Mit Matlab Course

EE 475 575 Digital Signal Processing, Spring 2010 (Dr.
Mousavinezhad)

These MATLAB tutorials are from MITs Open Courseware Site:
http://ocw.mit.edu

MIT OpenCourseWare
6.094 Introduction to MATLAB
January (IAP) 2009
For information about citing these materials or our Terms of Use, visit: http://ocw.mit.edu/terms.
6.094
Introduction to Programming in MATLAB
Sourav Dey
Danilo epanovi
Ankit Patel
Patrick Ho
IAP 2009
Lecture 1: Variables, Operations, and
Plotting
Course Layout
Lectures (7pm-9pm)
1: Variables, Operations and Plotting
2: Visualization & Programming
3: Solving Equations, Fitting
4: Advanced Methods
Course Layout
Problem Sets / Office Hours
One per day, should take about 3 hours to do
Submit doc or pdf (include pertinent code)
Requirements for passing
Attend all lectures
Complete all problem sets (FAIL, Check or +)
Prerequisites
Basic familiarity with programming
Basic linear algebra, differential equations, and
probability
Outline
(1) Getting Started
(2) Making Variables
(3) Manipulating Variables
(4) Basic Plotting
Getting Started
To get MATLAB Student Version for yourself
https://msca.mit.edu/cgi-bin/matlab
Use VPN client to enable off-campus access
Note: MIT certificates are required
Open up MATLAB for Windows
Through the START Menu
On Athena
add matlab
matlab &
Command Window
Current directory
Workspace
Command History
Courtesy of The MathWorks, Inc. Used with permission.
Customization
File Preferences
Allows you personalize your MATLAB experience
MATLAB Basics
MATLAB can be thought of as a super-powerful
graphing calculator
Remember the TI-83 from calculus?
With many more buttons (built-in functions)
In addition it is a programming language
MATLAB is an interpreted language, like
Scheme
Commands executed line by line
Conversing with MATLAB
who
MATLAB replies with the variables in your workspace
what
MATLAB replies with the current directory and
MATLAB files in the directory
why
help
The most important function for learning MATLAB on
your own
More on help later
Outline
(1) Getting Started
(4) Basic Plotting
Variable Types
MATLAB is a weakly typed language
No need to initialize variables!
MATLAB supports various types, the most often used are
3.84
64-bit double (default)
a
16-bit char
Most variables youll deal with will be arrays or matrices of
doubles or chars
Other types are also supported: complex, symbolic, 16-bit
and 8 bit integers, etc.
Naming variables
To create a variable, simply assign a value to a name:
var1=3.14
myString=hello world
Variable names
first character must be a LETTER
after that, any combination of letters, numbers and _
CASE SENSITIVE! (var1 is different from Var1)
Built-in variables
i and j can be used to indicate complex numbers
pi has the value 3.1415926
ans stores the last unassigned value (like on a calculator)
Inf and -Inf are positive and negative infinity
NaN represents Not a Number
Hello World
Here are several flavors of Hello World to introduce MATLAB
MATLAB will display strings automatically
Hello 6.094
To remove ans =, use disp()
disp('Hello 6.094')
sprintf() allows you to mix strings with variables
class=6.094;
disp(sprintf('Hello %g', class))
The format is C-syntax
Scalars
A variable can be given a value explicitly
a = 10
shows up in workspace!
Or as a function of explicit values and existing variables
c = 1.3*45-2*a
To suppress output, end the line with a semicolon
cooldude = 13/3;
Arrays
Like other programming languages, arrays are an
important part of MATLAB
Two types of arrays
(1) matrix of numbers (either double or complex)
(2) cell array of objects (more advanced data structure)
MATLAB makes vectors easy!
Thats its power!
Row Vectors
Row vector: comma or space separated values between
brackets
row = [1 2 5.4 -6.6];
row = [1, 2, 5.4, -6.6];
Command window:
Workspace:
Column Vectors
Column vector: semicolon separated values between
brackets
column = [4;2;7;4];
Command window:
Workspace:
Matrices
Make matrices like vectors
Element by element
a= [1 2;3 4];
By concatenating vectors or matrices (dimension matters)
a = [1 2];
b = [3 4];
c = [5;6];
d = [a;b];
e = [d c];
f = [[e e];[a b a]];
1 2
3 4
a

=

save/clear/load
Use save to save variables to a file
save myfile a b
saves variables a and b to the file myfile.mat
myfile.mat file in the current directory
Default working directory is
\MATLAB\work
Create own folder and change working directory to it
MyDocuments\6.094\day1
Use clear to remove variables from environment
clear a b
look at workspace, the variables a and b are gone
Use load to load variable bindings into the environment
load myfile
look at workspace, the variables a and b are back
Can do the same for entire environment
save myenv; clear all; load myenv;
Exercise: Variables
Do the following 5 things:
Create the variable r as a row vector with values 1 4
7 10 13
Create the variable c as a column vector with values
13 10 7 4 1
Save these two variables to file varEx
clear the workspace
load the two variables you just created
r=[1 4 7 10 13];
c=[13; 10; 7; 4; 1];
save varEx r c
clear r c
load varEx
Outline
(1) Getting Started
(4) Basic Plotting
Basic Scalar Operations
Arithmetic operations (+,-,*,/)
7/45
(1+i)*(2+i)
1 / 0
0 / 0
Exponentiation (^)
4^2
(3+4*j)^2
Complicated expressions, use parentheses
((2+3)*3)^0.1
Multiplication is NOT implicit given parentheses
3(1+0.7) gives an error
To clear cluttered command window
Clc
Built-in Functions
MATLAB has an enormous library of built-in functions
Call using parentheses passing parameter to function
sqrt(2)
log(2), log10(0.23)
cos(1.2), atan(-.8)
exp(2+4*i)
round(1.4), floor(3.3), ceil(4.23)
angle(i); abs(1+i);
Help/Docs
To get info on how to use a function:
help sin
Help contains related functions
To get a nicer version of help with examples and easy-to-
read descriptions:
doc sin
To search for a function by specifying keywords:
doc + Search tab
lookfor hyperbolic
One-word description of what
you're looking for
Exercise: Scalars
Verify that e^(i*x) = cos(x) + i*sin(x) for a few values of x.
x = pi/3;
a = exp(i*x)
b = cos(x)+ i*sin(x)
a-b
size & length
You can tell the difference between a row and a column
vector by:
Looking in the workspace
Displaying the variable in the command window
Using the size function
To get a vector's length, use the length function
transpose
The transpose operators turns a column vector into a row
vector and vice versa
a = [1 2 3 4]
transpose(a)
Can use dot-apostrophe as short-cut
a.'
The apostrophe gives the Hermitian-transpose, i.e.
transposes and conjugates all complex numbers
a = [1+j 2+3*j]
a'
a.'
For vectors of real numbers .' and ' give same result
Addition and Subtraction
Addition and subtraction are element-wise; sizes must
match (unless one is a scalar):
The following would give an error
c = row + column
Use the transpose to make sizes compatible
c = row + column
c = row + column
Can sum up or multiply elements of vector
s=sum(row);
p=prod(row);
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
12 3 32 11
2 11 30 32
14 14 2 21
+
=
12 3 9
1 1 2
10 13 23
0 33 33

