Stripping 'U'bend

U bending operation requires two opposed stripping actions

(i) Stripping the work piece out of the die opening the pressure pad performs this
function
(ii) Stripping the work piece from the punch-positive knock off actuated by the
knockout system of the press the workpiece is knocked of the
punch.
Spring actuated plungers
Spring actuated plungers can be used as strippers Plungers should be located
close to the
bend This is to avoid distortion of the workpiece during stripping Plungers should
not be
located with in the area covered by the bend radius This is to avoid distortion of the
workpiece during bending Plungers are hardened This method is adopted for
shallow
bends for thinner
material



Hook strippers
The stripping force is exerted against the end of the bend leg Distortion to piece part
is minimised The stripping is positive and effective when a great amount of stripping
force is required But these strippers may present problems while loading and
unloading the work pieces during production
Positive knock off
The simplest positive knock off is the single rod type The knock off impact is
concentrated
in a small area at the center of the component , Such knock off can be used to the
component is heavy enough to resist distortion Another disadvantage is the
possibility of 'switching' of the Component This may lead to the damage of the 'die.
A spreader plate assembled to the knockout rod effectively distributes the stripping
force
'



Effect of burr side on bending

If the blanked piece is loaded in such a way that the burr side is located on
the outer surface of the bent piece part the burr will crag around the
bending radius an a into the die opening This causes excessive wear on
the die If the' piece is loaded such that the burr side is located on the inner
surface of the bent part the burr will face the punch Since there is no drag
between the work piece and the punch, the burr 'cannot erode the punch
Edge condition also affects the degree of bending Smooth edge permits
more severe bending than rough edges Cracks may appear on ,
the bend area if the burr side of the blank is on the outer surface of the bend
(tension side).
The irregular surface or the fracture side (burr side) will have microscopic
cracks. This will develop when tensile force is applied (during bending) But if
the cut band of the blank is on the outer surface of bend the burr side
automatically gets compressed during the bending operation It is always ad-
visable to keep the blank burr side facing the punch.
The burr side of the piece part (bent part) is often predetermined in accordance
with the functional requirements of the piece part in the end product When
such a condition exists the piecepart should be loaded accordingly
Bending In proximity to pierced hotes

Holes pierced' before bending will be distorted if they are too close to the.
bend area Distortion will be minimized if the distance from the bend area to
the centre of the hole is held to a minimum of 1.5 times sheet thickness


Bending radius for 'V' dies
Optimum size for bending radii
depends on the job For verage
conditions bending radii is from
0.5s to s. Heavier stock thick
ness requires proportionally
larger bending radii Short
bends and low angle bends
require smaller bending radii
(sometimes less than 0.5s).
When the bend legs are long,
larger bending radii may be
required. Smaller bending radii
have a better gripping effect
upon the stock material. The
reaction of the work piece is
controlled more efficiently. Thus
smaller bending radii produce

bends which are more
accurate than those
produced with larger
bending radii. It is a good
practice to make the
bending radii slightly
smaller than is deemed
optimum. Size can be in-
creased if necessary at
try out







For symmetrical V die the size
of both the bending radii
should be identical If the
bending radii differ in size the
bending action is thrown out of
balance and the work piece
shifts in the direction of the
smaller radii For asymmetrical
V die bending radius on the
high angle side should be
larger than the radius on the
low' angle side The larger
radius of the high angle side
permits the metal on that side
to slide more freely is
equalises the bending action
Quality of surface finish on
bending radii is of great
importance The are surfaces
of all bending radii should be
finished to a high polish The
lay should beparallel to the
pulling motions of the stock
material during bending
Bending DIES:
Bending dies can be classified into three main groups
1. 'V 'bending.
2. 'U' bending
3. Multiple bending dies

Bending Dies
'V' Bending dies are the simplest means of bending a component in V shape. This tool
consists of a punch and a V die. The punch can be directly fixed to the press ram. But in
special cases punch and die can be mounted in die sets A typical V bending operation is
illustrated in figure.
U bending is an operation in which a flat sheet is bend to a 'U' Shape.
It consists of a Punch, Die and a Pressure Pad.
Pressure pad has three functions
1. Holding of work piece during bending
2. Serves as a setting Block while bottoming
3. Acts as a stripper or Ejector











