Notes on

Relativistic Dynamics
Daniel F. Styer
Copyright c 12 September 2012
Contents
1 Space and Time 5
2 A Collision 9
2.1 Why we need relativistic dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Classical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Relativistic analysis, rst candidate denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Relativistic analysis, second candidate denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Another conserved quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3 Another Momentum Motivation 16
3.1 What is a vector? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2 What is a four-vector? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3 Four-momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4 Old style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4 A Sticky Collision 21
4.1 A completely inelastic collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 Mass in relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5 Momentum, Energy, and Mass 25
5.1 Converting mass into energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.2 Massless particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3 Summary of energy, momentum, and mass in relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2
CONTENTS 3
6 Colliding Protons 32
6.1 Classical colliding protons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.2 Relativistic colliding protons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.3 Particle creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7 Force 41
7.1 The eect of a force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.2 Transformation of a force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7.3 Four-force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
8 Globs 46
9 Force Laws 49
9.1 The problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
9.2 A special case of the problem: Hard sphere forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
9.3 The outline of a solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
9.4 Resume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Preface
These notes assume that you have a knowledge of space and time in special relativity, and of force, energy,
and momentum in classical mechanics (both at the college freshman level). They build on that knowledge to
describe force, energy, and momentum in special relativity. These notes also use a few ideas from freshman-
level electricity and magnetism, but not in an essential way. The intent is to present physical questions and
their direct and straightforward (if laborious) solutions, rather than to show o how mathematically clever
the author is.
Teaching notes: I use these notes over ve lectures to college sophomores. On the rst day I ask students
what they remember about space and time in special relativity. Students are often surprised and gratied
that they remember anything about such a counterintuitive subject.
Then I present why we need relativistic dynamics (section 2.1), followed by one of the two momen-
tum motivations, either the collision motivation (sections 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4) or the four-vector motivation
(sections 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3). I leave the other motivation for reading. Ive tried it both ways and it doesnt
seem to make any dierence in how well the students learn. In either case I end up interpreting the new
quantity mc
2
/
_
1 (v/c)
2
(section 2.5) in class.
In class I present chapters 4 and 6, leaving chapter 5 for reading. It is impossible to overemphasize the
fact that mass is not conserved in relativity, which is why I make that point twice (once in section 4.1, again
in section 4.2). I end with section 7.1, including working through problem 7.3 (motion with constant force).
This way we end by answering the question we started with, which ties the whole subject together.
At this point, students are mentally exhausted: so many new and counterintuitive ideas, so close together.
So I have never covered chapters 8 or 9. I just hope that when the students regain their footing they will
look back at those two nal chapters to learn some things wonderful and profound.
Acknowledgment: The discussion of hard-sphere forces in section 9.2 arose from a question by David
Carr, a Ph.D. student in computer science at Charles Sturt University in Australia, who was designing a
game to teach relativity.
4
Chapter 1
Space and Time
What do we know about space and time in special relativity?
z
x
event
F
z'
x'
y'
F'
y
V
Suppose an event happens. That event has space-time coordinates (x, y, z, t) in inertial frame F and space-
time coordinates (x

, y

, z

, t

) in inertial frame F. If frame F moves at constant speed V relative to frame

F, and the two frames coincide at time t = t

= 0, then we know that the two sets of coordinates are related

through the Lorentz transformation:
x

=
x V t
_
1 (V/c)
2
y

= y
z

= z
t

=
t V x/c
2
_
1 (V/c)
2
(1.1)
5
6 CHAPTER 1. SPACE AND TIME
Some consequences of the Lorentz transformation are:
Classical limit. If V c, the Lorentz transformation is approximated by the common-sense Galilean
transformation:
x

= x V t
y

= y
z

= z
t

= t
(1.2)
The invariant interval. Although the coordinates of an event are dierent in the two frames, the
combination
(ct)
2
(x
2
+y
2
+z
2
) (1.3)
is the same in all frames. This combination is called the invariant interval.
Lorentz transformation for dierences. If we consider the dierence between two events, the coordinates
are related through
x

=
x V t
_
1 (V/c)
2
y

= y
z

= z
t

=
t V x/c
2
_
1 (V/c)
2
(1.4)
Relativity of simultaneity. Two events simultaneous in one reference frame (t = 0) are not simulta-
neous in another (t

= (V x/c
2
)/
_
1 (V/c)
2
).
Time dilation. A moving clock ticks slowly.
Length contraction. A moving rod is short.
Speed addition. If a bird travels in the x-direction with speed v
b
in frame F, then its speed in frame F
is
v

b
=
v
b
V
1 v
b
V/c
2
. (1.5)
The speed of light is the same in all inertial frames.
Speed limit. No message can travel faster than light (in any inertial frame).
No material is completely rigid.
Some people look at these consequences and make an additional conclusion: Space and time are all
fucked up. Thats wrong. The proper conclusions are that Space and time dont adhere to common sense
and that Common sense is all fucked up. It is our duty as scientists to change our minds to t nature, not
to change nature to t the preconceptions in our minds.
7
Problems
1.1. He says, she says. Veronica speeds past Ivan. He says her clocks tick slowly, she says his clocks
tick slowly. This is not a logical contradiction because
a. Ivan sees the hands of Veronicas clocks as length contracted.
b. Veronica compares her clock to two of Ivans clocks, and those two clocks arent synchronized.
c. two events simultaneous in Ivans frame are always simultaneous in Veronicas frame as well.
d. a moving rod is short.
[[Note: There is nothing logically inconsistent about both clocks ticking slowly. You know that a person
standing in Los Angeles thinks (correctly!) that Tokyo is below his feet, while a person standing in Tokyo
thinks (correctly!) that Los Angeles is below his feet. This is not a logical contradiction and you are familiar
with it. It is just as true that Ivan thinks (correctly!) that Veronicas clock ticks slowly, while Veronica
thinks (correctly!) that Ivans clock ticks slowly. This is not a logical contradiction but you are not familiar
with it. Through these notes, you are becoming familiar with this strange and beautiful Universe, our
home.
1
]]
1.2. Length contraction. Ivan says Veronicas rods are short, Veronica says Ivans rods are short. This
is not a logical contradiction because
a. a moving clock ticks slowly.
b. Ivans clocks tick slowly, so by distance = speed time, the distance must be smaller too.
c. it takes some time for light to travel the length of the meter stick.
d. two events simultaneous in Ivans frame may not be simultaneous in Veronicas.
1.3. Time dilation. A moving clock ticks slowly because
a. time passes slowly in the moving frame.
b. the clock was damaged during acceleration.
c. the observer is looking at old light which required a nite time to get from the clock to the observer.
1
C.W. Misner, K.S. Thorne, and J.A. Wheeler, Gravitation (Freeman, 1973), page v.
8 CHAPTER 1. SPACE AND TIME
1.4. How do two moving clocks fall out of sync? A pair of clocks is initially synchronized. Each clock
undergoes an identical acceleration program until both clocks are moving at constant speed 0.9c. The two
clocks fall out of synchronization because
a. the rear clock has been moving for longer, so its reading falls behind that of the front clock.
b. the front clock has been moving for longer, so its reading falls behind that of the rear clock.
c. during the acceleration process, the phenomena of general relativity are in play (gravitational time
dilation).
1.5. Interval. Starting from the Lorentz transformation equations, show that the quantity dened in
equation (1.3) is, as claimed, the same in all reference frames, i.e. that
(ct)
2
[(x)
2
+ (y)
2
+ (z)
2
] = (ct

)
2
[(x

)
2
+ (y

)
2
+ (z

)
2
]. (1.6)
Thus for the common sense Galilean transformation, t is the same in all reference frames, while interval
is not. For the correct Lorentz transformation, the opposite holds. [[Clue: This problem is nothing more
than algebra, but algebra goes more smoothly when its informed by physical insight. The variables t, V ,
and c fall naturally in two packets: V/c (dimensionless velocity as a fraction of light speed) and ct (time
measured in meters). Dont rend these packets apart. (Some people nd it convenient to work with the
symbols = V/c and T = ct in place of t, V , and c, so that its impossible to rend the packets apart!)]]
1.6. Time dilation derivation. Let T
0
represent the time ticked o by a clock. In frame F, that clock
moves at speed V . Starting from the Lorentz transformation equations, show that the time elapsed in frame
F while the moving clock ticks o time T
0
is
T =
T
0
_
1 (V/c)
2
. (1.7)
1.7. Flushing out an error. Watch the music video I Lost on Jeopardy by Weird Al Yankovic, a
parody of [Our Loves in] Jeopardy by the Greg Kihn Band:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BvUZijEuNDQ
Find and correct the error in relativity.
Chapter 2
A Collision
2.1 Why we need relativistic dynamics
The rst chapter dealt with the consequences of relativity for ideas about space and time. Are there
consequences for things like force, momentum, and energy? Of course!
1. How does force aect motion?
Newton: A body subject to constant force F will have velocity v = (F/m)t, which increases without
bound when t increases.
Einstein: But v cant exceed c! Newtons formula, although an excellent approximation for small veloci-
ties, must be wrong.
Newton:

F
net
= ma =
d p
dt
.
Einstein: So you claim, but which t do you mean? Time as ticked o in the Earths frame, in Marss
frame, in the space shuttles frame, in the particles frame?
2. What is the origin of force?
Newton: The gravitational force on the Earth due to the Sun is
G
m
E
m
S
r
2
.
Einstein: This formula says that if you move the Sun, the gravitational force on the Earth changes
instantly! Relativity demands a time delay of about eight minutes. Newtons formula must be wrong.
Chapters 2 through 8 of these notes treat the How does force aect motion? question. The What is
the origin of force? question is touched upon in chapter 9, but this is only a brief introduction. The pursuit
9
10 CHAPTER 2. A COLLISION
of this question over the last century blossomed into the development of eld theory, including Einsteins
theory of general relativity (which is a relativistic eld theory of gravity).
We begin our exploration of relativistic dynamics by seeking the proper that is, the most useful -
denition of momentum in relativity, and we do this by investigating a simple collision in one dimension.
m
A
v
A
m
B
v
B
Before:
m
C
v
C
m
D
v
D
After:
A collision as observed from frame F
Two bodies approach each other and interact, then two bodies draw away from each other. While the two
bodies are close and interacting, they might be doing anything: There might be friction between them, in
which case the classical kinetic energy would not be conserved. They might exchange atoms in which case
the nal mass m
C
would not be the same as the initial mass m
A
. The two bodies might stick together,
in which case v
C
= v
D
. There might even be chemical reactions in which case the two nal bodies would
have dierent compositions from the two initial bodies. None of this matters: if there are no external forces,
momentum ought to be conserved. We investigate this collision classically using the classical denition of
momentum, and then with two dierent candidate denitions for relativistic momentum.
2.2 Classical analysis
First analyze this collision in frame F, the frame used in the sketch. The classical denition of momentum
is p = mv, so momentum conservation says that
m
A
v
A
+m
B
v
B
= m
C
v
C
+m
D
v
D
. (2.1)
What about an analysis in frame F? Frames F and F are equally good, so presumably momentum is
conserved in both. In frame F momentum conservation says that
m
A
v

A
+m
B
v

B
= m
C
v

C
+m
D
v

D
, (2.2)
but we also know that
v

A
= v
A
V (2.3)
so
m
A
v
A
+m
B
v
B
(m
A
+m
B
)V = m
C
v
C
+m
D
v
D
(m
C
+m
D
)V. (2.4)
Subtracting the two momentum conservation equations (2.1) and (2.4) tells us that
(m
A
+m
B
)V = (m
C
+m
D
)V (2.5)
2.3. RELATIVISTIC ANALYSIS, FIRST CANDIDATE DEFINITION 11
and, because this applies to any frame velocity V , we nd the frame-independent result
m
A
+m
B
= m
C
+m
D
, (2.6)
the conservation of mass!
If momentum is conserved in all inertial reference frames, then mass must also be conserved. The
conservation of mass is not an independent principle: it follows from the conservation of momentum plus
the idea that any inertial reference frame is as good as any other inertial reference frame (the principle of
relativity).
2.3 Relativistic analysis, rst candidate denition
The obvious idea for relativistic momentum is to use the same denition that worked so well for classical
momentum, namely
p = mv. (2.7)
We analyze the collision in rst frame F, where momentum conservation says that
m
A
v
A
+m
B
v
B
= m
C
v
C
+m
D
v
D
. (2.8)
A momentum conservation analysis in frame F says that
m
A
v

A
+m
B
v

B
= m
C
v

C
+m
D
v

D
, (2.9)
but we also know that
v

A
=
v
A
V
1 v
A
V/c
2
(2.10)
so
m
A
v
A
V
1 v
A
V/c
2
+m
B
v
B
V
1 v
B
V/c
2
= m
C
v
C
V
1 v
C
V/c
2
+m
D
v
D
V
1 v
D
V/c
2
. (2.11)
And now were stuck. In this equation the quantities V dont just cancel out, so using this candidate denition
conservation of momentum does depend on reference frame. The momentum given by this denition isnt
conserved in all reference frames. We must either abandon momentum conservation in all frames, or else
nd a dierent denition for momentum.
2.4 Relativistic analysis, second candidate denition
Lets look again at the denition (2.7):
p = mv = m
dr
dt
. (2.12)
12 CHAPTER 2. A COLLISION
Is this really so obvious? When we take a derivative with respect to time, why is time in frame F so
important? Were looking for a property associated with the particle as well as the frame, so why should we
necessarily use the frames time? Lets use the particles own time, the so called
1
proper time .
Our new candidate denition of momentum is
p = m
dr
d
. (2.13)
A change in proper time is related to a change in frame F time t through the time dilation result (see
equation 1.7)
dt =
d
_
1 (v/c)
2
(2.14)
where v is the velocity of the particle in frame F. Hence our new candidate denition is that in frame F,
where the particle moves with velocity v, the momentum is
p =
mv
_
1 (v/c)
2
. (2.15)
How does this candidate denition apply to the collision weve already looked at? The momentum of
particle A in frame F is
m
A
v
A
_
1 (v
A
/c)
2
. (2.16)
The momentum of particle A in frame F is
m
A
v

A
_
1 (v

A
/c)
2
, (2.17)
which, after some algebra (see problem 2.3, Necessary algebra), is found to equal
m
A
v
A
_
1 (v
A
/c)
2
1
_
1 (V/c)
2

m
A
_
1 (v
A
/c)
2
V
_
1 (V/c)
2
. (2.18)
The reasoning now is familiar from the classical case: Multiply the momentum conservation equation in
frame F by 1/
_
1 (V/c)
2
and subtract the momentum conservation equation in frame F. The result is a
new conserved quantity: namely
m
A
_
1 (v
A
/c)
2
+
m
B
_
1 (v
B
/c)
2
=
m
C
_
1 (v
C
/c)
2
+
m
D
_
1 (v
D
/c)
2
. (2.19)
If this second candidate for momentum is conserved in all inertial reference frames, then the sum over all
particles of m/
_
1 (v/c)
2
must also be conserved. The conservation of this quantity is not an independent
principle: it follows from the conservation of momentum plus the idea that any inertial reference frame is as
good as any other inertial reference frame (the principle of relativity).
1
The word proper is irritating. Any inertial frame is as good as any other inertial frame, so why should the time in one of
those frames be considered more proper than any other time? The word origin is that the proper in proper time derives
from the French propre meaning own. The particles proper time means the particles own time.
2.5. ANOTHER CONSERVED QUANTITY 13
2.5 Another conserved quantity
What we have presented so far is motivation. It asks us to focus our experiments on the quantity
mv
_
1 (v/c)
2
, (2.20)
summed over all particles, and the quantity
m
_
1 (v/c)
2
, (2.21)
summed over all particles. Our motivation suggests that both of these quantities will be conserved. Do
experiments agree?
As you can imagine, experiments with relativistic particles are not easy to do, and it took a lot of eort
to perform and interpret them. Many blind alleys were explored, and many graduate students were harried.
Ill summarize a long history: These quantities are indeed conserved.
The question now is: How should we interpret the quantity m/
_
1 (v/c)
2
which is conserved and thus
important? The relativistic momentum
p =
mv
_
1 (v/c)
2
(2.22)
is only a little dierent from the classical momentum p = mv. But this new quantity seems unlike anything
weve ever seen before.
When v = 0 our new quantity is just the mass, which we expect to be conserved. But what is this
quantity in the limit where v is much smaller than c, but not so small as to be considered zero? We approach
this limit through a Taylor series. Perhaps you remember that the Taylor series for (1 +)
n
is
(1 +)
n
= 1 +n +
1
2
n(n 1)
2
+ . (2.23)
(If you dont remember this, you should derive it and memorize it now. Its one of the most useful formulas
youll ever encounter.) Applied to the small quantity = (v/c)
2
with n =
1
2
, it tells us that
1
_
1 (v/c)
2
1 +
1
2
(v/c)
2
. (2.24)
For historical reasons we focus on c
2
times our new quantity, namely
mc
2
_
1 (v/c)
2
mc
2
(1 +
1
2
(v/c)
2
) = mc
2
+
1
2
mv
2
. (2.25)
Well,
1
2
mv
2
! Thats an old friend! The quantity weve come across is a relativistic generalization of kinetic
energy! (Remember that in classical mechanics only changes in energy are physically signicant: We can
alter all the energies of a problem by any given sea-level shift, and the changes will be unaected. The term
mc
2
represents such a shift. . . for typical velocities, a shift very large compared to
1
2
mv
2
, but nevertheless
merely a classical shift.)
14 CHAPTER 2. A COLLISION
In short, we dene the relativistic momentum of a particle by
p =
mv
_
1 (v/c)
2
(2.26)
and the relativistic energy of a particle by
E =
mc
2
_
1 (v/c)
2
. (2.27)
Experiment shows that these quantities, summed over all interacting particles, are conserved in all reference
frames.
[[Warning: You remember from your study of electromagnetism that elds as well as particles carry
energy and momentum. If you want to nd the total energy and momentum at all instants, youll need
to integrate over the eld energy and momentum as well as sum over the particle energy and momentum.
Well consider situations where the particles start o so far apart that they arent interacting, then come
together (during a collision), then scatter so far apart that they arent interacting any longer. Only when
the particles are close and interacting will you have to consider the eld energy and momentum as well as
the particle energy and momentum. In these notes well only look at the beginning and ending states, so
all the energy and momentum are carried in the particles. This is why well never treat potential energy in
these notes: relativistically, potential energy is energy carried in elds.]]
Problems
2.1. A third candidate denition. Before equation (2.13) we argued that in equation (2.12) we might
use the particles time instead of the frames time t. Of course, we could continue in this vein and argue
that for r we should use the particles position in the particles frame instead of the particles position in the
frame F. Show that this choice generates a sterile result.
2.2. Logical inversion. We reasoned that momentum was conserved in all inertial frames, and concluded
(classically) that mass was conserved or (relativistically) that energy was conserved. Turn this reasoning
around: Assume that momentum is conserved in frame F, and show that momentum is conserved in all
frames provided (classically) that mass is conserved or (relativistically) that energy is conserved.
2.3. Necessary algebra. Show that if
v