Element-Wise Functions
All the functions that work on scalars also work on vectors
t = [1 2 3];
f = exp(t);
is the same as
f = [exp(1) exp(2) exp(3)];
If in doubt, check a functions help file to see if it handles
vectors elementwise
Operators (* / ^) have two modes of operation
element-wise
standard
Operators: element-wise
To do element-wise operations, use the dot. BOTH
dimensions must match (unless one is scalar)!
a=[1 2 3];b=[4;2;1];
a.*b, a./b, a.^b all errors
a.*b, a./b, a.^(b) all valid
[ ]
4
1 2 3 2
1
1 4 4
2 2 4
3 1 3
3 1 3 1 3 1
.* ERROR
.*
.*

=

=

=
1 1 1 1 2 3 1 2 3
2 2 2 1 2 3 2 4 6
3 3 3 1 2 3 3 6 9
3 3 3 3 3 3
.*
.*

=

=
2 2
2 2
1 2
1 2
2
3 4
3 4
.^
Can be any dimension

=

Operators: standard
Multiplication can be done in a standard way or element-wise
Standard multiplication (*) is either a dot-product or an outer-
product
Remember from linear algebra: inner dimensions must MATCH!!
Standard exponentiation (^) implicitly uses *
Can only be done on square matrices or scalars
Left and right division (/ \) is same as multiplying by inverse
Our recommendation: just multiply by inverse (more on this
later)
[ ]
4
1 2 3 2 11
1
1 3 3 1 1 1
*
*

=

=
1 1 1 1 2 3 3 6 9
2 2 2 1 2 3 6 12 18
3 3 3 1 2 3 9 18 27
3 3 3 3 3 3
*
*

=

=
1 2 1 2 1 2
2
3 4 3 4 3 4
^ *
Must be square to do powers

=

Exercise: Vector Operations
Find the inner product between [1 2 3] and [3 5 4]
a=[1 2 3]*[3 5 4]
Multiply the same two vectors element-wise
b=[1 2 3].*[3 5 4]
Calculate the natural log of each element of the resulting
vector
c=log(b)
Automatic Initialization
Initialize a vector of ones, zeros, or random numbers
o=ones(1,10)
row vector with 10 elements, all 1
z=zeros(23,1)
column vector with 23 elements, all 0
r=rand(1,45)
row vector with 45 elements (uniform [0,1])
n=nan(1,69)
row vector of NaNs (useful for representing uninitialized
variables)
The general function call is:
var =zer os( M, N) ;
Number of rows Number of columns
Automatic Initialization
To initialize a linear vector of values use linspace
a=linspace(0,10,5)
starts at 0, ends at 10 (inclusive), 5 values
Can also use colon operator (:)
b=0:2:10
starts at 0, increments by 2, and ends at or before 10
increment can be decimal or negative
c=1:5
if increment isnt specified, default is 1
To initialize logarithmically spaced values use logspace
similar to linspace
Exercise: Vector Functions
Make a vector that has 10,000 samples of
f(x) = e^{-x}*cos(x), for x between 0 and 10.
x = linspace(0,10,10000);
f = exp(-x).*cos(x);
Vector Indexing
MATLAB indexing starts with 1, not 0
We will not respond to any emails where this is the
problem.
a(n) returns the n
th
element
The index argument can be a vector. In this case, each
element is looked up individually, and returned as a vector
of the same size as the index vector.
x=[12 13 5 8];
a=x(2:3); a=[13 5];
b=x(1:end-1); b=[12 13 5];
[ ]
13 5 9 10
a(1) a(2) a(3) a(4)
Matrix Indexing
Matrices can be indexed in two ways
using subscripts (row and column)
using linear indices (as if matrix is a vector)
Matrix indexing: subscripts or linear indices
Picking submatrices
A = rand(5) % shorthand for 5x5 matrix
A(1:3,1:2) % specify contiguous submatrix
A([1 5 3], [1 4]) % specify rows and columns
14 33
9 8

b(1)
b(2)
b(3)
b(4)
14 33
9 8

b(1,1)
b(2,1)
b(1,2)
b(2,2)
Advanced Indexing 1
The index argument can be a matrix. In this case, each
element is looked up individually, and returned as a matrix
of the same size as the index matrix.
a=[-1 10 3 -2];
b=a([1 2 4;3 4 2]);
To select rows or columns of a matrix, use the :
d=c(1,:); d=[12 5];
e=c(:,2); e=[5;13];
c(2,:)=[3 6]; %replaces second row of c
1 10 2
3 2 10
b

