioning
resolution for localisation systems. The usage of higher frequencies is one key an-
swer to these demands. A proposed air interface standard at 5.8 GHz has been
withdrawn. New standardisation attempts for this and higher bands would be help-
ful.



298


Standardisation efforts should not only be limited to air interfaces and data struc-
tures but should also be extended to the reader/edge server interface. Interopera-
bility, second source, easy maintenance and replacement, as well as cost reductions
beyond the tag/reader system will be the consequences.
Implemented RFID systems often face a variety of different environments. Usually
the system user cannot assess the actual environment and is unable to improve it
for RFID usage. The RFID system itself should be able to adapt to various environ-
ments in order to approximate such a thing as a plug and play RFID infrastructure.
Modelling and simulation S/W and systems are very slow, expensive, and limited to
certain system parts. Reliable simulation S/W, capable to simulate the entire RFID
system would greatly support the implementation of RFID systems.
Many RFID systems can easily be interfered with RF equipment that uses the same
frequency allocation (e.g. small range devices (SRDs)). There is a need to identify
such problems and plead in banning these devices or to develop techniques to eas-
ily detect such devices and turn them ineffective.

Figure 53 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID systems
14.3.7 Readers/interrogators
Usually readers are designed for operation on one specific air interface (frequency)
only. There is a demand for multi-frequency, multi-standard readers for some ap-
plications. Readers that can operate on several LF, HF and UHF standards simulta-
neously may recognise many kinds of RFID tags (ISO, EPC). Reader/edge server
interface and parts of the control logic may be used in common for several air inter-
faces, reducing total cost of reader and RFID middleware. The ongoing miniaturisa-
tion of communication devices in general raises a demand for RFID readers or
reader modules in mini or even micro format (e.g. CompactFlash, SD-Card, MiniSD-



299


Card format). E.g. the integration into mobile phones will surely increase the usage
and acceptance of RFID technology, as well as enable new applications.
New intelligent reader concepts will not only reduce the size but also the cost of the
readers to enable large-scale integration in small communication devices. Multi-
antenna and multi-reader arrangements might improve identification rates and
achieve better coverage e.g. at gate systems. Higher reader densities and better
interoperability require synchronised readers. New procedures and standards must
be developed and introduced to reach this goal. Reader networks may also support
inter-tag communication.
In some applications a big number of tags within reach of the reader must be iden-
tified completely in a short period of time (e.g. single items on a palette). In this
situation reading rates are still a challenge. Tag identification rates near 100 % not
only require improvements on the tag side but also on the reader side. Anti-
collision technology, antenna technology and signal processing may help to reach
this goal. Variable reading ranges or sector reading would be useful features to re-
duce multi-tag mix-up reads (see chapter 13.2.2).

Figure 54 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID readers / interrogators



300


14.3.8 Non-silicon technologies
14.3.8.1 Surface acoustic wave devices (SAW)
Silicon-based semiconductor chip technology is usually limited to the temperature
range from -40 C up to approx. 200 C. Surface acoustic wave (SAW) technology
is not based on silicon semiconductors (see chapter 7.7.5). It extends the operation
conditions for tags into more robust environments. The SAW system offers the fol-
lowing remarkable properties that cannot be implemented by conventional RFID
systems:
High temperature resistance (400 C)
Readable at high velocity (420 km/h)
High data rate (1000 queries/sec)
Additional sensor features like: temperature, pressure, strain gauge
Long range (10 m, fully passive)
14.3.8.2 Polymer electronics
The classic RFID tag manufacturing process comprises the manufacturing of a chip,
the contacting the chip onto an antenna structure and the moulding of both compo-
nents into a tag carrier or directly into the product packaging. In order to reduce
the number of production steps and simultaneously the tag costs, new manufactur-
ing methods have to be developed. One way to further, easier mass production and
therefore cost reduction is to use new non-silicon based technologies like polymer
(organic) electronics and reel-to-reel manufacturing procedures. The antenna and
circuitry can be printed and integrated into the packaging with simple processes
(see chapter 7.4.3).
German company PolyIC reported that it had demonstrated two organic RFID tags
one with 32 bits of memory, the other with 64 bits in a clean room. In Sep-
tember 2007, the first really printed RFID tag (at that time still without ID) was
presented by PolyIC (http://www.polyic.com/en/press-releases.php). Separately
VTT (Technical Research Centre of Finland) researchers have printed electric coding
with conductive ink that can be read with a sweeping technique, or a contactless
read in which a specially created interrogator is placed close to the tag and moved
along its entire surface. (see



301


http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/3397/2/1/
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/3395/1/1/ [73]).

Figure 55 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID non-silicon technologies
14.3.9 Bi-stable displays
For some applications there is a need for displaying varying visible information to
the user (e.g. postal services, retail). RFID tags can be combined with visual dis-
plays, showing tag related data. Currently available liquid crystal displays (LCDs)
are too energy consuming for low power (passive) tags. Bi-stable nano power dis-
plays only need power when their content changes. By showing the tag information,
the display may help to further acceptance of RFID technology by the end user (see
chapter 13.2.1.1.4).

Figure 56 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID bi-stable displays
14.3.10 Sensors
Besides the ID functionality some applications also require to measure and monitor
physical parameters (e.g. temperature, pressure, humidity). A sensor, integrated in
the tag, can be used to send the measured data to the reader via the RFID com-
munication link. Power consumption is a critical issue with sensor/tag combinations.
Sensors with very low power consumption (nano power sensors) can also be inte-



302


grated into passive tags. In this case the energy of the reader field has to supply
the complete RFID tag including the sensor.
For the extension of passive RFID tags with sensor functions, sensors that use a bi-
stable effect or that do not need energy from the tag can be used as no-power sen-
sors (see chapters 13.2.1.2 and 13.2.1.4).

Figure 57 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID sensors
14.3.11 Cryptography
For applications that require security functions, sophisticated crypto engines have
to be integrated into the tag. Since these engines must be powered by the available
energy of the tag, there is a trade-off between complexity of the crypto engine and
the other functions of the tag (i.e. reading range). There is a lack of crypto tags on
UHF, and a lack of asymmetric crypto tags on all air interfaces (frequencies). The
combination of new nano power technologies and new optimised crypto engines
may pave the way to passive crypto tags with acceptable reading ranges and crypto
performance (see chapter 13.2.1.2.1).

Figure 58 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID cryptography



303


14.3.12 ICT architectures
RFID applications that need networking functionality (e.g. sensor networks, ambi-
ent intelligence systems) require tags with the ability to communicate with other
devices (e.g. tags, nodes, sensors, routers, hubs). Active tags can use their in-
creased communication capabilities to connect to networks or to build networks
(e.g. with other tags, mesh network). Smart tag networking, inter-tag communica-
tion (ad-hoc) and in general wireless (sensor) networks may be established. Such
networks help to achieve higher reading rates (time and completeness) and/or
higher reading ranges (multi-hop reads). RFID tag systems may interoperate with
other networks (e.g. low power sensor networks based on ZigBee technology; see
chapter 13.2.1.4.1).