=
v V
1 vV/c
2
, (2.28)
then
v

_
1 (v

/c)
2
=
v V
_
1 (v/c)
2
_
1 (V/c)
2
. (2.29)
2.5. ANOTHER CONSERVED QUANTITY 15
2.4. Relativistic energy and momentum, I. A particle of mass m is given so much energy that its total
relativistic energy is equal to three times its rest energy. Find its resulting speed (as an expression involving
c) and momentum (as an expression involving mc). How do these results change if the total energy is six
times its rest energy?
2.5. Relativistic energy and momentum, II. A particle of mass m has relativistic energy equal to times
its rest energy (that is, E = mc
2
). What is its speed? Its momentum?
2.6. Relativistic energy: a new proposal.
A friend tells you: I have a new idea about relativistic energy. That old fogey Einstein got it all wrong! In
fact, relativistic energy should be dened not as
E =
mc
2
_
1 (v/c)
2
but as E =
mc
2
_
1 (v/c)
4
.
Prove your friend wrong. (Clue: Examine the classical limit v c of this formula using the result that,
when || 1, (1 +)
n
1 +n.)
Chapter 3
Another Momentum Motivation
This chapter presents another way to motivate the denition of relativistic momentum presented in the
previous chapter.
3.1 What is a vector?
Think of a vector pointing from the origin to a specic point in two-dimensional space.
y
x
F
x'
y'
F'
Frequently youll hear people say that the vector is the same as the ordered pair (x, y), or that
r =
_
x
y
_
. (3.1)
Thats not exactly correct. What people should say is
The vector r is represented by the column matrix
_
x
y
_
in the frame F (3.2)
or
The vector r has the coordinates
_
x
y
_
in frame F. (3.3)
16
3.2. WHAT IS A FOUR-VECTOR? 17
Thats because in a dierent reference frame F, the same vector is represented by a dierent column matrix:
The vector r is represented by the column matrix
_
x

_
in the frame F. (3.4)
The sketch above shows the same vector, drawn once with the axes of frame F and then again in with the
axes of frame F. That one vector is represented by two dierent column matrices, which happen to be related
through
_
x

_
=
_
cos sin
sin cos
__
x
y
_
, (3.5)
that is
x

= +(cos )x + (sin )y (3.6)

y

= (sin )x + (cos )y.

For example, if = 45

then the vector represented by (1, 1) in frame F is represented by (

2, 0) in
frame F. If you said r = (1, 1) and r = (

2, 0), then it would follow that (1, 1) = (

2, 0), which is obviously

false! On the other hand the more accurate expressions like relation (3.2) are cumbersome, and dicult to
pronounce. The new symbol
.
= is used to mean the phrase is represented by so, in place of (3.1) or (3.2),
we write
r
.
=
_
x
y
_
. (3.7)
One way to express this idea is to say that the vector r has the name (x, y) in frame F and the dierent
name (x

, y

) in frame F. The vector is one thing but it has two dierent names, depending on which frame
you use. In the same way a tree has the name tree in English and the dierent name baum in German.
The tree is one thing but it has two dierent names, depending on which language you use.
While the coordinates of a vector depend on the frame, the length of a vector is invariant, that is, the
same in all frames:
r
2
= (x)
2
+ (y)
2
= (x

)
2
+ (y

)
2
. (3.8)
Similar results hold for three-dimensional vectors, except that if height z is measured in feet, while
horizontal distances x and y are measured in miles, then the invariant length of the vector is
r
2
= [x]
2
+ [y]
2
+ [z/(5280 ft/mi)]
2
. (3.9)
3.2 What is a four-vector?
Just as the coordinates of an ordinary vector have a given transformation property (3.5) when transforming
between two frames with relative axis rotation, so the coordinates of a four-vector have the Lorentz trans-
formation property (1.1) when transforming between two frames in relative motion. For the case of ordinary
18 CHAPTER 3. ANOTHER MOMENTUM MOTIVATION
vectors it made sense to covert from heights measured in feet to heights measured in miles, and for the case
of four-vectors it makes sense to convert from times t measured in seconds to times ct measured in meters.
(Make sure you understand that the quantity ct has the dimensions of length.) Using these quantities, the
Lorentz transformations for the coordinates of an event are
ct

=
ct (V/c)x
_
1 (V/c)
2
x

=
x (V/c)ct
_
1 (V/c)
2
y

= y
z

= z
(3.10)
We say
The four-vector r for an event is represented by the row matrix [ct, x, y, z] in frame F (3.11)
or
r
.
= [ct, x, y, z]. (3.12)
The invariance of interval result (1.3) is that the combination of coordinates
(ct)
2
(x
2
+y
2
+z
2
) (3.13)
is the same in all reference frames.
3.3 Four-momentum
There are many dierent ordinary vectors: position r, velocity v, momentum p, and so forth. They have in
common that the coordinates of any vector transform under a rotation of axes in exactly the same way (3.5)
that the coordinates representing the position of a point transform.
Similarly, there are many dierent four-vectors. They have in common that the coordinates of any
four-vector transform under a Lorentz transformation in exactly the same way (3.10) that the coordinates
representing the time and position of an event transform.
In Newtonian mechanics momentum is dened as
p = m
dr
dt
. (3.14)
This is a vector because m is a scalar (the same regardless of rotation of axes) and t is a scalar.
How shall we dene four-momentum in relativistic mechanics? We want something like
p = m
dr
dt
?
. (3.15)
3.3. FOUR-MOMENTUM 19
The quantity m is a four-scalar (the same regardless of Lorentz transformation). So far so good. But which
time should we use for t
?
? If we use time in, say, the Earths frame, that time is not a four-scalar, because
time is dierent from one frame to another. Before moving on, think about how you could select a time that
is the same regardless of Lorentz transformation, i.e. a time that is a four-scalar.
If you use time in the Earths frame, thats not a four-scalar, because theres nothing special about the
Earths frame. If you use time in a frame moving at
1
2
c relative to the Earth, thats not a four-scalar, because
theres nothing special about this frame, either. Theres only one time thats special, and thats the time
elapsed in the particles own frame. . . the time ticked o by a wristwatch attached to the particle. This is
called the proper time . Dierent frames disagree about what time it is, but all frames agree upon the time
elapsed on the particle. The correct denition of four-momentum is
p = m
dr
d
. (3.16)
Thinking about proper time leads to the correct denition, but its not the easiest way to conduct
experiments. The particle in your laboratory probably isnt wearing a wristwatch! So while the above
denition is the simplest conceptually, if you want to do experiments youll want to write down a result
using the coordinates that you measure in your lab frame. The lab frame time t and proper time are
related through (see equation 1.7)
dt =
d
_
1 (v/c)
2
(3.17)
where d is the time elapsed on the particle, dt is the time elapsed in the laboratory, and v is the speed of
the particle in the laboratory.
So, in some particular inertial frame
r
.
= [ct, x, y, z] (3.18)
and
p = m
dr
d
= m
dt
d
dr
dt
.
=
m
_
1 (v/c)
2
[c, v
x
, v
y
, v
z
]. (3.19)
The last three components of this four-vector are easy to interpret: They say that the relativistic momentum
in a particular frame is dened as
p =
mv
_
1 (v/c)
2
. (3.20)
The initial component
mc
_
1 (v/c)
2
(3.21)
is the tough one. But weve already interpreted it back at equation (2.27): this is proportional to relativistic
energy. The four-momentum is
p
.
=
m
_
1 (v/c)
2
[c, v
x
, v
y
, v
z
] = [E/c, p
x
, p
y
, p
z
]. (3.22)
If the total momentum is to be conserved in all inertial frames, then its not enough for p
x
, p
y
, and p
z
to
be conserved. Because E/c mixes up with p
x
through the Lorentz transformation, if p
x
is conserved in all
frames then E must be conserved in all frames, too.
20 CHAPTER 3. ANOTHER MOMENTUM MOTIVATION
The same argument that proves the interval of an event
(ct)
2
(x
2
+y
2
+z
2
) (3.23)
to be invariant the same in all reference frames also proves the quantity
(E/c)
2
(p
2
x
+p
2
y
+p
2
z
) = (E/c)
2
p
2
(3.24)
to be invariant. Because its the same in all frames, its the same in the particles own frame, where p = 0
and E = mc
2
. This is more conveniently written after multiplying through by c
2
. The quantity
E
2
(pc)
2
= (mc
2
)
2
(3.25)
is the same in all reference frames.
3.4 Old style
It used to be popular to dene the relativistic mass
m
R
=
m
_
1 (v/c)
2
so that
p = m
R
v and E = m
R
c
2
.
(You may have see that last equation before.) This made some equations easier to remember, but others
harder to remember. It had the disadvantages that (1) relativistic mass was not a four-scalar and (2) this
mass was not the mass that enters into

F
net
= ma. In fact, in this old style one had to dene not only a
relativistic mass related to momentum, but also a longitudinal mass and a transverse mass related
to force. The regular old ordinary mass was called rest mass or proper mass. This scheme has a lot of
disadvantages and is no longer used. I mention it only because you might look into some old book that used
this old style.
Chapter 4
A Sticky Collision
4.1 A completely inelastic collision
Lets apply the conservation of energy and momentum to a specic case. A ball of bubble gum with mass
16 kg, and another ball of bubble gum with mass 9 kg, speed toward each other as shown:
Before:
16 kg 9 kg
(3/5)c (4/5)c
After:
The two balls stick together.
Before the collision, the total (horizontal) momentum and the total energy are given through
p
total
=

i
m
i
v
i
_
1 (v
i
/c)
2
=
(16 kg)(
3
5
c)
4
5
+
(9 kg)(
4
5
c)
3
5
= (12 kg)c (12 kg)c = 0 (4.1)
and
E
total
=