In general the pressure pad is designed such that face of it, is flushed with die' face of the
pad when the tool is in. open condition In any case the pad should not be Obstructing the
work piece on the die face The fit between pad and die wall must be slide fit close fit avoids
entry of foreign particles Our the bending operation strong lateral forces are acting on the
die, Therefore, the die construction must be strong enough Area under the curve
represents the pressure consumed
'U' Bending Stages
U bending is an operation in which a flat sheet is bend to a 'U' hape.
It consists of a Punch, Die and a Pressure Pad.
Pressure pad has three functions
1. Holding of work piece during bending
2. Serves as a setting Block while bottoming
3. Acts as a stripper or Ejector




U dies without pressure pad can be used for rough work. But the bottom of the workpiece
will not get straight It can be straightened by applying a pressure at the bottom corner
,This pressure should be 0.3 X bending force To get a straight bottom a convex radius can
the provided at the bottom face 0f the die and corresponding concave radius on the
punch, This concave radius Should be more or equal to R maxCalculated from the
previous equation A pressure pad with 0.3 x bending ,force will clamp the

1 and does no it to deform the other advantage of the pressure pad is hot the work is
clamped in position throughout the bend in the initial stage this is to be small and if
necessary Can be increased after taking trials The surface of the radius should be uniform
through out its length on either sides" should be equal so as to avoid unequal dragging of
bending legs.
The internal bending radius is strictly speaking never a true radius but a hyperbola. That
means a curve fitsa number of different radii. By certain value of internal radius we can"
that the radius which appears to be fitting the whole curve best, Such radius will show a
light gap, an the center and a gaps. On both sides. The internal bend and radius does
depend on the width of the die and not on punch radius is therefore, 'reasonable to choose
width according to the desired bending radius and later formed the bending radius.

BENNDS ON PRESSURE PAD IES:
bends are produced in dies They are also 'produced in pad type dies. Anbend is a one side
of a bendSince the other a leg of the U is missing, the self equalising qualities of the' UN
bend are not available.

The two problems encountered are:
1. The one sided lateral thrust imposed upon. the punch
2. The work piece tends to pull out of the die opening in the NN direction of the bend In
case of light work larger dowels and. larger screws can provide adequate resistance to the
lateral thrust. Providing a thrust member to support the punch makes the ' die': similar to a U
die. The side of the punch which is opposite to the bend leg, slides directly' against the
thrust a member. Both the punch and the thrust member must be provided the possibility of
shearing. Withpad type bending the work piece tends to skid in the direction of the bend
when a pre-pierced hole, is available in the component.. a pi lot gauge pin provided in the
pressure pador on die plate will prevent pulling The pilot pin in. the pressure pad will also
assist in locating the component. Another method of overcoming pulling is -to knurl the face
of the Die or the pad. This provides a roughened surface which tends to grip the workpiece
between the Die-. and. the pad. Tiny, serration ground onthe face of the. punch or and pad
will also serve the same purpose. A chisel point in the Die plate placed parallel to the bend
axis will ,also prevent pulling. In some cases the peripheral contour of the workpiece may be
used to resistire pulling action An effective method of compensating for spring back a is
shown in figure, Punch corner offsets, are also used as a means for eliminating spring back
Off set punch corner also provides effective resistance to pulling.




PRESS BRAKES
V bending in press-brakes:
bending dies are so called because of their characteristic cross-section shape, which
resembles the letter V. A bending operation as produced in a V die also resembles the'
letter .Dies of this type are widely used in conjunction with press brakes. Some
generalised examples of these dies are shown in figure.
View A show a 90 V-bend die, which is one of the most commonly used press
brake dies The die in view B is called an acute angle V die, because its shape in
cross section is an acute angIe Both dies,(A and B) can be used to produce a wide
range of angular bends simply by the adjustment of the press ram to secure different
punch entry depths as required. the acute angle die will, of-course, bas the wider
range this type of bending procedure where the pinch does not hit home is called
bending in air". naturally piece part produced by bending in air will not be as
consistently accurate as they would be if the punch is bottomed When the pinch is
bottomed in an acute angle die, the resulting bend is a high angle bend.

