Formative Cerid4ebcd23cf1303

School Effectiveness in Nepal:
A Synthesis of Indicators

Tribhuvan University
Research Centre for Educational Innovation and Development (CERID)
Formative Research Project
July 2002
ii

Study Team
Vishnu Karki Principal Researcher
Raju Manandhar Research Associate
Ram Raj Khakurel Research Assistant
Dilli Neupane Research Assistant
Yogendra Lekhak Research Assistant

Formative Research Project, CERID
Coordinator: Dr. Bijaya Kumar Thapa
Associate: Mr. Rom Prasad Bhattarai
iii
Acknowledgement
Archive on school effectiveness is full of research literature yet we have extremely
limited empirical evidence on this subject in Nepal. Research on school effectiveness has
drawn a considerable attention among education planners and policy makers. It is partly
because school effectiveness research focuses assessing schools strength and weaknesses
and suggests appropriate strategy to improve educational achievements by reducing
wastage in schools. Findings of this study may have limited application to generalize a
larger population however the present research has laid the foundation for future research
on school effectiveness in Nepal. Yet, some of the findings might serve as guiding
framework for researchers in this field.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Norwegian Government for giving us
the resources, and Department of Education and CERID for giving me this invaluable
opportunity to conduct the research. My sincere gratitude is also due to Kristin Tornes
and Dr. Bijaya Kumar Thapa for their continued support on both technical and
administrative inputs throughout the research period.
Dr. Tirtha Khaniyas review and feedback were instrumental in making this report
meaningful and a worthy presentation. I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to him
for his valuable time and feedback.
I am grateful to the members of this research team: Tulashi Thapaliya, Raju Manandhar,
Ram Raj Khakurel, Dilli Neupane and Yogendra Lekhak. Without the commitment and
hard work of the team it would have been impossible visiting schools and collecting
information during the state of emergency in the country. Friends and colleagues at the
MOE and CERID also deserve our gratitude for their regular support and feedback.
Finally, but not the least, our thanks go to schoolteachers, SMC members, parents and the
DEO staff for their hospitality and support during the data collection.
Vishnu Karki
July 2002
iv
Executive Summary
Research Background
1. The purpose of this research is to assess school effectiveness with reference to the
following dependant and independent variables: enrollment and retention, student
achievement (test scores), and educational resources available in schools. In
essence, it is aimed to shed some light on the factors associated with the variation
that exists in schools with regard to some key efficiency indicators mentioned
above.
2. Samples for this research are drawn from recently conducted National
Achievement of Grade 3 Students (2001). Ten schools performing best and ten
schools performing lowest in the average score in Math, Nepali and Social Studies
were selected.
3. There are altogether 20 schools in the sample, which are spread in 7 districts:
Dhankuta, Morang, Chitwan, Rupandehi, Dhading, Kathmandu, and Kavre.
4. Of the 20 sample schools, 7 are exclusively primary schools; 3 are lower
secondary schools with primary section; 7 are secondary schools with primary
section; and finally 3 are higher secondary schools with primary section.
5. Data collection method includes both observation of school condition/facility and
interviews with the schoolteachers, parents and SMC members. Much of student
data is obtained from school register. A focus group discussion in each district
was also organised to assess their perspectives on schools performance.
6. Student information is collected from all students in grades 1, 3, and 5 for three
years: 1999, 2000 and 2001.
7. Information from a total of 8,990 primary students, 161 primary schoolteachers,
and 20 schools have been analysed in this study.
General Observation
School Characteristics
8. In general, schools overall physical condition in public schools is poor. Using 13
basic indicators of schools physical condition it was found that only about 25
percent of public schools had somewhat better conditions.
9. Per-student-cost was found substantially different among schools ranging from
below Rs. 800 to over Rs. 4,500 per student per year. Of the total public schools
surveyed, 45 percent of schools had per student spending below Rs. 2,000 and 30
percent of schools had spending above Rs. 3,000 per student per year.
10. Schools physical conditions were found, although statistically insignificant,
having some positive impact on student promotion and girls enrolment. Girls
enrolment in schools with better physical condition was higher.
11. A negative correlation between class-size and girls enrolment also confirms that
girls enrolment is higher in schools with smaller class-size.
v
12. The overall test score, on average, was also significantly positively related to
schools physical condition. Schools with better physical conditions had a higher
average score in Math, Social Studies, and Nepali altogether.
13. Schools physical condition and cost-per-student together explained over 50
percent (unadjusted) of the total variance in the proportion of promotees across the
school. Similarly, the same independent variables explained over 20 percent
(unadjusted) of the variance in the proportion of repeaters across school. Thus,
schools physical condition and cost-per-student are important predictor of
students promotion and repetition rates in schools.
Student Characteristics
14. Over the past three years: 1999, 200 and 2001, not only the number of new
entrants in grade 1 has increased substantially but also the repeaters. These
repeaters are not those who have failed in grade 1 but rather those who have
passed from Section A to Section B or vice-versa. What an irony to consider these
young people a repeater in their first year ever in school and despite the fact that
they learn almost same thing or nothing extra basically. Some of the lucky ones,
however, do get the chance to skip another level between grade one and two.
15. The proportion of these so-called repeaters in grade 1 has been on the rise over
the past three years. While this phenomenon sending children relatively in their