i
m
i
c
2
_
1 (v
i
/c)
2
=
(16 kg)c
2
4
5
+
(9 kg)c
2
3
5
= (35 kg)c
2
. (4.2)
After the collision, the single ball has momentum zero its at rest and energy (35 kg)c
2
. Thus the mass
of the single ball is 35 kg.
What? Two balls, of mass 16 kg and mass 9 kg, stick together and form a ball, not of mass 25 kg, but
of mass 35 kg? Can that really be?
21
22 CHAPTER 4. A STICKY COLLISION
Yes. In relativity:
total momentum is the sum of the momenta of the constituents
and
total energy is the sum of the energies of the constituents
but
total mass is not the sum of the masses of the constituents.
4.2 Mass in relativity
Is the mass of a composite object equal to the sum of the masses of its constituents? The answer yes
seems so natural and obvious that the question hardly needs asking. Yet relativity claims that the correct
answer is no! (Instead, the energy of the composite is equal to the sum of the energies of its constituents.)
As always, the test of correctness is experiment, not obviousness.
The masses of atoms and subatomic particles have been measured to very high accuracy (primar-
ily through the technique of mass spectroscopy). For example, the mass of the proton is known to
11 signicant digits. In these notes, Ill present only a handful of the many measurements available,
and Ill round them down to seven decimal places, which is more than enough accuracy to prove my
point. The masses here are given not in terms of the kilogram (abbreviated as kg) but in terms of
the atomic mass unit (abbreviated as u), which is 1/12 the mass of a neutral unbound ground-state
carbon-12 atom (
12
6
C). (These data come from the National Institute of Standards and Technology through
< http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html > and from the Atomic Mass Data Center in Orsay
through < http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/amdc/web/masseval.html >.) These sources give the mass values:
mass of electron 0.000 548 6 u
mass of proton 1.007 276 4 u
mass of
1
1
H 1.007 825 0 u
mass of neutron 1.008 664 9 u
mass of
4
2
He 4.002 603 3 u
mass of
8
4
Be 8.005 305 1 u
mass of
26
14
Si 25.992 329 9 u
So, does the mass of an atom equal the sum of the masses of its constituents? A
4
2
He atom consists of
two electrons, two protons, and two neutrons:
sum of masses of constituents 4.032 979 8 u
mass of
4
2
He 4.002 603 3 u
No! The atom is less massive than the sum of its constituents!
4.2. MASS IN RELATIVITY 23
Problem: Compare the masses of the following systems, each of which has the same constituents: (a) four
electrons, four protons, and four neutrons (b) two
4
2
He atoms, and (c) one
8
4
Be atom.
four times mass of (electron plus proton plus neutron) 8.065 959 5 u
mass of
8
4
Be 8.005 305 1 u
twice mass of
4
2
He 8.005 206 6 u
Problem: The molecule acetylene, HC CH, consists of 14 electrons, 14 protons, and 12 neutrons.
(Assuming that its made from the most abundant isotopes of carbon and hydrogen, namely
12
6
C and
1
1
H.)
The atom silicon-26 (
26
14
Si) has exactly the same constituents.
sum of masses of 14 electrons, 14 protons, and 12 neutrons 26.213 528 8 u
mass of acetylene molecule 26.015 650 0 u
mass of
26
14
Si 25.992 329 9 u
Problems
4.1. Sticky particles. A putty ball of mass 5 kg is hurled at v =
12
13
c toward a stationary putty ball of
mass 2 kg. The two balls stick together. What is the mass and speed of the resulting lump of putty? (Clue:
_
1 (
12
13
)
2
=
5
13
.)
4.2. A sticky situation, reanalyzed. Section 4.1 analyzed the following collision, in which two balls of
bubble gum stick together:
Before:
16 kg 9 kg
(3/5)c (4/5)c
After:
35 kg
This problem analyzes the same collision from the frame in which the 16 kg ball is at rest.
a. What is the velocity of the 9 kg ball in this frame?
b. What is the total momentum of the system in this frame?
c. What is the total energy of the system in this frame?
d. What is the velocity of the resulting glob in this frame?
e. What is the mass of the resulting glob (in any frame)?
24 CHAPTER 4. A STICKY COLLISION
4.3. Sticky particles and the classical limit. A putty ball moving at speed v collides with an identical
stationary putty ball. The two balls stick together.
a. In classical mechanics, what is the speed of the resulting composite?
b. In relativistic mechanics, what is the speed of the resulting composite?
c. Does your result in part (b) have the proper limit when v c?
d. Is the relativistic resulting speed greater than or less than the classical resulting speed?
e. Each of the two initial putty balls have mass m. What is the mass of the resulting composite?
f. Does your result in part (e) have the proper limit when v c?
g. Is the relativistic resulting mass greater than or less than the classical resulting mass?
4.4. Two-particle system. Two particles move on the x-axis. Particle A has mass m
A
and velocity
(relative to frame F) v
A
, particle B has mass m
B
and velocity (relative to frame F) v
B
.
a. Show that the two-particle system has mass M where
M
2
= m
2
A
+m
2
B
+ 2m
A
m
B
1 v
A
v
B
/c
2
_
(1 (v
A
/c)
2
)(1 (v
B
/c)
2
)
. (4.3)
Frame F moves relative to frame F at velocity V , so in this frame the two particles have velocities
v

A
=
v
A
V
1 v
A
V/c
2
and v

B
=
v
B
V
1 v
B
V/c
2
. (4.4)
b. Show that in frame F, the system has the same mass M given above.
Chapter 5
Momentum, Energy, and Mass
Momentum in relativity diers a little from momentum in classical mechanics:
for a particle, p =
mv
_
1 (v/c)
2
for a system, p
total
=

i
p
i
if system has no external forces, p
total
is conserved
Energy diers quite a bit:
for a particle, E =
mc
2
_
1 (v/c)
2
for a system, E
total
=

i
E
i
if system has no external forces, E
total
is conserved
(In particular, that last line is not true in classical mechanics.) But mass diers most of all:
for a particle, E
2
( pc)
2
= (mc
2
)
2
for a system, we dene (E
total
)
2
( p
total
c)
2
(M
total
c
2
)
2
if system has no external forces, M
total
is conserved
and with this denition, M
total
=

i
m
i
This is the only reasonable denition of M
total
(for example, it is the only sensible way to make M
total
a
four-scalar, the same in all reference frames) but it certainly results in new and unexpected properties for
mass.
25
26 CHAPTER 5. MOMENTUM, ENERGY, AND MASS
5.1 Converting mass into energy
The easiest way to interpret these new properties is to transform into a reference frame in which the systems
total momentum is zero. In this so-called zero-momentum frame,
E
total
= M
total
c
2
, (5.1)
so increasing the energy of the system results in increasing the mass of the system.
Think again about the bubble gum collision of section 4.1: The initial wads had masses 16 kg and 9 kg,
the nal wad has mass 35 kg. Although we didnt mention it at the time, it also has high temperature: We
know from classical experience that in an inelastic collision kinetic energy isnt conserved, its converted into
thermal energy. The increased thermal energy of the wad is reected in E
total
, which in turn is reected in
M
total
through equation (5.1). We could have gotten to this nal condition through a dierent route: We
could have stuck the two wads together to form a 25 kg wad, then heated that wad with a blowtorch to give
it enough thermal energy, and the increase in thermal energy would have then increased the wads mass to
35 kg.
The fact that the mass of the system in any frame is proportion to the energy of the system in the
zero-momentum frame convinces us that any increase in energy has to result in an increase in mass.
A bottle of gas has more mass when hot than when cold.
A spring has more mass when compressed (or when stretched) than when relaxed.
A capacitor has more mass when charged than when discharged.
A battery has more mass when fresh than when drained.
An atom has more mass when excited than when in the ground state.
A nucleus has more mass when excited than when in the ground state.
Presumably all of these statements are true. But c
2
is so large that the change in mass is very small, and as
a consequence experiment has directly veried only the last of these statements.
1
You might object that this was just a denition of M
total
, with no experimental consequences. No. The
mass of a system is experimentally accessible in two ways: (1) Exert a force on the system (when its at rest)
and measure its acceleration. . . the mass of the system is F/a. (2) Put the system on a balance and measure
its gravitational attraction. . . in principle a charged capacitor will be attracted to the earth more strongly
than the same capacitor discharged. We will explore these phenomena in more detail in chapter 7, Force,
and in chapter 8, Globs.
Given that the mass of a system is not the sum of the masses of its constituents, how are these two
quantities related? Theres no simple general result, but in the zero-momentum frame (for situations with
1
For the most recent and most accurate of many tests, see S. Rainville, J.K. Thompson, E.G. Myers, J.M. Brown, M.S.
Dewey, E.G. Kessler, R.D. Deslattes, H.G. Borner, M. Jentschel, P. Mutti, and D.E. Pritchard, A direct test of E = mc
2
,
Nature, 438 (22 December 2005) 10961097.
5.1. CONVERTING MASS INTO ENERGY 27
no eld energy) theres a straightforward one. Dene the kinetic energy of a particle as its energy above and
beyond the rest energy:
E = mc
2
+ KE. (5.2)
Then, in the zero-momentum frame,
M
total
=

i
m
i
+
1
c
2

i
KE
i
. (5.3)
(Note that M
total
is the same in all frames, and

i
m
i
is the same in all frames, but

i
KE
i
is dierent in
dierent frames. This equation holds only if the kinetic energies are taken in the zero-momentum frame.)
Sometimes you hear people say a nuclear bomb converts mass into energy. What could this possibly
mean? The quantities E
total
and M
total
are conserved (for an isolated system), so theres no question of
changing either of them. Furthermore, mass is a four-scalar (the same in all reference frames), whereas E is
the time component of a four-vector (dierent from one reference frame to another). So these people cant
be talking about something frame-independent. Instead, theyre talking equation (5.3). When the nuclear
bomb goes o, uranium nuclei ssion into fragments. If you add up the mass of each fragment, youll nd
a result less than the mass of the uranium nucleus. When the bomb explodes,

i
m
i
decreases but M
total
does not change at all! This can happen only through an increase in (1/c
2
)

i
KE
i
.
After the bomb goes o, the thermal energy represented by

i
KE
i
seeps o into the environment, so
M
total
decreases as well. This does not violate any conservation law because the system is no longer isolated.
Finally, I emphasize that theres nothing qualitatively dierent between what a nuclear bomb does and
what a chemical bomb does and what a match does. In a burning match carbon combines with oxygen to
produce carbon dioxide. The mass of a CO
2
molecule is very slightly less than the mass of a C atom plus
the mass of an O
2
molecule. Thus the product CO
2
must have increased kinetic energy. The nuclear bomb
and the match both convert mass into energy in exactly the same sense. They dier only in the scale of
conversion from

i
m
i
to

i
KE
i
.
[[Aside: Equation (5.3) shows that M
total
is greater than (or equal to)

i
m
i
. But the examples in
section 4.2 often had M
total
less than

i
m
i
. Whats going on? These are cases where eld energy (potential
energy) as well as kinetic energy is important.]]
28 CHAPTER 5. MOMENTUM, ENERGY, AND MASS
(1/c
2
)