=

12 5
2 13
c

=

Advanced Indexing 2
MATLAB contains functions to help you find desired values
within a vector or matrix
vec = [1 5 3 9 7]
To get the minimum value and its index:
[minVal,minInd] = min(vec);
To get the maximum value and its index:
[maxVal,maxInd] = max(vec);
To find any the indices of specific values or ranges
ind = find(vec == 9);
ind = find(vec > 2 & vec < 6);
find expressions can be very complex, more on this later
To convert between subscripts and indices, use ind2sub,
and sub2ind. Look up help to see how to use them.
Exercise: Vector Indexing
Evaluate a sine wave at 1,000 points between 0 and 2*pi.
Whats the value at
Index 55
Indices 100 through 110
Find the index of
the minimum value,
the maximum value, and
values between -0.001 and 0.001
x = linspace(0,2*pi,1000);
y=sin(x);
y(55)
y(100:110)
[minVal,minInd]=min(y)
[maxVal,maxInd]=max(y)
inds=find(y>-0.001 & y<0.001)
BONUS Exercise: Matrices
Make a 3x100 matrix of zeros, and a vector x that has 100 values
between 0 and 10
mat=zeros(3,100);
x=linspace(0,10,100);
Replace the first row of the matrix with cos(x)
mat(1,:)=cos(x);
Replace the second row of the matrix with log((x+2)^2)
mat(2,:)=log((x+2).^2);
Replace the third row of the matrix with a random vector of the
correct size
mat(3,:)=rand(1,100);
Use the sum function to compute row and column sums of mat
(see help)
rs = sum(mat,2);
cs = sum(mat); % default dimension is 1
Outline
(1) Getting Started
(4) Basic Plotting
Plotting Vectors
Example
x=linspace(0,4*pi,10);
y=sin(x);
Plot values against their index
plot(y);
Usually we want to plot y versus x
plot(x,y);
MATLAB makes visualizing data
fun and easy!
What does plot do?
plot generates dots at each (x,y) pair and then connects the dots
with a line
To make plot of a function look smoother, evaluate at more points
x=linspace(0,4*pi,1000);
plot(x,sin(x));
x and y vectors must be same size or else youll get an error
plot([1 2], [1 2 3])
error!!
10 x values:
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1000 x values:
Plot Options
Can change the line color, marker style, and line style by
adding a string argument
plot(x,y,k.-);
Can plot without connecting the dots by omitting line style
argument
plot(x,y,.)
Look at help plot for a full list of colors, markers, and
linestyles
color
marker line-style
Other Useful plot Commands
Much more on this in Lecture 2, for now some simple
commands
To plot two lines on the same graph
hold on;
To plot on a new figure
figure;
plot(x,y);
Play with the figure GUI to learn more
add axis labels
add a title
add a grid
zoom in/zoom out
Exercise: Plotting
Plot f(x) = e^x*cos(x) on the interval x = [0 10]. Use a red
solid line with a suitable number of points to get a good
resolution.
x=0:.01:10;
plot(x,exp(x).*cos(x),r);
End of Lecture 1
(1) Getting Started
(4) Basic Plotting
Hope that wasnt too much!!
MIT OpenCourseWare
January (IAP) 2009
6.094
Lecture 2: Visualization and Programming
Sourav Dey
Danilo epanovi
Ankit Patel
Patrick Ho
IAP 2009
Outline
(1) Plotting Continued
(2) Scripts
(3) Functions
(4) Flow Control
Cartesian Plots
We have already seen the plot function
x=-pi:pi/100:pi;
y=cos(4*x).*sin(10*x).*exp(-abs(x));
plot(x,y,'k-');
The same syntax applies for semilog and loglog plots
semilogx(x,y,'k');
semilogy(y,'r.-');
loglog(x,y);
For example:
x=0:100;
semilogy(x,exp(x),'k.-');
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
10
0
10
10
10
20
10
30
10
40
10
50
Playing with the Plot
to select lines
and delete or
change
properties
to zoom in/out
to slide the plot
around
to see all plot
tools at once
Line and Marker Options
Everything on a line can be customized
plot(x,y,'--rs','LineWidth',2,...
'MarkerEdgeColor','k',...
'MarkerFaceColor','g',...
'MarkerSize',10)
See doc line for a full list of
properties that can be specified
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Labels
Last time we saw how to add titles and labels using the GUI. Can
also do it command-line:
title('Stress-Strain');
xlabel('Force (N)');
For multiple lines, add a legend entry for each line
legend('Steel','Aluminum','Tungsten');
Can specify font and size for the text
ylabel('Distance (m)','FontSize',14,...
'FontName','Helvetica');
use ... to break long commands across multiple lines
To put parameter values into labels, need to use num2str and
concatenate:
str = [Strength of ' num2str(d) 'cm diameter rod'];
title(str)
Axis
A grid makes it easier to read values
grid on
xlim sets only the x axis limits
xlim([-pi pi]);
ylim sets only the y axis limits
ylim([-1 1]);
To specify both at once, use axis:
axis([-pi pi -1 1]);
sets the x axis limits between -pi and pi and the y axis limits
between -1 and 1
Can specify tickmarks
set(gca,'XTick', linspace(-pi,pi,3))
see doc axes for a list of properties you can set this way
more on advanced figure customization in lecture 4
Axis Modes
Built-in axis modes
axis square
makes the current axis look like a box
axis tight
fits axes to data
axis equal
makes x and y scales the same
axis xy
puts the origin in the bottom left corner (default)
axis ij
puts the origin in the top left corner (for viewing matrices)
Multiple Plots in one Figure
Use the figure command to open a new figure
figure
or activate an open figure
figure(1)
To have multiple axes in one figure
subplot(2,3,1) or subplot(231)
makes a figure with 2 rows and three columns of axes, and
activates the first axis for plotting
each axis can have labels, a legend, and a title
subplot(2,3,4:6)
activating a range of axes fuses them into one
To close existing figures
close([1 3])
closes figures 1 and 3
close all
closes all figures (useful in scripts/functions)
Copy/Paste Figures
Figures can be pasted into other apps (word, ppt, etc)
Edit copy options figure copy template
Change font sizes, line properties; presets for word and ppt
Edit copy figure to copy figure
Paste into document of interest
Saving Figures
Figures can be saved in many formats. The common ones
are:
.fig preserves all
information
.bmp uncompressed
image
.eps high-quality
scaleable format
.pdf compressed
image
Courtesy of The MathWorks, Inc.
Used with permission.
Figures: Exercise
Open a figure and plot a sine wave over two periods with
data points at 0, pi/8, 2pi/8 . Use black squares as
markers and a dashed red line of thickness 2 as the line
figure
plot(0:pi/4:4*pi,sin(0:pi/4:4*pi),'rs--',...
'LineWidth',2,'MarkerFaceColor','k');
Save the figure as a pdf
View with pdf viewer.
Visualizing matrices
Any matrix can be visualized as an image
mat=reshape(1:10000,100,100);
imagesc(mat);
colorbar
imagesc automatically scales the values to span the entire
colormap
Can set limits for the color axis (analogous to xlim, ylim)
caxis([3000 7000])
Colormaps
You can change the colormap:
imagesc(mat)
default map is jet
colormap(gray)
colormap(cool)
colormap(hot(256))
See help hot for a list
Can define custom colormap
map=zeros(256,3);
map(:,2)=(0:255)/255;
colormap(map);
Images: Exercise
Construct a Discrete Fourier Transform Matrix of size 128
using dftmtx
Display the phase of this matrix as an image using a hot
colormap with 256 colors
dMat=dftmtx(128);
phase=angle(dMat);
imagesc(phase);
colormap(hot(256));
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
-10
-5
0
5
10
3D Line Plots
We can plot in 3 dimensions just as easily as in 2
time=0:0.001:4*pi;
x=sin(time);
y=cos(time);
z=time;
plot3(x,y,z,'k','LineWidth',2);
zlabel('Time');
Use tools on figure to rotate it
Can set limits on all 3 axes
xlim, ylim, zlim
Surface Plots
It is more common to visualize surfaces in 3D
Example:
surf puts vertices at specified points in space x,y,z, and
connects all the vertices to make a surface
The vertices can be denoted by matrices X,Y,Z
How can we make these matrices
loop (DUMB)
built-in function: meshgrid
( ) ( ) ( )
[ ] [ ]
f x, y sin x cos y
x , ; y ,
=

