UNIT- I

CHAPTER-I

















STRUCTURE:

1.1.1) INTRODUCTION

OBJECTIVES

1.1.2) PROPERTIES OF ULTRASONICS

1.1.3) MAGNETOSTRICTION METHOD

1.1.4) PIEZOELECTRIC ELECTRIC METHOD

1.1.5) DETECTION METHODS OF ULTRASONICS
A) BY KUNDT'S TUBE METHOD
B) SENSITIVE FLAME METHOD
C) PIEZO-ELECTRIC DETECTOR
D) THERMAL DETECTOR METHOD
E) BY ACOUSTIC GRATING METHOD

1.1.6) APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONICS
A) IN ENGINEERING
B) IN MEDICINE
C) IN NDT
D) ADVANTAGES OF NDT OVER OTHER TECHNIQUES
E) LIMITATION OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

1.1.7) SOLVED EXAMPLES

1.1.8) PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE

1.1.9) SUMMARY























1.1.1) INTRODUCTION:
Sound is a form of energy emitted by a vibrating body and on reaching the ear
causes sensation of hearing. That is sound is associated with our sense of
hearing with the psychology of our ears. The psychology of our brain which
interprets the sensations that reaches our ears.
Sound travels in the form of waves.
Sound waves are mechanical waves.
i.e. they need medium for their propagation and the medium must have inertia and
elasticity properties.

For Ex: Robert Boyle considered an evacuated jar and he placed a stopwatch in the
jar. When stopwatch was outside the jar, he clearly heard the tick tick sounds of stop
clock. But when it is in the jar, he cant hear the tick-tick sounds but the movement of
hands of the watch was clearly visible. Next the watch was replaced by electrical bell
and the same phenomenon was observed by him. From this experiment, we obtained
sound can be propagated through air but not through vacuum.
We usually think that sound waves travels in air and the air is in contact with our ear
drums to vibrate. But sound waves can also travel in other materials like solid or liquid.
Ex:
1. Two stones struck together under water, can be heard by a swimmer beneath the
surface. Here the vibrations are carried to the ear by the water.
2. When you put your ear flat against the ground, you can hear an approaching train or
truck i.e. sound waves travel through ground.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves. That is the waves in which the vibrations of the
particles are parallel to the direction of propagation.

As sound is in the form of waves. Sound waves transmit energy from one place
to another. As waves travel through a medium, the energy is transmitted as
vibration of energy from particle to particle of the medium.
The velocity of sound in air is 331m/s(At 0
o
c).


The velocity of sound in air is 343m/s(At 20
o
c).



Sound waves are Mechanical progressive longitudinal waves

Depending upon the frequencies sound waves can be categorized into two types.
1. Audible 2. Inaudible


1. AUDIBLE SOUNDS:
The sound waves whose frequencies are ranging from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz are audible
sounds.
A normal human being can detect this range of frequencies.
Ex: Vibrations produced by vocal chords and stretched string.










Sound is created when the membrane of this drum vibrates
2) INAUDIBLE SOUNDS:
These sounds cant heard by a normal human being so they are known as inaudible
sounds. They again classified into two types.

INFRASONICS: Sound waves with a frequency less than 20 Hz are known as
Infrasonics.

ULTRASONICS: The sound waves in the range 20 KHZ to 5 MHZ are Ultrasonics.
Because of high frequency they posses high energy and small wavelengths .So a
normal human being cant detect these sounds .
But many animals and birds can here and can produce these sounds.






ULTRASOUND AND ANIMALS:
BATS:








Bats use ultrasounds to move in the darkness.
Bats use a variety of ultrasonic ranging (echolocation) techniques to detect their prey.
They can detect frequencies as high as 100 kHz, although there is some disagreement
on the upper limit.

MOTHS:

There is evidence that ultrasound in the range emitted by bats causes flying moths to
make evasive manoeuvres because bats eat moths. Ultrasonic frequencies trigger a
reflex action in the noctuid moth that cause it to drop a few inches in its flight to evade
attack.

