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ESDEP WG 15A
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: OFFSHORE
Lecture 15A.7: Tubular Joints in Offshore
Structures
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present methods for the design of large tubular joints typically found on offshore
structures.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 15A.1: Offshore Structures: General Introduction
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 15A.8 : Fabrication
Lecture 15A.12: Connections in Offshore Deck Structures
SUMMARY
The lecture defines the principle terms and ratios used in tubular joint design. It
presents the classifications for T, Y, X, N, K and KT joints and discusses the significance
of gaps, overlaps, multiplanar joints and the details of joint arrangements. It describes
design methods for static and fatigue strength, presenting some detailed information on
stress concentration factors.
1. INTRODUCTION
The main structure of a topside consists of either an integrated deck or a module
support frame and modules. Commonly tubular lattice frames are present, however a
significant amount of rolled and built up sections are also used.
This lecture refers to the design of tubular joints. These are used extensively offshore,
particularly for jacket structures. Connection of I-shape sections or boxed beams
whether rolled or built up, are basically similar to those used for onshore structures.
Refer to the corresponding lectures for appropriate design guidance.
Two main calculations need to be performed in order to adequately design a tubular
joint. These are:
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Static strength considerations 1.
Fatigue behaviour considerations 2.
The question of fatigue behaviour always has to be addressed, even where simple
assessment of fatigue behaviour shows this will not be a problem. The joint designer
must therefore always be "fatigue minded".
2. DEFINITIONS
The following definitions are universally acknowledged [1]: (refer to Figure 1 for
clarification):
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The CHORD is the main member, receiving the other components. It is necessarily a
through member. The other tubulars are welded to it, without piercing through the
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chord at the intersection.
Other tubulars belonging to the joint assembly may be as large as the chord, but they
can never be larger.
The CAN is the section of the chord reinforced with an increased wall thickness, or
stiffeners.
The BRACES are the structural members which are welded to the chord. They physically
terminate on the chord skin.
The STUB is the extremity of the brace, locally reinforced with an increased wall
thickness.
Different positions have to be identified along the brace - chord intersection line:
CROWN position is located where the brace to chord intersection crosses the plane
containing the brace and chord.
SADDLE position is located where the brace to chord intersection crosses the plane
perpendicular to the plane containing the brace and chord, which also contains the
brace axis.
2.1 Geometrical definitions
Refer to Figure 1
L is the length of the chord can
D is the chord outside diameter
T is the chord wall thickness
d is the brace outside diameter
t is the brace wall thickness (where there are several braces, a subscript identifies the
brace)
g is the theoretical gap between weld toes
e is the eccentricity Positive when opposite to the brace side, Negative when on the
brace side
q is the angle between brace and chord axis.
2.2 Geometrical ratios
a = Can slenderness ratio
b = Brace to chord diameter ratio (always 1)
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g = Chord slenderness ratio
t = Brace to chord thickness ratio
z = Relative gap
These are non-dimensional variables for use in parametrical equations.
3. CLASSIFICATION
Load paths within a joint are very different, according to the joint geometry. The
following classification is used, see Figure 2.
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3.1 T and Y Joints
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These are joints made up of a single brace, perpendicular to the chord (T joint) or
inclined to it (Y joints).
In a T joint, the axial force acting in the brace is reacted by bending in the chord.
In a Y joint, the axial force is reacted by bending and axial force in the chord.
3.2 X Joints
X joints include two coaxial braces on either side of the chord.
Axial forces are balanced in the braces, which in an ideal X joint have the same diameter
and thickness. In fact, other considerations such as brace length, which can be very
different on each side of the chord, may lead to two slightly different braces. Angles
may be slightly different as well.
The important point to note is the balance of forces in the braces. If the axial force in
one brace is far higher than the one in the other brace, the joint may be classified as a Y
(or a T) joint rather than an X joint.
3.3 N and K Joints
These joints include two braces. One of them may be perpendicular to the chord (N
joint) or both inclined (K joint).
