Wi l l i am St al l i ngs

Comput er Or gani zat i on

and Ar c hi t ec t ur e
7
t h
Edi t i on
Chapt er 8
Oper at i ng Syst em Suppor t
Obj ec t i ves and Func t i ons
Convenience
Making the computer easier to use
Efficiency
Allowing better use of computer resources
Layer s and Vi ew s of a Comput er Syst em Oper at i ng Syst em Ser vi c es
Program creation
Program execution
Access to I/O devices
Controlled access to files
System access
Error detection and response
Accounting
O/S as a Resour c e Manager Types of Oper at i ng Syst em
Interactive
Batch
Single program (Uni-programming)
Multi-programming (Multi-tasking)
Ear l y Syst ems
Late 1940s to mid 1950s
No Operating System
Programs interact directly with hardware
Two main problems:
Scheduling
Setup time
Si mpl e Bat c h Syst ems
Resident Monitor program
Users submit jobs to operator
Operator batches jobs
Monitor controls sequence of events to
process batch
When one job is finished, control returns
to Monitor which reads next job
Monitor handles scheduling
Memor y Layout f or Resi dent Moni t or J ob Cont r ol Language
Instructions to Monitor
Usually denoted by $
e.g.
$JOB
$FTN
... Some Fortran instructions
$LOAD
$RUN
... Some data
$END
Desi r abl e Har dw ar e Feat ur es
Memory protection
To protect the Monitor
Timer
To prevent a job monopolizing the system
Privileged instructions
Only executed by Monitor
e.g. I/O
Interrupts
Allows for relinquishing and regaining control
Mul t i -pr ogr ammed Bat c h Syst ems
I/O devices very slow
When one program is waiting for I/O,
another can use the CPU
Si ngl e Pr ogr am
Mul t i -Pr ogr ammi ng w i t h
Tw o Pr ogr ams
Mul t i -Pr ogr ammi ng w i t h
Thr ee Pr ogr ams Ut i l i zat i on
Ti me Shar i ng Syst ems
Allow users to interact directly with the
computer
i.e. Interactive
Multi-programming allows a number of
users to interact with the computer
Sc hedul i ng
Key to multi-programming
Long term
Medium term
Short term
I/O
Long Ter m Sc hedul i ng
Determines which programs are
submitted for processing
i.e. controls the degree of multi-
programming
Once submitted, a job becomes a process
for the short term scheduler
(or it becomes a swapped out job for the
medium term scheduler)
Medi um Ter m Sc hedul i ng
Part of the swapping function (later)
Usually based on the need to manage
multi-programming
If no virtual memory, memory
management is also an issue
Shor t Ter m Sc hedul er
Dispatcher
Fine grained decisions of which job to
execute next
i.e. which job actually gets to use the
processor in the next time slot
Fi ve St at e Pr oc ess Model
Pr oc ess Cont r ol Bl oc k
Identifier
State
Priority
Program counter
Memory pointers
Context data
I/O status
Accounting information
PCB Di agr am
Sc hedul i ng Ex ampl e Key El ement s of O/S
Pr oc ess Sc hedul i ng Memor y Management
Uni-program
Memory split into two
One for Operating System (monitor)
One for currently executing program
Multi-program
User part is sub-divided and shared among
active processes
Sw appi ng
Problem: I/O is so slow compared with
CPU that even in multi-programming
system, CPU can be idle most of the time
Solutions:
Increase main memory
Expensive
Leads to larger programs
Swapping
What i s Sw appi ng?
