Formal Predicate Calculus

Michael Meyling
May 24, 2013
2
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Copyright by the authors. All rights reserved.
If you have any questions, suggestions or want to add something to the list of
modules that use this one, please send an email to the address [email protected]
The authors of this document are: Michael Meyling [email protected]
Contents
Summary 5
1 Language 7
1.1 Terms and Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Axioms and Rules of Inference 11
2.1 Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Rules of Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3 Propositional Calculus 15
3.1 First Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Deduction Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Propositions about implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4 Propositions about conjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.5 Propositions about disjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.6 Propositions about negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.7 Mixing conjunction and disjunction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Bibliography 33
Index 33
3
4 CONTENTS
Summary
In this text we present the development of predicate calculus in axiomatic form.
The language of our calculus bases on the formalizations of D. Hilbert, W. Ack-
ermann[3], P. S. Novikov[1], V. Detlovs and K. Podnieks[2]. New rules can
be derived from the herein presented logical axioms and basic inference rules.
Only these meta rules lead to a smooth owing logical argumentation. For
background informations see under https://dspace.lu.lv/dspace/handle/
7/1308 [2] and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propositional_calculus.
5
6 CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Language
In this chapter we dene a formal language to express mathematical proposi-
tions in a very precise way. Although this document describes a very formal
approach to express mathematical content it is not sucent to serve as a de-
nition for an computer readable document format. Therefore such an extensive
specication has to be done elsewhere. Here our choosen format is the Extensible
Markup Language abbreviated XML. XML is a set of rules for encoding docu-
ments electronically.
1
The according formal syntax specication can be found
at http://www.qedeq.org/current/xml/qedeq.xsd. It species a complete
mathematical document format that enables the generation of L
A
T
E
Xbooks and
makes automatic proof checking possible. Further syntax restrictions and some
explanations can be found at http://www.qedeq.org/current/doc/project/
qedeq_logic_language_en.pdf.
Even this document is (or was generated) from an XML le that can be found
here: http://wwww.qedeq.org/0_04_07/doc/math/qedeq_logic_v1.xml. But
now we just follow the traditional mathematical way to present the elements of
mathematical logic.
1.1 Terms and Formulas
We use the logical symbols L = { , , , , , , }, the predi-
cate constants C = {c
k
i
| i, k }, the function variables
2
F = {f
k
i
| i, k
k > 0}, the function constants
3
H = {h
k
i
| i, k }, the subject variables
V = {v
i
| i }, as well as predicate variables P = {p
k
i
| i, k }.
4
For
the arity or rank of an operator we take the upper index. The set of predicate
variables with zero arity is also called set of proposition variables or sentence
letters: A := {p
0
i
| i }. For subject variables we write short hand certain
lower letters: v
1
= u, v
2
= v, v
3
= w, v
4
= x, v
5
= y, v
5
= z. Further-
more we use the following short notations: for the predicate variables p
n
1
=
und p
n
2
= , where the appropriate arity n is calculated by counting the subse-
quent parameters, for the proposition variables a
1
= A, a
2
= B and a
3
= C,
1
See http://www.w3.org/XML/ for more information.
2
Function variables are used for a shorter notation. For example writing an identity propo-
sition x = y f(x) = f(y). Also this introduction prepares for the syntax extension for
functional classes.
3
Function constants are also introduced for convenience and are used for direct dened
class functions. For example to dene building of the power class operator, the union and in-
tersection operator and the successor function. All these function constants can be interpreted
as abbreviations.
4
By we understand the natural numbers including zero. All involved symbols are pairwise
disjoint. Therefore we can conclude for example: f
k
i
= f
k

(k = k

i = i

) and h
k
i
= v
j
.
7
8 CHAPTER 1. LANGUAGE
for the function variables: f
n
1
= f und f
n
2
= g, where again the appropriate
arity n is calculated by counting the subsequent parameters. All binary propo-
sitional operators are written in inx notation. Parentheses surrounding groups
of operands and operators are necessary to indicate the intended order in which
operations are to be performed. E. g. for the operator with the parameters A
and B we write (A B).
In the absence of parentheses the usual precedence rules determine the order
of operations. Especially outermost parentheses are omitted. Also empty paren-
theses are stripped.
The operators have the order of precedence described below (starting with the
highest).
, ,

,
The term term is dened recursively as follows:
1. Every subject variable is a term.
2. Let i, k and let t
1
, . . . , t
k
be terms. Then h
k
i
(t
1
, . . . , t
k
) is a term and
if k > 0, so f
k
i
(t
1
, . . . , t
k
) is a term too.
Therefore all zero arity function constants {h
0
i
| i } are terms. They are
called individual constants.
5
We dene a formula and the relations free and bound subject variable recursivly
as follows:
1. Every proposition variable is a formula. Such formulas contain no free or
bound subject variables.
2. If p
k
is a predicate variable with arity k and c
k
is a predicate con-
stant with arity k and t
1
, t
2
, . . . , t
k
are terms, then p
k
(t
1
, t
2
, . . . t
k
) and
c
k
(t
1
, t
2
, . . . , t
k
) are formulas. All subject variables that occur at least in
one of t
1
, t
2
, . . . , t
k
are free subject variables. Bound subject variables does
not occur.
6
3. Let , be formulas in which no subject variables occur bound in one
formula and free in the other. Then , ( ), ( ), ( ) and
( ) are also formulas. Subject variables which occur free (respectively
bound) in or stay free (respectively bound).
4. If in the formula the subject variable x
1
occurs not bound
7
, then also
x
1
and x
1
are formulas. The symbol is called universal quantier
and as existential quantier.
Except for x
1
all free subject variables of stay free. All bound subject
variables are still bound and additionally x
1
is bound too.