RODENTS/INSECTS:

Ultrasound generator/speaker systems are sold with claims that they frighten away
rodents and insects, but there is no scientific evidence that the devices work.
Laboratory tests conducted by Kansas State University did show positive results for
products from specific manufacturers. Controlled tests on some of the systems have
shown that rodents quickly learn that the speakers are harmless.





OBJECTIVIES:



After studying ultrasonics we should be able to: know
About the properties of ultrasonics.
About the Production of ultrasonics by magnetostriction method.
About the Production of ultrasonics by piezo electric method.
About the detection methods of ultrasonics.
About the applications of ultrasonics.


1.1.2) PROPERTIES OF ULTRASONICS:

They are highly energetic.

These are longitudinal waves.

They can propagate through gases, liquids and solids.

Velocity of ultrasounds in vaccum is zero.

The wavelength of ultrasounds is very low.

They travel long distances without loss of energy.

They are used in the construction of acoustic grating.

Their speed of propagation depending up on their frequency.

They show negligible diffraction results due to their small wavelength.

When ultrasonic waves are propagated in a liquid bath, stationary wave pattern
is formed due to the reflection of wave from other end. The density of liquid vary
from layer to layer along the direction of propagation plane diffraction grating is
formed which can diffracted light.


1.1.3) PRODUCTION OF ULTRASOUNDS BYMAGNETOSTRICTION METHOD:

PRINCIPLE:

When a rod of ferromagnetic material (iron or nickel ) is placed in a strong magnetic
field ,its length changes .This phenomenon is known as Magnetostriction and can be
employed to generate ultrasonics.

CONSTRUCTION:

If the rod is placed in a alternating magnetic field produced by a a.c current of high
frequency ,it starts vibrating with the frequency of the current .If the frequency of a.c is
made equal to the natural frequency of the rod ,resonant vibration occur and ultrasonic
waves are produced .
Fig




The above figure shows that experimental arrangement used for producing ultrasonic
waves by magnetostriction method. A short nickel rod XY is placed in a solenoid fed by
a D.C supply .The D.C Supply .The D.C supply magnetizes the rod permanently. Two
other coils L1(A1) and L2(A2) are wrapped round the as shown and are connected in
grid and anode circuits of a triode respectively.

WORKING:

When a high frequency a.c current flows in the anode circuit, an alternating magnetic
field is produced in the coil L2. It produces changes in the length of the bar causing it
to compress and stretch alternately and then selling it into vibrations.It causes a
variation in magnetic flux through the grid coil L1.Therefore an induced e.m.f is set up
in L1 (converse magnetostriction effect ) which acts on the grid and produces an
amplified current variations in L2 .The value of the current and hence frequency of
oscillating anode circuit ,can be adjusted by changing the value of variable capacitor C
and then resonant vibrations may be excited . Ultrasonics are then produced in the
surrounding . .
Ultrasonics waves of frequency 25,000Hz can be produced by this method by nickel
rod of 10cm length.

ADVANTAGES:
1) The circuit is simple .
2) The manufacturing cost of circuit is very low.

DISADVANTAGE:
1) It produces low frequency ultrasonics waves upto 100 KHz only.













1.1.4) PRODUCTION OF ULTRASOUNDS BY PIEZO ELECTRIC METHOD :



Fig: Structure of Quartz Crystal
DEFINITION:

Piezoelectric effect is exhibited by certain asymmetric crystals like quartz, tourmaline,
Rochelle salt etc. If one pair of opposite faces (mechanical axis) of the crystal is
subjected to pressure the other pair of opposite faces (electrical axis) of the crystal
develop opposite charges .i.e, if stress is applied to the mechanical axis ,positive and
negative Charges are developed on the electrical axis.
The converse of this effect is also true and is used to produce ultrasonics.
When an alternating potential difference is applied along the electric axis, the crystal is
set into elastic vibration along the corresponding mechanical axis.


Fig. A piezoelectric disk generates a voltage when deformed (change in shape is
greatly exaggerated)

PRINCIPLE:
Langevin, in 1917, developed a method for producing ultrasonic waves by using
piezoelectric effect .He used a value oscillator to produce the necessary alternating
potential difference is as shown in fig 1.2







X-cut quartz Crystals are used here to produce ultrasonic waves because they produce
longitudinal waves. Y-cut Crystal produce shear waves which can travel only in solids.