KE
i
time
explosion
c
o
o
l
i
n
g

m
i
time
explosion
uranium / C and O
2
fission fragments / CO
2
M
total
time
explosion
c
o
o
l
i
n
g
5.2. MASSLESS PARTICLES 29
5.2 Massless particles
The formulas for p and E in terms of m and v are of course dierent from the familiar classical formulas.
Its tempting to immediately rush in and use those new formulas. Tempting but a bad idea. As a fact of
experimental life, its hard to measure the velocity of a proton, but relatively easy to measure its energy or
momentum. So instead of using results relating to velocity, its better to use expressions in terms energy and
momentum. These are related through
E
2
(pc)
2
= (mc
2
)
2
. (5.4)
If you do need to know the velocity, and have mostly expressions involving energy and momentum, you can
nd it through
v
c
=
pc
E
. (5.5)
In fact, these two expressions are logically equivalent to
p =
mv
_
1 (v/c)
2
(5.6)
and
E =
mc
2
_
1 (v/c)
2
. (5.7)
That is, from equations (5.4) and (5.5) you can derive equations (5.6) and (5.7), or you can go in the other
direction.
But the energy/momentum relations (5.4) and (5.5) are not just easier to use than the mass/velocity
relations (5.6) and (5.7), they also open the door to a new possibility, a possibility undreamed of in classical
mechanics, the possibility of particles with zero mass.
In classical physics, if a particle has m = 0, then it has p = mv = 0. And if a particle has no momentum
(also no energy) then it doesnt exist at all. In relativistic physics, equation (5.6) says almost the same thing:
if m = 0, then in most cases p = 0. But theres one out: if m = 0 and v = c, then equation (5.6) gives 0/0.
To interpret this indeterminate form, turn to equation (5.4). We can indeed have a particle with m = 0, in
which case E = pc. Equation (5.5) conrms that such a particle must have v = c.
Massless particles can exist, they can have energy, they can have momentum, but they cant travel at
any speed except c.
A photon, a particle of light, is a massless particle. Its been postulated that the graviton is a massless
particle, but theyve never been detected. It used to be thought that neutrinos were massless, but its now
thought that they have a mass with mc
2
less than 2 eV. (In contrast, an electron has mc
2
= 511, 000 eV.)
30 CHAPTER 5. MOMENTUM, ENERGY, AND MASS
5.3 Summary of energy, momentum, and mass in relativity
For a massive particle, the four-momentum p is
p = m
dr
d
.
=
m
_
1 (v/c)
2
[c, v
x
, v
y
, v
z
] [E/c, p
x
, p
y
, p
z
]. (5.8)
Consequences are:
E =
mc
2
_
1 (v/c)
2
(5.9)
p =
mv
_
1 (v/c)
2
(5.10)
E
2
(pc)
2
= (mc
2
)
2
(5.11)
v
c
=
pc
E
(5.12)
The last two equations hold for massless as well as massive particles.
For a system of particles (no external interactions, no energy or momentum in elds):
E
total
=

i
E
i
(5.13)
p
total
=

i
p
i
(5.14)
E
total
and p
total
are conserved (5.15)
(E
total
)
2
( p
total
c)
2
(M
total
c
2
)
2
(5.16)
M
total
is also conserved but
M
total
=

i
m
i
(5.17)
For an isolated system, the quantity in equation (5.16) is called the conserved invariant.
Problems
5.1. What is total mass? In the bubble gum collision of section 4.1, what was the total mass of the
system before the collision?
5.2. Converting energy into mass. Weve talked about the true meaning of the phrase convert mass
into energy. Is there ever a situation through which, in the same sense, energy is converted into mass?
(Clue: See section 4.1.)
5.3. SUMMARY OF ENERGY, MOMENTUM, AND MASS IN RELATIVITY 31
5.3. Sticky particles, II. Problem 4.1, Sticky particles, was:
A putty ball of mass 5 kg is hurled at v =
12
13
c toward a stationary putty ball of mass 2 kg. The
two balls stick together. What is the mass and speed of the resulting lump of putty?
Solve this problem using the conserved invariant.
5.4. X-rays. In the lab frame, an X-ray photon travels right with energy 4.68 KeV. In a frame traveling
right at speed V =
3
5
c relative to the lab, what is that photons energy?
5.5. Photon energy. A photon has energy E

in the laboratory frame. What is its energy in a frame

that runs after that photon with speed V (relative to the laboratory)? (Moral of the story: If you run after
an electron at speed V less than the electrons speed then in your frame the electron has less speed
and less energy than it has in the lab frame. But if you run after a photon, then in your frame the photon
has the same speed and less energy than it has in the lab frame.)
5.6. Two photons. A photon of energy E
1
travels east, and a photon of energy E
2
travels west. Each
photon, of course, has zero mass.
a. What is the total mass of the two-photon system?
b. The second photon reects from a mirror so that both photons travel east. Now what is the total mass
of the two-photon system?
Chapter 6
Colliding Protons
To grow familiar with these ideas concerning momentum, energy, and mass, we apply them to a specic
situation, namely the collision of two protons.
6.1 Classical colliding protons
We begin with the non-relativistic, elastic collision of two particles with equal mass. Remember that in the
non-relativistic context, elastic means that kinetic energy is conserved.
m
p
b
m
Before:
m
p
1
m
After:
p
2

According to conservation of momentum

p
b
= p
1
+ p
2
(6.1)
while according to conservation of kinetic energy
p
2
b
2m
=
p
2
1
2m
+
p
2
2
2m
. (6.2)
32
6.2. RELATIVISTIC COLLIDING PROTONS 33
From the momentum conservation equation we conclude that
p
2
b
= p
b
p
b
= ( p
1
+ p
2
) ( p
1
+ p
2
) = p
2
1
+ 2 p
1
p
2
+p
2
2
, (6.3)
while from the energy conservation equation we conclude that
p
2
b
= p
2
1
+p
2
2
. (6.4)
Comparing these two shows that
p
1
p
2
= | p
1
|| p
2
| cos = 0. (6.5)
There are three possible ways for this result to hold:
Either p
2
= 0 (the projectile particle misses the target particle)
or p
1
= 0 (dead center collision. . . projectile stops dead and target moves o with same velocity
as the projectile had)
or = 90

.
It is quite characteristic that conservation of energy and momentum doesnt tell us exactly what happens,
but instead leaves us with several possibilities. To describe the outcome of a two-dimensional collision we
need four numbers (p
x,1
, p
y,1
, p
x,2
, p
y,2
). The conservation laws give us only three equations (x-momentum,
y-momentum, energy). There are not enough equations to determine all four unknowns. The conservation
laws do, however, rule out some possibilities.
If you have access to a billiard table or an air hockey table, you should test this result experimentally.
Remember that billiards and pucks are not perfectly elastic, and that there is kinetic energy in rotation as
well as translation, so the 90

rule will not be obeyed perfectly.

6.2 Relativistic colliding protons
In a classical context, elastic means that kinetic energy is conserved. In a relativistic context, energy
is always conserved. So what does elastic mean in relativity? In a relativistic collision a particle might
change its mass, or particles might be created, or destroyed. If these things dont happen, then the collision
is called elastic.
Experimentally, we can realize such a collision by accelerating a proton to high speed, then aiming it at
a stationary hydrogen atom. You might object that the hydrogen atom is not just a proton. . . it has an
electron attached. Or you might object that no hydrogen atom is stationary. . . because of nite temperature
the target atom will be jiggling around. Both objections are legitimate. But if the projectile proton is moving
relativistically it has kinetic energy about equal to its rest energy, namely
m
p
c
2
= 0.938 GeV = 0.938 10
9
eV. (6.6)
34 CHAPTER 6. COLLIDING PROTONS
In contrast, the electron is bound to the proton by an energy of about 13 eV, and thermal energies at room
temperature are about 1/40 eV. These energies are so small compared to the kinetic energy of the projectile
that the associated eects can be safely ignored. So, as a matter of fact, the result of the collision will be
two protons and one electron ying apart, but we ignore the electron. (We also ignore the energies due to
electrostatic repulsion of the protons. This is because we are, as always, thinking of initial and nal states
with protons so far apart that the electrostatic interaction is not signicant.)
To keep the algebra from growing too complicated, we consider here only the case in which the two
protons y o symmetrically:
m
p
b
m
Before:
m
After:
p
2