Figure 59 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID ICT architectures
14.3.13 Socio-economic aspects
RFID systems that are used in the retail sector or otherwise get in contact with con-
sumers need proper addressing of socio-economic aspects. The acceptance and
willingness of the consumer to adopt RFID technology will help to remove perceived
barriers to RFID introduction. Trust and acceptance of RFID technology will only
grow with correct information about the properties of the various RFID technologies
and how the technology is used in a specific application or scenario. Many present
and future RFID applications require securing of data transfer and data storage on
the RFID tag. Research and development is needed in order to effectively prevent
tag cloning, compromising (personal) data, eavesdropping, man-in-the-middle at-
tacks, etc.
For many applications where huge numbers of tags are used (item tagging) and the
tags cannot be re-used, environmentally compatible or neutral RFID tags are
needed in order to avoid electronic waste. The introduction of non-toxic electronics
(e.g. polymer) may help to achieve environmentally compatible tags.



304



Figure 60 Short, mid and long term R&D timeframe for RFID socio-economic aspects



305


15 Conclusions
Work package 1 of the coordination action CE RFID is entitled RFID Roadmap. For
the first time, the activities in work package 1 will contribute to outline a technol-
ogy roadmap of RFID to be reviewed and agreed by European RFID stakeholders.
Chapter 3 analysed and described the current state-of-the-art of RFID technologies.
The various technologies summarised as RFID have been considered from several
points of view. Chapter 12 looked for relevant international R&D activities with re-
spect to RFID technologies. A database with more than 270 international activities
has been collected and classified. Representative examples concerning technology
aspects, application-specific topics, and socio-economic aspects have been ex-
tracted and described. Still existing technology bottlenecks and foreseeable R&D
approaches to cope with these bottlenecks have been derived from the presentation
of the current state-of-the-art and relevant R&D activities regarding RFID technolo-
gies chapter 13. Based on all previous findings chapter 14 defined a timeline for the
future development of RFID systems in form of a technology roadmap containing
short, mid, and long-term topics. This roadmap overlaps and benefits the technol-
ogy roadmap of the European Technology Platform on Smart Systems Integration
(EPoSS).
The following sections will summarise the results of the work items within work
package 1 as well as evaluate the findings in terms of Europes current position and
probable future development in RFID technologies. According to the three main
topics the results are evaluated with the help of an analysis of strengths, weak-
nesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT). A separate SWOT analysis has been
generated for each of the three topics together with a mapping of the topics to the
RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2).
15.1 Summary
RFID is an umbrella term for many individual auto-ID technologies with significantly
different parameters and properties. Work package 1 followed a two-dimensional
approach. Firstly, the roadmap based its investigations on todays most important
scenarios of RFID usage: logistics, ambient intelligence, and public security / iden-
tity management. Secondly, all R&D areas relevant to RFID have been considered,
i.e. microelectronics and MEMS, new materials, RF technology, software, as well as
IPR and patents.
In the first part of the summary, a general view of the current status of RFID tech-
nology applications in Europe has been derived from the results of the previous



306


chapters. The second part contains a three-fold SWOT analysis structure to the
three main topics of work package 1:
RFID Technologies State-of-the-art
RFID Technologies International R&D activities
RFID Technologies Bottlenecks and R&D approaches
Market status
Europe's position on the global RFID market for 2007-2008 has been compared to
other continents. Retail supply chain management (SCM), consumer electronics
logistics, returnable asset tagging and industrial applications are leading RFID
adoption and more application examples will follow near-term.
Retail sector
Metro mandate is the driving force in Europe for EPC Gen2 compliant UHF RFID use
in retail supply chain management, but also other retail companies have made sig-
nificant progress in the last annual period (2006-2007). All the big retail players at
market are investigating RFID, having pilots ongoing (for example: Carrefour,
Tesco, Ahold, Delhaize, Rewe) or are starting limited roll-outs in some specific
product categories. In 2008, RFID pilots are moving towards real roll-out phases as
part of normal logistics process control. Marks & Spencer roll-out is including more
and more product groups which will be item-level tagged.
Item-level tagging has already been realised with some of the most expensive
products like consumer electronics, apparels and accessories etc. The big question
still is how broadly item-level applications can create enough return-on-investment
(ROI), and what timeline is needed for full-scale item-level tagging or if it will ever
cover all the products which are presently bar-coded?
Concerning item-level tagging, adequate measures for data protection and con-
sumer privacy have to be implemented. This can be based on existing killing-the-
tag functions at the point of sale (POS) or data encrypting technology as there will
be no link between consumers, products or locations. Industry, together with con-
sumers, is looking for cost-effective solutions to handle this issue in an acceptable
way.
RFID and antitheft systems
RFID combined with EAS (electronic article surveillance) functionality is considered
as a very promising near-future application among several retail and RFID technol-
ogy providers. Combined tags will benefit business as well as functional issues; cost



307


savings for having a single tag instead of two separate ones; and better controlled
online inventory in case that something has been stolen despite of being tagged.
RFA (radio frequency activation) combined with RFID enables product activation
(for example CD/DVD) only after a successful registration at point of sales. Before
registration and activation the product itself is practically worthless so that the
product itself will decrease interest for stealing it from storages or shops.
Track and trace for food
Due to recent examples of contaminated food supply and risks of global diseases,
the food industry is looking for more secure and effective ways to track and trace
food origins as well as temperatures during shipment and the quality of food in dif-
ferent logistics phases.
So-called sensor tags, i.e. RFID combined with other technology (e.g. temperature
measurement etc.), might solve the problem or at least be part of a full solution
enabling better control tools for food industry and, in the end, safer food for all
European consumers.
Consumer electronics
Many large consumer electronics suppliers (for example: HP, Nokia, Toshiba, Sie-
mens, Sony) are piloting by already using RFID in order to handle internal logistics.
In the next phase some of them will be able to offer RFID interfaces to their retail
customers and logistics companies. There are several benefits in consumer elec-
tronics, due to the use of RFID. Below some examples are listed, categorised by
usage areas.



308


Benefits Area
Sourcing components/modules
Production / internal logistics
External logistics
Manufacturer
Product authentication
Inventory
In shop marketing
Cross-sales
Antitheft
Retailer
.com web shops
Pairing of electronics
Consumer
Maintenance & service
Warranty & returns & recalls
Asset tracking
Recycling process
After sales
Table 50 Several benefits using RFID
Since there are several application areas where RFID creates benefits, consumer
electronics usage are expected to rapidly grow within the next five years.
Returnable assets
Returnable assets (in various business segments) possess the most potentiality to
achieve return-on-investment (ROI) within a few months only. Many container
owners and pooling companies are recently investigating on or releasing roll-outs
for RFID tagged assets like: plastic crates, roll cages, pallets, metal containers, bar-
rels etc. Business opportunities for returnable assets concern more efficient logis-
tics, the faster length of asset rotation, faster invoicing processes, tracking solu-
tions for end-customer use and tracing assets by owners. Targeting to sustainable
economical development, use of returnable containers has motivated this area to
grow fast. With adopting RFID, this industry can create some extra benefits and
alternative processes which are cost-effective, ecologically friendly and more effec-
tive than traditionally logistics processes based on corrugate cardboard.
Ticketing
Today, the use of RFID in transportation ticketing applications has shifted to a level
where monthly volumes of several tens of millions passive RFID inlays are reality
for travellers.
Also, sport happenings, theme and amusement parks are releasing more and more
roll-outs. There are opportunities for RFID to offer a different world of theme park