surf
Make the x and y vectors
x=-pi:0.1:pi;
y=-pi:0.1:pi;
Use meshgrid to make matrices (this is the same as loop)
[X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y);
To get function values,
evaluate the matrices
Z =sin(X).*cos(Y);
Plot the surface
surf(X,Y,Z)
surf(x,y,Z);
surf Options
See help surf for more options
There are three types of surface shading
shading faceted
shading flat
shading interp
You can change colormaps
colormap(gray)
contour
You can make surfaces two-dimensional by using contour
contour(X,Y,Z,'LineWidth',2)
takes same arguments as surf
color indicates height
can modify linestyle properties
can set colormap
hold on
mesh(X,Y,Z)
Exercise: 3-D Plots
Plot exp(-.1(x^2+y^2))*sin(xy) for x,y in [2*pi,2*pi]
with interpolated shading and a hot colormap:
x=-2*pi:0.1:2*pi;
y=-2*pi:0.1:2*pi;
[X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y);
Z =exp(-.1*(X.^2+Y.^2)).*sin(X.*Y);
surf(X,Y,Z);
shading interp
colormap hot
Specialized Plotting Functions
MATLAB has a lot of specialized plotting functions
polar-to make polar plots
polar(0:0.01:2*pi,cos((0:0.01:2*pi)*2))
bar-to make bar graphs
bar(1:10,rand(1,10));
quiver-to add velocity vectors to a plot
[X,Y]=meshgrid(1:10,1:10);
quiver(X,Y,rand(10),rand(10));
stairs-plot piecewise constant functions
stairs(1:10,rand(1,10));
fill-draws and fills a polygon with specified vertices
fill([0 1 0.5],[0 0 1],'r');
see help on these functions for syntax
doc specgraph for a complete list
Outline
(2) Scripts
(3) Functions
(4) Flow Control
Scripts: Overview
Scripts are
written in the MATLAB editor
saved as MATLAB files (.m extension)
evaluated line by line
To create an MATLAB file from command-line
edit myScript.m
or click
Scripts: the Editor
* Means that it's not saved
Line numbers
Debugging tools
Comments
MATLAB
file path
Help file
Possible breakpoints
Scripts: Good Practice
Take advantage of "smart indent" option
Keep code clean
Use built-in functions
Vectorize, vectorize, vectorize
When making large matrices, allocate space first
Use nan or zeros to make a matrix of the desired size
Keep constants at the top of the MATLAB file
COMMENT!
Anything following a %is seen as a comment
The first contiguous comment becomes the script's help file
Comment thoroughly to avoid wasting time later
Hello World
Here are several flavors of Hello World to introduce MATLAB
MATLAB will display strings automatically
Hello 6.094
To remove ans =, use disp()
disp('Hello 6.094')
sprintf() allows you to mix strings with variables
class=6.094;
disp(sprintf('Hello %g', class))
The format is C-syntax
Exercise: Scripts
A student has taken three exams. The performance on the
exams is random (uniform between 0 and 100)
The first exam is worth 20%, the second is worth 30%, and
the final is worth 50% of the grade
Calculate the student's overall score
Save script as practiceScript.m and run a few times
scores=rand(1,3)*100;
weights=[0.2 0.3 0.5];
overall=scores*weights
Outline
(2) Scripts
(3) Functions
(4) Flow Control
User-defined Functions
Functions look exactly like scripts, but for ONE difference
Functions must have a function declaration
Help file
Function declaration
Inputs Outputs
User-defined Functions
Some comments about the function declaration
No need for return: MATLAB returns the variables whose
names match those in the function declaration
Variable scope: Any variables created within the function
but not returned disappear after the function stops running
Can have variable input arguments (see help varargin)
function [x, y, z] = funName(in1, in2)
Must have the reserved
word: function
Function name should
match MATLAB file
name
If more than one output,
must be in brackets
Inputs must be specified
Functions: Exercise
Take the script we wrote to calculate the student's overall
score and make it into a function
The inputs should be
the scores row vector
the weight row vector, with the same length as scores
The output should be
A scalar: the overall score
Assume the user knows the input constraints (no need to
check if the inputs are in the correct format\size)
Name the function overallScore.m
Functions: Exercise
Functions
We're familiar with
zeros
size
length
sum
Look at the help file for size by typing
help size
The help file describes several ways to invoke the function
D = SIZE(X)
[M,N] = SIZE(X)
[M1,M2,M3,...,MN] = SIZE(X)
M = SIZE(X,DIM)
Functions
MATLAB functions are generally overloaded
Can take a variable number of inputs
Can return a variable number of outputs
What would the following commands return:
a=zeros(2,4,8);
D=size(a)
[m,n]=size(a)
[x,y,z]=size(a)
m2=size(a,2)
Take advantage of overloaded methods to make your code
cleaner!
Outline
(2) Scripts
(3) Functions
(4) Flow Control
Relational Operators
MATLAB uses mostly standard relational operators
equal ==
not equal ~=
greater than >
less than <
greater or equal >=
less or equal <=
Logical operators normal bitwise
And & &&
Or | ||
Not ~
Xor xor
All true all
Any true any
Boolean values: zero is false, nonzero is true
See help . for a detailed list of operators
if/else/elseif
Basic flow-control, common to all languages
MATLAB syntax is somewhat unique
IF
if cond
commands
end
ELSE
if cond
commands1
else
commands2
end
ELSEIF
if cond1
commands1
elseif cond2
commands2
else
commands3
end
No need for parentheses: command blocks are between
reserved words
Conditional statement:
evaluates to true or false
for
for loops: use for a definite number of iterations
MATLAB syntax:
for n=1:100
commands
end
The loop variable
Is defined as a vector
Is a scalar within the command block
Does not have to have consecutive values
The command block
Anything between the for line and the end
Loop variable
Command block
while
The while is like a more general for loop:
Don't need to know number of iterations
The command block will execute while the conditional
expression is true
Beware of infinite loops!
WHILE
while cond
commands
end
Exercise: Control-Flow
Write a function to calculate the factorial of an integer N using a
loop (you can use a for or while loop). If the input is less than 0,
return NaN. Test it using some values.
function a = factorial(N)
if N<0,
a=nan,
else
a = 1;
for k=1:N
a = a*k;
end
end
But note that factorial() is already implemented! You should see if
there are built-in functions before implementing something
yourself.
which factorial
find
find is a very important function
Returns indices of nonzero values
Can simplify code and help avoid loops
Basic syntax: index=find(cond)
x=rand(1,100);
inds = find(x>0.4 & x<0.6);
inds will contain the indices at which x has values between
0.4 and 0.6. This is what happens:
x>0.4 returns a vector with 1 where true and 0 where false
x<0.6 returns a similar vector
The & combines the two vectors using an and
The find returns the indices of the 1's
Exercise: Flow Control
Given x= sin(linspace(0,10*pi,100)), how many of the
entries are positive?
Using a loop and if/else
count=0;
for n=1:length(x)
if x(n)>0
count=count+1;
end
end
Being more clever
count=length(find(x>0));
length(x) Loop time Find time
100 0.01 0
10,000 0.1 0
100,000 0.22 0
1,000,000 1.5 0.04
Avoid loops like the plague!
Built-in functions will make it faster to write and execute
Efficient Code
Avoid loops whenever possible
This is referred to as vectorization
Vectorized code is more efficient for MATLAB
Use indexing and matrix operations to avoid loops
For example:
a=rand(1,100);
b=zeros(1,100);
for n=1:100
if n==1
b(n)=a(n);
else
b(n)=a(n-1)+a(n);
end
end
Slow and complicated
a=rand(1,100);
b=[0 a(1:end-1)]+a;
Efficient and clean
Exercise: Vectorization
Alter your factorial program to work WITHOUT a loop. Use
prod
function a=factorial(N)
a=prod(1:N);
You can tic/toc to see how much faster this is than the
loop!
BUTDont ALWAYS avoid loops
Over-vectorizing code can obfuscate it, i.e. you wont be
able to understand or debug it later
Sometime a loop is the right thing to do, it is clearer and
simple
End of Lecture 2
(2) Scripts
(3) Functions
(4) Flow Control
Vectorization makes
coding fun!
MIT OpenCourseWare
January (IAP) 2009
6.094
Lecture 3 : Solving Equations and Curve Fitting
Sourav Dey
Danilo epanovi
Ankit Patel
Patrick Ho
