BISC-220: General Biology 4/27/2013 7:46:00 PM

Isoosmolarity occurs when two solutions separated by a selectively

permeable membrane share the same osmolarity (total solute
concentration expressed as moles of solute per liter of solution)
Osmoconformers are isoosmotic with their environment and
include all marine animals
Osmoregulators maintain an internal osmolarity that differs
from the environment

Ammonia: when proteins and nucleic acids are broken down for energy,
enzymes remove nitrogen in the form of ammonia
Most organisms convert toxic ammonia to a less toxic compound
prior to excretion
Ammonia excretion is most common in marine animals because
ammonia molecules are highly soluble and pass readily through
membranes into surrounding water

Urea: excreted by most terrestrial animals and is the product of a metabolic
cycle that combines ammonia with carbon dioxide
The main disadvantage is that animals must expend excess energy
to produce this urea

Uric Acid: serves as the primary excretion of insects, snails, and birds that
lack access to water
Uric acid is even more energetically expensive to produce than
urea, requiring ATP for synthesis from ammonia

The Different Excretory Systems

The Protonephridia system is found in flatworms
Composed of dead-end tubules that connect to external openings
through which urine is excreted
Flame bulbs contain cilia that draw water and interstitial fluid
through the bulb

The metanephridia system is found in annelids such as earthworms
It is composed of excretory organs that collect fluid from the
coelom

The Malpighian tubules are found in insects and terrestrial
arthropods
Remove nitrogenous wastes and function in osmoregulation
They extend from dead-end tips immersed in hemolymph
(circulatory fluid) to openings into the digestive tract
Unlike the other systems that involve a filtration step, the
transport epithelium that lines the tubules secretes certain
solutes, including nitrogenous wastes, from the hemolymph into the
lumen of the tubule
o Water follows the solutes into the tubule by osmosis, and the
fluid then passes into the rectum

Kidneys are found in humans and other chordates
Filtration occurs as pressure forces fluid from the blood in the
glomerulus into Bowmans capsule
o The capillaries of the capsule are permeable only to water and
small solutes
o Blood cells and plasma proteins cannot pass through
The filtrate then travels through the loop of Henle
o These loops are found in the cortical nephrons and are
confined to the renal cortex
o Other nephrons extend into the renal medulla and produce
hyperosmotic urine
The Proximal Tubule: salt in the filtrate diffuses into the transport
epithelium where Na+ is actively transported to the interstitial fluid
o The transfer drives passive transport of Cl- and water follows
by osmosis into the peritubular capillaries
o This process helps maintain pH
Descending Limb of the Loop of Henle: the filtrate moves into the
descending limb where water channels formed by aquaporin
proteins make the transport epithelium permeable to water
o Loss of water and increase in solute concentration
Ascending Limb of the Loop of Henle: this limb contains ion
channels, now water channels, and is impermeable to water
o NaCl diffuses into the interstitial fluid and maintains the
osmolarity of this fluid in the medulla
Distal Tubule: contributes to pH regulation by secreting H+ and
reabsorbing HCO3-
o It also regulates the concentration of K+ and NaCl of body
fluids
Collecting Duct: carries the filtrate to the renal pelvis and
determines the extent of urine concentration
o The state of the collecting duct is controlled by hormones

Nephrons are energy-consuming machines that produce as osmolarity
gradient suitable for extracting water from the filtrate in the collecting duct
As NaCl becomes concentrated in the collecting duct, the osmolarity
of the filtrate increases
The elbow loop of Henle has the highest osmolarity at 1200
NaCl then diffuses from the ascending limb
o The filtrate is hypoosmotic to body fluid when it reaches the
distal tubule

ADH is stored in the posterior pituitary gland and is a key hormone in the
osmoregulatory function of the kidney
It lowers the osmolarity caused by sweating or ingesting salty food
o The epithelium becomes more permeable to water and the
concentration of the salt rises in the urine
When large amount of water and ingested, activity of this hormone
is low, resulting in the release of dilute urine

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system involves the juxtaglomerular
apparatus that supplies blood to the glomerulus (JGA)
In response to a decrease in blood pressure, the JGA releases renin
that cleaves a protein called angiotensinogen, yielding a peptide
called angiotensin II
o It raises pressure by constricting arterioles and stimulates the
release of aldosterone that causes the tubules to reabsorb
more Na+ and water

The endocrine system is responsible for chemical signaling through
hormones
Local regulators are secreted molecules that act over short
distances and function in paracrine and autocrine signaling
o Paracrine - target cells lie near the secreting cell
o Autocrine - target cells are also the secreting cells
o Pheromones - chemicals released into the external
environment