The die in view C is a V die for offsetting Its cross-sectional shape is a double with
one V inverted. View D is a goose neck die for return bending operations. It is
essentially a simple V bend die with clearance provided for return bends.
View E depicts one type of hemming die. It is simply an acute angle die with
suitable spring pins provided for gauging the second operation


DEEP DRA WING:
Deep drawing is a process of Cold forming a flat precut blank into a hollow vessel
various forms can be produced. e.g.'
1. cylindrical drawing
2. box shaped with straight or tapered sides
3. Combination of straight tapered and curved sides
The drawn component should not have wrinkIes, fracture or excessive thinning of
the sheet metal used
DEEP DRAWING CYLINDRICAL CUPS :
When the punch of a drawing tool forces the metal blank through the draw die
different forces come in to action on the blank These forces cause a complicated
plastic flow of the material. The volume and thickness of the metal remain almost
constant. The final shape of the cup will be similar to the contour of the punch. The
relationship between the diameters
and depth of drawn shells vary widely This is an important factor in the
design of drawn tools If the drawing ratio exceeds a certain limit the material will fail
due to excessive stress. Then it will be necessary to draw the component in more
stages
This increases the tool cost To reduce the number of draws the following methods
can be employed
1. use of special sheets.
2. annealing the work piece (annealing permits greater drawing ratio and
consequently less number of stages).

1. The blank (dia D)is loaded on the drawing tool,
2. The pressure pad moves down and clamps the blank
3. The draw punch (dia d) starts to draw the blank through the draw die The blank
flows over the draw radius. The blank of diameter 'D' is reduced to cup diameter 'd'
4 The punch has reached its lower portion completing the draw operation at this
juncture punch assembly starts to retract to original position. '



IORCES ACTING ON THE COMPONENTWHILE DRAWING:
The different forces acting on the component are.
1 Circumferential compression on the flange
2. Radial tension on the flange
3. Bending at edges.
4. Tension on the side walls


Metal flow during the drawing of cylindrical, cups
Metal flow' during operation is as follows:
Assume that the flat blank is divided into 5 concentric elements and each element
into segments The diameter of the circular portion 1 is, equal to the diameter the
drawing punch. when the drawing operation starts this portion remains unaffected
during the' drawing operation. The element Noo2 of the blank is bend and wrapped
around the punch nose Simultaneously the outer portion of the blank ( section 3.4
and 5) move radically towards the center of the blank. The elements decrease in
Circumferential length and correspondingly increase in radial length until they reach
the draw die They then bend over the edge of the draw die After becoming the part
of the side wall. the elements are straight
The areas which become the side walls of the shell change from the shape of
angular segments to longer parallel sided shapes as they are drawn over the draw
die No further metal flow takes place from this point. The metal flow by cupping is as
fol10ws:
(i) little or no metal deformation takes place in the blank area which forms the
bottom of the cup
(ii) the metal flow taking place during the forming of the cup wall uniformly
increases with the cup height
(iii) The metal flow of the volume elements at the periphery of the blank is
extensive The metal thickness increases due to severe circumferential
compression. This increases in wall thickness is at open end of the cup wall
In the side walls the increase is usually slight because it is restricted by the
clearance between the punch and the die


Wrinkling and Puckering
plastic flow of material takes place during drawing Any condition retarding the
necessary flow must be avoided to minimize the stresses to which the metal is
subjected The metal may buckle rather than shrink in' any location if it is Very thin
arid if a sufficiently wide area is free to move This buckles are called wrinkles if they
occur at the edge of the blank puckets if they appear in any other part of the blank.