IAP 2009
Outline
(1) Linear Algebra
(2) Polynomials
(3) Optimization
(4) Differentiation/Integration
(5) Differential Equations
Systems of Linear Equations
Given a system of linear equations
x+2y-3z=5
-3x-y+z=-8
x-y+z=0
Construct matrices so the system is described by Ax=b
A=[1 2 -3;-3 -1 1;1 -1 1];
b=[5;-8;0];
And solve with a single line of code!
x=A\b;
x is a 3x1 vector containing the values of x, y, and z
The \ will work with square or rectangular systems.
Gives least squares solution for rectangular systems. Solution
depends on whether the system is over or underdetermined.
MATLAB makes linear
algebra fun!
More Linear Algebra
Given a matrix
mat=[1 2 -3;-3 -1 1;1 -1 1];
Calculate the rank of a matrix
r=rank(mat);
the number of linearly independent rows or columns
Calculate the determinant
d=det(mat);
mat must be square
if determinant is nonzero, matrix is invertible
Get the matrix inverse
E=inv(mat);
if an equation is of the form A*x=b with A a square matrix,
x=A\b is the same as x=inv(A)*b
Matrix Decompositions
MATLAB has built-in matrix decomposition methods
The most common ones are
[V,D]=eig(X)
Eigenvalue decomposition
[U,S,V]=svd(X)
Singular value decomposition
[Q,R]=qr(X)
QR decomposition
Exercise: Linear Algebra
Solve the following systems of equations:
System 1:
x+4y=34
-3x+y=2
System 2:
2x-2y=4
-x+y=3
3x+4y = 2
Exercise: Linear Algebra
Solve the following systems of equations:
System 1:
x+4y=34
-3x+y=2
System 2:
2x-2y=4
-x+y=3
3x+4y = 2
A=[1 4;-3 1];
b=[34;2];
rank(A)
x=inv(A)*b;
A=[2 -2;-1 1;3 4];
b=[4;3;2];
rank(A)
rectangular matrix
x1=A\b;
gives least squares solution
A*x1
Outline
(1) Linear Algebra
(2) Polynomials
(3) Optimization
Polynomials
Many functions can be well described by a high-order
polynomial
MATLAB represents a polynomials by a vector of coefficients
if vector P describes a polynomial
ax
3
+bx
2
+cx+d
P=[1 0 -2] represents the polynomial x
2
-2
P=[2 0 0 0] represents the polynomial 2x
3
P(1) P(2) P(3) P(4)
Polynomial Operations
P is a vector of length N+1 describing an N-th order polynomial
To get the roots of a polynomial
r=roots(P)
r is a vector of length N
Can also get the polynomial from the roots
P=poly(r)
r is a vector length N
To evaluate a polynomial at a point
y0=polyval(P,x0)
x0 is a single value; y0 is a single value
To evaluate a polynomial at many points
y=polyval(P,x)
x is a vector; y is a vector of the same size
Polynomial Fitting
MATLAB makes it very easy to fit polynomials to data
Given data vectors X=[-1 0 2] and Y=[0 -1 3]
p2=polyfit(X,Y,2);
finds the best second order polynomial that fits the points
(-1,0),(0,-1), and (2,3)
see help polyfit for more information
plot(X,Y,o, MarkerSize, 10);
hold on;
x = linspace(-2,2,1000);
plot(x,polyval(p2,x), r--);
Exercise: Polynomial Fitting
Evaluate x^2 over x=-4:0.1:4 and save it as y.
Add random noise to these samples. Use randn. Plot the
noisy signal with . markers
fit a 2
nd
degree polynomial to the noisy data
plot the fitted polynomial on the same plot, using the same
x values and a red line
Exercise: Polynomial Fitting
Evaluate x^2 over x=-4:0.1:4 and save it as y.
x=-4:0.1:4;
y=x.^2;
Add random noise to these samples. Use randn. Plot the
noisy signal with . markers
y=y+randn(size(y));
plot(x,y,.);
fit a 2
nd
degree polynomial to the noisy data
[p]=polyfit(x,y,2);
plot the fitted polynomial on the same plot, using the same
x values and a red line
hold on;
plot(x,polyval(p,x),r)
Outline
(1) Linear Algebra
(2) Polynomials
(3) Optimization
Nonlinear Root Finding
Many real-world problems require us to solve f(x)=0
Can use fzero to calculate roots for any arbitrary function
fzero needs a function passed to it.
We will see this more and more as we delve into solving
equations.
Make a separate function file
x=fzero('myfun',1)
x=fzero(@myfun,1)
1 specifies a
point close to
the root
Minimizing a Function
fminbnd: minimizing a function over a bounded interval
x=fminbnd('myfun',-1,2);
myfun takes a scalar input and returns a scalar output
myfun(x) will be the minimum of myfun for -1x 2
fminsearch: unconstrained interval
x=fminsearch('myfun',.5)
finds the local minimum of myfun starting at x=0.5
Anonymous Functions
You do not have to make a separate function file
Instead, you can make an anonymous function
x=fzero(@(x)(cos(exp(x))+x^2-1), 1 );
x=fminbnd(@(x) (cos(exp(x))+x^2-1),-1,2);
input function to evaluate
Optimization Toolbox
If you are familiar with optimization methods, use the
optimization toolbox
Useful for larger, more structured optimization problems
Sample functions (see help for more info)
linprog
linear programming using interior point methods
quadprog
quadratic programming solver
fmincon
constrained nonlinear optimization
Exercise: Min-Finding
Find the minimum of the function f(x) =
cos(4*x).*sin(10*x).*exp(-abs(x)) over the range pi to
pi. Use fminbnd. Is your answer really the minimum
over this range?
Exercise: Min-Finding
Find the minimum of the function f(x) =
cos(4*x).*sin(10*x).*exp(-abs(x)) over the range pi to
pi. Use fminbnd. Is your answer really the minimum
over this range?
function y = myFun(x)
y=cos(4*x).*sin(10*x).*exp(-abs(x));
fminbnd(myFun, -pi, pi);
Outline
(1) Linear Algebra
(2) Polynomials
(3) Optimization
Numerical Differentiation
MATLAB can 'differentiate' numerically
x=0:0.01:2*pi;
y=sin(x);
dydx=diff(y)./diff(x);
diff computes the first difference
Can also operate on matrices
mat=[1 3 5;4 8 6];
dm=diff(mat,1,2)
first difference of mat along the 2
nd
dimension, dm=[2 2;4 -2]
see help for more details
2D gradient
[dx,dy]=gradient(mat);
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Numerical Integration
MATLAB contains common integration methods
Adaptive Simpson's quadrature (input is a function)
q=quad('derivFun',0,10);
q is the integral of the function derivFun from 0 to 10
q2=quad(@sin,0,pi)
q2 is the integral of sin from 0 to pi
Trapezoidal rule (input is a vector)
x=0:0.01:pi;
z=trapz(x,sin(x));
z is the integral of sin(x) from 0 to pi
z2=trapz(x,sqrt(exp(x))./x)
z2 is the integral of from 0 to pi
x
e x
Outline
(1) Linear Algebra
(2) Polynomials
(3) Optimization
ODE Solvers: Method
Given a differential equation, the solution can be found by
integration:
Evaluate the derivative at a point and approximate by straight line
Errors accumulate!
Variable timestep can decrease the number of iterations
ODE Solvers: MATLAB
MATLAB contains implementations of common ODE solvers
Using the correct ODE solver can save you lots of time and
give more accurate results
ode23
Low-order solver. Use when integrating over small intervals
or when accuracy is less important than speed
ode45
High order (Runge-Kutta) solver. High accuracy and
reasonable speed. Most commonly used.
ode15s
Stiff ODE solver (Gear's algorithm), use when the diff eq's
have time constants that vary by orders of magnitude
ODE Solvers: Standard Syntax
To use standard options and variable time step
[t,y]=ode45('myODE',[0,10],[1;0])
Inputs:
ODE function name (or anonymous function). This function
takes inputs (t,y), and returns dy/dt
Time interval: 2-element vector specifying initial and final
time
Initial conditions: column vector with an initial condition for
each ODE. This is the first input to the ODE function
Outputs:
t contains the time points
y contains the corresponding values of the integrated fcn.
ODE integrator:
23, 45, 15s
ODE function
Time range
Initial conditions
ODE Function
The ODE function must return the value of the derivative at
a given time and function value
Example: chemical reaction
Two equations
ODE file:
y has [A;B]
dydt has
[dA/dt;dB/dt]
A B
10
50
10 50
10 50
dA
A B
dt
dB
A B
dt
= +
=
Courtesy of The MathWorks, Inc.
ODE Function: viewing results
To solve and plot the ODEs on the previous slide:
[t,y]=ode45('chem',[0 0.5],[0 1]);
assumes that only chemical B exists initially
plot(t,y(:,1),'k','LineWidth',1.5);
hold on;
plot(t,y(:,2),'r','LineWidth',1.5);
legend('A','B');
xlabel('Time (s)');
ylabel('Amount of chemical (g)');
title('Chem reaction');
ODE Function: viewing results
The code on the previous slide produces this figure
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Time (s)
A
m
o
u
n
t