All formulas that are only built by usage of 1. and 3. are called formulas of the
propositional calculus.
5
In an analogous manner subject variables might be dened as function variables of zero
arity. Because subject variables play an important role they have their own notation.
6
This second item includes the rst one, which is only listed for clarity.
7
This means that x
1
is free in the formula or does not occur at all.
1.1. TERMS AND FORMULAS 9
For each formula the following proposition holds: the set of free subject vari-
ables is disjoint with the set of bound subject variables..
8
If a formula has the form x
1
respectively x
1
then the formula is called
the scope of the quantier respectively .
All formulas that are used to build up a formula by 1. to 4. are called part
formulas.
8
Other formalizations allow for example x
1
also if x
1
occurs already bound within .
Also propositions like (x
1
) ( x
1
) are allowed. In this formalizations free and bound
are dened for a single occurrence of a variable.
10 CHAPTER 1. LANGUAGE
Chapter 2
Axioms and Rules of
Inference
We now state the system of axioms for the propositional calculus and present
the rules for obtaining new formulas from them.
2.1 Axioms
We just list the axioms without further explanations.
Axiom 1 (Implication Introduction). [axiom:THEN-1]
A (B A)
Axiom 2 (Distribute Hypothesis over Implication). [axiom:THEN-2]
(A (B C)) ((A B) (A C))
Axiom 3 (Eliminate Conjunction Right). [axiom:AND-1]
(A B) A
Axiom 4 (Eliminate Conjunction Left). [axiom:AND-2]
(A B) B
Axiom 5 (Conjunction Introduction). [axiom:AND-3]
B (A (A B))
Axiom 6 (Disjunction Introduction Right). [axiom:OR-1]
A (A B)
Axiom 7 (Disjunction Introduction Left). [axiom:OR-2]
A (B A)
Axiom 8 (Disjunction Elimination). [axiom:OR-3]
(A C) ((B C) ((A B) C))
11
12 CHAPTER 2. AXIOMS AND RULES OF INFERENCE
Axiom 9 (Negation Introduction). [axiom:NOT-1]
(A B) ((A B) A)
Axiom 10 (Negation Elimination). [axiom:NOT-2]
A (A B)
Axiom 11 (Excluded Middle). [axiom:NOT-3]
A A
Axiom 12 (Equivalence Elimination right). [axiom:IFF-1]
(A B) (A B)
Axiom 13 (Equivalence Elimination left). [axiom:IFF-2]
(A B) (B A)
Axiom 14 (Equivalence Introduction). [axiom:IFF-3]
(A B) ((B A) (A B))
If something is true for all x, it is true for any specic y.
Axiom 15 (Universal Instantiation). [axiom:universalInstantiation]
x (x) (y)
If a predicate holds for some particular y, then there is an x for which the
predicate holds.
Axiom 16 (Existential Generalization). [axiom:existencialGeneralization]
(y) x (x)
2.2 Rules of Inference
The following rules of inference enable us to obtain new true formulas from the
axioms that are assumed to be true. From these new formulas we derive further
formulas. So we can successively extend the set of true formulas.
Rule 1 (Add true formula). [rule:addProvenFormula]
Name: Add - Version: 0.01.00
Addition of an axiom, denition or already proven formula. We have to reference
to the location of a true formula.
Rule 2 (Modus Ponens). [rule:modusPonens]
Name: MP - Version: 0.01.00
If both formulas and are true, then we can conclude that is true as
well.
2.2. RULES OF INFERENCE 13
Rule 3 (Replace Free Subject Variable). [rule:replaceFree]
Name: SubstFree - Version: 0.01.00
We start with a true formula. A free subject variable may be replaced by an
arbitrary term, provided that the substituted term contains no subject variable
that have a bound occurrence in the original formula. All occurrences of the free
variable must be simultaneously replaced.
The prohibition to use subject variables within the term that occur bound in
the original formula has two reasons. First it ensures that the resulting formula
is well-formed. Secondly it preserves the validity of the formula. Let us look at
the following derivation.
x y (x, y) y (z, y) with axiom 15
x y (x, y) y (y, y) forbidden replacement: z in y, despite y is
already bound
x y x = y y y = y replace by =
This last proposition is not valid in many models.
Rule 4 (Rename Bound Subject Variable). [rule:renameBound]
Name: Rename - Version: 0.01.00
We may replace a bound subject variable occurring in a formula by any other
subject variable, provided that the new variable occurs not free in the original
formula. If the variable to be replaced occurs in more than one scope, then the
replacement needs to be made in one scope only.
Rule 5 (Replace Predicate Variable). [rule:replacePred]
Name: SubstPred - Version: 0.01.00
Let be a true formula that contains a predicate variable p of arity n, let x
1
,
. . . , x
n
be pairwise dierent subject variables and let (x
1
, . . . , x
n
) be a formula
where x
1
, . . . , x
n
are not bound. The formula (x
1
, . . . , x
n
) must not contain all
x
1
, . . . , x
n
as free subject variables. Furthermore it can also have other subject
variables either free or bound.
If the following conditions are fullled, then a replacement of all occurrences of
p(t
1
, . . . , t
n
) each with appropriate terms t
1
, . . . , t
n
in by (t
1
, . . . , t
n
) results
in another true formula.
the free variables of (x
1
, . . . , x
n
) without x
1
, . . . , x
n
do not occur as
bound variables in
each occurrence of p(t
1
, . . . , t
n
) in contains no bound variable of
(x
1
, . . . , x
n
)
the result of the substitution is a well-formed formula
See III 5 in [3].
We can think in the same lines as by rule 3. The prohibition to use additional
subject variables within the replacement formula that occur bound in the orig-
inal formula assurs that the resulting formula is well-formed. Furthermore it
preserves the validity of the formla. Take a look at the following derivation.