WORKING:

The X-cut quartz crystal Q is placed within two metallic foils which are connected to the
anode A and grid G of the triode value. An oscillatory tuned circuit LC is also connected
to A .High tension battery H. T is shunted by a by-pass Capacity G to prevent high
frequency currents from passing through the battery. Grid leak Resistor R
g
is used to
regulate the action of the grid.
When a high frequency current flows in anode circuit, an alternating potential
difference of the same frequency is applied on the faces of the crystal. Consequently,
Crystal undergoes linear expansions and contractions or is set into mechanical
vibrations.
The frequency of alternating potential difference can be varied by varying the capacity
of capacitor 'C'. When this frequency becomes equal to the fundamental natural
frequency of crystal, crystal is set into resonant mechanical oscillations producing
ultrasonic waves .Ultrasonic waves of frequencies of the order of 500 KHz can be
produced by this method.The piezoelectric generator delivers maximum power when it
is operated at fundamental frequency of the crystal .Higher frequency ultrasonics can
be produced by making the L-C circuit oscillates at frequency which is equal to one of
the odd harmonics of the crystal .Only odd harmonics of the crystals are used because
piezoelectric effect can be occur only when opposite changes appear on the
electrodes.

ANALYSIS:

The velocity of longitudinal waves in quartz along X-direction is given by
V= / Y
For quartz
Y=young's modulus of elasticity of crystal
=7.9x10
10
N/m
2
And =density of crystal
=2.65X10
3
kg/m
3



V=5.46X10
3
m/sec
If t is the thickness of the crystal in meters then the wavelength is twice the
thickness, i.e, =2t .



Therefore, fundamental frequency is



If the thickness of quartz crystal is expressed in mm, then

KHz

Therefore 1mm thickness of quartz crystal.

KHz
n= 2.73 MHz
The crystal is made to oscillate at its natural frequency for maximum efficiency by adjusting
the variable capacitor c of tank circuit gives the frequency of vibration of quartz crystal.

1.1.5) DETECTIONAL METHODS OF ULTRASONICS :

A) BY KUNDT'S TUBE METHOD

This method may be used provided the wavelength is not very small .As in the case of
ordinary sound waves, in this case also stationary waves are produced in air contained in a
long glass plate supported horizontally .The lycopodium power spread along the surface of
the glass tube collects in small heaps at the nodes (N) and is blown off at the antinodes (A).
The Generation of wavelength is done in the same way as for sound waves.






The length L
A
of any one pattern is the length of a loop equal to
4
/2 ,where is the
wavelength of the sound note in air .Since the rod is fixed at its middle and stroked at one free
end ,it vibrates in its fundamental with a node at the middle and anti nodes at the ends .So the
length L
R
,of the rod is equal to
R
/2 ,where is the wavelength of the sound note in the rod .
If is the frequency of the sound note and V
A
and V
R
are the velocities of sound in air and
the rod respectively ,then

V
A=

A
and V
R=

R

So that

=
2

OR

=
2

By Assuming V
A
at the room temperature, V
R
can be determined .The velocity V
R
in the rods
is related to the density and young's modulus of the material f the rod by

V
R
=
/ E


B) SENSITIVE FLAME METHOD:
When a narrow sensitive flame is moved in a medium where ultrasonic waves are present the
flame remains stationary at antinodes and flickers at nodes.

C) PIEZO-ELECTRIC DETECTOR:
The quartz crystal can also be used for the detection of ultrasonics . one pair of faces of
quartz crystal subjected to ultrasonics. On the other faces which are perpendicular to the
previous one , varying electric charges are produced. These charges are very smalland they
can be amplified and detected by some other methods.

D) THERMAL DETECTION METHOD:
In this method a fine platinum wire ismoved in the medium of ultrasonic waves.the
temperature of the medium changes due to alternate compressions and rarefactions. There is
a change of temperature at nodes while at anti nodes, the temperature remains constant.
Hence, the resistance of the platinum wire changes at node and remains constant at
antinodes. The change in the resistance of platinum wire w.r.t. time can be detected by using
a sensitive bridge arrangement. The bridge will be in the balanced position when the platinum
wire is at antinodes.