Long term queue of processes stored on
disk
Processes swapped in as space becomes
available
As a process completes it is moved out of
main memory
If none of the processes in memory are
ready (i.e. all I/O blocked)
Swap out a blocked process to intermediate
queue
Swap in a ready process or a new process
But swapping is an I/O process
Use of Sw appi ng Par t i t i oni ng
Splitting memory into sections to allocate
to processes (including Operating System)
Fixed-sized partitions
May not be equal size
Process is fitted into smallest hole that will
take it (best fit)
Some wasted memory
Leads to variable sized partitions
Fi x ed
Par t i t i oni ng Var i abl e Si zed Par t i t i ons (1)
Allocate exactly the required memory to a
process
This leads to a hole at the end of memory,
too small to use
Only one small hole - less waste
When all processes are blocked, swap out
a process and bring in another
New process may be smaller than
swapped out process
Another hole
Var i abl e Si zed Par t i t i ons (2)
Eventually have lots of holes
(fragmentation)
Solutions:
Coalesce - Join adjacent holes into one large
hole
Compaction - From time to time go through
memory and move all hole into one free block
(c.f. disk de-fragmentation)
Ef f ec t of Dynami c Par t i t i oni ng
Rel oc at i on
No guarantee that process will load into
the same place in memory
Instructions contain addresses
Locations of data
Addresses for instructions (branching)
Logical address - relative to beginning of
program
Physical address - actual location in
memory (this time)
Automatic conversion using base address
Pagi ng
Split memory into equal sized, small
chunks -page frames
Split programs (processes) into equal
sized small chunks - pages
Allocate the required number page frames
to a process
Operating System maintains list of free
frames
A process does not require contiguous
page frames
Use page table to keep track
Al l oc at i on of Fr ee Fr ames Logi c al and Physi c al Addr esses - Pagi ng
Vi r t ual Memor y
Demand paging
Do not require all pages of a process in
memory
Bring in pages as required
Page fault
Required page is not in memory
Operating System must swap in required page
May need to swap out a page to make space
Select page to throw out based on recent
history
Thr ashi ng
Too many processes in too little memory
Operating System spends all its time
swapping
Little or no real work is done
Disk light is on all the time
Solutions
Good page replacement algorithms
Reduce number of processes running
Fit more memory
Bonus
We do not need all of a process in
memory for it to run
We can swap in pages as required
So - we can now run processes that are
bigger than total memory available!
Main memory is called real memory
User/programmer sees much bigger
memory - virtual memory
I nver t ed Page Tabl e St r uc t ur e
Tr ansl at i on Look asi de Buf f er
Every virtual memory reference causes
two physical memory access
Fetch page table entry
Fetch data
Use special cache for page table
TLB
TLB Oper at i on
TLB and Cac he Oper at i on Segment at i on
Paging is not (usually) visible to the
programmer
Segmentation is visible to the
programmer
Usually different segments allocated to
program and data
May be a number of program and data
segments
Advant ages of Segment at i on
Simplifies handling of growing data
structures
Allows programs to be altered and
recompiled independently, without re-
linking and re-loading
Lends itself to sharing among processes
Lends itself to protection
Some systems combine segmentation
with paging
Pent i um I I
Hardware for segmentation and paging
Unsegmented unpaged
virtual address = physical address
Low complexity
High performance
Unsegmented paged
Memory viewed as paged linear address space
Protection and management via paging
Berkeley UNIX
Segmented unpaged
Collection of local address spaces
Protection to single byte level
Translation table needed is on chip when segment is in
memory
Segmented paged
Segmentation used to define logical memory partitions subject
to access control
Paging manages allocation of memory within partitions
Unix System V
Pent i um I I Addr ess Tr ansl at i on
Mec hani sm Pent i um I I Segment at i on
Each virtual address is 16-bit segment
and 32-bit offset
2 bits of segment are protection
mechanism
14 bits specify segment
Unsegmented virtual memory 2
32
=
4Gbytes
Segmented 2
46
=64 terabytes
Can be larger depends on which process is
active
Half (8K segments of 4Gbytes) is global
Half is local and distinct for each process
Pent i um I I Pr ot ec t i on
Protection bits give 4 levels of privilege
0 most protected, 3 least
Use of levels software dependent
Usually level 3 for applications, level 1 for O/S
and level 0 for kernel (level 2 not used)
Level 2 may be used for apps that have
internal security e.g. database
Some instructions only work in level 0
Pent i um I I Pagi ng
Segmentation may be disabled
In which case linear address space is used
Two level page table lookup
First, page directory
1024 entries max
Splits 4G linear memory into 1024 page groups of
4Mbyte
Each page table has 1024 entries corresponding to
4Kbyte pages
Can use one page directory for all processes, one per
process or mixture
Page directory for current process always in memory
Use TLB holding 32 page table entries
Two page sizes available 4k or 4M
Pow er PC Memor y Management
Har dw ar e
32 bit paging with simple segmentation
64 bit paging with more powerful
segmentation
Or, both do block address translation
Map 4 large blocks of instructions & 4 of
memory to bypass paging
e.g. OS tables or graphics frame buffers
32 bit effective address
12 bit byte selector
=4kbyte pages
16 bit page id
64k pages per segment
4 bits indicate one of 16 segment registers
Segment registers under OS control
Pow er PC 32-bi t Memor y Management
For mat s
Pow er PC 32-bi t Addr ess Tr ansl at i on Requi r ed Readi ng
Stallings chapter 8
Stallings, W. [2004] Operating Systems,
Pearson
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