Hormones are divided into three groups:
Polypeptides, amines, and steroid hormones
Water-soluble hormones travel freely and bind to cell surface
receptors
Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse membranes and travel bound to
transport proteins, binding to intracellular receptors

Signal transductions are changes in cellular proteins that convert the
extracellular chemical signals to a specific intracellular response
An example is the secretion of epinephrine that binds to a G-protein
coupled receptor
o This triggers the activation of protein kinase A by cyclic cAMP
o The release of an enzyme required for glycogen breakdown is
subsequently stimulated
When a steroid hormone binds to a cytosolic receptor, a hormone
receptor complex forms
o The receptor interacts with DNA to stimulate the transcription
of specific genes

The posterior pituitary gland releases two hormones:
Oxytocin which is essential for stimulating lactation in females
ADH
The anterior pituitary gland releases many hormones and is regulated by the
hypothalamus
Tropic hormones regulate the function of the endocrine glands
o Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
o Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
o Luteinizing hormone (LH)
o Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Nontropic hormones target nonendocrine tisses and are prolactin
or melanocyte-stimulating hormone
Growth hormone is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and
stimulates growth through both tropic and nontropic effects

The thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormone that is a pair of hormones
called T3 and T4
Too much of this can lead to Graves disease
Too little of this can lead to weight gain and lethargy
The parathyroid gland plays a major role in Ca2+ regulation (calcium ions)
If the Ca2+ levels fall, it releases parathyroid hormone to cause the
decomposition of bones and the release of Ca2+
It also stimulates reabsorption of Ca2+ in the kidneys
If Ca2+ levels rise, they release calcitonin that inhibits bone
reabsorption and enhances Ca2+ release by the kidney
BISC-220: General Biology 4/27/2013 7:46:00 PM
There are many forms of sexual reproduction that include:
Sexual reproduction through the meeting of egg and sperm to form
a zygote
o Sexual females have half the number of offspring as asexual
females
o Sexual reproduction allows for greater genetic variation,
increased rates of adaptation, and the ability to eliminate
harmful genes from a population
Asexual reproduction through budding, fragmentation, or
parthenogenesis

Gonads are organs that produce gametes
For females, the gonads are the ovaries that lie in the abdominal
cavity and contain follicles
Ovulation expels an egg cell from the follicle, which travels to the
uterus through the oviduct (Fallopian tube)
The uterus narrows at the cervix then opens into the vagina

A cloaca is an opening between the external environment and the digestive,
excretory, and reproductive systems

Leydig cells produce testosterone, are regulated by LH, and are scattered
between the seminiferous tubules that form sperm cells
Testosterone promotes sperm life, muscle growth, and the
maintenance of accessory organs - it also supports the development
of secondary sexual characteristics

Sertoli cells act as nourishment cells for spermatogenesis and release
GnRH

Germ cells divide into spermtogonia then spermatocytes and finally
spermatids or sperm

Vasocongestion is the filling of tissue with blood that occurs during sexual
arousal in both sexes
The sexual response has four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm,
and resolution

Oogenesis occurs when one egg forms from each cycle of meiosis while
four form from each cycle in spermatogenesis
It ceases later in life during menopause while spermatogenesis
continues throughout the life of the male

GnRH is secreted by the hypothalamus and directs the subsequent release
of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary gland
FSH and LH regulate processes in the gonads and the production of
sex hormones
The sex hormones are androgens, estrogens, and progesterone
o The development of primary and secondary sexual
characteristics are dependent upon these hormones

Follicular phase - the development of the oocyte
Ovulation - release of the oocyte
Luteal phase - contribution of the corpus luteum
Late luteal phase - degeneration of the corpus luteum
The release of GnRH, FSH, and LH that stimulates follicle growth
This growth and an increase in estradiol characterize the follicular
phase of the ovarian cycle - this phase ends with ovulation

The Ovarian Cycle

Begins with the release of GnRH from the hypothalamus to stimulate the
release of FSH and LH
FSH stimulates the growth of the follicle and the release of estradiol
o Estradiol inhibits the release of FSH and LH and continues to
rise
o Higher levels of estradiol increase GnRH released from the
hypothalalmus
LH stimulates the follicle tissue to form the corpus luteum which
secretes progesterone and estradiol and thus reduces FSH and LH
o Estradiol prepares the uterus by causing the endometrium to
thicken
When the corpus luteum dissolves, the uterine lining disintegrates and
menstruation begins

hCG is released when an embryo implants into the endometrium
A lack of hCG leads to disintegration of the corpus luteum
hCG is high in maternal blood and urine and is the basis for the
pregnancy test