309


experience. Value added services for sport happenings are easy to implement with
RFID-based tickets (for example VIP lounge areas and functionalities).
Industrial sector
A well-established RFID application sector lies in industrial logistics and the areas of
production and manufacturing. Processes for production, automation and logistics
are controlled by the means of closed-loop systems. Manufacturers are investigat-
ing how quality, safety, and production efficiency can be improved by the use of the
whole range of RFID systems, starting with low-level ID read-only tags and ending
with sensor, actuator, network and ambient intelligence systems.
Access control and tracking & tracing
Access control (see chapter 4.3.2) and the tracking & tracing of individuals (espe-
cially animal tracking, see chapter 4.3.6) are further examples of applications
where RFID technology has already been used for many years and where the avail-
able systems have reached a high degree of maturity. These sectors will also bene-
fit from new developments resulting in further cost reduction of tags and readers as
well as extending functionality (e.g. improved security function, more user data).
The following SWOT analysis has been conducted from a European point of view
(where possible) in order to assess Europes position regarding the work packages
topics. Each item has been assessed for which application field (A-H) or which sub-
category (AA-AF, BA-BF, , HA-HE) it might apply (see CE RFID, RFID Reference
Model, chapter 4.2). The codes (A-H, AA, , HE) are appended to each item in curly
braces (e.g. RFID can be used in soiling areas {AF, BD, BE, BF, DB, DC, HB}; i.e.
this item is particularly relevant for manufacturing logistics (AF), vehicles (BD),
aeroplanes (BE), automation/process control (BF), animal tracking (DB), personal
tracking (DC), road tolling systems (HB)).
The first SWOT analysis focuses on RFID Technologies State-of-the-art (chap-
ter 3).



310


Strengths
RFID has a strong background in Europe {A-
H}.
Existence of internationally accepted and well
established standards, e.g. ISO 18000, EP-
Cglobal (HF and UHF) {A-C,F,G}.
International standards are available for
some applications fields {A-G}.
New EPCglobal standards are now integrated
into ISO/IEC standards (e.g. EPCglobal class
1 Gen. 2 = ISO 18000-6C) {A-C,F,G}.
RFID provides higher data capacity than
other auto-ID technologies {BB,BD,BE,
BF,DA,E,F,G}.
Real-time status update for tagged objects
{AA,AB,BB,BC,BF,CD,DA,EA,EB, FB,GD}.
Broad technical knowledge base for further
progress of RFID technologies {A-H}.
Easy integration into enterprise (IT) systems
due to existing auto-ID interfaces (e.g. bar-
code) {A-C,F,G}.
RFID sensors are predestined devices for
ambient intelligence systems {BF,GD}.
RFID enables security functions (e.g. anti-
counterfeiting) {CE,DA,EB,FB,FG,HB,HC}.
Optimisation in logistics and supply chain
management {A-C,F}.
RFID supports application fields (e.g. auto-
mation, production, manufacturing) not cov-
ered by other auto-ID technologies
{BB,BC,BF,CD,CE,DA,DB,DC,EA, EB,GD,HB}.
Safety improvements in health care
{FB,FC}.
RFID can be tailored to niche applica-
tions {BB,DB,DC,EB,FB}.
RFID manufacturers and users can be
found in all industrial nations world-
wide {A-H}.
Many European RFID stakeholders.
Germany has a big share, but also
smaller countries (e.g. Finland, Swit-
zerland and Austria) are active {A-
H}.
Strong European position in LF and
HF in terms of number of vendors {A-
C,E,F,GB}.
Market shares between passive and
active systems are clearly defined (no
competition)
{active: AE,CD,FB,GD,HB}.
Many RFID systems are available with
different properties in terms of costs,
reading range, read/write capacity,
standards, sensors functions, enclo-
sures, security features, multi-tag
reading, lifetime, robustness, etc. {A-
H}.
RFID reading does not require line-of-
sight conditions {A-H}.
RFID provides multi-tag reading in
one read session {A-C,F,G}.
RFID can be used in soiling areas
{AF,BD,BE,BF,DB,DC,HB}.
Table 51 SWOT analysis: RFID Technologies State-of-the-art strengths



311


Weaknesses Opportunities
Not all application fields are cov-
ered by standards yet
{AE,BB,BC,BF,CC, CD,
CE,CF,EB,FB,FC,GD,HB,HC}.
Many standards (especially in the
data and network area) are not
widely accepted and used. Their
future development is unclear {A-
C,F,G}.
The UHF air interface (840-960
MHz) is not globally harmonised
due to conflicts with other estab-
lished services (e.g. mobile phones)
{A-H}.
No fallback procedures in case of
RFID malfunctions (unless ID num-
ber is printed on the object; tags
are not readable by humans) {A-
H}.
Compatibility lacks tag ID number
and code systems issued by differ-
ent agencies {A-C,F,G}.
Lack of interoperability between
components from different vendors
(tag, readers) {A-C,F,G}.
Lack of application guidelines and
standards {AE,BB,BC,BF,CC,CD,
CE,CF,EB,FB,FC,GD,HB,HC}.
Many applications need a tailored
RFID middleware {AD,AE,AF,BA,
BC,AD,AE,AF,BA,BC,BD,BE,BF,CD,
CE,CF,DA,EB,FB, FC,GD,HB,HC}.
Unnoticed tag reading is possible
(privacy issue) {A-H}.
European RFID regulations (e.g.
small bandwidth, listen-before-talk
(LBT)) are still more restrictive than
that in other regions (e.g. USA),
leading to lower performance and
higher costs {A-H}.
Many relevant patents are in the
hand of a couple of enterprises
(many US-based companies) {A-
H}.
Support the European involvement in interna-
tional standardisation activities {A-H}.
Support SME involvement in international
standardisation activities {A-H}.
Swift implementation of existing UHF regula-
tions in all European member states {A-H}.
Improve UHF radio regulations (e.g. harmo-
nised UHF band, elimination of listen-before-
talk (LBT)) {A-H}.
Allocation of additional UHF spectrum for RFID
(global harmonisation preferred) {A-H}.
Promote a common radio frequency regulation
authority in Europe {A-H}.
RFID migration will be accelerated by interop-
erability to barcode systems {A-C,F,G}.
ISO/IEC could complement standards in appli-
cation fields not covered by EPCglobal
{BD,BE,BF,CD,CE,CF,DA,DB,
DC,EB,FB,GB,GD,HB,HC}.
Data protection and privacy related technolo-
gies from the smart card industry can be trans-
ferred to RFID {AC,AD,AE,
BG,CA,CB,CC,CD,CE,DA,DB,DC,EB,FB, FC,HB}.
Base the Object Naming Service (ONS) on
international participation {A-C,F,G}.
Ensure data format interoperability for differ-
ent code issuing agencies { A-C, F,G}.
Develop international application guidelines
and standards
{ AE,BB,BC, BF,CC,CD,
CE,CF,EB,FB,FC,GD,HB,HC}.
Support the development of Sensor RFID stan-
dards {AE,BD,BF,CD,CE, FC,GD}.
Support licence-free standards {A-H}.
Clarification and harmonisation of Reasonable
and Non Discriminatory Licensing (RAND) con-
ditions {A-H}.
Security standards including data protection
and privacy issues {AC,AD,AE,
BG,CA,CB,CC,CD,CE,DA,DB,DC,EB, FB,FC,HB}.
Table 52 SWOT analysis: RFID Technologies State-of-the-art
weaknesses and opportunities