E) BY ACOUSTIC GRATING METHOD :
This method is based on the fact that ultrasonic wave which consist of alternately
compressions and rare fractions change the density of the medium through which they pass
This results in the change of refractive index of the liquid which causes the diffraction of light .
Stationary ultrasonic waves are produced in a liquid in a glass tube .The liquid density and
hence refractive index is maximum at node points and minimum at anti node points.
Consequently, node areas acts as and antinodes regions as transparencies and the whole
liquid column acts as a acoustic grating .
If a beam of monochromatic light (Sodium lamp) is passed through this grating, a
diffraction pattern according to the figure 1.3 is produced. It consists of central maximum
flanked by first order and second order maxima. Etc.
If the distance between the consecutive nodal or anti nodal regions in the liquid
i.e., the grating element is d then
d sin = n
Where is the angle of n
th
order of the maxima and is the wavelength of light.
Since , n and are known, d can be formed
Also d=
1
/2
Or

1=
2d

1
wavelength of the ultrasonic waves .
The frequency of the ultrasonics known from the frequency of the oscillator.
Here, velocity of these waves can be found from the relation
V= n
1

Fig:






1.1.6)APPLICATIONS OF ULTRSONICS:

A) ENGINEERING APLLICATIONS:

i) Depth of Sea:
Ultrasonic waves highly energetic and show little diffraction effect. Without much
spreading, they can travel inside water for considerable distance. The ultrasonic
transducer transmits the ultrasonic waves towards the bed of sea. The waves are
reflected back from the bed and reflected signal (echo) collected by the receiver.
Depth of seah=

2

Where v velocity of sound through sea water
T is time interval between emitted signal and echo received.

ii) SONAR:
Sonar methods are used widely in the detection of submerged submarines.
Successful method under water detection.

iii) Ultrasonic signaling:
Due to high energy ,well directed narrow beam ,they are used for direction signaling
in submarines.

iv) Soldering and Metal Cutting: They can be used for drilling and cutting process in
metals. They can be used for soldering . Ultrasonic welding can be done at room
temperature.

v) Cleaning these are useful as cleaning agent. Used for cleaning utensils. Washing
cloths , removing and soot from the chimney.

Ultrasonic washing machine

vi) Chemical effect: they act as catalytic agents and accurate chemical reaction.

B) MEDICAL APPLICATIONS:
Ultrasonic waves are used very widely in the field of medicine for both diagnostic
and therapeutic applications.

Ultrasonic scanning has also becomes extremely useful for obtaining information
about flow of blood through the heart and the about the condition of heart valves.
They are useful for relieving neuralgic and rheumatic pains.
Dentists use ultrasonic waves to properly extract broke teeth.


These waves are focused the tissues and destroyed without ant loss of blood.
There are used in blood less surgery. There are used in starlization of water and
milk.
There are used for detecting tumors and other defects in human body.
They are also used to know the position of fetus.

fetus in its mother's womb, viewed in a sonogram (brightness scan)



C) NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF MATERIALS (NDT) USING ULTRASONICS:

The term applied to certain tests that are used in industrial applications. i.e, to
examine a material, to detect imperfections, determines its properties without
changing its usefulness. Detection of flaws in metals.
There are three basic ultrasonic tests are used in industries.

PULSE ECHO SYSTEMS:

Short pulses of ultrasonic waves are transmitted into the material, they get reflected
from discontinuities on their path or from any boundary of the material on which
they strike. The received echoes are then displayed on a cathode ray tube screen.
The CRT screen furnishes specific data as to the relative size of a discontinuity
scanning surface can be obtained by proper calibration of CRT time base scale.
Single transducer is used both as a transmitter and receiver. Otherwise two
transducers are separately used.

TRANSMISSION SYSTEM:

In this two transducers are required, one is used as a transmitter and the other as a
receiver. Short ultrasonic pulses are transmitted into the material. The receiver is
aligned with the transmitter on the opposite side to pickup sound waves which pass
through the material. The quality of the material is indicated by energy lost by the
sound beam as it transverse the material. A marked reduction in received energy
amplitude indicates a discontinuity.