(x) y (y) with axiom 16
(y y = y) (x) y (y)
y (y = y (x)) y (y)
y (y = y x = y) y y = y forbidden replacment: (x) by x = y,
despite y is already bound
y x = y y y = y
14 CHAPTER 2. AXIOMS AND RULES OF INFERENCE
The last proposition is not valid in many models.
Analogous to rule 5 we can replace function variables too.
Rule 6 (Replace Function Variable). [rule:replaceFunct]
Name: SubstFun - Version: 0.01.00
Let be an already proved formula that contains a function variable of arity
n, let x
1
, . . . , x
n
be pairwise dierent subject variables and let (x
1
, . . . , x
n
)
be an arbitrary term where x
1
, . . . , x
n
are not bound. The term (x
1
, . . . , x
n
)
must not contain all x
1
, . . . , x
n
as free subject variables. Furthermore it can
also have other subject variables either free or bound.
If the following conditions are fullled we can obtain a new true formula by
replacing each occurrence of (t
1
, . . . , t
n
) with appropriate terms t
1
, . . . , t
n
in
by (t
1
, . . . , t
n
).
the free variables of (x
1
, . . . , x
n
) without x
1
, . . . , x
n
do not occur as
bound variables in
each occurrence of (t
1
, . . . , t
n
) in contains no bound variable of
(x
1
, . . . , x
n
)
the result of the substitution is a well-formed formula
Rule 7 (Universal Generalization). [rule:universalGeneralization]
Name: Universal - Version: 0.01.00
If (x
1
) is a true formula and does not contain the subject variable x
1
,
then (x
1
((x
1
))) is a true formula too.
Rule 8 (Existential Generalization). [rule:existentialGeneralization]
Name: Existential - Version: 0.01.00
If (x
1
) is already proved to be true and does not contain the subject
variable x
1
, then (x
1
(x
1
)) is also a true formula.
Chapter 3
Propositional Calculus
In this chapter we introduce an importent new inference rule and develop the
traditional results of propositional calculus.
3.1 First Propositions
Here we draw the rst conclusions.
Proposition 1. [proposition:implicationReflexive1]
A A
Proof.
(1) A (B A) Add axiom 1
(2) (A (B C)) ((A B) (A C)) Add axiom 2
(3) A (B A) Add axiom 7
(4) A ((B A) A) SubstPred B by B A in (1)
(5) (A ((B A) C)) ((A (B A))
(A C))
SubstPred B by B A in (2)
(6) (A ((B A) A)) ((A (B A))
(A A))
SubstPred C by A in (5)
(7) (A (B A)) (A A) MP (6), (4)
(8) A A MP (7), (3)
Proposition 2. [proposition:implication2]
(A A) A
Proof.
(1) A A Add proposition 1
(2) (A C) ((B C) ((A B) C)) Add axiom 8
(3) (A C) ((A C) ((A A) C)) SubstPred B by A in (2)
(4) (A A) ((A A) ((A A) A)) SubstPred C by A in (3)
(5) (A A) ((A A) A) MP (4), (1)
(6) (A A) A MP (5), (1)
15
16 CHAPTER 3. PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS
Proposition 3. [proposition:implication03]
(A B) (B A)
Proof.
(1) A (A B) Add axiom 6
(2) A (B A) Add axiom 7
(3) (A C) ((B C) ((A B) C)) Add axiom 8
(4) D (D B) SubstPred A by D in (1)
(5) (A (C A)) ((B (C A)) ((A B)
(C A)))
SubstPred C by C A in (3)
(6) D (D A) SubstPred B by A in (4)
(7) (A (B A)) ((B (B A)) ((A B)
(B A)))
SubstPred C by B in (5)
(8) (B (B A)) ((A B) (B A)) MP (7), (2)
(9) B (B A) SubstPred D by B in (6)
(10) (A B) (B A) MP (8), (9)
Proposition 4. [proposition:implication04]
(A A)
Proof.
(1) (A B) A Add axiom 3
(2) (A B) B Add axiom 4
(3) (A B) ((A B) A) Add axiom 9
(4) (A A) A SubstPred B by A in (1)
(5) (A A) A SubstPred B by A in (2)
(6) ((A A) B) (((A A) B)
(A A))
SubstPred A by A A in (3)
(7) ((A A) A) (((A A) A) (A A)) SubstPred B by A in (6)
(8) ((A A) A) (A A) MP (7), (4)
(9) (A A) MP (8), (5)
3.2 Deduction Theorem
We prove the deduction theorem. This leads to the new rule Conditional Proof.
If we can prove B by assuming A as a hypothesis then we have proved A B.
This reasoning is justied by the so-called deduction theorem. The deduction
theorem holds for all rst-order theories with the usual deductive systems for
rst-order logic. However our use of proposition variables and substitution rules
make diculties. We have to restrict the allowed inference rules to get a simular
result.
Rule 9. [rule:CP]
Name: CP - Version: 0.02.00
We have the well-formed formula and add it as a new proof line. Now we
modify the existing inference rules. We can add a further proof line if
3.3. PROPOSITIONS ABOUT IMPLICATION 17
is a well-formed formula and the usage of a previous inference rule with the
following restrictions justies the addition: for rule 3 occurs the replaced free
variable not in , for rule 5 occurs the replaced predicate variable not in , for
rule 6 occurs the replaced function variable not in .
Based on: axiom 1 axiom 2 The following rules have to be extended.
Name: MP - Version: 0.02.00 - Old Version: 0.01.00
See rule 9.
Name: Add - Version: 0.02.00 - Old Version: 0.01.00
See rule 9.
Name: Rename - Version: 0.02.00 - Old Version: 0.01.00
See rule 9.