The ideal load pattern of these joints is reached when axial forces are balanced in the
braces, i.e. net force into chord member is low.
3.4 KT Joints
These joints include three braces.
The load pattern for these joints is more complex. Ideally axial forces should be
balanced within the braces, i.e. net force into chord member is low.
3.5 Limitations
For a joint to be able to be fabricated and to be effective, the geometrical ratios given in
Section 2.2 have limitations. Table 3.1 shows these limits and their typical ranges.
Parameter
Typical
range
Limitations
min max
0,4 - 0,8 0,2 1
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12 - 20 10 30
0,3 - 0,7 0,2
1
(2)
q 40 - 90
30
(3)
90
(1)
(1) Physical limitation
(2) Brace shall be less or equal to chord thickness (see punching shear)
(3) Angle limitation to get a correct workmanship of welds.
Table 3.1 Geometrical Limits and Typical Ranges
3.6 How to classify a joint
This classification deals only with braces located in one plane.
It must always be remembered that this classification is based on load pattern as well
as the geometry. Engineering judgement must therefore be used to classify a joint. For
example a geometrical K joint may be classified as.
a K joint when forces are balanced within braces.
a Y joint when the force in one brace is reacted predominantly by the chord, rather
than by the second brace.
4. GAP AND OVERLAP
4.1 Definitions
The GAP is the distance along the chord between the weld toes of the braces (Figure 3).
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The theoretical gap is the shortest distance between the outer surfaces of two braces,
measured on the line where they cross the chord outer surface. The real gap is the one
measured at the corresponding location, between actual weld toes.
A brace OVERLAPS another brace when one brace is welded to the other brace.
The overlapping brace is always the thinner brace.
The overlapped brace is always completely welded to the chord.
4.2 Limitations
The minimum gap allowed is 50mm. This limitation is set to avoid two welds clashing.
This is important because the gap is a highly stressed zone.
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4.3 Multiplanar Joints
The same definitions and limitations apply to multiplanar joints.
5. JOINT ARRANGEMENT
As a rule, welds in a joint have to be kept away from zones of high stress
concentration.
The following practice, see Figure 4, should be followed:
The chord circumferential welds are to be located at either 300mm or a quarter of
the chord diameter, whichever is the greater, from the nearest point of a
brace-chord connection.
1.
The brace circumferential welds are to be located at either 600mm or a brace
diameter, whichever is the greatest, from the nearest point of the brace-chord
connection.
2.
The actual gap shall not be less than 50mm. To achieve this, most designers use a
70 or 75mm theoretical gap.
3.
Eccentricity and offset are to be kept within a quarter of the chord diameter. When
higher values can not be avoided, secondary moments have to be introduced in
the structural analysis by introducing extra nodes.
4.
Thickness transitions are smoothed to a 1 in 4 slope, by tapering the thicker wall. 5.
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6. STATIC STRENGTH
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6.1 Loads taken into account
The loads considered in a joint static strength design are the axial force, the in-plane
bending moment and the out-of-plane bending moment for each brace.
The other components (transverse shear and brace torsion moment) are usually
neglected since unlike the preceding loads, these loads do not induce bending in the
chord wall. Nevertheless, their presence must never be forgotten and in some specific
cases, their effects must be assessed. The axial load, in-plane and out-of-plane bending
moments are normally the dimensioning criterion for tubular joints.
6.2 Punching shear
6.2.1 Acting punching shear
The acting punching shear is the shear stress developed in the chord by the brace load.
The acting punching stress v
p
is written as:
v
p
= t f sin q
where f is the nominal axial, in-plane bending or out-of-plane bending stress in the
brace (punching shear for each kept separate), see Figure 5.
6.2.2 Allowable punching shear
Allowable punching shear values in the chord wall are determined from test results
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carried out on full scale or on reduced scale models.
Tests are performed on experimental rigs such as the one shown in Figure 6. They are
performed for a single load-case (axial force, in-plane bending, or out-of-plane
bending).