312


Threats
Restricted spectrum resources in Europe.
No uniform frequency policy in the EU {A-
H}.
Many relevant U.S. American IPR in RFID
{A-H}.
Object Naming Service (ONS) is U.S.A.
dominated {A-C,F,G}.
Insufficiently addressed data protection and
privacy issues {AC,AD,AE,BG,CA,
CB,CC,CD,CE,DA,DB,DC,EB, FB,FC,HB}.
Differing worldwide regulations (power
level, operational modes (frequency hop-
ping spread spectrum (FHSS), listen-
before-talk (LBT)) {A-H}.
Regulations (frequency allocation, power
levels, operational modes) are controlled on
a national basis. Tedious and time-
consuming harmonisation process {A-H}.
Low public acceptance level of RFID tech-
nologies (data protection, privacy, safety,
and environmental aspects) {A-H}.
High licensing costs for the usage of intel-
lectual property rights (IPR) {A-H}.
Unclear IPR situation and Reasonable and
Non Discriminatory Licensing (RAND) condi-
tions (e.g. can high-performance Gen 2
tags and readers be built without using
Intermec's patents?) {A-C,F,G}.
No licence free and internationally ac-
cepted standards {A-H}.
Unauthorised access to RFID tag data
{AC,AD,AE,BG,CA,CB,CC,CD,CE,DA,
DB,DC,EB, FB,FC,HB}.
Unauthorised access to RFID backend
data {A-H}.
Possible aggregation of consumer data
{A-H}.
Strong position of USA in terms of
technology, bandwidth allocations,
intellectual property rights (IPR) {A-
H}.
U.S.A. has the largest number of ven-
dors in UHF (840-960 MHz) {A-H}.
Competing standards or guidelines {A-
H}.
Slow standards development {A-H}.
De-facto standards being created by
global players {A-H}.
Well-established, widespread, and low-
cost barcode systems (including two-
dimensional versions) {A-C,F,G}.
Many negative reports on RFID in the
media {A-H}.
Table 53 SWOT analysis: RFID Technologies State-of-the-art threats
The second SWOT analysis focuses on RFID Technologies International R&D Ac-
tivities.



313


Strengths Weaknesses
Many studies have been conducted to investi-
gate RFID application scenarios {A-C,F,G}.
Secure RFID systems exist, that address data
security, data protection and privacy issues
{AC,AD,AE,BG,CA,CB,CC,CD,CE,DA,
DB,DC,EB, FB,FC,HB}.
Cooperation in transnational funded EU pro-
jects {A-C,F,G}.
The instrument of European Technology Plat-
forms (ETPs) stimulates synergy effects be-
tween RFID and related technologies {A-H}.
High involvement of European based enter-
prises and SMEs in research programmes and
the development of various RFID technologies
(e.g. passive, semi-passive, active systems,
reader technology, security solutions) {A-H}.
Many application-specific R&D activities in
Europe (studies, R&D centres, contract re-
search) {A-C,F,G}.
Large number of worldwide R&D activities re-
lated to EPCglobal standards (e.g. Auto-ID
labs, but also European projects like BRIDGE)
{A-C,F,G}.
Negative results from studies are
rarely published and perceived (flat
learning curve) {A-H}.
Current low-cost passive tags can-
not offer security features because
crypto-engines cause higher power
consumption and higher costs {A-
C,F,G}.
The software and RFID middleware
related part of R&D activities world-
wide is rather low (approximately
below 10%) {A-H}.
Opportunities Threats
Publicly funded projects provide valuable in-
formation (positive as well as negative results)
to the public {A-H}.
Use of standardised peer-reviewed encryption
techniques for secure RFID applications
{AC,AD,AE,BG,CA,CB,CC,CD,CE,DA,DB,
DC,EB,FB,FC,HB}.
Clustering of RFID projects improves coher-
ence between running activities {A-H}.
Introduction of new secure RFID technologies
(e.g. UHF crypto engines, asymmetric authen-
tication) {AC,AD,AE,BG,CA,CB,CC,
CD,CE,DA,DB,DC,EB, FB,FC,HB }.
Increase the number of directly software re-
lated R&D projects {A-H}.
Strong U.S. American influence in
standardisation and technology {A-
H}.
Many U.S. American driven R&D
activities (e.g. Auto-ID Labs) {A-C,
F, G}.
Implementation of the Internet of
Things is hindered by its complexity
{AC, AD, AE, AF, BD, BE, BG, C, FB,
FC, GD}.
Many existing secure RFID solutions
use proprietary/non-standard en-
cryption implementations. Serious
flaws have been discovered in such
RFID chips {AC, AD, AE, BG, CA,
CB, CC, CD, CE, DA, DB, DC, EB,
FB, FC, HB}.
Table 54 SWOT analysis: RFID Technologies International R&D Activities
The third SWOT analysis focuses on RFID Technology Bottlenecks and R&D Ap-
proaches.



314


Strengths
Unambiguous and secure identifica-
tion of objects (anti-counterfeiting)
{A-H}.
Many mature RFID systems are on the market
used in certain applications for many years
(e.g. automation, production, access control,
animal tracking, etc.)
{AA,AB,AE,AF,BA,BB,BC,BD,BE,
BF,DA,DB,DC,EA,EB,GB,HB}.
Weaknesses
Few UHF tags are available with
security functions
{AC,AD,AE,BG,CA,CB,CC,CD,
CE,DA,DB,DC,EB, FB,FC,HB}.
Adverse effects with tag surround-
ing materials (metals, liquids) are
still a problem {A-C,F,G,HB}.
Reading rates near 100 % are still a
challenge {A-H}.
Lack of widely accepted testing
methods {A-H}.
Current sensor tags are active (include a bat-
tery) {AE,BD,BF,CD,CE,FC,GD}
Global UHF tags provide suboptimal perform-
ance due to non-harmonised band allocations
{A-C,F,G}.
Many high performance readers are bulky,
stationary and expensive {A-C,F,G,H}.
Modelling and simulation tools are limited, slow
and expensive {A-H}.
Lack of public market studies {A-C,F,G}.
Low trust and acceptance of RFID in the public
{A-H}.
Table 55 SWOT analysis: RFID Technology Bottlenecks and R&D Approaches
strengths and weaknesses



315


Opportunities
Last mile support of product develop-
ment in order to bring a prototype to the
market, especially for small and me-
dium-sized enterprises (SMEs) {A-H}.
Many new applications emerge with
reliable environmentally independent
tags (e.g. on-metal-tags, on-liquid-tags)
{A-C,F-H}.
Ultra low power chip designs enhance
tag performance and functionality (e.g.
nano power sensors) {A-H}.
Increased reading reliability (approxi-
mately 100%) opens the door to many
applications {A-H}.
Improved mounting and manufacturing
technologies lower costs {A-H}.
The development of enhanced and stan-
dardised testing methods (e.g. near/far
field tests) improve interoperability and
reliability {A-H}.
Printable electronics are a major step to
further lower tagging costs {A-C,F,G}.
Multi-band tags help to resolve different
frequency allocations worldwide and to
meet user requirements {A-H}.
New energy sources will improve perform-
ance and lifetime of active tags
{AE,BD,BF,CD,CE,FC,GD,HB}.
Additional tag functionality (e.g. sensors,
actuators, data processing, security, net-
working) expands RFID application fields
(e.g. ambient intelligence systems)
{AB,AD,AE,BC,BD,BE,BF}.
Miniaturisation and integration technology
lead to small, high-performance and cost-
effective readers, enabling mobile applica-
tions {A-H}.
Higher frequencies, ultra-wide band tech-
nology enable high data rates, higher
localisation accuracy {A,BB,BC,BD,BF,
BG,CA,CB,CC,CE,DA,DB,DC,FB,FC,GD,
HC}.
The development of new integrated mod-
elling and simulation tools support opti-
mised system designs {A-H}.
Published results of market studies will
help many small and medium-sized enter-
prises (SMEs) to calculate their return-on-
investment (ROI) in RFID technologies
{A-H}.
Information campaigns for showing bene-
fits, advantages, but also the risks and
limits of RFID technology in an objective
way {A-H}.
Threats
Tags without security functions (encryp-
tion, authentication) are clonable, re-
gardless which organisation controls the
uniqueness of tag ID numbers { AC,AD,
AE,BG,CA,CB,CC,CD,CE,DA,DB,DC,EB,
FB,FC,HB }.
RFID systems can easily interfere with
other RFID devices or systems using simi-
lar radio frequencies {A-H}.
Table 56 SWOT analysis: RFID Technology Bottlenecks and R&D Approaches
opportunities and threats
15.2 Recommendations
The following subsection summarises the recommendations for the European
stakeholders elaborated in chapters 13 and 14 (in particular from RFID Technology
Bottlenecks and R&D Approaches, RFID Technology Roadmap, and the SWOT
Analysis). All items on the list are assigned to a set of stakeholders that should be