o
f

c
h
e
m
i
c
a
l

(
g
)
Chem reaction
A
B
Higher Order Equations
Must make into a system of first-order equations to use
ODE solvers
Nonlinear is OK!
Pendulum example:
( )
( )
( )
0
g
sin
L
g
sin
L
let
g
sin
L
x
dx
dt

+ =
=
=
=

=

=

&&
&&
&
&
v
v
&
&
Plotting the Output
We can solve for the position and velocity of the pendulum:
[t,x]=ode45('pendulum',[0 10],[0.9*pi 0]);
assume pendulum is almost vertical (at top)
plot(t,x(:,1));
hold on;
plot(t,x(:,2),'r');
legend('Position','Velocity');
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
Position
Velocity
Position in terms of
angle (rad)
Velocity (m/s)
Plotting the Output
Or we can plot in the phase plane:
plot(x(:,1),x(:,2));
xlabel('Position');
yLabel('Velocity');
The phase plane is just a plot of one variable versus the
other:
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
Position
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
Velocity is greatest
when theta=0
Velocity=0 when
theta is the greatest
ODE Solvers: Custom Options
MATLAB's ODE solvers use a variable timestep
Sometimes a fixed timestep is desirable
[t,y]=ode45('chem',[0:0.001:0.5],[0 1]);
Specify the timestep by giving a vector of times
The function will be evaluated at the specified points
Fixed timestep is usually slower (if timestep is small) and
possibly inaccurate (if timestep is too large)
You can customize the error tolerances using odeset
options=odeset('RelTol',1e-6,'AbsTol',1e-10);
[t,y]=ode45('chem',[0 0.5],[0 1],options);
This guarantees that the error at each step is less than
RelTol times the value at that step, and less than AbsTol
Decreasing error tolerance can considerably slow the solver
See doc odeset for a list of options you can customize
Exercise: ODE
Use ODE45 to solve this differential equation on the range
t=[0 10], with initial condition y(0) = 10: dy/dt=-t*y/10.
Plot the result.
Exercise: ODE
Use ODE45 to solve this differential equation on the range
t=[0 10], with initial condition y(0) = 10: dy/dt=-t*y/10.
Plot the result.
function dydt=odefun(t,y)
dydt=-t*y/10;
[t,y]=ode45(odefun,[0 10],10);
plot(t,y);
End of Lecture 3
(1) Linear Algebra
(2) Polynomials
(3) Optimization
We're almost done!
Issues with ODEs
Stability and accuracy
if step size is too large, solutions might blow up
if step size is too small, requires a long time to solve
use odeset to control errors
decrease error tolerances to get more accurate
results
increase error tolerances to speed up computation
(beware of instability!)
Main thing to remember about ODEs
Pick the most appropriate solver for your problem
If ode45 is taking too long, try ode15s
MIT OpenCourseWare
January (IAP) 2009
6.094
Lecture 4: Advanced Methods
Sourav Dey
Danilo epanovi
Ankit Patel
Patrick Ho
IAP 2009
Outline
(1) Probability and Statistics
(2) Data Structures
(3) Images and Animation
(4) Debugging
(5) Symbolic Math
(6) Other Toolboxes
Statistics
Whenever analyzing data, you have to compute statistics
scores = 100*rand(1,100);
Built-in functions
mean, median, mode
To group data into a histogram
hist(scores,5:10:95);
makes a histogram with bins centered at 5, 15, 2595
N=histc(scores,0:10:100);
returns the number of occurrences between the specified
bin edges 0 to <10, 10 to <2090 to <100.
Random Numbers
Many probabilistic processes rely on random numbers
MATLAB contains the common distributions built in
rand
draws from the uniform distribution from 0 to 1
randn
draws from the standard normal distribution (Gaussian)
random
can give random numbers from many more distributions
see doc random for help
the docs also list other specific functions
You can also seed the random number generators
rand(state,0)
Changing Mean and Variance
We can alter the given distributions
y=rand(1,100)*10+5;
gives 100 uniformly distributed numbers between 5 and 15
y=floor(rand(1,100)*10+6);
gives 100 uniformly distributed integers between 10 and
15. floor or ceil is better to use here than round
y=randn(1,1000)
y2=y*5+8
increases std to 5 and makes the mean 8
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Exercise: Probability
We will simulate Brownian motion in 1 dimension. Call the script
brown
Make a 10,000 element vector of zeros
Write a loop to keep track of the particles position at each time
Start at 0. To get the new position, pick a random number, and if
its <0.5, go left; if its >0.5, go right. Store each new position in
the k
th
position in the vector
Plot a 50 bin histogram of the positions.
Exercise: Probability
We will simulate Brownian motion in 1 dimension. Call the script
brown
Make a 10,000 element vector of zeros
Write a loop to keep track of the particles position at each time
Start at 0. To get the new position, pick a random number, and if
its <0.5, go left; if its >0.5, go right. Store each new position in
the k
th
position in the vector
Plot a 50 bin histogram of the positions.
x=zeros(10000,1);
for n=2:10000
if rand<0.5
x(n)=x(n-1)-1;
else
x(n)=x(n-1)+1;
end
end
figure;
hist(x,50);
Outline
(2) Data Structures
(4) Debugging
(5) Symbolic Math
(6) Other Toolboxes
Advanced Data Structures
We have used 2D matrices
Can have n-dimensions
Every element must be the same type (ex. integers,
doubles, characters)
Matrices are space-efficient and convenient for calculation
Sometimes, more complex data structures are more
appropriate
Cell array: it's like an array, but elements don't have to be
the same type
Structs: can bundle variable names and values into one
structure
Like object oriented programming in MATLAB
Cells: organization
A cell is just like a matrix, but each field can contain
anything (even other matrices):
One cell can contain people's names, ages, and the ages of
their children
To do the same with matrices, you would need 3 variables
and padding
3x3 Matrix
1.2 -3 5.5
-2.4 15 -10
7.8 -1.1 4
3x3 Cell Array
32
27 1
18
J o h n
M a r y
L e o
2
4
[ ]
Cells: initialization
To initialize a cell, specify the size
a=cell(3,10);
a will be a cell with 3 rows and 10 columns
or do it manually, with curly braces {}
c={'hello world',[1 5 6 2],rand(3,2)};
c is a cell with 1 row and 3 columns
Each element of a cell can be anything
To access a cell element, use curly braces {}
a{1,1}=[1 3 4 -10];
a{2,1}='hello world 2';
a{1,2}=c{3};
Structs
Structs allow you to name and bundle relevant variables
Like C-structs, which are objects with fields
To initialize an empty struct:
s=struct([]);
size(s) will be 1x1
initialization is optional but is recommended when using large
structs
To add fields
s.name = 'Jack Bauer';
s.scores = [95 98 67];
s.year = 'G3';
Fields can be anything: matrix, cell, even struct
Useful for keeping variables together
For more information, see doc struct
Struct Arrays
To initialize a struct array, give field, values pairs
ppl=struct('name',{'John','Mary','Leo'},...
'age',{32,27,18},'childAge',{[2;4],1,[]});
size(s2)=1x3
every cell must have the same size
person=ppl(2);
person is now a struct with fields name, age, children
the values of the fields are the second index into each cell
person.name
returns 'Mary'
ppl ppl(1) ppl(2) ppl(3)
name: 'John' 'Mary' 'Leo'
age: 32 27 18
childAge: [2;4] 1 []