Name: SubstFree - Version: 0.02.00 - Old Version: 0.01.00
See rule 9.
Name: SubstPred - Version: 0.02.00 - Old Version: 0.01.00
See rule 9.
Name: SubstFun - Version: 0.02.00 - Old Version: 0.01.00
See rule 9.
Name: Universal - Version: 0.02.00 - Old Version: 0.01.00
See rule 9.
Name: Existential - Version: 0.02.00 - Old Version: 0.01.00
See rule 9.
Proof. TODO 20110613 m31
The deduction theorem enables us to prove propositions more easier in the next
sections.
3.3 Propositions about implication
We use rule 9 to derive more propositions containing only the implication oper-
ator.
Proposition 5. [proposition:implication10]
(A (A B)) (A B)
Proof.
Conditional Proof
(1) A (A B) Hypothesis
Conditional Proof
(2) A Hypothesis
(3) A B MP (1), (2)
(4) B MP (3), (2)
(5) A B Conclusion
(6) (A (A B)) (A B) Conclusion
18 CHAPTER 3. PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS
Proposition 6. [proposition:implication11]
((A B) (A C)) (A (B C))
Proof.
(1) A (B A) Add axiom 1
(2) D (B D) SubstPred A by D in (1)
(3) D (A D) SubstPred B by A in (2)
(4) B (A B) SubstPred D by B in (3)
Conditional Proof
(5) (A B) (A C) Hypothesis
Conditional Proof
(6) A Hypothesis
Conditional Proof
(7) B Hypothesis
(8) A B MP (4), (7)
(9) A C MP (5), (8)
(10) C MP (9), (6)
(11) B C Conclusion
(12) A (B C) Conclusion
(13) ((A B) (A C)) (A (B C)) Conclusion
Proposition 7. [proposition:implication12]
(A B) ((B C) (A C))
Proof.
Conditional Proof
(1) A B Hypothesis
Conditional Proof
(2) B C Hypothesis
Conditional Proof
(3) A Hypothesis
(4) B MP (1), (3)
(5) C MP (2), (4)
(6) A C Conclusion
(7) (B C) (A C) Conclusion
(8) (A B) ((B C) (A C)) Conclusion
Proposition 8. [proposition:implication13]
(A (B C)) (B (A C))
Proof.
Conditional Proof
(1) A (B C) Hypothesis
Conditional Proof
(2) B Hypothesis
Conditional Proof
3.4. PROPOSITIONS ABOUT CONJUNCTION 19
(3) A Hypothesis
(4) B C MP (1), (3)
(5) C MP (4), (2)
(6) A C Conclusion
(7) B (A C) Conclusion
(8) (A (B C)) (B (A C)) Conclusion
3.4 Propositions about conjunction
We use rule 9 to derive more propositions containing the conjunction operator.
Proposition 9. [proposition:implication14]
A (A A)
Proof.
(1) B (A (A B)) Add axiom 5
(2) A (A (A A)) SubstPred B by A in (1)
Conditional Proof
(3) A Hypothesis
(4) A (A A) MP (2), (3)
(5) A A MP (4), (3)
(6) A (A A) Conclusion
Proposition 10. [proposition:AND-3b]
A (B (A B))
Proof.
(1) (A (B C)) (B (A C)) Add proposition 8
(2) (A (D C)) (D (A C)) SubstPred B by D in (1)
(3) (B (D C)) (D (B C)) SubstPred A by B in (2)
(4) (B (A C)) (A (B C)) SubstPred D by A in (3)
(5) (B (A (A B))) (A (B (A B))) SubstPred C by A B in (4)
(6) B (A (A B)) Add axiom 5
(7) A (B (A B)) MP (5), (6)
Proposition 11. [proposition:implication15]
((A B) (B C)) (A C)
Proof.
(1) (A B) A Add axiom 3
(2) (A (B C)) A SubstPred B by B C in (1)
(3) ((A B) (B C)) (A B) SubstPred A by A B in (2)
(4) (A B) B Add axiom 4
(5) (A (B C)) (B C) SubstPred B by B C in (4)
20 CHAPTER 3. PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS
(6) ((A B) (B C)) (B C) SubstPred A by A B in (5)
Conditional Proof
(7) (A B) (B C) Hypothesis
(8) A B MP (3), (7)
(9) B C MP (6), (7)
(10) (A B) ((B C) (A C)) Add proposition 7
(11) (B C) (A C) MP (10), (8)
(12) A C MP (11), (9)
(13) ((A B) (B C)) (A C) Conclusion
Proposition 12. [proposition:implication17]
(A B) ((A C) (A (B C)))
Proof.
(1) B (A (A B)) Add axiom 5
(2) C (A (A C)) SubstPred B by C in (1)
(3) C (B (B C)) SubstPred A by B in (2)
Conditional Proof
(4) A B Hypothesis
Conditional Proof
(5) A C Hypothesis
Conditional Proof
(6) A Hypothesis
(7) C MP (5), (6)
(8) B (B C) MP (3), (7)
(9) B MP (4), (6)
(10) B C MP (8), (9)
(11) A (B C) Conclusion
(12) (A C) (A (B C)) Conclusion
(13) (A B) ((A C) (A (B C))) Conclusion
Proposition 13. [proposition:implication18]
(A B) ((A C) (B C))
Proof.