316


addressed for the respective item. The list is followed by a mapping of the recom-
mended topics to the RFID Reference Model (see chapter 4.2).
According to the RFID Stakeholder Model (see Appendix 17.4), stakeholders are
classified by these categories:
Stakeholder Categories Abbr.
Research & Development S1
RFID technology suppliers S2
Business associations S3
Government & governmental institutions S4
Standardisation organisations S5
Quasi-autonomous and non-governmental organisations S6
RFID end user companies S7
Table 57 RFID stakeholder categories
In the following text the abbreviations S1...S7 are used to indicate the connection
between the topic of the recommendation and the stakeholder group addressed.
Hardware
Improving UHF on-metal-tags and on-liquid-tags (S1, S2)
The readability (reading range and reliability) for UHF on-metal-tags or on-
liquid-tags can be improved by antennas design and packaging.
Ultra low power tags, alternative energy sources, new battery types (S1,
S2, S4)
The development of ultra low power tags by optimisation of chip design and
power saving algorithms will help to increase functionality, especially with
passive tags (no energy sources). Energy harvesting (taking energy from
the environment) will also help to improve the performance. Active tags
(tags using energy sources for communication) could profit from new bat-
tery types.
Packaging and mounting, tag integrated with product (S1, S2)
Tag packaging and mounting is a huge cost factor (about half of the tag
cost) for tag manufacturers. The integration of the tag into the product may
help reducing these costs. Low cost manufacturing can also be achieved by
optimising the existing silicon processes. To print the antenna structure (e.g.
conductive ink) directly is another step to low-cost manufacturing. Gener-
ally, all production processes have to be optimised for low-cost production.
Solution providers and system integrators should adhere to standards where
possible or try to achieve standards.



317


Printable electronics, Polymer Technology (S1, S2, S4)
Direct printing of the antenna structure (e.g. conductive ink) is another step
to low cost manufacturing. With polymer technology, the transponder chip
and possibly later also the whole tag can be printed in one step. Very low
cost tags (less than 0.05 a tag) can be printed. Experts estimate that it
will take about 10 years (as of 2007) to bring the technology to mass pro-
duction, so funding can help to develop polymer technology.
Sensor applications (S1, S2, S7)
The integration of sensor functionality (e.g. pressure, temperature) into the
tag directly adds a feature to measure physical properties of the tagged ob-
ject. RFID applications will benefit from this capability.
Multi-frequency, multi-standard readers (S1, S2, S5)
Readers supporting multi-frequency and multi-standard modes would allow
reading tags from different manufacturers and standards. This is also a pos-
sibility to cope with region-specific UHF regulations.
Low-cost manufacturing (S1, S2)
Low-cost manufacturing can be achieved by optimising existing manufactur-
ing processes (e.g. silicon processes), integration of the tag into the pack-
age and antennas printing.
Localisation (S1, S2, S4)
RFID systems by which the reader not only reads the ID number of each tag
but also locates it (e.g. distance, angle) are already available on the market.
There is still a need to reduce high costs, to increase position accuracy,
tracking speed, and reading reliability.
Robustness / new materials SAW (S1, S2)
Some applications need RFID systems that operate in harsh environmental
conditions (e.g. high temperatures). Conventional RFID systems might fail
here (e.g. silicon based technology function up to 200 C only). Although
first systems exist, cost reduction, combination with sensors and reliability
are still challenging R&D topics here.
Higher Frequencies (S1, S2, S4, S5)
The usage of higher frequencies might meet the requirements for smaller
tag antennas, higher data rates, increased localisation resolution, etc. Fund-
ing in R&D and support of standardisation efforts is a great demand here.
Ultra-wide band (UWB) (S1, S4)
The rather new ultra-wide band technology (UWB) should be investigated



318


whether it can push high data rate RFID applications. Public funding could
increase Europes level of this new technology area.
Tags with display (S1, S2, S7)
Tags can only be read by interrogators (reader devices). Tags with an addi-
tional display (e.g. bi-stable zero power display) may present programmable
information to the user. This might be required by some applications and
improve public acceptance of RFID.
Environmentally compatible tags (S1, S2, S4)
With the introduction of mass-application of RFID tags the need for envi-
ronmentally compatible recycling or disposal of tags will rise. Funding R&D
activities might be a key factor to a solution.
System on chip, miniaturisation (S1, S2)
Improved integration technologies may lead to tag chips with lower power
consumption (better performance), smaller and cheaper readers, and reduc-
tion of system costs.
Applications
Sensors Networks (S1, S2)
Networks of tags with sensor functionality are the basic component to build
ambient intelligence systems. High level decisions can be based on a large
set of measurement values.
Improving reading reliability to 100 %, reading range (S1, S2)
Reading reliability is one of the most important topics in many RFID applica-
tions, far before reading range. Many approaches from R&D, thorough inves-
tigation of user requirements, and development of specific guidelines will as-
sist to reach this goal.
Last mile support of product development in order to bring a prototype to
the market, especially for SMEs (S2, S4)
Many R&D activities more or less end at prototype stage before ever enter-
ing the market. In particular, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)
will need funding to cover their efforts to introduce new technologies.
Further development of applications (e.g. funding anti-counterfeiting tech-
nologies for pharmaceuticals) (S2, S4)
Some market segments need tailored solutions with large pre-financing,
standardisation, as well as worldwide coordination and acceptance. Without
funding, even big players will refrain from committing themselves to such
ventures.



319


Market studies on RFID applications to show ROI for SMEs (S1, S3, S4)
Although many studies are available around RFID, there is a demand for ap-
plication-specific studies to help small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)
to assess their return-on-investment (ROI) with a proper application of RFID
technology. The results of such studies should be made public.
Networks / software
Plug and play infrastructure, improved system integration (S1, S2, S4)
Users of RFID systems often cannot cope with the complex installation of the
systems in order to get maximum performance. Technological assistance in
creating the appropriate infrastructure is an important R&D topic.
Internet of Things (S1, S4, S6)
The idea of the Internet of Things tries to combine RFID technology with
techniques of the internet. The Object Naming Service (ONS) e.g. uses the
Domain Name System (DNS) of the internet in order to provide links to fur-
ther information about the ID number of a tag. This service is pushed by one
big RFID user organisation (GS1, EPCglobal [81]) and is currently limited to
EPCglobal RFID tags. In order to build a real Internet of Things this principle
should be extended to many other RFID systems as well.
Reader-to-reader communication (S1, S2, S4, S5)
New concepts of communicating RFID systems will help in terms of interop-
erability, interference immunity, dense reader arrangements, etc. Activities
in standardisation, regulations, R&D is required to enable such scenarios.
Base ONS system on international participation (S4, S5, S6)
Current plans to implement the Object Naming Service (ONS) (a base tech-
nology for the Internet of Things) follow a centralistic approach where one
company controls the whole set of ONS servers. The distribution of these
tasks to many international providers as it is implemented in various
other parts of the internet will help to gain user confidence in such sys-
tems as well as to improve reliability and resilience of the ONS.
More effective anti-collision protocols (S1, S2)
In situations where many tags are within the reading range of a reader (e.g.
inventory applications) the reader has to use adequate anti-collision proto-
cols in order to be able to address each tag individually in one or more read-
ing sessions. Although rather powerful systems and standards exist already,
there is still room for improving recognition speed, reliability, reading rates,
etc.