Wrinkles in the flange area are formed due to the circumferential stresses The
wrinkling must be controlled because the formation of Wrinkles affects the metal
flow For metals having mere tendency for wrinkling, higher blank holding pressures
are to be used when the thickness to diameter ratio of the blank is low, high blank
holding pressure is required When the ratio is high little or no blank holding
pressure is required Chances of Wrinkling are more in straight sided cups Chances
of puckering are more in dome or tapered shells ' Wrinkling and puckering may
occur in straight sided shells, if the die radius and or punch radius is too large
Draw beads
Draw beads are some times included in the blank holder faces to provide more
resistance to metal flow This aids the control of metal movement into the die The
beads need not be continuous around the die More than one may be placed in areas
where greater radiation to metal flow is required The draw beads reduce; the blank
holding pressure When the metal flows over the draw beads it gets heated up This
heat development. stress relieves end anneals file materials and improves its
drawing characteristics Beads are also used to deflect metal into or away from local
areas. In double action presses it is possible to adjust the blank holder to grip the
blank more tightly on certain areas to control metal flow But fracture may be caused
by the punch pushing through the blank

As an alterative to using excessive blank holder pressure, beads are placed in
the blank holder surface to retard the movement of the metal into the die cavity. Two or
more beads may be placed in areas requiring greater control of the metal The location of
the bead is usually determined in the tool tryout.
Normally a single bead is placed around the die cavity and additional beads
are placed in local areas as required. The single bead may have to be reduced in
size or eliminated in some areas. The placing of the bead in the upper or lower
blank holding surface is determined by construction of the die. Whenever possible
the bead should be placed in the lower member and the groove in the upper'
member, so that dirt will not accumulate in it However the groove should be placed
in the member that is to be altered during the mating of the blank holding surface.


BLANKDEVELOPMEN FOR CYL I NDR I CALSHE: LS
The development of approximate should be done to
1 Determine the since of the bIank to produce the shell to the required depth
2. To determine how will be necessary to produce the she This is de t e r mined the shell
size.
Various methods have been developed to determine the size of blanks for drawn shells.
These methods are based on
1. Algebraic calculations .
2. The Use of graphical layouts
3. A combination ot graphical Iayout and maths.
The majority of these methods are for use on symmetrical shells. It is rarely possible to
compute any blank size to close accuracy.
ALGEBRAIC METHOD

The following equations. may be used to calculate the blank size for cylindrical shells of
relatively thin metal. The ratio of shell diameter to corner radius can affect the blank diameter
and should be taken into consideration. A cylindrical shell can be considered as consisting of
a circular pipe and disc.


Area of element method
To calculate the blank diameter for complex circular shells, it can be divided into' simple
elements of shapes. In the example shown the elements are num bered 1,2,3 etc

element 1 is a cylinder.

element 2 is a portion of a cylinder.
element 3 is a disc.
The area of Such elements can be found by using equations given in the standard
chart From the total area the diameter of the blank can be calculated.


AREA



CENTER OF GRAVITY METHOD :
The blank size a symmetrical drawn cup Can be determined by Guldinus theorem.
Guldinus rule states that the area is equal to the length of the profile times the length of the
path of its center of gravity.
The center of gravity point -in' this method can be found out
graphically Or Can be calculated arithmetically.


LAY OUT METHOD
A graphical method for determining the blank for the same shell or cup is as follows Make an
accurate lay out of the 'part including a Iine through the center of the stock. Number each
Section starting from the extreme edge of tile part Draw a Vertical line xy and mark off the Of
each section accurately starling with section 1 at the top of the line.

Number each section to correspond with the same section of the shell.
Through the center of gravity or each section draw a line downward parallel to xY. The
center of gravity of an are lies on a line which is perpendicular to and bisects the chord and
is perpendicular to and 2/3rd there distance from the chord to the arc. From point x draw line
A" at 45 to point P Point P is about midway between x and y,
Draw line A parallel to A intersecting the lines drawn through the centers of gravity. Connect
P to the ends of the section on line x-y obtaining lines B,C,D. Draw parallel lines 8", C and
D. B starts where A intersects the first center of gravity line and so on until where D starts
where intersects the third center of gravity line and continues to intersect A'. Through the
intersection of A' and D' draw a horizontal line Z to .the center- line of the shell. Construct a
circle using y as center and z as diameter. Using X as center -draw an arc tangen to the ci
rcle, Draw a horizon tal line tangent to the top of the circle until it intersects the large arc.
.The distance from this intersection to the line xy is 'the radius of the blank. .