The ultimate static strength obtained through these tests can then be expressed in
terms of punching shear, as defined above.
Statistical treatment of results allow formulae to be defined for the allowable punching
shear stress.
6.2.3 The API method
Several offshore design regulations are based on the punching shear concept [1,2]. The
following method is presented in API RP2A [2]:
A. Principle
This method applies to a single brace without overlap, for a non-stiffened joint.
When the joint includes several braces, each brace connection is checked
independently.
Punching shear for each load component (axial force, in-plane bending, and out of
plane bending) is calculated and compared to the allowable punching shear stress
for the appropriate load and geometry.
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Interaction formulae are given for combined loading, combining the three punching
shear ratio calculated for each component.
B. Allowable punching shear stress
The allowable punching shear stress for each load component is:
V
pa
= Q
q
Q
f
where: F
yc
is the yield strength of the chord member
Q
q
is to account for the effects of type of loading and geometry, see Table 6.1.
Q
f
is a factor to account for the nominal longitudinal stress in the chord
Q
f
= 1 - l g
f
AX
, f
IPB
, f
OPB
are the nominal axial, in-plane bending and out of plane bending stresses
in the chord
Value for l and Q
q
are given in Table 6.1
Load component
Axial load In-plane bending Out of plane bending
Stress in brace fax fby fbz
Acting punching shear Vpx = t fax sin q Vp = t fby sin q Vp = t fbz sin q
Qq K joints
T & Y Joints
w/o diaphragm
X
w diaphragm
Tension Compression
l 0,030 0,045 0,021
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Table 6.1 Values of Q
q
for allowable punching shear stress from APIRP2A
Q
g
= 1,8 - 0,1 for g 20
Q
g
= 1,4 - 4 g/D for g > 20
but Q
g
must be 1,0
Qb = for b > 0,6
Q
B
= 1,0 for b 0,6
C. Loading Combination
For combined loadings involving more than one load component, the following
equations shall be satisfied:
where: IPB refers to in-plane bending component
OPB refers to out-of-plane bending component
AX refers to axial force component
and
ax
where: arc sin term is in radians.
6.3 Overlapping joints
The parametric formulae discussed in Section 6.2 were specifically established for
non-overlapping joints with no internal reinforcement. These formulae cannot be used
for overlapping joints.
In an overlapping joint, part of the load is transferred directly from one brace to the
other through the overlapping section, without that part of the load transferring through
the chord. The static strength of an overlapping joint is higher than a similar joint
without an overlap.
API RP2A, [2] allows the static shear strength of the overlapping weld section to be
added to the punching shear capacity of the brace-chord connection, see Figure 7.
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The allowable axial load component perpendicular to the chord, P^(in Newtons) should
be taken to be:
P
^
= (v
pa
T l
1
) + (2v
wa
t
w
l
2
)
where:
v
pa
is the allowable punching shear stress (MPa) for axial stress.
l
1
is the circumference for that portion of the brace which contacts the chord (mm), see
Figure 7.
v
wa
is the allowable shear stress for weld between braces (MPa).
t
w
is the lesser of the weld throat thickness or the thickness t of the inner brace (mm).
l
2
is the projected chord length (one side) of the overlapping weld, measured
perpendicular to the chord (mm), see Figure 7.
6.4 Reinforced joints
6.4.1 Definition
Large chord wall thickness may be reduced by stiffening the chord. The most usual
reinforcement consists of ring stiffening inside the chord.
Some joints may require more complex stiffening. This is the case for large diameter
chords which would otherwise require an un-economic chord wall thickness.
There are very many different stiffening solutions for a large diameter chord. Therefore
there are no parametric formulae available for these designs. Specific analyses must
therefore be carried out for an accurate solution. This may involve finite element
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analysis.
6.4.2 Ring Stiffening
Ring stiffening consists of ring plates welded in the chord can prior to welding the
braces to it.
The punching shear capacity of the chord still may be taken into account when
calculating the forces acting on the stiffeners.