m
p
1
p
1
p
1
sin(/2)
p
1
cos(/2)
According to conservation of momentum
p
b
= p
1
+ p
2
(6.7)
while according to conservation of energy
E
b
+m
p
c
2
= E
1
+E
2
. (6.8)
The momentum conservation equation bundles two equations: Conservation of horizontal momentum
p
b
= p
1
cos(/2) +p
2
cos(/2) (6.9)
and conservation of vertical momentum
0 = p
1
sin(/2) p
2
sin(/2). (6.10)
This second equation implies that p
1
= p
2
whence E
1
= E
2
.
As a result of this, we can write conservation of horizontal momentum as
p
b
= 2p
1
cos(/2) (6.11)
and conservation of energy as
E
b
+m
p
c
2
= 2E
1
. (6.12)
6.2. RELATIVISTIC COLLIDING PROTONS 35
We desire to
nd in terms of p
b
and E
b
by eliminating E
1
and p
1
from these equations
keeping in mind that we dont want to introduce initial or nal velocity.
Now weve done the physics, and we have our objectives clearly in mind. Its time to turn on the math.
Since we want to solve for , lets do that:
cos(/2) =
p
b
2p
1
. (6.13)
In order to avoid introducing velocities well use
E
2
b
(p
b
c)
2
= (m
p
c
2
)
2
E
2
1
(p
1
c)
2
= (m
p
c
2
)
2
and this suggests that we should square both sides of equation (6.13):
cos
2
(/2) =
p
2
b
4p
2
1
=
E
2
b
(m
p
c
2
)
2
4[E
2
1
(m
p
c
2
)
2
]
=
E
2
b
(m
p
c
2
)
2
(E
b
+m
p
c
2
)
2
4(m
p
c
2
)
2
. (6.14)
We have achieved our objective of nding in terms of initial quantities!
We could stop here, but doing some algebraic cleanup will make our result a lot easier to understand and
to work with. First, it gets tedious to write, over and over again, the expressions E
b
and m
p
c
2
. Since we
no longer have E
1
around to confuse things, Ill use E and M as shorthand for these quantities. Second, do
you remember your half-angle formulas? Neither do I. But I know where to look them up, and one of them
says that cos
2
(/2) =
1
2
(cos + 1). Thus our last equation becomes
1
2
(cos + 1) =
E
2
M
2
E
2
+ 2EM 3M
2
cos =
2E
2
2M
2
(E
2
+ 2EM 3M
2
)
E
2
+ 2EM 3M
2
=
E
2
2EM +M
2
E
2
+ 2EM 3M
2
=
(E M)
2
(E M)(E + 3M)
=
E M
E + 3M
.
Removing the shorthand, our nal result is
cos =
E
b
m
p
c
2
E
b
+ 3m
p
c
2
. (6.15)
36 CHAPTER 6. COLLIDING PROTONS
Mathematicians stop at the last equation and say This is it! Physicists never do. Instead, we try to see
what the last equation is trying to tell us about nature. Consider the classical case where the total energy
E
b
is just a bit more than the rest energy m
p
c
2
, i.e. when E
b
= m
p
c
2
+ and m
p
c
2
. In this case
cos

4m
p
c
2
0 (6.16)
or 90

. We have recovered the classical result!

What about the ultrarelativistic case E
b
m
p
c
2
? In this case
cos
E
b
E
b
= 1 (6.17)
or 0

. When the projectile energy grows very large, the separation angle becomes very small.
6.3 Particle creation
The fact that the sum over particle masses of a system is not always conserved results in dramatic conse-
quences. One is that the mass of a glob includes contributions from the thermal, rotational, and oscillational
energy of the glob and its components. Another is that new particles can be created. For example, if a
projectile proton collides with a target proton with sucient energy, the outgoing particles might be the
two initial protons plus some additional particles created in the collision! This kind of collision is called
inelastic in a relativistic context.
You might think, for example, that the reaction could be
p + p p + p + p.
As far as conservation of energy and momentum goes, this is a perfectly feasible reaction (if the projectile
proton has energy high enough). But in fact it is never observed: it would violate conservation of charge.
Well then, perhaps this reaction
p + p p + p + p + e.
could happen? In fact, this reaction doesnt happen either: it violates a dierent law called conservation
of lepton number. However the reaction
p + p p + p + p + p,
does occur. In this expression p represents the so-called antiproton: a particle with exactly the same mass
as a proton, but with the opposite charge and all other properties. Other reactions might result through
this collision (for example, at suciently high projectile energies, a collision can result in the formation of a
neutron-antineutron pair, or of two proton-antiproton pairs) but the reaction producing one proton and one
antiproton is the one well investigate.
6.3. PARTICLE CREATION 37
p p
Before:
p
After:
p
p
p
There are a lot of questions we could ask about this reaction: What is the probability of this reaction (as
opposed to elastic scattering) happening? If we know the exit angle of three particles, what is the exit angle
of the remaining particle? But the question well ask is: What is the smallest incoming projectile energy for
which this reaction will occur? To nd this, the so-called threshold energy, we look for the nal situation in
which the four particles exit with the minimum possible energies.
Because any particles minimum possible energy is its rest energy, your rst thought might be that
threshold would occur when the four product particles are all stationary:
p p
Before:
After:
p p
p p
In this scenario the kinetic energy of the incoming projectile is completely converted into the rest energy of
the created proton and antiproton. Hence at threshold the incoming projectile would need kinetic energy
2m
p
c
2
or total energy 3m
p
c
2
.
This scenario, however, is not correct. While energy is conserved, momentum is not: the initial situation
has some momentum, the nal situation has zero momentum. In truth, at threshold the four product
particles are not stationary: instead they have the smallest possible velocities consistent with momentum
conservation. A moments consideration will convince you that in this case the four exit particles will have
no velocity relative to each other. That is, at threshold the four product particles will move together as a
glob.
38 CHAPTER 6. COLLIDING PROTONS
p p
Before:
After:
p p
p p
We could analyze this situation by writing down energy conservation and momentum conservation in the
laboratory frame (the one shown here). However the conserved invariant provides a shortcut that is not only
mathematically easier but physically more insightful. Here are the energies and momenta tabulated in two
dierent frames:
Before: lab frame After: globs frame
E
total
E
b
+m
p
c
2
4m
p
c
2
p
total
p
b
0
Now, energy and momentum are conserved over time in any single frame, but not across frames. However
the conserved invariant (E
total
)
2
(p
total
c)
2
is constant not only over time but also across frames.
Evaluating the conserved invariant in the lab frame before the collision and in the globs frame after the
collision, we nd
(E
b
+m
p
c
2
)
2
(p
b
c)
2
= (4m
p
c
2
)
2
E
2
b
+ 2E
b
m
p
c
2
+ (m
p
c
2
)
2
(p
b
c)
2
= (4m
p
c
2
)
2
(m
p
c
2
)
2
+ 2E
b
m
p
c
2
+ (m
p
c
2
)
2
= (4m
p
c
2
)
2
2E
b
m
p
c
2
+ 2(m
p
c
2
)
2
= 16(m
p
c
2
)
2
E
b
= 7(m
p
c
2
). (6.18)
Thats the threshold energy. The initial projectile proton must have total energy seven times its rest energy
(i.e. kinetic energy six times its rest energy) in order to strike a stationary target proton an produce a
proton-antiproton pair. If the projectile proton enters with energy greater than threshold, then the four
exiting particles will not be at rest in their glob frame, but instead will y away from each other.
Problems
6.1. Angle squeeze. We analyzed equation (6.15) to show that when E
b
is very small 90

and that
when E
b
is very large 0

. Deduce in addition that as E

b
increases, decreases monotonically.
6.3. PARTICLE CREATION 39
6.2. Particle creation, I. The Fermilab accelerator in Batavia, Illinois, gives a proton an energy (i.e. rest
energy plus kinetic energy) of 300 GeV. That high-speed proton is then directed toward a stationary proton.
The resulting collision can produce a new particle X through the reaction
p + p p + p + X
What is the largest possible rest mass M
X
of a particle created in this way?
6.3. Particle creation, II. We have discussed the creation of a proton-antiproton pair by shooting a
fast proton at a stationary proton. The same creation can be accomplished by shooting a fast electron at a
stationary proton. What is the energy of the lowest energy electron that can perform this feat? (A proton
has almost 2000 times the mass of an electron, so the mass of an electron can be neglected relative to the
mass of a proton: e.g. use m
e
+ 3m
p
3m
p
.)
6.4. Can it be? Show that the following processes are impossible:
a. A free electron absorbs a photon. (Note: An electron always has rest mass m
e
. . . there is no excited
state of an electron with larger mass.)
b. A single photon in empty space transforms into an electron and a positron.
c. A fast positron and a stationary electron annihilate, producing a single photon.
6.5. Photon absorption. A stationary, ground state atom of mass m
g
absorbs a photon of energy E

.
What is the mass of the resulting excited atom?
6.6. Nuclear decay. A stationary excited nucleus decays to its ground state by emitting a gamma-ray
photon of energy E

. The ground state nucleus recoils in the opposite direction at speed v. Show that when
v c the change of mass of the nucleus is approximately
m
e
m
g

E

c
2
_
1 +
1
2
(v/c)

.
(The exact same phenomena occurs when an excited atom emits a light photon, but in this case the change
of mass is usually so small that its not measurable.) Note that the mass change is more than E/c
2
. . .
another example showing that the naive idea of mass is converted into energy through E = mc
2
is useful
for a general impression but not precisely correct.
6.7. Decay of a
0
meson. A neutral
0
meson (mass m

c
2
= 135 MeV) decays into two photons
and nothing else. A
0
meson of total energy 973 MeV decays and the resulting photons move in opposite
directions along the
0
mesons original line of motion.
a. (8 points) What is the energy of the more energetic photon? (Clue: First prove that if the resulting
photons have energy E
1
and E
2
, then 4E
1
E
2
= (m

c
2
)
2
.)
b. (2 points) Does the more energetic photon move in the direction that the
0
meson was heading, or in
the opposite direction? (Clue: See problem 5.5, Photon energy.)
40 CHAPTER 6. COLLIDING PROTONS
6.8. Cosmic ray cuto. The universe is lled with protons traveling in random directions . . . these are
called cosmic rays. It is also lled with the 3 K background radiation, i.e. photons of temperature 3 K
(corresponding to E

= 2.5 10
10
MeV). A cosmic ray of high energy can interact with such a photon to
produce a neutral -meson through +p p +. Assume that this collision is head on, and show that the
reaction can occur only if the incoming proton has an energy of E
X
p
or more, where
E
X
p
+
_
(E
X
p
)
2
M
2
p
=
M
2