Structs: access
To access 1x1 struct fields, give name of the field
stu=s.name;
scor=s.scores;
1x1 structs are useful when passing many variables to a
function. put them all in a struct, and pass the struct
To access nx1 struct arrays, use indices
person=ppl(2);
person is a struct with name, age, and child age
personName=ppl(2).name;
personName is 'Mary'
a=[ppl.age];
a is a 1x3 vector of the ages
Exercise: Cells
Write a script called sentGen
Make a 3x2 cell, and put peoples names into the first
column, and adjectives into the second column
Pick two random integers (values 1 to 3)
Display a sentence of the form [name] is [adjective].
Run the script a few times
Exercise: Cells
Write a script called sentGen
Make a 3x2 cell, and put peoples names into the first
column, and adjectives into the second column
Pick two random integers (values 1 to 3)
Display a sentence of the form [name] is [adjective].
Run the script a few times
c=cell(3,2);
c{1,1}=John;c{2,1}=Mary-Sue;c{3,1}=Gomer;
c{1,2}=smart;c{2,2}=blonde;c{3,2}=hot
r1=ceil(rand*3);r2=ceil(rand*3);
disp([ c{r1,1}, is , c{r2,2}, . ]);
Outline
(2) Data Structures
(4) Debugging
(5) Symbolic Math
(6) Other Toolboxes
Importing/Exporting Images
Images can be imported into matlab
im=imread('myPic.jpg');
MATLAB supports almost all image formats
jpeg, tiff, gif, bmp, png, hdf, pcx, xwd, ico, cur, ras, pbm,
pgm, ppm
see help imread for a full list and details
To write an image, give an rgb matrix or indices and
colormap
imwrite(mat,jet(256),'test.jpg','jpg');
see help imwrite for more options
Animations
MATLAB makes it easy to capture movie frames and play
them back automatically
The most common movie formats are:
avi
animated gif
Avi
good when you have natural frames with lots of colors and
few clearly defined edges
Animated gif
Good for making movies of plots or text where only a few
colors exist (limited to 256) and there are well-defined
lines
Making Animations
Plot frame by frame, and pause in between
close all
for t=1:30
imagesc(rand(200));
colormap(gray);
pause(.5);
end
Saving Animations as Movies
A movie is a series of captured frames
close all
for n=1:30
imagesc(rand(200));
colormap(gray);
M(n)=getframe;
end
To play a movie in a figure window
movie(M,2,30);
Loops the movie 2 times at 30 frames per second
To save as an .avi file on your hard drive
movie2avi(M,'testMovie.avi','FPS',30);
See book appendix or docs for more information
Handles
Every graphics object has a handle
h=plot(1:10,rand(1,10));
gets the handle for the plotted line
h2=gca;
gets the handle for the current axis
h3=gcf;
gets the handle for the current figure
To see the current property values, use get
get(h);
yVals=get(h,'YData');
To change the properties, use set
set(h2,'FontName','Arial','XScale','log');
set(h,'LineWidth',1.5,'Marker','*');
Everything you see in a figure is completely customizable
through handles
Outline
(2) Data Structures
(4) Debugging
(5) Symbolic Math
(6) Other Toolboxes
display
When debugging functions, use disp to print messages
disp('starting loop')
disp('loop is over')
disp prints the given string to the command window
It's also helpful to show variable values
disp(strcat(['loop iteration ',num2str(n)]));
strcat concatenates the given strings
Sometimes it's easier to just remove some semicolons
Debugging
To use the debugger, set breakpoints
Click on next to line numbers in MATLAB files
Each red dot that appears is a breakpoint
Run the program
The program pauses when it reaches a breakpoint
Use the command window to probe variables
Use the debugging buttons to control debugger
Two breakpoints
Where the program is now
Clear breakpoint
Step to next
Stop execution; exit
Exercise: Debugging
Use the debugger to fix the errors in the following code:
Performance Measures
It can be useful to know how long your code takes to run
To predict how long a loop will take
To pinpoint inefficient code
You can time operations using tic/toc:
tic
CommandBlock1
a=toc;
CommandBlock2
b=toc;
tic resets the timer
Each toc returns the current value in seconds
Can have multiple tocs per tic
Performance Measures
For more complicated programs, use the profiler
profile on
Turns on the profiler. Follow this with function calls
profile viewer
Displays gui with stats on how long each subfunction took
Outline
(2) Data Structures
(4) Debugging
(5) Symbolic Math
(6) Other Toolboxes
What are Toolboxes?
Toolboxes contain functions specific to a particular field
for example: signal processing, statistics, optimization
It's generally more efficient to use MATLAB's toolboxes
rather than redefining the functions yourself
saves coding/debugging time
some functions are compiled, so they run faster
HOWEVER there may be mistakes in MATLABs functions
and there may also be surprises
MATLAB on Athena contains all the toolboxes
Here are a few particularly useful ones for EECS
Symbolic Toolbox
Dont do nasty calculations by hand!
Symbolics vs. Numerics
Advantages Disadvantages
Symbolic Analytical solutions
Lets you intuit
things about
solution form
Sometimes can't be
solved
Can be overly
complicated
Numeric Always get a
solution
Can make solutions
accurate
Easy to code
Hard to extract a
deeper understanding
Num. methods
sometimes fail
Can take a while to
compute
Symbolic Variables
Symbolic variables are a type, like double or char
To make symbolic variables, use sym
a=sym('1/3');
b=sym('4/5');
fractions remain as fractions
c=sym('c','positive');
can add tags to narrow down scope
see help sym for a list of tags
Or use syms
syms x y real
shorthand for x=sym('x','real'); y=sym('y','real');
Symbolic Expressions
Multiply, add, divide expressions
d=a*b
does 1/3*4/5=4/15;
expand((a-c)^2);
multiplies out
factor(ans)
factors the expression
Cleaning up Symbolic Statements
pretty(ans)
makes it look nicer
collect(3*x+4*y-1/3*x^2-x+3/2*y)
collects terms
simplify(cos(x)^2+sin(x)^2)
simplifies expressions
subs(c^2,c,5)
Replaces variables with numbers
or expressions
subs(c^2,c,x/7)
ans=
25
ans=
1/ 49*x^2
More Symbolic Operations
We can do symbolics with matrices too
mat=sym('[a b;c d]');
mat2=mat*[1 3;4 -2];
compute the product
d=det(mat)
compute the determinant
i=inv(mat)
find the inverse
You can access symbolic matrix elements as before
i(1,2)
Exercise: Symbolics
The equation of a circle of radius r centered at (a,b) is
given by: (x-a)^2 + (y-b)^2 = r^2.
Expand this equation into the form Ax^2 + Bx+Cxy + Dy +
Ey^2 = F and find the expression for the coefficients in
terms of a,b, and r.
Exercise: Symbolics
The equation of a circle of radius r centered at (a,b) is
given by: (x-a)^2 + (y-b)^2 = r^2.
Expand this equation into the form Ax^2 + Bx+Cxy + Dy +
Ey^2 = F and find the expression for the coefficients in
terms of a,b, and r.
syms a b r x y
pretty(expand((x-a).^2 + (y-b).^2))
Outline
(2) Data Structures
(4) Debugging
(5) Symbolic Math
(6) Other Toolboxes
Signal Processing Toolbox
MATLAB is often used for signal processing (fft)
What you can do:
filter design
statistical signal processing
Laplace transforms
Related Toolboxes
Communications
Wavelets
RF
Image Processing
Control System Toolbox