If a sperm reaches an egg cell, it triggers the acrosome reaction in which
hydrolytic enzymes are released on the external surface of the egg cell
The enzymes digest the outer layer of the cell and allow the sperm
to reach the plasma membrane of the egg cell
At the moment of contact, enzymes secreted by exocytosis make
the protective layer of the cell unable to bind to other sperm cells
o The resulting zygote begins to divide by mitosis through a
process called cleavage and this division gives rise to a ball of
cells called a blastocyst

Human gestation is divided into three trimesters of three months each,
although the most radical changes occur for both the mother and the
embryo during the first trimester
Organogenesis occurs largely during the first trimester and
develops many of the organs - all major structures are present by 8
weeks when the embryo develops into a fetus

Genetically identical twins develop with the splitting of the embryo during
the first month
The release and fertilization of two different eggs results in fraternal
and genetically distinct twins

The Contraceptive Pill
Progestagen negative feedback decreases the frequency of GnRH
release by the hypothalamus
o This decreases the release of FSH and LH
o Decreased levels of FSH inhibit follicular development and
prevent increases in estradiol levels
The lack of estrogen positive feedback on LH release prevents the
mid-cycle LH surge
o Inhibition of follicular development and the absence of LH
surge prevent ovulation
Estragen negative feedback decreases the release of FSH which
inhibits follicular development
o A secondary mechanism of all progestagen containing
contraceptives is the inhibition of sperm penetration through
the cervix and into the upper genital tract by decreasing the
amount of cervical mucus



BISC-220: General Biology 4/27/2013 7:46:00 PM
Sensory neurons transmit information from the eyes and other senses that
detect external stimuli

Motor neurons transmit signals to muscle cells and cause them to contract

Most neurons require supporting cells called glial cells
These cells nourish neurons, insulate the axons of neurons, and
regulate the extracellular fluid surrounding them

The concentration gradient across the plasma membrane of a neuron is
crucial to generating its resting potential
The concentration of K+ is highest inside the cell, while the
concentration of Na+ is highest outside the cell
These Na+ and K+ gradients are maintained by sodium-
potassium pumps
o These ion pumps use the energy of ATP hydrolysis to
actively transport Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell
Ion channels allow ions to diffuse back and forth across the
membrane
o As ions diffuse through channels, they carry with them units
of electrical charge
o Any resulting net movement of positive or negative charge
will generate a membrane potential, or voltage across the
membrane

Gated ion channels are ion channels that open or close in response to
stimuli and thus alter the membranes permeability to particular ions
In a resting neuron, hyperpolarization results from any stimulus
that increases the outflow of positive ions or the inflow of negative
ions
Depolarization is the opposite and causes the inner membrane
space less negative with the outflow of negative ions
Graded potential is the shift in membrane potential with a
magnitude that varies with the strength of the stimulus

If a depolarization shifts the membrane potential sufficiently, the result is a
massive change in membrane voltage called an action potential
They have a constant magnitude and can regenerate in adjacent
regions of the membrane
Action potentials occur when some of the ion channels are voltage-
gated ion channels that open or close when the membrane
potential passes a certain level
o When depolarization causes a voltage-gated sodium channel
to open, the flow of Na+ into the neuron increases and results
in further depolarization through positive feedback
The threshold is a membrane potential of about -55 mV
o Once initiated, the action potential has a magnitude that is
independent of the strength of the triggering stimulus
o The positive-feedback loop of depolarization and channel
opening triggers an action potential whenever the membrane
potential reaches the threshold
If a second depolarizing stimulus occurs during the falling period, it
will be unable to trigger an action potential
o The downtime when a second action potential cannot be
initiated is called the refractory period
o This interval sets a limit on the maximum frequency at which
action potentials can be generated
o The refractory period is due to the inactivation of
sodium channels, not to a change in the ion gradients
across the plasma membrane

The depolarization in a neighboring region is large enough to reach the
threshold, causing the action potential to be reinitiated there
This process is repeated many times along the length of the axon
Because an action potential is an all-or-none event, the magnitude
and duration of the action potential remain constant at each
position along the axon
o The result is the movement of a nerve impulse from the cell
body to the synaptic terminals

Immediately behind the traveling zone of depolarization caused by Na+
inflow is a zone of repolarization caused by K+ outflow
In the repolarized zone, the sodium channels remain inactivated
Consequently, the inward current that depolarizes the axon
membrane ahead of the action potential cannot produce another
action potential behind it
o This prevents action potentials from traveling back toward the
cell body

The electrical insulation that surrounds vertebrate axons is called a myelin
sheath
Myelin sheaths are produced by two types of glia:
o Oligodendrocytes in the CNS
o Schwann cells in the PNS
The major selective advantage of myelination is its space efficiency