320


Data processing, networks (S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7)
The successful implementation of an RFID system does not only include tags
and readers but also the processing of tag data and the communication with
other system components. Efforts from standardisation organisations have
already started to establish standards t build appropriate networks for RFID
applications. It is still unclear if and to what extend users will accept and
implement these systems. An ongoing discussion of all stakeholders is re-
quired.
Systems
Standard interfaces (reader, RFID middleware, system/software, database
integration) (S1, S2, S3, S5, S7)
Standardised hardware and software interfaces between the components of
an RFID system improve interoperability of global supply chain systems.
Smart systems (tag database/software) (S1, S2, S4)
Smart systems e.g. in the areas of medical or traffic control benefit signifi-
cantly from the integration of RFID systems. Funded R&D activities may help
to implement successful pilot projects.
Standards / regulations
UHF air interface (840-960 MHz) is not globally harmonised due to conflicts
with other established services (e.g. mobile phones) (S3, S4, S5)
The UHF air interface (840-960 MHz) is very important for RFID. Due to the
lack of global harmonisation only small parts of this frequency area are allo-
cated in different countries. RFID systems cannot be optimised for this large
frequency range. In order to improve global usage (e.g. supply chain appli-
cations) efforts for a harmonised global allocation (similar frequency and
bandwidth) should be engaged.
European RFID regulations (e.g. small bandwidth, LBT, power levels) are still
more restrictive than in other regions (e.g. USA) and lead to lower perform-
ance (S3, S4, S5)
Due to restrictive regulations RFID systems in Europe provide lower per-
formance and cause higher costs than in other regions. Efforts should be
taken to balance these regulations in order to avoid these disadvantages.
Interoperability of components from different vendors (tag, readers) (S2,
S4, S5, S6)
Standardised testing methods and other activities to improve interoperability
of components from various vendors worldwide should be supported.



321


ISO/IEC could complement standards in application fields not covered by
EPCglobal (S2, S3, S5)
On the one hand there are competing standards, on the other hand there is
a lack of standards in many application fields. ISO/IEC could fill this gap.
Standardised, peer-reviewed encryption for secure RFID systems (S1, S2,
S5)
Implementations of secure RFID systems are becoming more and more im-
portant. The current widespread usage of proprietary/non-standard crypto-
graphic algorithms holds the risk of successful attacks leading to compro-
mised systems. R&D should be supported to prepare the introduction of
standardised peer-reviewed crypto algorithms (symmetric and asymmetric)
in RFID.
Europe-wide (better: international) regulations/standards. Possible inclusion
of EPCglobal standards. (S1, S2, S5)
European or global harmonisation and coordination in standardisation and
establishing regulations should be supported in order to avoid competing
standards or regulations.
Fallback procedures in case of RFID malfunctions (tags are not readable by
humans) (S1, S2, S7)
R&D activities should be engaged to investigate fallback procedures to cope
with cases of RFID malfunctions. A first attempt could be to print at least the
ID number on the tags in order to make them readable by humans.
Data security, data protection, privacy
Data security, privacy by design (S1, S2, S5, S6)
Many security related RFID applications can be resolved by the correct im-
plementation of security technology (e.g. authentication, encryption). The
introduction of standardised and peer-reviewed procedures will lead to se-
cure RFID system designs.
Increase public acceptance by (S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7)
There is a need of research into the issue how to improve the acceptance
and willingness of the consumer to adopt RFID, how to remove perceived
barriers to RFID introduction. Trust and acceptance of RFID technology will
only grow with correct information about the properties of the various RFID
technologies and how the technology is used in a specific application.
Illustrate the contribution of RFID to healthcare (security, safety) (S1, S2,
S4)
The healthcare sector is an important RFID application field. There is a great



322


potential to improve quality, safety, to reduce costs, and to optimise hospital
management. The broad introduction of RFID solutions should be accompa-
nied by standardisation activities.
Information whether RFID is used; Information about tag data / kill feature
(S2, S6, S7)
Guidelines for proper addressing of data protection and privacy issues
should be developed, including sufficient information for people that get into
contact with RFID systems.
Prevent unnoticed tag reading (S1, S2, S6, S7)
One of the security and privacy threats of RFID is the possibility of unnoticed
tag reading. Manufacturers and implementers of RFID systems should estab-
lish appropriate measures and guidelines to clearly indicate RFID reading
events.
Ensure data security in large networks; Reliable data encryption (S1, S2, S5,
S6, S7)
Security measures must not end at the tag or reader level. In case data are
processed that can be assigned to persons, adequate procedures should be
implemented in the networked systems transferring and processing RFID or
related data.
Introduction of new technologies for secure RFID systems (e.g. optimised
crypto engines) (S1, S2, S5, S6)
The importance of secure RFID applications should be backed up with corre-
sponding new state-of-the-art security technologies (e.g. optimised crypto
engines, asymmetric encryption, mutual authentication).
The following tables display the mapping of the recommendations to the RFID
Reference Model (see chapter 4.2).



323


Recommendations RFID-application
field
Subcategories
I
m
p
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H
i
g
h
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f
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q
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c
i
e
s

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical track-
ing & tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product safety,
quality and informa-
tion
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y
D: Access control
and tracking & trac-
ing of individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y E: Loyalty, memb.
and payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y Y Y G: Sports, leisure
and household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
3
2
4


R
e
c
o
m
m
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f
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S
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Improving UHF on-metal tags
Ultra low power tags, new batt.
Packaging and mounting
Printable electronics
Sensor applications
Multi-frequ., multi-std. readers
Low cost manufacturing
Localisation
Robustness, new materials
Higher frequencies
H
B
:

R
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t
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s
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(
1
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325


Recommendations RFID-application
field
Subcategories
U
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t
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b
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(
U
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AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical tracking
& tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
B: Production, moni-
toring and mainte-
nance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product safety,
quality and informa-
tion
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y
D: Access control and
tracking & tracing of
individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y Y E: Loyalty, memb.
and payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y Y G: Sports, leisure and
household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
3
2
6


R
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c
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m
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S
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Ultra-wide band (UWB)
Tags with display
Environmentally compat. tags
System on chip, miniaturisation
Sensor networks
Reading reliability 100 %
Last mile support for SMEs
Development of applications
Market studies on applications
Plug and play infrastructure
H
B
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R
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t
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s
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(
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)




327


Recommendations RFID-application
field
Subcategories
I
n
t
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t

o
f

T
h
i
n
g
s

R
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p
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D
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F
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I
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r
a
b
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l
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t
y

o
f

c
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m
p
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n
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n
t
s

AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical track-
ing & tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product safety,
quality and informa-
tion
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y
D: Access control
and tracking & trac-
ing of individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y Y Y E: Loyalty, memb.
and payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y G: Sports, leisure
and household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
3
2
8


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Internet of Things
Reader-to-reader communicat.
International ONS system
Effective anti-collision protocols
Data processing, networks
Standard interfaces
Smart systems
UHF (840-960 MHz) harmonisat.
European RFID regulations
Interoperability of components
H
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:

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(
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)




329


Recommendations RFID-application
field
Subcategories
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AA: Inhouse logistics Y Y Y Y Y
AB: Closed loop logistics Y Y Y Y Y
AC: Open logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AD: Postal applications Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
AE: Dangerous goods logistics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
A: Logistical track-
ing & tracing
AF: Manufacturing logistics Y Y Y Y Y
BA: Archive systems Y Y Y Y Y
BB: Asset management Y Y Y Y Y
BC: Facility management Y Y Y Y Y
BD: Vehicles Y Y Y Y Y Y
BE: Aeroplanes Y Y Y Y Y Y
BF: Autom./process control Y Y Y Y Y Y
B: Production,
monitoring and
maintenance
BG: Food and cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CA: Fast mov. cons. goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CB: Electronic goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CC: Textile goods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CD: Fresh/perishable foods Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
CE: Pharmaceutical Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
C: Product safety,
quality and informa-
tion
CF: Customer info. systems Y Y Y Y Y Y
DA: Access control systems Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
DB: Animal tracking Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
D: Access control
and tracking & trac-
ing of individuals
DC: Personal tracking Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
EA: Loyalty cards Y Y Y Y E: Loyalty, memb.
and payment
EB: Membership cards Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
FB: Hospital management Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y F: eHealth care
FC: Implants Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
GB: Rental systems Y Y Y Y Y Y G: Sports, leisure
and household
GD: Smart home Y Y Y Y Y
3
3
0


R
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c
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m
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s

ISO/IEC standards
Standard., peer-reviewed crypto
Europe-wide regulat./standards
Fallback procedures for RFID
Data security, privacy by design
Increase public acceptance
Contribution to healthcare
Information (RFID, kill feature)
Prevent unnoticed tag reading
Network security
Secure RFID technologies
H
B
:

R
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a
d

t
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l
l
i
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s
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(
4
)




331


16 References
[1] ISO 7498-1
http://www.iso.org
[2] Middleware Is the Key to RFID; Nicholas D. Evans; BearingPoint
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleprint/858/-1/82/
[3] RFID Viruses and Worms; Melanie R. Rieback, Patrick N. D. Simpson,
Bruno Crispo, Andrew S. Tanenbaum; Department of Computer Sci-
ence, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
http://www.rfidvirus.org
[4] Evaluating RFID Middleware; August 13, 2004; Sharyn Leaver with
Tamara Mendelsohn, Christine Spivey Overby, Esther H. Yuen; Forres-
ter Research, Inc.
http://www.forrester.com/Research/Document/Excerpt/0,7211,34390,
00.html
[5] Which RFID Middleware Is Best?; Sept. 1, 2004; Jonathan Collins; For-
rester Research, Inc.
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleprint/1106/-1/1/
[6] Online Buyer's Guide; RFID Journal
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/findvendor
[7] List of ERP software packages; Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ERP_software_packages
[8] see CE RFID, RFID Reference Model, application field A
[9] NXP, Sony Partner to Make Chip for NFC Apps; Nov. 22, 2006; Mary
Catherine O'Connor; RFID Journal
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/2842/
[10] Jerry Landt (Transcore), Barbara Catlin (Transcore); ver. 1.0, October
1, 2001; AIM Inc.
http://www.aimglobal.org/technologies/rfid/resources/shrouds_of_time
.pdf
[11] Database of World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)
http://www.wipo.int



332


[12] ISO/IEC 18000 (2004) Declared patents; 1 June 2003; members of SC
31/WG 4/SG 3
http://www.autoid.org/SC31/new_IP_20030601.htm
[13] EPCglobal Intellectual Property Policy; Rev. 12/15/2003 A; EPCglobal
http://www.epcglobalinc.org/what/ip_policy/031223EPCglobalIPPolicy1
2152003A.pdf
[14] EPCglobal Ratifies Gen 2 Standard; Dec. 16, 2004; Mark Roberti; RFID
Journal
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/1293/1/1/
[15] IBM's R&D Projects Include RFID, New Search Techniques; November
15, 2004 03:00 AM; Laurie Sullivan; InformationWeek
http://www.informationweek.com/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=526014
96
[16] Intermec Spells Out Licensing Plan; Aug. 16, 2004; Mark Roberti; RFID
Journal
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/1084/1/1/
[17] Intermec Supply Chain Solutions & Inventory Tracking
http://www.intermec.com
[18] Alien Seeks to Disprove Intermec Patent Infringement; June 2, 2006;
Mary Catherine O'Connor; RFID Journal
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/2386/
[19] Alien Technology Files Declaratory Judgment Action Against Intermec
to Prove Non-Infringement of RFID patents; June 1, 2006; Morgan Hill;
Alien Technology
http://www.alientechnology.com/newsevents/2006/press060106.php
[20] Intermec Files Patent Infringement Lawsuit against Alien Technology;
Complaint Specifies Alien's Generation 2 RFID Products; June 29,
2006; Intermec, Inc.
http://www.intermec.com/about_us/newsroom/pr_detail.aspx?c=1074
29&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=877708
[21] RFID Group Targets Patent Woes; Copyright 2005 Ziff Davis Media
Inc. All Rights Reserved. Originally appearing in Dev Source
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_zddvs/is_200508/ai_n14906258/p
rint



333


[22] Via Licensing Issues a Call for Patents for Its UHF RFID Patent Licens-
ing Program; 10/16/2006; Business Wire
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-154057982.html
[23] PolyIC "the chip printers"
http://www.polyic.com
[24] Lehrstuhl fr Technische Elektronik, Friedrich-Alexander-Universitt Er-
langen-Nrnberg
http://www.lfte.de
[25] Ferroxtag, smart on metal, smart on liquid, smart at speed Home;
FERROXCUBE
www.ferroxtag.com
[26] Impinj, RFID and Semiconductor Intellectual Property Technologies
http://www.impinj.com
[27] Hitachi Japan
http://www.hitachi.co.jp
[28] FEC International (M) Sdn Bhd
http://www.fecinc.com.my
[29] maxell:Product Lineup:Products for companies:RFID System, Coil-on-
Chip RFID
http://www.maxell.co.jp/e/products/industrial/rfid
[30] RFID / EPC Technology Solutions | Texas Instruments
http://www.ti.com/rfid/default.htm
[31] RFID / EPC Technology Solutions | Texas Instruments Document
Center Brochures/White Papers
http://www.ti.com/rfid/shtml/doc-center-brochures.shtml
[32] RFID / EPC Technology Solutions | Texas Instruments News News
Releases
http://www.ti.com/rfid/shtml/news-releases-rel01-17-05a.shtml
[33] EUREKA, A Europe-wide Network for Market-Oriented Industrial R&D
and Innovation
http://www.eureka.be