Press Capacity
The capacity of the press must be greater because about one third of the
.capacity of the press is used by the blank holder.
Blank holding force
Optimum blank holding pressure is necessary for successful draw. Very low
blank holding pressure leads to wrinkle formation. High blank holding pres-
sure leads to tearing. It is difficult to control the pressure in a spring loaded
blank holder, when compared with hydraulic or pneumatic blank holder.



(for the above condition m = 0.6)
In general if D/s ~ 45 to 50
blank holder is not necessary.
By adopting the edge profiles
shown in figure deeper draws
without blank holding can be
achieved than with other edge
profiles with blank holder.
Blank holding force cal
culation

The recommended blank holding
pressure varies from 80 to 200
N/mm 2. Bigger values are used
for thinner materials.
Blanking holding force
= Blank holding pressure x
blank holding area



Method 2:
Blank holding pressure is inver-
sely proportional to the blank
thickness. The blank holding fac-
tor 'X' can be taken from the
graph depending on the sheet
thickness. In this method the
blank holding force is not calcu-
lated separately but the total.
drawing force ( including blank
holding force) is arrived at Total
drawing force = X x drawing
force. .
..





Clearance
The clearance between the punch
and the die must be .greater than
the thickness of the material to be
drawn.
Too large clearance will result in
wrinkles.
Too small clearance will result in
tearing of the component.
The clearance should be propor-
tional to the metal thickness plus
an allowance to prevent wall fric-
tion. .


Dle and Punch radius.

The draw radius' of the die
should be kept as large as pos-
sible to aid metal flow. If it is too
large the material will be
released by the blank holder too.
soon and wrinkles will result.

When the radius is too small the
material will rupture as it is bent
around the draw edge. A taper or
an elliptical curve may be used
instead of a radius to aid the flow
of the metal into the die. The
minor diameter of the ellipse
may be approximately Four to
eight times the sheet thickness
the major diameter may be 1.5
times the minor diameter. To
prevent excessive thinning at the
bottom of the cup the punch
nose radius is made 4 to 10
times the metal thickness. When
more than one drawing operation
is required for the component the
nose radius should be
proportionately smaller than the
succeeding shell. If sharp is
used in the first draw, thinning
takes place. Its effect will be
seen on the side walls of the cup
during later operations as a line
or depression. The nose radius
and sides 0 the punch should be
polished with vertical strokes
when used for drawing soft
metals. Which the metal may
flow and cause fracture cross P
when the metal is stripped from
the punch.



Air vents
An air vent should be provided in the punch and die to eliminate air pockets.
AU pockets tend to collapse the cups when stripped from the die. On larger
cylindrical shapes two or more air vents are provided to prevent plugging of air
vents; with drawing compound and dirt they must be placed in positions when they
can be .easily cleaned.
LUBRICATION DURING DEEP DRAWING
The static friction between blank and draw die surface must be overcome in a .
drawing operation. The force of the blank holder adds to the force of static.
friction. Once static friction is overcome by the start of the blank movement
continuous movement of the punch is important because the force needed to
overcome dynamic friction is less than that needed for static friction.
Since the blank holder pressure causes higher frictional forces, it should be
only high enough to prevent wrinkling of the metal Blank holder pressure
that is too high will cause the metal to be restricted and results in tearing of
the cup wall.
.Blank holder pressure cannot be reduced below the point where wrinkling of
the metal occurs.
A lubricant is generally applied to reduce friction. Shallow draws in light blanks
can be produced with little or no lubrication. When forces become larger
where scoring wrinkling and tearing becomes a problem a lubricant is to be
used.
The purpose of a lubricant is to provide a film between the work piece and the
punch and die. The film must be strong enough to permit metal deformation
with out being squeezed from the surface.


when pressures are low, straight mineral oil, general purpose soluble oil or
diluted soap solution can give satisfactory service. This is because the low
pressure will not rupture the lubricating film. As pressures become greater,
lubricants containing higher viscosity (polar materials such as fatty oils,
waxes and concentrated soaps) are required.
These physically adherent materials are absorbed to metal surfaces, maintain
ing a persistent microscopically thin film where lubricants lacking sufficient vis
cosity would be squeezed out. When pressure is very high as in a severe draw,
the corresponding rise in temperature reduces the adhering of the lubricant.