(1) (A B) A Add axiom 3
(2) (A C) A SubstPred B by C in (1)
(3) (A B) B Add axiom 4
(4) (A C) C SubstPred B by C in (3)
(5) B (A (A B)) Add axiom 5
(6) C (A (A C)) SubstPred B by C in (5)
(7) C (B (B C)) SubstPred A by B in (6)
Conditional Proof
(8) A B Hypothesis
Conditional Proof
(9) A C Hypothesis
(10) A MP (2), (9)
(11) B MP (8), (10)
(12) C MP (4), (9)
3.4. PROPOSITIONS ABOUT CONJUNCTION 21
(13) B (B C) MP (7), (12)
(14) B C MP (13), (11)
(15) (A C) (B C) Conclusion
(16) (A B) ((A C) (B C)) Conclusion
Proposition 14. [proposition:implication19]
(A B) (B A)
Proof.
(1) B (A (A B)) Add axiom 5
(2) C (A (A C)) SubstPred B by C in (1)
(3) C (B (B C)) SubstPred A by B in (2)
(4) A (B (B A)) SubstPred C by A in (3)
(5) (A B) A Add axiom 3
(6) (A B) B Add axiom 4
Conditional Proof
(7) A B Hypothesis
(8) A MP (5), (7)
(9) B (B A) MP (4), (8)
(10) B MP (6), (7)
(11) B A MP (9), (10)
(12) (A B) (B A) Conclusion
Proposition 15. [proposition:implication20]
(A (B C)) ((A B) C)
Proof.
Conditional Proof
(1) A (B C) Hypothesis
Conditional Proof
(2) A B Hypothesis
(3) (A B) A Add axiom 3
(4) A MP (3), (2)
(5) (A B) B Add axiom 4
(6) B MP (5), (2)
(7) B C MP (1), (4)
(8) C MP (7), (6)
(9) (A B) C Conclusion
(10) (A (B C)) ((A B) C) Conclusion
Proposition 16. [proposition:implication21]
((A B) C) (A (B C))
Proof.
Conditional Proof
22 CHAPTER 3. PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS
(1) (A B) C Hypothesis
Conditional Proof
(2) A Hypothesis
(3) B (A (A B)) Add axiom 5
Conditional Proof
(4) B Hypothesis
(5) A (A B) MP (3), (4)
(6) A B MP (5), (2)
(7) C MP (1), (6)
(8) B C Conclusion
(9) A (B C) Conclusion
(10) ((A B) C) (A (B C)) Conclusion
Proposition 17. [proposition:implication25]
((A B) (A C)) (A (B C))
Proof.
(1) (A B) A Add axiom 3
(2) (A C) A SubstPred B by C in (1)
(3) ((A B) C) (A B) SubstPred A by A B in (2)
(4) ((A B) (A C)) (A B) SubstPred C by A C in (3)
(5) (A B) B Add axiom 4
(6) (A C) C SubstPred B by C in (5)
(7) ((A B) C) C SubstPred A by A B in (6)
(8) ((A B) (A C)) (A C) SubstPred C by A C in (7)
(9) B (A (A B)) Add axiom 5
(10) C (A (A C)) SubstPred B by C in (9)
(11) C (B (B C)) SubstPred A by B in (10)
Conditional Proof
(12) (A B) (A C) Hypothesis
(13) A B MP (4), (12)
(14) A C MP (8), (12)
Conditional Proof
(15) A Hypothesis
(16) B MP (13), (15)
(17) C MP (14), (15)
(18) B (B C) MP (11), (17)
(19) B C MP (18), (16)
(20) A (B C) Conclusion
(21) ((A B) (A C)) (A (B C)) Conclusion
Proposition 18. [proposition:implication26]
(A (B C)) ((A B) (A C))
Proof.
(1) (A B) A Add axiom 3
(2) (A C) A SubstPred B by C in (1)
(3) (B C) B SubstPred A by B in (2)
(4) (A B) B Add axiom 4
3.4. PROPOSITIONS ABOUT CONJUNCTION 23
(5) (A C) C SubstPred B by C in (4)
(6) (B C) C SubstPred A by B in (5)
(7) B (A (A B)) Add axiom 5
(8) C (A (A C)) SubstPred B by C in (7)
(9) C ((A B) ((A B) C)) SubstPred A by A B in (8)
(10) (A C) ((A B) ((A B) (A C))) SubstPred C by A C in (9)
Conditional Proof
(11) A (B C) Hypothesis
Conditional Proof
(12) A Hypothesis
(13) B C MP (11), (12)
(14) B MP (3), (13)
(15) A B Conclusion
Conditional Proof
(16) A Hypothesis
(17) B C MP (11), (16)
(18) C MP (6), (17)
(19) A C Conclusion
(20) (A B) ((A B) (A C)) MP (10), (19)
(21) (A B) (A C) MP (20), (15)
(22) (A (B C)) ((A B) (A C)) Conclusion
Proposition 19. [proposition:implication27]
((A B) C) (A (B C))
Proof.
(1) (A B) A Add axiom 3
(2) (A C) A SubstPred B by C in (1)
(3) ((A B) C) (A B) SubstPred A by A B in (2)
(4) (A B) B Add axiom 4
(5) (A C) C SubstPred B by C in (4)
(6) ((A B) C) C SubstPred A by A B in (5)
(7) B (A (A B)) Add axiom 5
(8) C (A (A C)) SubstPred B by C in (7)
(9) C (B (B C)) SubstPred A by B in (8)
(10) (B C) (A (A (B C))) SubstPred B by B C in (7)
Conditional Proof
(11) (A B) C Hypothesis
(12) A B MP (3), (11)
(13) A MP (1), (12)
(14) B MP (4), (12)
(15) C MP (6), (11)
(16) B (B C) MP (9), (15)
(17) B C MP (16), (14)
(18) A (A (B C)) MP (10), (17)
(19) A (B C) MP (18), (13)
(20) ((A B) C) (A (B C)) Conclusion
Proposition 20. [proposition:implication28]
(A (B C)) ((A B) C)
24 CHAPTER 3. PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS
Proof.