Ring stiffeners can be justified through parametric formulae available in various
publications, the best known being published by Roark [3].
7. STRESS CONCENTRATION
As in any mechanical body presenting discontinuities, stresses are not uniform along
the connecting surface of a brace and chord. Figure 8 shows an example of the stress
distribution in a joint with local discontinuities at and in the vicinity of the brace chord
intersection.
7.1 Stress concentration factor
The stress concentration factor (SCF) is defined as the ratio of the highest stress in the
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connection (or hot spot stress f
HS
) to the nominal brace stress f
NOM
:
SCF = f
HS
/f
NOM
7.2 Kellog equation
This approximate formula can be used for rapidly assessing SCF, for preliminary
analyses.
f
HS
/v
p =
1,8 g
v
p
being the punching shear.
7.3 Parametric formulae
SCF parametric formulae have been determined based on a large number of finite
element analyses and cross-checked with either full scale or model tests. They are
based on many man years of work by numerous research teams.
A large number of parametric formulae have been published [4]. Sections 7.3.1 to 7.3.3
give, as an example, the most commonly used and acknowledged formulae.
In using any set of formulae, care should be taken in classifying the situation and
ascertaining any limitations that apply.
The only alternatives to these formulae are to perform model tests (full size or at
reduced scale) or finite element analyses.
No parametric formulae are presently available for stiffened joints. The only ones
published to date concern non-stiffened, non overlapping joints.
7.3.1 Kuang equations for T/Y joints [4]
Axial load
SCF
CHORD
= 1,981 g
0,808
t
1,333
exp
(-1,2b
3
a
0,057
sin
1,694
q
SCF
BRACE
= 3,751 g
0,55
t
exp
(-1,35b
3
) a
0,12
sin
1,94
q
Out-of-plane bending
SCF
CHORD
= 1,024 g
1,014
t
0,889
b
0,787
sin
1,557
q 0,3 b 0,55
SCF
CHORD
= 0,462 g
1,014
t
0,889
b
(-0,619)
sin
1,557
q 0,55 b 0,75
SCF
BRACE
= 1,522 g
0,852
t
0,543
b
0,801
sin
2,033
q 0,3 b 0,55
SCF
BRACE
= 0,796 g
0,852
t
0,543
b
(-0,281)
sin
2,033
q 0,55 b 0,75
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In-plane bending
SCF
CHORD
= 0,702 g
0,60
t
0,86
b(
-0,04)
sin
0,57
q
SCF
BRACE
= 1,301 g
0,23
t
0,38
b
(-0,38)
sin
0,21
q
7.3.2 Kuang equations for K joints [4]
Balanced axial load
SCF
CHORD
= 1,506 g
0,666
t
1,104
b
(-0,059)
(g/D)
0,067
sin
1,521
q
SCF
BRACE
= 0,92 g
0,157
t
0,56
b(
-0,441)
(g/D)
0,058
Exp(1,448 sin q )
In-plane bending (bending moment applied to one brace only)
SCF
CHORD
= 1,822 g
0,38
t
0,94
b
0,06
sin
0,9
q
SCF
BRACE
= 2,827 t
0,35
b
-0,35
sin
0,5
q
7.3.3 Kuang equations for KT joints [4]
Balanced axial load Outer braces only loaded
SCF
CHORD
= 1,83 g
0,54
t
1,068
b
0,12
sin q 0 < q 90
SCF
BRACE
= 6,06 g
0,1
t
0,68
b
-0,36
{(g1+g2)/D}
0,126
sin
0,5
q 0 < q 45
SCF
BRACE
= 13,8 g
0,1
t
0,68
b
-0,36
{(g1+g2)/D}
0,126
sin
2,88
q 45 q 90
SCF
BRACE
= 4,89 g
0,123
t
0,672
b
-0,396
{(g1+g2)/D}
0,159
sin
2,267
q
In-plane bending - as for K joint
Validity range
The above equation for T/Y, K and KT joints are generally valid for joint parameters
within the following limits:
8,333 g 33,3
0,20 t 0,8
0,3 b 0,8 unless stated otherwise
6,667 a 40 unless stated otherwise
0 s 90 unless stated otherwise.