+ 2M
p
M

2E

.
(The symbols M
p
and M

stand for m
p
c
2
= 983 MeV and m

c
2
= 140 MeV.) Evaluate E
X
p
numerically by
noting that E
X
p
M
p
. (This eect probably accounts for the so-called Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin cut-o in
the observed cosmic ray energy spectrum near this energy.)
Chapter 7
Force
Weve been talking a lot about energy and momentum, and not so much about force. Lets do that now.
7.1 The eect of a force
There are several ways that the familiar Newtonian laws, such as the second law

F
net
= m
dr
dt
=
d p
dt
. (7.1)
could extend to relativity. The obvious candidates are

F
net
= m
dr
dt
or

F
net
= m
dr
d
or

F
net
=
d p
dt
or

F
net
=
d p
d
. (7.2)
As always, the question of which one works is a question for experiment to answer. Heres the way that
works.
In any given inertial frame, the net force on a particle is related to the momentum through

F
net
=
d p
dt
. (7.3)
(Each inertial frame will have dierent values for p, for t, and for

F
net
, but in every frame they are related
through this equality.) For example, if the particle has charge q and is subject to electric eld

E and magnetic
eld

B, and to no other forces, then
q
_

E +v

B
_
=
d p
dt
. (7.4)
(Having reminded you that

F
net
stands for the sum of all forces acting on the particle, the net force, Im
going to drop the annoying superscript net. Every

F in this chapter means net force.)
41
42 CHAPTER 7. FORCE
Our job now is to nd how velocity (not momentum) responds to net force. We do so using only the
relations
v
c
=
pc
E
(7.5)
and
E
2
( pc)
2
= conserved. (7.6)
(That is, we dont use any relation that mentions mass m.) This second relation requires a bit of explanation:
There is an external force, so in any particular frame energy and momentum are not conserved. However an
increase in E is balanced by the increase in pc, in such a way that the combination E
2
( pc)
2
is conserved.
Because this combination is invariant, it is equal to its value in the particles rest frame, namely (mc
2
)
2
,
which doesnt change with time.
The time derivative of equation (7.5) is
dv/c
dt
=
(d p/dt)c
E

pc
E
2
dE
dt
.
But the time derivative of equation (7.6) is
2E
dE
dt
2 pc
d pc
dt
= 0
so
E
dE
dt
= pc
d pc
dt
= pc
2

F.
Thus
dv/c
dt
=

Fc
E

pc
E
2
pc
2

F
E
and
E
c
2
dv
dt
=

F
pc
E
pc
E


F.
In other words
E
c
2
dv
dt
=

F
v
c
_
v
c


F
_
(7.7)
= (1 (v/c)
2
)

+

F

, (7.8)
where

F

is the component of

F parallel to v and

F

is the component perpendicular.

What does this result tell us?
If the net force is applied parallel to the particles velocity, then the resulting acceleration is parallel
to that force, but the inertia isnt m . . . instead its the parallel inertia (E/c
2
)/(1 (v/c)
2
).
If the net force is applied perpendicular to the particles velocity, then the resulting acceleration is
parallel to that force, but the inertia isnt m . . . instead its the perpendicular inertia (E/c
2
).
The inertia to parallel forces is larger than the inertia to perpendicular forces. In other words, a particle
shows less response to a parallel force than to a perpendicular force.
7.2. TRANSFORMATION OF A FORCE 43
If the net force is applied neither parallel nor perpendicular to the particles velocity, then the resulting
acceleration is not parallel to that force . . . the resulting acceleration splays away from the particles
velocity axis.
v
F a
v
or
F a
7.2 Transformation of a force
In frame F a particle with velocity v
.
= (v
x
, v
y
, v
z
) is acted upon by a force

F
.
= (F
x
, F
y
, F
z
). What are the
velocity v

and force

F

in frame F? The answer comes from

v =
dr
dt
and

F =
d p
dt
. (7.9)
We know how to transform r, t, and p, so we can gure out how to transform v and

F. The calculations are
wicked, but the answers are straightforward:
v

x
=
v
x
V
1 v
x
V/c
2
(7.10)
v

y
=
_
1 (V/c)
2
v
y
1 v
x
V/c
2
(7.11)
v

z
=
_
1 (V/c)
2
v
z
1 v
x
V/c
2
(7.12)
F

x
= F
x

V/c
1 v
x
V/c
2
_
v
y
c
F
y
+
v
z
c
F
z
_
=
F
x
(V v/c
2
)

F
1 v
x
V/c
2
(7.13)
F

y
=
_
1 (V/c)
2
F
y
1 v
x
V/c
2
(7.14)
F

z
=
_
1 (V/c)
2
F
z
1 v
x
V/c
2
(7.15)
Notice that to nd

F

, you must know both

F and v. Notice also the special case: If force is applied in only
the x-direction, then the force is identical in all frames.
7.3 Four-force
It is a beautiful thing to dene a four-force (or Minkowski force)
F =
dp
d
, (7.16)
44 CHAPTER 7. FORCE
and gure out how to use it. In contrast to ordinary vector force, the four-force components transform in a
simple, readily-memorable manner (the same as any four-vector), and you dont need to know both velocity
and four-force components in one frame to nd the four-force components in another frame. However, until
one knows how to calculate F in terms of, say, electric and magnetic elds, this denition is entirely sterile.
Problems
7.1. F = ma. I have written the relation between acceleration in the form acceleration = stu involving
force. To cast it in the form force = stu involving acceleration go back to equation (7.3) (for a particle
with mass m) and nd

F =
m
_
1 (v/c)
2
dv
dt
+
m
_
(1 (v/c)
2
)
3
v
c
_
v
c

dv
dt
_
. (7.17)
Write this in a form involving the component of acceleration parallel to v and the component of acceleration
perpendicular to v.
7.2. Qualitative sequence. Establish the qualitative sequence:
The parallel inertia m/(1 (v/c)
2
)
3/2
is greater than the perpendicular inertia m/(1 (v/c)
2
)
1/2
which is that same as the relativistic mass m/(1 (v/c)
2
)
1/2
which is greater than the rest mass m.
In the limit v c, what happens to the parallel and perpendicular inertias? Does this suggest a mechanism
to enforce the law that no particle can travel at the speed of light or faster?
7.3. Starting from rest with a single constant force. In this case in nonrelativistic mechanics, v = (F/m)t.
What about in relativity? Show that
F =
m
[1 (v/c)
2
]
3/2
dv
dt
. (7.18)
Integrate both sides with respect to t to nd
F
mc
t =
_
v/c
0
d
[1
2
]
3/2
=
v/c
_
1 (v/c)
2
. (7.19)
Now solve for v nding
v =
Ft/m
_
1 + (Ft/mc)
2
. (7.20)
Show that this formula has the expected limits for small values of t and for very large values of t.
7.4. Force and energy. Show that for a particle subject to a force,
dE
dt
=

F v. (7.21)
7.3. FOUR-FORCE 45
7.5. Conservation of energy. In classical mechanics, conservative forces are important. This is a force
on a particle the depends only on the location of the particle (not the time, not the velocity of the particle,
etc.) and for which

F(r) =

U(r). (7.22)
You know that, if a particle is subject to a conservative force, then the total energy
1
2
mv
2
+U(r) (7.23)
is conserved.
In relativistic mechanics, conservative forces are not so important. In one reference frame, a force might
depend only on position. But in another frame, that force will depend on both position and time.
But lets consider the situation where, in the lab frame, the massive particle is subject to a conservative
force. Show that in this situation the energy
mc
2
_
1 (v/c)
2
+U(r) (7.24)
is a conserved.
7.6. Relativistic origin of magnetic force. Two electrons are stationary in reference frame F. One is
located at the origin, and the second is located at (x = L, y = L, z = 0).
a. Show that the electrostatic force on the second electron is (F
x
, F
y
, 0) where
F
x
= F
y
=
1
4
0
e
2
2

2 L
2
. (7.25)
Thus the force on the second electron points radially away from the rst electron.
In reference frame F, the two electrons are moving left, so there are two currents to the right. Thus the
forces between them are not only electric, but also magnetic.
b. Use the right-hand rule to show that the magnetic force on the second electron points straight down-
ward. (You cant calculate this force from the Biot-Savart Law, because the Biot-Savart Law applies
only to steady currents. But the right-hand rule gives the correct direction.)
c. Use length contraction to show that in frame F, the radial direction from the rst electron to the
second is closer to the y-axis than to a diagonal.
d. Given the force and velocity in frame F, transform to nd the force in frame F. Show that the force in
frame F corresponds in direction to a radial electric force plus a downward magnetic force.
From the relativistic point-of-view, the magnetic force is just the transformation of an electrostatic force into
a frame in which the source moves.
Chapter 8
Globs
Suppose we have a system of particles. (Maybe elds, too.) You remember that in classical mechanics the
center of mass of this glob moves exactly like a single particle, subject to the sum of external forces. This
is why we can treat a baseball, consisting of billions of billions of atoms, as a single point particle. Can we
nd a similar glob like a particle result in relativity? In general, the answer is no. But searching for an
answer provides us with situations in which we can nd such results.
To start o, the center of mass cannot provide this service in relativistic mechanics. Problem 8.1,
Reciprocating cannon balls, provides an example where there is no external force, yet the center of mass (in
some reference frames) accelerates.
A more promising concept is the velocity of the zero-momentum frame. The total momentum of the
system (sum over relativistic momentum of each particle and integral over momentum density of each eld
point) is called p
total
and the total (relativistic) energy is called E
total
. Using the Lorentz transformation
for energy-momentum, you can easily see that the velocity of the zero-momentum frame is

V
ZM
c
=
p
total
c
E
total
. (8.1)
Since this is exactly the relation between the velocity of a particle and its momentum and energy, its a
promising candidate for the eective velocity of a glob.
How does this quantity change with time? Consider a system of two particles, 1 and 2, with velocities
v
1
and v
2
, subject to forces