334


[34] Alien Technology Corporation
http://www.alientechnology.com
[35] IDENTEC SOLUTIONS
http://www.identecsolutions.com
[36] Melexis
http://www.melexis.com
[37] Sirit Inc.
http://www.sirit.com
[38] FEIG ELECTRONIC
http://www.feig.de
[39] Institut fr Elektrische Informationstechnik, TU Clausthal
http://www.iei.tu-clausthal.de
[40] IMTEK Institut fr Mikrosystemtechnik, Albert-Ludwigs-Universitt
Freiburg
http://www.imtek.uni-freiburg.de
[41] Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft
http://www.fraunhofer.de
[42] LogMotionLab Fraunhofer IFF Magdeburg
http://www.logmotionlab.de
[43] openID-center die offene Integrationsplattform fr Identifikations-
systeme
http://www.openid-center.de
[44] Projektbersicht Ko-RFID, Kolaboration und RFID "Forschungszent-
rum next generation media"
http://ko-rfid.hu-berlin.de
[45] Fachgebiet Logistik, Technische Universitt Dortmund
http://www.logidlab.de
[46] SOKYMAT AUTOMOTIVE
http://www.sokymat-automotive.de
[47] NXP
www.nxp.com



335


[48] PROACT Programme for Advanced Contactless Technol-
ogyhttp://proact.tugraz.at/about/index.htm
[49] Eos Consulting Innovation Management and Governance
http://www.eos-consultingllc.com/govinnovation.htm
[50] FOLLOW ME
http://www.followme.at
[51] SMEPP SECURE MIDDLEWARE FOR EMBEDDED P2P SYSTEMS
http://www.smepp.org/
[52] SkandSoft Technologies Private Limited
http://www.skandsoft.com/company.html
[53] IBM United States
http://www.ibm.com
[54] Cluster of European RFID Projects CERP
http://www.rfid-in-action.eu/cerp
[55] PABADIS based Product Oriented Manufacturing Systems for Re-
Configurable Enterprises
http://www.pabadis-promise.org/
[56] The Auto-ID Labs Architecting the Internet of Things
http://www.autoidlabs.org
[57] The AUTO-ID Labs at MIT
http://autoid.mit.edu
[58] The Auto-ID Labs at Cambridge
http://www.autoidlabs.org.uk
[59] The Auto-ID Labs at Fudan University
http://www.autoidcenter.cn
[60] The Auto-ID Labs Auto-ID Lab St. Gallen
http://www.autoidlabs.org/the-labs/stgallen
[61] The Keio Research Institute at SFC
http://www.kri.sfc.keio.ac.jp/en



336


[62] The Auto-ID Labs Auto-ID Lab Adelaide
http://autoidlab.eleceng.adelaide.edu.au
[63] The Auto-ID Labs Auto-ID Lab Korea
http://www.autoid.or.kr
[64] inHaus Innovationszentrum der Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft
http://www.inhaus-zentrum.de
[65] Deutsche Post World Net
http://www.dpwn.de
[66] inLogic RFID Fixed Asset Tracking and Consulting Services
http://www.inlogic.com/home/home.aspx
[67] METRO Group Future Store Initiative
http://www.innovation-center.metrogroup.de
[68] RSA, The Security Division of EMC
http://www.rsasecurity.com
[69] GRAZ UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
http://www.tugraz.at
[70] sterreichische Forschungsfrderungsgesellschaft
http://www.ffg.at
[71] GS1 EPCglobal, Regulatory status for using RFID in the UHF spectrum,
25 June 2007
http://www.epcglobalinc.org/tech/freq_reg/RFID_at_UHF_Regulations_
20070625.pdf
[72] Strategic Research Agenda (SRA) of the European Technology Platform
on Smart Systems Integration (EPoSS)
http://www.smart-systems-
integra-
tion.org/public/documents/eposs_publications/070306_EPoSS_SRA_v1
.02.pdf
[73] Printed RFID Tags Still Several Years Away
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/3397/2/1/
VTT Is Developing Printed Sensors
http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/3395/1/1/



337


[74] Global Commerce Initiative EPC Roadmap Executive Brief
http://www.fmi.org/supply/gci_epc_report.pdf
[75] Klaus Finkenzeller, RFID Handbook, Fourth Edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Ltd., 2003
http://www.rfid-handbook.de
[76] European Information, Communications and Consumer Electronics
Technology Industry (EICTA), EICTA Position Paper on Radio Fre-
quency Identification and Privacy, May 18, 2004
http://www.eicta.org
[77] Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, Working document on data
protection issues related to RFID technology, Jan 19,2005
http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/privacy/
[78] International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO)
http://www.iso.org
[79] International Engineering Consortium (IEC)
http://www.iec.org
[80] Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE)
http://www.ieee.org
[81] GS1, EPCglobal Standards and Technology
http://www.epcglobalinc.org
[82] European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
http://www.etsi.eu
[83] European Values Study
http://www.europeanvalues.nl




338


17 Appendices
17.1 RFID vendor list
The RFID vendor list is separately available in Excel spread sheet format on the
project website (http://www.rfid-in-action.eu).
17.2 International RFID R&D activities
The list of international RFID R&D activities is separately available in Excel spread
sheet format (http://www.rfid-in-action.eu).
17.3 RFID research roadmap for all topics
The following pages show a combined view of the CE RFID roadmap timeframes for
short, mid, and long-term topics (see chapter 14).



339



RF Technology
Energy aspects
2005 2010 2015 2020
Packaging
New chip mounting technologies
New materials
Flexible, multilayer substrates
Chip design
Monolithic/single chip devices for
tags and readers
Tags on metal, liquids
Multi-band systems (LF, HF, UHF)
Antenna design
Coil on chip
Energy harvesting
New batteries
Low power designs
UWB systems



340



2005 2010 2015 2020
Polymer technology
Optimisation of silicon technology
Manufacturing
Systems
Higher frequency ( 2.45 GHz) Systems
New modulation schemes
Plug and play RFID systems
Multi-frequency, multi-standard readers
Miniaturisation, e.g.
CompactFlash, SD-Card, MiniSD-Card format
Multi reader environments
100% identification rate
Readers Interrogators
Polymer technology
SAW technology
Non-silicon technology



341



2005 2010 2015 2020
Low power display on tag
Bi-stable displays
RFID chips with integrated low power sensors
Sensors
Cryptography
Low power crypto engines
High performance crypto engines
Ambient intelligence systems
Inter tag communication
ICT Architectures
Environmental compatibility
Further trust and accep-
tance of RFID
Socio-economic aspects
3
4
2

1
7
.
4

R
F
I
D

S
t
a
k
e
h
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l
d
e
r

M
o
d
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l

RFID Stakeholder
Logistical Tracking &
Tracing
Production, Monitoring and
Maintenance
Product Safety, Quality
and Information
Access Control and
Tracking & Tracing of
persons
Loyalty, Membership
and Payment
EHealth Care
Sport, Leisure and
Household
Public Services
Basic Research
Applied Research
Legal and Social
Science
Manufacturer
Solutions Provider
System Integrator
General
SME
RFID and IT Specific
International
European
National
Data Protection Agencies
Consumer Organizations
Trade Unions
International Organizations
National Institutions
Commercial
Organizations
RFID End User
Companies
Research &
Development
RFID
Technology
Suppliers
Quasi-
Autonomous and
Non-Governmental
Organisation
Stakeholders
Standardization
Organizations
Government and
Governmental
Institutions
Business
Associations

F
i
g
u
r
e

6
1

D
i
a
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a
m

o
f

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C
E

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d
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17.5 RFID Reference Model
The CE RFID Reference Model and a detailed description are separately available on
the project website (http://www.rfid-in-action.eu).