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8. FATIGUE ANALYSIS
A fatigue analysis of a joint consists of the following steps:
Calculation of nominal stress ranges in the brace and the chords 1.
Calculation of hot-spot stress range 2.
Calculation of joint fatigue lives using S-N curves for tubular members at joints. 3.
8.1 Nominal stress range
Nominal stress ranges in braces and chords are calculated by a global stress analyses.
8.1.1 Wave histogram
A wave histogram has to be obtained for each direction around the platform. A simple
form of a wave histogram is as follows:
Wave height
(metres)
Average
number per
year
0-1,5
1,5-3
3-4,5
4,5-6
6-8
8-10
3 100 000
410 000
730 000
5 000
800
20
8.2.2 Nominal stress ranges
Nominal stress ranges can be calculated by following the steps below:
Wave heights are grouped in "blocks", for which just one stress range will be
calculated. Different wave directions need to be considered with a minimum of
three "blocks" per wave direction.
1.
For each block one representative wave is chosen, whose action is supposed to
represent the action of the whole block. The highest wave of the block is normally
chosen.
2.
Nominal stresses for each joint component are then calculated for different phase
angles of the chosen wave, for one complete cycle (360). The nominal stress
range for the joint component is defined as the difference between the highest and
the lowest stress obtained for a full wave cycle. Four to twelve phase angles per
wave are usually considered.
3.
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8.2 Hot spot stress ranges
Hot spot stress ranges are then evaluated for each chosen joint location by applying
parametric formulae [4] (or by applying the SCF calculated from a detailed analysis).
When using parametric formulae, stress components (axial, in plane bending and out of
plane bending) have to be distinct throughout the calculations, as the SCF formulae
apply individually for each load component.
Where a chord and brace intersect, four to eight locations are usually chosen around
the intersection line. For each of these locations the stress response for each sea state
should be computed, giving adequate consideration to both global and local stress
effects.
8.3 S-N Curves
S-N curves to be used for offshore structures are given by statutory regulations [1,2].
APIRP2A uses the curves shown in Figure 9.
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The X and X
1
curves should be used with hot spot stress ranges based on suitable
stress concentration factors. The permissible number of cycles is obtained from the S-N
curve by taking the hot spot stress range, and entering the graph.
It should be noted that Curve X presumes welds which merge smoothly with the
adjoining base metal. For weld without such profile control, the X curve is applicable.
8.4 Cumulative Fatigue Damage Ratio
The stress responses should be combined into the long term stress distribution, which
should then be used to calculate the cumulative fatigue damage ratio, D, given by:
D =
where
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n is the number of cycles applied at a given stress range
N is the number of cycles to cause failure for the given stress range (obtained from
appropriate S-N curve).
In general the design fatigue life of each joint and member should be at least twice the
intended service life of the structure, i.e. a safety factor of 2,0.
For critical elements whose sole failure would be catastrophic, use of a larger safety
factor should be considered.
9. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Terminology, geometric ratios and joint classifications are now standardised for
tubular joints.
The presence of gaps and overlaps significantly influence joint behaviour.
Determination of static strength is generally based on the concept of punching
shear, with the allowance of overlapping joints.
Special analysis are required for reinforced joints.
Stress concentration factors (SCF) are defined for most commonly occurring
joints.
Determination of fatigue strength is based on nominal stress range multiplied by
appropriate SCF.
10. REFERENCES
[1] Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design, Construction and Certification. Fourth
Edition, HMSO, 1990.
[2] Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore
Platforms, API RP2A Nineteenth Edition.
[3] Young, Warren C, Roark's Formulae for Stress and Strain. Sixth Edition,
McGraw-Hill.
[4] Stress Concentration Factors for Simple Tubular Joints, 1989, Volumes 1 to 5,
Lloyds Register of Shipping-Offshore Division.
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