The control systems toolbox contains functions helpful for
analyzing systems with feedback
Simulation of LTI system function
Discrete time or continuous time
You will be exposed to it in 6.003
Can easily study step response, etc. modal analysis.
Related toolboxes:
System Identification
Robust Control modern control theory
Model Predictive Control
Statistics Toolbox
For hardcore statistics and data-analysis
Principal component analysis
Independent component analysis
Tests of significance (chi squared, t-tests)
Related Toolboxes
Spline for fitting
Bioinformatics
Neural Networks
Optimization Toolbox
For more hardcore optimization problems that occur in
OR, business, engineering
linear programming
interior point methods
quadratic methods
SIMULINK
Interactive graphical environment
Block diagram based MATLAB add-on environment
Design, simulate, implement, and test control, signal
processing, communications, and other time-varying
systems
Central File Exchange
The website the MATLAB Central File Exchange!!
Lots of people's code is there
Tested and rated use it to expand MATLAB's functionality
http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/
MATLAB Final Exam
Brownian Motion stop-animation integrating loops,
randomization, visualization
Make a function brown2d(numPts), where numPts is the
number of points that will be doing Brownian motion
Plot the position in (x,y) space of each point (start initially
at 0,0). Set the x and y limits so theyre consistent.
After each timestep, move each x and y coordinate by
randn*.1
Pause by 0.001 between frames
Turn on the DoubleBuffer property to remove flicker
set(gcf,DoubleBuffer,on);
Ask us for help if needed!
End of Lecture 4
(1) Data Structures
(2) Symbolics
(3) Probability
(4) Toolboxes
THE END
Monte-Carlo Simulation
A simple way to model complex stochastic systems
Use random numbers to control state changes
This system represents a complex reaction
The numbers by the arrows show the propensity of the
system to go from one state to another
If you start with 1 molecule of A, how does the system
behave with time?
E
D C
B A
60
60
60
60
47
47
47
47
2
2
2
2
20 20
20
20
Example: Monte-Carlo
This MATLAB file will track the behavior of the molecule
Example: Monte-Carlo
We can run the code 1000 times to simulate 1000 molecules
s=zeros(200,5);
for n=1:1000
st=MC(200);
for state=0:4
s(:,state+1)= s(:,state+1)+(st==state);
end
end
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
A
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
B
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
C
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
D
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
E
MIT OpenCourseWare
January (IAP) 2009
6.094
Lecture 5: Simulink
Sourav Dey
Danilo epanovi
Ankit Patel
Patrick Ho
IAP 2009
What is Simulink?
A model-based equation solver
Some analysis packages (ANSYS, Multisim) have
built in equations modeling complex engineering
problems.
Save lots of time
Can only be used for tackling specific problems
Simulink lets you build a GUI-based model and
simulates the result.
Unlimited complexity (constrained by runtime and
memory)
Adaptable for any field
Downside? You have to do the modeling work
Getting Started
Create a new file
Examine the Simulink Library Browser
Click on a library: Sources
Drag a block into Simulink: Constant
Visualize the block by going into Sinks
Drag a Scope into Simulink
Connections
Click on the carat/arrow on the right of the
constant box
Drag the line to the scope
Youll get a hint saying you can quickly connect
blocks by hitting Ctrl
Connections between lines represent signals
Click the play button
Double click on the scope.
This will open up a chart of the variable over the
simulation time
Simulink Math
Everything is visual in Simulink!
Click on the library Continuous
Drag the integrator block between the constant and
the scope
Play and click on scope.
What happens?
Simulink has a built in ODE solver
The equation that represents your model is solved by
Simulink
Weve represented
Behind the curtain
Go to Simulation->Configuration Parameters
at the top menu
See ode45? Change the solver type here
So whats going on?
The toolboxes Simulink provides you are full of
modeling tools
By selecting components that correspond to your
model, you can design a simulation
Toolboxes
Math
Takes the signal and performs a math operation
Add, subtract, round, multiply, gain, angle
Continuous
Adds differential equations to the system
Integrals, Derivatives, Transfer Functions,
State Space
Discontinuities
Adds nonlinearities to your system
Discrete
Simulates discrete difference equations
Useful for digital systems
Building systems
Sources
Step input, white noise, custom input, sine
wave, ramp input,
Provides input to your system
Sinks
Scope: Outputs to plot
simout: Outputs to a MATLAB vector on workspace
MATLAB mat file
Modifying Blocks
Right click on the block, select the Parameters item
corresponding to the item type
Transfer Function:
Numerator on
first row
Denominator on
second row
Summing Junction:
List of signs
determines
inputs to
junction
Not shown:
Sampling time row
Modifying Scopes
Within the scope:
Autoscale fits the axes
to the curve automatically
Axes properties lets you
customize the axes
Changing the number of axes:
Left click on icon
Change the number
of axes field
Courtesy of The MathWorks,
Inc. Used with permission.
First System
Drag a summing
junction between the
constant and
integrator
Change the signs to
|+-
Click on the open
carat under the minus
sign and connect it to
the integrator output
Creating Subsystems
Drag a box around the
parts of the subsystem
Summing Junction
Integrator
Right click and select
create subsystem
Double click the
subsystem:
The parts are now
inside
Whats the system do
when you run it?
Example Systems
ODE
d
3
y/dt
3
+ a*d
2
y/dt
2
+
b* dy/dt + c*y = F
Classical Control System
Courtesy of The
MathWorks, Inc.
Example: Nervous System
Neural circuits in animals often exhibit oscillatory behavior
Use Simulink to model one behavior of this type:
Locomotion
Limbs go Left-right, left-right, left-right
Locomotive behaviors are generated by central pattern
generators, which oscillate on their own naturally
When connected to an appendage, the central pattern
generator will adapt its frequency and move the
appendage. Open RIOCPGDemo.mdl
Model based on Iwasaki, T., Zheng, M. (2006a). Sensory feedback
mechanism underlying entrainment of central pattern generator to
mechanical resonance. Biological Cybernetics, 94(4), 245-261
Central Pattern Generator Model
Limb
Scope for
Output
Playing with the model
Look at scopes
What are the output signals?
Delete signals
Especially the signal after the feedback gain
Change gains
Muscular actuator gains
Switch feedback gain from negative to positive
Look inside subsystems
Whats inside the CPG?
Whats inside the neuron firing dynamics?
Toolboxes
Simulink has many advanced toolboxes
Control Systems
Neural Networks
Signal Processing
SimMechanics
Virtual Reality
Real Time
Hopefully youll get to use some of these powerful tools!

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