F
1
and

F
2
. Then

V
ZM
=
p
1
+ p
2
(E
1
+E
2
)/c
2
(8.2)
so
d

V
ZM
dt
=

F
1
+

F
2
(E
1
+E
2
)/c
2

p
1
+ p
2
(E
1
+E
2
)
2
/c
2
_
dE
1
dt
+
dE
2
dt
_
=

F
1
+

F
2
(E
1
+E
2
)/c
2

V
ZM
1
E
1
+E
2
_
dE
1
dt
+
dE
2
dt
_
.
46
47
Now, applying equation (7.21),
E
total
c
2
d

V
ZM
dt
=

F
1
+

F
2

V
ZM
c
2
_
v
1

F
1
+v
2

F
2
_
. (8.3)
Comparing this equation to (7.8) shows that

V
ZM
does not move exactly as a single particle does. In
particular, you need to know the velocity of each constituent particle in order to nd the acceleration of the
zero-momentum frame. However, there are two situations in which the glob acts like a particle:
In the zero-momentum frame itself, where

V
ZM
= 0.
If all the constituent velocities are equal. (In which case

V
ZM
= v
1
= v
2
.)
I still wonder whether I can get a more physical handle on why a box of hot gas is harder to accelerate
than a box of cold gas, and why it pulls a balance lower down. Same for a charged capacitor versus an
uncharged capacitor.
Problems
8.1. Reciprocating cannon balls. [Based on E.F. Taylor and J.A. Wheeler, Spacetime Physics, rst
edition (Freeman, San Francisco, 1963), problem 59.] The following experiment is performed in outer space,
far from any stars or planets, so that cannon balls y in straight lines rather than in gravitationally-inspired
parabolas.
v =+(4/5)c v =(4/5)c
32 ft
Two identical cannon balls are simultaneously launched at speed v =
4
5
c toward the center of a 32-foot
segment of pipe. After they enter the pipe, the two pipe ends are capped. The cannon balls collide elastically
at the center of the pipe, bounce back toward the caps, bounce elastically o the caps back toward the center,
and so forth, reciprocating without friction.
a. Depict on a space-time diagram the position of each cannon ball as a function of time while recipro-
cating. (Measure time in terms of the unit nan, which is the amount of time it takes light to travel
one foot. In these units the speed of light is exactly c = 1 foot/nan.)
48 CHAPTER 8. GLOBS
b. This reciprocation is observed from a reference frame moving right at speed V =
3
5
c. Depict the
position of each cannon ball as a function of time on a space-time diagram in this frame.
c. Add to both your diagrams the position of the center of mass (midway between the two balls) as a
function of time.
Notice that in the pipes reference frame (part a) the center of mass moves with constant velocity (namely
zero). But in the reference frame of part b it regularly changes its velocity even though the system experiences
no external force. The center of mass velocity doesnt have any simple relation to net external force.
8.2. Center of mass versus zero momentum frame. A 2 kg ball travels east at
4
5
c, and a 3 kg ball travels
west at
3
5
c. What is the velocity of the center of mass? The velocity of the zero-momentum frame? Notice
that these velocities are in opposite directions!
8.3. Total mass not conserved. The total mass of a system is dened through (E
total
)
2
( p
total
c)
2
=
(M
total
c
2
)
2
. Consider a system of two particles, one stationary and the other acted upon by a force. (For
example, a neutron and a proton in an electric eld.) Show that M
total
is not constant in time.
8.4. Electromagnetic energy and momentum. The electromagnetic eld (in vacuum) carries energy
density

0
2

E
2
(r, t) +
1
2
0

B
2
(r, t) (8.4)
and momentum density

E(r, t)

B(r, t). (8.5)
Consider a region of volume V which is small enough that

E and

B can be taken as constants over the
region.
Show that in that region, the invariant combination
E
2
(pc)
2
is _

2
0
4
E
4
+

2
0
2
0
E
2
B
2
+
1
4
0
B
4

0
E
2
B
2
sin
2

_
V
2
(8.6)
where is the angle between

E and

B. Youll note that this is not equal to zero. But if the electromagnetic
eld is due to a free-space wave moving in a single direction, and uniform perpendicular to that direction,
then
B =
1
c
E =

0
E and = 90

. (8.7)
Show that in this case, the invariant combination vanishes.
Yakov P. Terletskii, Paradoxes in the Theory of Relativity (Plenum Press, New York, 1968) pages 6364:
Any real light beam has a nonzero proper mass. Only an innite-plane light wave, i.e., a beam of strictly
collinear photons, has a total proper mass zero. But this case of a light beam is almost never realized in
practice, because any real light beam is spatially restricted, i.e., it is not an innite-plane wave.
Chapter 9
Force Laws
9.1 The problem
Previous chapters have treated the question of What is the aect of a force? That is, they have generalized
the Newtonian formula

F
net
= ma.
But now we have to treat the question of where forces come from. That is
What force laws can be consistent with relativity?
The most famous force law is Newtons law of gravity, that, for example, the gravitational force on the
Earth due to the Sun, separated by distance r, is
G
m
E
m
S
r
2
.
This says that the force depends on the mass of the Earth, the mass of the Sun, and the distance of separation.
Nothing else. In particular, it doesnt depend on the time. If the Sun were to move, then the force exerted
on the Earth would change instantly. Such instant message transmission is forbidden by special relativity.
Newtons law of gravity, although highly accurate when all relevant velocities are suciently low (and when
all gravitational elds are suciently weak), must in principle be wrong.
The same argument holds for any force law whatsoever when the force depends only on the separation.
The spring force law (Hookes law) F = kx is a good approximation in some circumstances, but in principle
its wrong. Coulombs law of electrostatics
1
4
0
Q
1
Q
2
r
2
is a good approximation in some circumstances, but in principle its wrong. In short, any force law that
involves so-called action at a distance cannot be exactly correct: it is wrong in principle.
49
50 CHAPTER 9. FORCE LAWS
One consequence of this fact is that, any force law determined solely through a potential energy, so that

F(r) =

U(r), must be wrong in principle. This might discourage you, because your study of classical
mechanics has emphasized exactly such force laws. Dont be discouraged because (1) such force laws can be
highly reliable approximations and (2) the ideas developed in your classical mechanics courses can guide the
discovery of force laws that are correct in principle.
9.2 A special case of the problem: Hard sphere forces
We know that any force law which depends on separation alone must be wrong. If youre willing to accept
this now, then you may move on to the next section for an outline of a solution to this conundrum. This
section simply drives the point home by showing how one particular action-at-a-distance force law gives
ludicrous results in relativistic situations.
The hard sphere force law is a good approximation to the force between two billiard balls. If each ball
has radius R, then the force depends on separation r through
0 when r > 2R
innite repulsion directed along the line between the centers when r = 2R.
The corresponding potential energy is
0 when r > 2R
when r 2R.
You know how this force law behaves in non-relativistic situations. Suppose two billiard balls approach each
other aimed to strike with a 45

blow. (See gure on next page.) They will touch each other and then spring
away with a 90

deection as shown. If the ball on the left entered with a black dot on its upper pole, and
the ball on the right entered covered with wet red paint, then, after contact, the ball going down would have
a wet red splotch 45

from its black pole dot.

9.2. A SPECIAL CASE OF THE PROBLEM: HARD SPHERE FORCES 51
before contact:
contact:
after contact:
52 CHAPTER 9. FORCE LAWS
But what if the balls approached each other at relativistic velocities? They would be length contracted
in the direction of motion. An analysis in the lab frame suggests a similar symmetry. An analysis in the
left balls frame suggests that the red splotch would be far from the black dot. An analysis in the right
balls frame suggests that the red splotch would be close to the black dot! (Note: the sketch below is not
quantitatively accurate.) These three dierent results cannot all be correct, and this contradiction proves
that a hard sphere potential cannot be consistent with special relativity.
before contact, lab frame:
before contact, left ball's frame:
before contact, right ball's frame:
This should not be a surprise. We have already pointed out that rigid bodies such as these hard spheres
are inadmissible in relativity. But its nice to see exactly how ludicrous the hard sphere force law is.
9.3. THE OUTLINE OF A SOLUTION 53
9.3 The outline of a solution
So, if the familiar action-at-a-distance force laws are not admissible, then what kind of force laws are allowed?
The general answer to this question is intricate, but Ill give an example to show the character of the solution.
The Coulomb force law of electrostatics allows action-at-a-distance, but you know from your study of
electricity and magnetism that the Coulomb force law is not the nal word on electromagnetic forces. There
is also a velocity-dependent magnetic force, and there are multiple ways to generate electric and magnetic
elds: Electric eld is generated not only by charge, but also by changing magnetic eld. Magnetic eld is
generated not only by current, but also by changing electric eld.
These multiple sources of eld conspire, through the four Maxwell equations, to ensure that the electric
and magnetic elds at one point dont change instantly as the source charges and currents change: instead
the eect of source changes propagates outward at the speed of light.
This illustrates the character of the force laws admissible in relativity: The force laws are eld theories,
there are velocity-dependent forces, and the elds propagate at or below the speed of light.
9.4 Resume
In the Newtonian formulation of classical mechanics, the force law could be anything: friction, viscus drag,
the push of wind that varies capriciously with time, conservative forces, non-conservative forces.
In the Lagrangian or Hamiltonian formulations of classical mechanics, the force law is restricted to
conservative forces only. (They can handle velocity-dependent forces of the magnetic kind, because such
forces unlike most velocity-dependent forces are conservative.) But the conservative force can have
any form: a 1/r potential, a 1/r
3
potential, a sin(r/r
0
) potential.
In relativistic mechanics, the force law is further restricted. Only eld theories where eects propagate
at the speed of light or below are admissible.
It turns out that quantum mechanics restricts the admissible force laws yet again: Most relativistically
correct eld theories that you could write down are incompatible with quantum mechanics.
So if we demand that our fundamental forces be compatible with both relativity and quantum mechanics,
there is only a small cast of possibilities. This is how the law of interaction between quarks the so-called
Quantum Chromodynamics or QCD was uncovered. There are so few possible quantum eld theories
that the law of interaction was found despite minimal experimental input.