At each terminal, the presynaptic neuron synthesizes the neurotransmitter
and packages it in multiple membrane-bounded compartments called
synaptic vesicles
The arrival of an action potential at a synaptic terminal depolarizes
the plasma membrane, opening voltage-gated channels that allow
Ca2+ to diffuse into the terminal
The resulting rise in Ca2+ concentration in the terminal causes
some of the synaptic vesicles to fuse with the terminal membrane,
releasing the neurotransmitter

At many chemical synapses, the receptor protein that binds and responds to
neurotransmitters is a ligand-gated ion channel, often called an
ionotropic receptor
These receptors are clustered in the membrane of the postsynaptic
cell, opposite the synaptic terminal
Binding of the neurotransmitter (the receptors ligand) to a
particular part of the receptor opens the channel and allows specific
ions to diffuse across the postsynaptic membrane
o The result is a postsynaptic potential, a graded potential in
the postsynaptic cell

Some synapses have a ligand-gated ion channel that is permeable to both
K+ and Na+
When this channel opens, the membrane potential depolarizes
toward a value roughly midway between EK and ENa
Because such a depolarization brings the membrane potential
toward threshold, it is called an excitatory postsynaptic
potential (EPSP)
Other synapses have a ligand-gated ion channel that is selectively
permeable for only K+ or Cl+
When such a channel opens, the postsynaptic membrane
hyperpolarizes
o A hyperpolarization produced in this manner is an inhibitory
postsynaptic potential (IPSP) because it moves the
membrane potential further from threshold

There are five major types of neurotransmitters:
Acetylcholine - an excitatory transmitter in vertebrates
Biogenic Amines - include epinephrine, norepinephrine,
dopamine, and serotonin
Amino Acids - include inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate
Neuropeptides - include substance P and endorphins that affect
pain perception
Gases - include nitric oxide and carbon monoxide
BISC-220: General Biology 4/27/2013 7:46:00 PM
Every cell has a voltage (difference in electrical charge) across its plasma
membrane called a membrane potential
The resting potential is the membrane potential of a neuron not
sending signals
o The uneven distribution of K
+
and Na
+
is critical for
establishing the resting potential
o In a resting neuron, the currents of K
+
and Na
+
are equal and
opposite, and the resting potential across the membrane
remains steady
In a neuron at resting potential, the concentration of K
+
is greater
inside the cell (140 mM inside, 5 mM outside), while the
concentration of Na
+
is greater outside the cell (150 mM outside, 15
mM inside)
o Sodium-potassium pumps use the energy of ATP hydrolysis to
maintain these K
+
and Na
+
gradients across the plasma
membrane to form chemical energy
The opening of ion channels in the plasma membrane converts
chemical potential to electrical potential
A neuron at resting potential contains many open K
+
channels and
fewer open Na
+
channels; K
+
diffuses out of the cell



1. At resting potential most voltage-gated Na
+
and K
+
channels are closed,
but some K
+
channels (not voltage-gated) are open
When an action potential is generated:
2. Voltage-gated Na
+
channels open first and Na
+
flows into the cell
3. During the rising phase, the threshold is crossed, and the membrane
potential increases
4. During the falling phase, voltage-gated Na
+
channels become
inactivated; voltage-gated K
+
channels open, and K
+
flows out of the cell
5. During the undershoot, membrane permeability to K
+
is at first higher
than at rest, then voltage-gated K
+
channels close; resting potential is
restored
6. During the refractory period after an action potential, a second action
potential cannot be initiated, since there is a temporary inactivation of Na
+

channels


Unlike action potentials, postsynaptic potentials are graded and do not
regenerate
BISC-220: General Biology 4/27/2013 7:46:00 PM
List of Hormones

Posterior pituitary gland:
Oxytocin - stimulates contraction of uterus and mammary glands
Antidiuretic Hormone - promotes the retention of water by
kidneys

Anterior pituitary gland:
Growth Hormone - stimulates growth and metabolic functions
Prolactin - stimulates milk production and secretion
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone - stimulates production of ova and
sperm
Luteinizing Hormone - stimulates ovaries and testes
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone - stimulates thyroid gland
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone - stimulates adrenal cortex to
secrete glucocorticoids

Thyroid gland:
T3 and T4 - stimulates and maintains metabolic processes
Calcitronin - lowers blood calcium levels

Parathyroid gland:
Parathyroid Hormone - raises blood calcium levels

Adrenal glands:
Epinephrine and norepinephrine - raise sugar level and increase
metabolic activities
Glucocorticoids - raise sugar level in the body
Mineralcorticoids - promote reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of
K+ in the kidneys

Gonads:
Androgens - support sperm formation and the development of
secondary sexual characteristics
Estrogens - stimulate the uterine lining development and the
secondary sexual characteristics in females
Progestins - promote uterine lining growth