Some form of extreme pressure lubricant is required if welding (galling or
seizure) between the tool work surface is to be avoided. Welding is
evidenced by metal build up on the punch and die, causing scratch mark
on the workpiece. Improper lubrication may also result in tearing of the
metal, wrinkling, puckering and other causes for rejection of work.
The extreme pressure (EP) agents function either chemically or mechanically.
Those which provide EP characteristics chemically usually contain losely com-
bined chlorine or sulphur which reacts with punch, die and the work to form
chemical protection films', that are highly resistant to welding. Lubricants that
function mechanically minimise friction by-incorporating powdered spacing
agents ie., pigments such as chalk, graphite or molybdenum disulphide. These
substances act as physical operators between the tool and the work.
Press working lubricants are applied by roller coating, brushing, swabbing,
spraying or other flushing. The method largely depends on the viscosity of the
lubricant. The lubricant is removed from the workpiece with an alkaline wash,
with emulsifiers or by vapor or solvent degreasing, depending upon the type
of lubricant. Other factors influencing friction are the finish on both sides of
the work material the surface finish on the punch die and the blank holder.
A smoother surface on the work material and the mating die surface will result
in less friction.



DETERMINATION OF
NUMMBER OF DRAWS
.Consideration of strain factor .
A drawn cup Is subjected to ex.
excessive strain during the
drawing process. The ratio h/H is
a measure of tensile strain. This
strain should be limited within safe
limits. The recommended values
of the ratio for the first
draw are given below.


CONSIDERATION OF % REDUCTION
THIS RELATION ALSO REPRESENTS THE SAME PRINCIPLE AS STRAIN
FACTOR and- x 100 AND ANOTHER RATIO IS DENOTED AS %
REDUCTION. 0
HEINCE THE VALUES OF M GIVEN IS VALID IN THIS APPROACH ALSO.
% REDUCTION % REDUCTION
FIRST DRAW REDRAW'
COLD ROLLED STEEL 40 20
ANNEALED STEEL 44 22
.
DDSTEEL 48 28
SOFT BRASS 46 28
COPPER 48 28
ALUMINIUM .48 28
Consideration of diameter thickness ratio.
Since the sheet metal thickness and blank diameter are the beam width and
length In buckling slowly, It Is logical that these sizes be used to predict the
severity of wrinkling.
If D/s = 25 a single action die and a relatively small strain factor 01
(s = sheet about 1.5 Is permissible even for guide ductile metals thickness
In mm)
D/s = 50 a total strain factor of 1,7 to 1,8 is possible and cupping may
be followed by a single redraw without anneal.
D/s = 63 " A second redraw may follow the first redraw without anneal
D/s = 1 For double action tools, the minimum ratio is about 160 and
and above additional redraws may be possible if D/s is larger than 250.

All the above cases provide an accurate measure for determining number 01
draws when a flangies cup is drawn


and have an increased elastic
Drawn cups are surfacelimit, hardness yield point and ultimate strength.
A strain factor e = 1 is associated with soft metal.having yield strength as When
the metal is work hardened (drawn) its ultimate strength a u and the ultimate
strain factor e max are reached Where -b- is the maximum elongation 2.t
fracture.
During redraws the e max value cannot be safely reached since the fracture Is
Imminent. The number of redraw stages should bel so chosen that the upper
portions of the cup wall do not reach their ultimate strengths.
Consideration of ratio The number of draws can be determined on the
value of did ratio. The recommended value of did value = (did = m) 'for first draw
and subsequent draws are given below

First draw Redraww
m, mr
Cold rolled steel 0,6 0,8
Annealed steel .0,5s, 0,78

DO steel (Deep drawing steel) 0,52 0,72
Soft brass .0,54 0,72
Copper 0,52 0,72
Aluminium 0,52 0 72