(1) (A B) A Add axiom 3
(2) (A (B C)) A SubstPred B by B C in (1)
(3) (A C) A SubstPred B by C in (1)
(4) (B C) B SubstPred A by B in (3)
(5) (A B) B Add axiom 4
(6) (A (B C)) (B C) SubstPred B by B C in (5)
(7) (A C) C SubstPred B by C in (5)
(8) (B C) C SubstPred A by B in (7)
(9) B (A (A B)) Add axiom 5
(10) C (A (A C)) SubstPred B by C in (9)
(11) C ((A B) ((A B) C)) SubstPred A by A B in (10)
Conditional Proof
(12) A (B C) Hypothesis
(13) A MP (2), (12)
(14) B C MP (6), (12)
(15) B MP (4), (14)
(16) C MP (8), (14)
(17) A (A B) MP (9), (15)
(18) A B MP (17), (13)
(19) (A B) ((A B) C) MP (11), (16)
(20) (A B) C MP (19), (18)
(21) (A (B C)) ((A B) C) Conclusion
3.5 Propositions about disjunction
The disjunction is our theme here.
Proposition 21. [proposition:implication40]
(A (B C)) ((A B) C)
Proof.
(1) A (A B) Add axiom 6
(2) A (A C) SubstPred B by C in (1)
(3) (A B) ((A B) C) SubstPred A by A B in (2)
Conditional Proof
(4) A Hypothesis
(5) A B MP (1), (4)
(6) (A B) C MP (3), (5)
(7) A ((A B) C) Conclusion
(8) A (B A) Add axiom 7
(9) C (B C) SubstPred A by C in (8)
(10) C (A C) SubstPred B by A in (9)
(11) B (A B) SubstPred C by B in (10)
Conditional Proof
(12) B Hypothesis
(13) A B MP (11), (12)
(14) (A B) C MP (3), (13)
(15) B ((A B) C) Conclusion
(16) C ((A B) C) SubstPred B by A B in (9)
3.5. PROPOSITIONS ABOUT DISJUNCTION 25
(17) (A C) ((B C) ((A B) C)) Add axiom 8
(18) (A D) ((B D) ((A B) D)) SubstPred C by D in (17)
(19) (A D) ((C D) ((A C) D)) SubstPred B by C in (18)
(20) (B D) ((C D) ((B C) D)) SubstPred A by B in (19)
(21) (B ((A B) C)) ((C ((A B) C))
((B C) ((A B) C)))
SubstPred D by (A B) C in
(20)
(22) (C ((A B) C)) ((B C) ((A B) C)) MP (21), (15)
(23) (B C) ((A B) C) MP (22), (16)
(24) (A D) (((B C) D) ((A (B C))
D))
SubstPred B by B C in (18)
(25) (A ((A B) C)) (((B C) ((A B)
C)) ((A (B C)) ((A B) C)))
SubstPred D by (A B) C in
(24)
(26) ((B C) ((A B) C)) ((A (B C))
((A B) C))
MP (25), (7)
(27) (A (B C)) ((A B) C) MP (26), (23)
Proposition 22. [proposition:implication41]
((A B) C) (A (B C))
Proof.
(1) A (A B) Add axiom 6
(2) A (A (B C)) SubstPred B by B C in (1)
(3) A (A C) SubstPred B by C in (1)
(4) B (B C) SubstPred A by B in (3)
(5) A (B A) Add axiom 7
(6) A (D A) SubstPred B by D in (5)
(7) (B C) (D (B C)) SubstPred A by B C in (6)
(8) (B C) (A (B C)) SubstPred D by A in (7)
Conditional Proof
(9) B Hypothesis
(10) B C MP (4), (9)
(11) A (B C) MP (8), (10)
(12) B (A (B C)) Conclusion
(13) C (B C) SubstPred A by C in (5)
Conditional Proof
(14) C Hypothesis
(15) B C MP (13), (14)
(16) A (B C) MP (8), (15)
(17) C (A (B C)) Conclusion
(18) (A C) ((B C) ((A B) C)) Add axiom 8
(19) (A (A (B C))) ((B (A (B C)))
((A B) (A (B C))))
SubstPred C by A (B C) in
(18)
(20) (B (A (B C))) ((A B) (A (B C))) MP (19), (2)
(21) (A B) (A (B C)) MP (20), (12)
(22) (A D) ((B D) ((A B) D)) SubstPred C by D in (18)
(23) (A D) ((C D) ((A C) D)) SubstPred B by C in (22)
(24) ((A B) D) ((C D) (((A B) C)
D))
SubstPred A by A B in (23)
(25) ((A B) (A (B C))) ((C (A (B
C))) (((A B) C) (A (B C))))
SubstPred D by A (B C) in
(24)
(26) (C (A (B C))) (((A B) C)
(A (B C)))
MP (25), (21)
(27) ((A B) C) (A (B C)) MP (26), (17)
26 CHAPTER 3. PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS
Proposition 23. [proposition:implication42]
(A B) ((A C) (B C))
Proof.
(1) (A C) ((B C) ((A B) C)) Add axiom 8
(2) (A D) ((B D) ((A B) D)) SubstPred C by D in (1)
(3) (A D) ((C D) ((A C) D)) SubstPred B by C in (2)
(4) (A (B C)) ((C (B C)) ((A C)
(B C)))
SubstPred D by B C in (3)
(5) A (A B) Add axiom 6
(6) A (A C) SubstPred B by C in (5)
(7) B (B C) SubstPred A by B in (6)
(8) A (B A) Add axiom 7
(9) C (B C) SubstPred A by C in (8)
Conditional Proof
(10) A B Hypothesis
Conditional Proof
(11) A Hypothesis
(12) B MP (10), (11)
(13) B C MP (7), (12)
(14) A (B C) Conclusion
(15) (C (B C)) ((A C) (B C)) MP (4), (14)
(16) (A C) (B C) MP (15), (9)
(17) (A B) ((A C) (B C)) Conclusion
3.6 Propositions about negation
Now we look at negation. Here we must use the principle of the excluded middle
for the rst time.