RESONANCE SYSTEM:
Continuous longitudinal waves are transmitted into the material. The frequency of
waves is varied till the standing waves are setup within the specimen causing the
specimen to vibrate or resonate at greater amplitude. Resonance is sensed by a
device and presented on the CRT. A change in resonant frequency is an indication
of a discontinuity without change in material thickness.





D) ADVANTAGES OF NDT:

1. It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
2. The depth of penetration for flaw detection is superior.
3. Only single sided access is needed in pulse-echo method.
4. It has high accuracy in determining the position of defect and estimating its size,
shape and thickness.
5. Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
6. Detailed images can be produced with automated system.
7. It is portable.

E) DISADVANTAGES:

1. Surface must be accessible to ultrasound.
2. Highly skilled and trained manpower is required.
3. Parts that are rough, irregular in shape are difficult to inspect.
4. Needs a coupling medium to provide effective transfer of ultrasound into the test
specimen.
5. Difficult to inspect grained materials due to low transmission and high signal
notice.
6. Linear defects oriented parallel to sound beam may go undetected.
7. Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and flaw
characterization.


1.1.7) SOLVED EXAMPLES:


1. The Velocity of sound in a piezolecetric X-cut crystal of thickness 0.003m is
5750m/s.Calculate the fundamental frequency of the ultrasonic waves produced.
Sol: we know that
n=v/2t
n=5750/2x0.003
n=5750/0.006
n=0.958x10
6
Hz
n=0.958MHz

2. A quartz crystal thickness 0.005m is vibrating at resonance. Calculate the fundamental
frequency. Given Y for quartz =7.9x10
10
n/m
2
and density for quartz =2650kg/m
Sol: We know that
V=

Sub, the given values, we get


V =

7.9x10
10
2650


V=5461m/sec
For the fundamental mode of vibration the thickness should be equal to /2 , Hence
=2t
=2x0.005
=0.010m

v=

=
v

=
5461
0.010


=o.5461x10
6
Hz

3. Calculate the capacitance to produce ultrasonic waves of 10
6
Hz with an inductance of 1
Henry.
Sol:The frequency of LC circuit is given by
=
1
2

=
1
4
2

=
1
4(3.14)
2
(10
6
)
2
1

= 0.025 10
12

C=0.025 PF











1.1.8) PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE:

A piezoelectric crystal with vibrating length 3 10
3
has density3.5 10
3
/
3
. It
is made of a material of Youngs modulus 8 10
10
/
2
. What is its fundamental
frequency?


A piezo electric crystal has a thickness 0.002m. If the velocity of sound wave in crystal
is 5750m/s. calculate the fundamental frequency of crystal.

Calculate the frequency of fundamental note emitted by a Piezo-electric crystal. Use
the following data:
Y=8X10
11
N/m
2
=2.5X10
3
kg/m
3

and vibrating length=3mm

The velocity of sound in a piezo-electric X-cut crystal of thickness 0.003m is 5750ms
-1
.
Calculate the fundamental frequency of the ultrasonic waves produced.

Calculate the frequency of ferromagnetic rod if youngs modulus and density are
5X10
11
N/m
2
and 3.5X10
4
kg/m
3
and vibrating length is 2mm.

1.1.9) SUMMARY:

Ultrasounds are high frequency mechanical longitudinal sound waves.
They have so many properties like high energy, low wavelength etc.
We can produce low frequency ultrasounds upto 100Mhz using magnetostriction
method.
We can produce low frequency ultrasounds greater than100Mhz using
piezoelectric method.
By using ultrasounds we can construct acoustic grating which is used to
measure the velocity and as well as wavelength of ultrasounds.
These ultrasounds have so many applications in many fields like engineering
medicine etc.
Among all these applications the most important one is NDT which is used to
determine the flaws in the materials without destroying the structure of the
material.
Another important application is SONAR which is used to determine the depth
of the sea.
And we so many applications in biology to kill germs and bacteria.