Proposition 24. [proposition:implication50]
A A
Proof.
(1) A (B A) Add axiom 1
(2) A (A A) SubstPred B by A in (1)
(3) (A B) ((A B) A) Add axiom 9
(4) (A B) ((A B) A) SubstPred A by A in (3)
(5) (A A) ((A A) A) SubstPred B by A in (4)
(6) A A Add proposition 1
(7) A A SubstPred A by A in (6)
Conditional Proof
(8) A Hypothesis
(9) A A MP (2), (8)
(10) (A A) A MP (5), (9)
(11) A MP (10), (7)
(12) A A Conclusion
3.6. PROPOSITIONS ABOUT NEGATION 27
Proposition 25. [proposition:implication51]
(A B) (B A)
Proof.
(1) A (B A) Add axiom 1
(2) C (B C) SubstPred A by C in (1)
(3) C (A C) SubstPred B by A in (2)
(4) B (A B) SubstPred C by B in (3)
(5) (A B) ((A B) A) Add axiom 9
Conditional Proof
(6) A B Hypothesis
Conditional Proof
(7) B Hypothesis
(8) A B MP (4), (7)
(9) (A B) A MP (5), (8)
(10) A MP (9), (6)
(11) B A Conclusion
(12) (A B) (B A) Conclusion
Proposition 26. [proposition:implication52]
(A B) (B A)
Proof.
(1) A (B A) Add axiom 1
(2) C (B C) SubstPred A by C in (1)
(3) C (A C) SubstPred B by A in (2)
(4) B (A B) SubstPred C by B in (3)
(5) (A B) ((A B) A) Add axiom 9
Conditional Proof
(6) A B Hypothesis
(7) (A B) A MP (5), (6)
Conditional Proof
(8) B Hypothesis
(9) A B MP (4), (8)
(10) A MP (7), (9)
(11) B A Conclusion
(12) (A B) (B A) Conclusion
Proposition 27. [proposition:implication54]
A A
Proof.
(1) A A Add proposition 24
(2) (A B) (B A) Add proposition 26
(3) (A A) (A A) SubstPred B by A in (2)
(4) A A MP (3), (1)
28 CHAPTER 3. PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS
Proposition 28. [proposition:implication55]
(A A) A
Proof.
(1) A A Add proposition 1
(2) A A SubstPred A by A in (1)
(3) (A B) ((A B) A) Add axiom 9
(4) (A B) ((A B) A) SubstPred A by A in (3)
(5) (A A) ((A A) A) SubstPred B by A in (4)
Conditional Proof
(6) A A Hypothesis
(7) (A A) A MP (5), (6)
(8) A MP (7), (2)
(9) (A A) A Conclusion
Proposition 29. [proposition:implication56]
A A
Proof.
(1) A A Add axiom 11
(2) (A C) ((B C) ((A B) C)) Add axiom 8
(3) (A A) ((B A) ((A B) A)) SubstPred C by A in (2)
(4) A A Add proposition 1
(5) (B A) ((A B) A) MP (3), (4)
(6) (A A) ((A A) A) SubstPred B by A in (5)
(7) A (A B) Add axiom 10
(8) A (A B) SubstPred A by A in (7)
(9) A (A A) SubstPred B by A in (8)
Conditional Proof
(10) A Hypothesis
(11) A A MP (9), (10)
(12) (A A) A MP (6), (11)
(13) A MP (12), (1)
(14) A A Conclusion
Proposition 30. [proposition:implication57]
(B A) (A B)
Proof.
(1) A A Add proposition 29
(2) B B SubstPred A by B in (1)
(3) (A B) (B A) Add proposition 25
(4) (C B) (B C) SubstPred A by C in (3)
(5) (C A) (A C) SubstPred B by A in (4)
(6) (B A) (A B) SubstPred C by B in (5)
Conditional Proof
3.7. MIXING CONJUNCTION AND DISJUNCTION. 29
(7) B A Hypothesis
(8) A B MP (6), (7)
Conditional Proof
(9) A Hypothesis
(10) B MP (8), (9)
(11) B MP (2), (10)
(12) A B Conclusion
(13) (B A) (A B) Conclusion
3.7 Mixing conjunction and disjunction.
Now we show how disjunction and conjunction are connected.
Proposition 31. [proposition:implication70]
((A C) (B C)) ((A B) C)
Proof.
(1) (A (B C)) ((A B) C) Add proposition 15
(2) (A (B D)) ((A B) D) SubstPred C by D in (1)
(3) ((A C) (B D)) (((A C) B) D) SubstPred A by A C in (2)
(4) ((A C) ((B C) D)) (((A
C) (B C)) D)
SubstPred B by B C in (3)
(5) ((A C) ((B C) ((A B) C)))
(((A C) (B C)) ((A B) C))
SubstPred D by (A B) C in
(4)
(6) (A C) ((B C) ((A B) C)) Add axiom 8
(7) ((A C) (B C)) ((A B) C) MP (5), (6)
Proposition 32. [proposition:implication71]
((A B) C) ((A C) (B C))
Proof.
(1) B (A (A B)) Add axiom 5
(2) (B C) (A (A (B C))) SubstPred B by B C in (1)
(3) (B C) ((A C) ((A C) (B C))) SubstPred A by A C in (2)
(4) (A B) A Add axiom 3
(5) (A B) ((A C) (B C)) Add proposition 23
(6) (A D) ((A C) (D C)) SubstPred B by D in (5)
(7) ((A B) D) (((A B) C) (D C)) SubstPred A by A B in (6)
(8) ((A B) A) (((A B) C) (A C)) SubstPred D by A in (7)
(9) ((A B) C) (A C) MP (8), (4)
(10) (A B) B Add axiom 4
(11) ((A B) B) (((A B) C) (B C)) SubstPred D by B in (7)
(12) ((A B) C) (B C) MP (11), (10)
Conditional Proof
(13) (A B) C Hypothesis
(14) A C MP (9), (13)
(15) B C MP (12), (13)
(16) (A C) ((A C) (B C)) MP (3), (15)
30 CHAPTER 3. PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS
(17) (A C) (B C) MP (16), (14)
(18) ((A B) C) ((A C) (B C)) Conclusion
Proposition 33. [proposition:implication72]
((A C) (B C)) ((A B) C)
Proof.
(1) A (B A) Add axiom 7
(2) C (B C) SubstPred A by C in (1)
(3) C ((A B) C) SubstPred B by A B in (2)
(4) (A C) ((B C) ((A B) C)) Add axiom 8
(5) (A D) ((B D) ((A B) D)) SubstPred C by D in (4)
(6) (A D) ((C D) ((A C) D)) SubstPred B by C in (5)
(7) (B D) ((C D) ((B C) D)) SubstPred A by B in (6)
(8) (B ((A B) C)) ((C ((A B) C))
((B C) ((A B) C)))
SubstPred D by (A B) C in
(7)
Conditional Proof
(9) C Hypothesis
Conditional Proof
(10) B Hypothesis
(11) (A B) C MP (3), (9)
(12) B ((A B) C) Conclusion
(13) (C ((A B) C)) ((B C)
((A B) C))
MP (8), (12)
(14) (B C) ((A B) C) MP (13), (3)
(15) C ((B C) ((A B) C)) Conclusion
(16) (A B) ((A C) (B C)) Add proposition 23
(17) (D B) ((D C) (B C)) SubstPred A by D in (16)
(18) (D (A B)) ((D C) ((A B) C)) SubstPred B by A B in (17)
(19) (B (A B)) ((B C) ((A B) C)) SubstPred D by B in (18)
(20) A (B (A B)) Add proposition 10
Conditional Proof
(21) A Hypothesis
(22) B (A B) MP (20), (21)
(23) (B C) ((A B) C) MP (19), (22)
(24) A ((B C) ((A B) C)) Conclusion
(25) (A C) ((B C) ((A B) C)) Add axiom 8
(26) (A D) ((B D) ((A B) D)) SubstPred C by D in (25)
(27) (A D) ((C D) ((A C) D)) SubstPred B by C in (26)
(28) (A ((B C) ((A B) C))) ((C
((B C) ((A B) C))) ((A C)
((B C) ((A B) C))))
SubstPred D by (B C) ((A
B) C) in (27)
(29) (C ((B C) ((A B) C))) ((A C)
((B C) ((A B) C)))
MP (28), (24)
(30) (A C) ((B C) ((A B) C)) MP (29), (15)
(31) (A (B C)) ((A B) C) Add proposition 15
(32) (A (B D)) ((A B) D) SubstPred C by D in (31)
(33) ((A C) (B D)) (((A C) B) D) SubstPred A by A C in (32)
(34) ((A C) ((B C) D)) (((A C) (B
C)) D)
SubstPred B by B C in (33)
(35) ((A C) ((B C) ((A B) C)))
(((A C) (B C)) ((A B) C))
SubstPred D by (A B) C in
(34)
(36) ((A C) (B C)) ((A B) C) MP (35), (30)
3.7. MIXING CONJUNCTION AND DISJUNCTION. 31
32 CHAPTER 3. PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS
Bibliography
[1] P.S. Novikov, Elements of Mathematical Logic, Edinburgh: Oliver and
Boyd, 1964. 5
[2] V. Detlovs, K. Podnieks, Introduction to Mathematical Logic, https://
dspace.lu.lv/dspace/handle/7/1308. 5
[3] D. Hilbert, W. Ackermann, Grundz uge der theoretischen Logik, 2nd ed.,
Berlin: Springer, 1938. English version: Principles of Mathematical Logic,
Chelsea, New York 1950, ed. by R. E. Luce. See also http://www.math.
uwaterloo.ca/
~
snburris/htdocs/scav/hilbert/hilbert.html 5, 13
[4] E. Mendelson, Introduction to Mathematical Logic, 3rd. ed., Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth, 1987.
[5] qedeq logic v1 http://www.qedeq.org/0_04_07/doc/math/qedeq_
logic_v1.xml
33
Index
arity, 7
axiom
of existential generalization, 12
of universal instantiation, 12
axioms, 11
bound subject variable, 8
calculus
propositional, 9
conjunction
elimination, 11
introduction, 11
constant
function, 7
individual, 8
predicate, 7
deduction theorem, 16
disjunction
elimination, 11
introduction, 11
equivalence
elimination, 12
introduction, 12
existential quantier, 8
formula, 7, 8
part, 9
function constant, 7
function variable, 7
hypothesis distribution, 11
implication introduction, 11
individual constant, 8
Modus Ponens, 12
negation
elimination, 12
excluded middle, 12
introduction, 12
part formula, 9
predicate constant, 7
predicate variable, 7
proposition variable, 7
propositional calculus, 9
quantier
existential, 8
scope, 9
universal, 8
rank, 7
rules
of inference, 12
of predicate calculus, 12
scope, 9
sentence letters, 7
subject variable, 7
bound, 8
free, 8
summary, 5
term, 7, 8
universal quantier, 8
variable
function, 7
predicate, 7
proposition, 7
subject, 7
34