early ages to schools is a good gesture from the parents towards improving
quality in education, failing to address them with appropriate policy together with
necessary minimum basic resources and infrastructure from the government
would only jeopardize the education system.
16. Students enrolled in the primary section are found mostly heterogeneous with
regard to their ethnicity and the girls enrolment was encouraging in these public
schools. Students belonging to rather poor and working class families were in
abundance in the public schools. The common explanation to this phenomenon is
that children of affordable family go to nearby private schools. This may, for
some reason, be a problem but is also an opportunity to address public schools
with concerted effort than before. Because, student population in public schools
that come from deprived family, special focus group and girls have been on the
rise and that they are the groups mostly treated as the target group for many
I/NGO and government intervention. For the affordable ones, there are numerous
opportunities and access to education. The trend among public schools is such that
they are mostly catering to the needs of the non-affordable families. Apparently,
they are the children of the families mostly at risk.
17. Students internal test score in all three subjects Math, Nepali, and Social
Studies, are though on a gradual improvement but not to the satisfactory levels
yet. A majority of students have scored below or in between 30 to 50 percent of
the full marks in each subject.
18. A positive correlation between regular attendance and per-student-cost reveals
that the proportion of regular students is high in schools that has high per-student
cost. A negative correlation between irregular student and cost-per-student
suggests that the proportion of irregular students are higher in schools that has low
per student cost. Thus, the cost-per-student stands out as the best predictor of
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student status: attendance and enrollment, and the higher the cost per student the
better is the attendance and enrolment status.
19. The multivariate model with two independent variables, i.e., schools physical
condition and the cost-per-student was not only statistically significant across all
categories but also predicted substantially large difference among each category.
The model predicted almost or over 80 percent (unadjusted) of the variance in
score in each subject. Indicating that the mean score difference across the school
is attributable to the independent variables: cost-per-student and schools physical
condition.
20. Another analysis has also revealed positive correlation between cost-per-student
and the mean score. With these analyses, thus, it can be stated confidently that the
cost-per-student is significantly associated with students achievement score and
that increasing per-student-cost would also increase students achievement in all
three core-subjects.
Teacher Characteristics
21. Although the overall status of primary school teachers is pitiable, the status of
female teachers looks somewhat promising in terms of qualification and training.
Female teachers are more qualified and trained than male teachers.
22. Both in terms of teaching experience and years in the same school, female
teachers outnumber their male counterparts.
23. In terms of teachers mother language, male teachers have come from wide
language backgrounds whereas female teachers are confined mainly to two
language backgrounds- Nepali and Newari.
24. Teachers daily attendance in schools and their instructional time both were found
rather unsatisfactory among quite a large number of primary school teachers. Out
of 25 workdays in the month of Mangsir, nearly 40 percent of the primary
school teachers were absent (on leave) for 5 or more workdays. Female teachers in
primary schools were more regular than their male counterparts, however female
teachers were found to have lesser classes per week compared to males.
Synthesis of General Observation
25. Making two sections in primary, especially in grade 1, is becoming widespread
among public schools, and mostly under-age population are enrolled in one of the
sections. Early enrolments in school have mostly found to have positive impact on
student learning achievements. However, failing to provide the necessary
resources and infrastructures in schools would only increase frustration,
distraction and deviant characteristics among students in their early ages. Hence, it
is quite urgent and timely to make appropriate government intervention to regulate
under-age (pre-school) enrolments in schools by establishing a separate tier of
school and teachers to deal primarily the pre-school children.
26. Students enrolled in primary schools are found mostly heterogeneous with regard
to their ethnicity. Students from almost all ethnic backgrounds have been found
increasing in numbers in public schools over the past three years. Apparently,
regardless of their ethnicity, students from family backgrounds such as working,
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deprived and focus group are in the majority in public schools. Unfortunately,
children of the same family background are mostly at risk. Retaining these
children throughout the primary cycle and increasing their daily attendance is the
challenge for many public schools. It seems quite difficult, if not impossible, to
face this new challenge by public schools at the current levels of resources and
infrastructure available. Hence, increased spending on public schools is more than
justified on grounds not only improving educational quality and reducing wastage
but also on the grounds of basic human needs and equitable access.
27. The Education Act (7
th
amendment) has stipulated a normal class size for the
Mountains, Hills and for Terai and Valley districts as 35, 45, and 50 respectively.
By including this ratio in the Education Act, the government has indeed shown its
concern in regulating class size in schools. Ironically, the student-teacher ratio (or
the minimum class-size) seems more influenced by the availability of students in
these regions rather than optimizing students learning achievement. Nevertheless,
like many other research, here and abroad, class-size has been found as significant
determinant of student achievement across the school. Hence, the need for a
critical research on appropriate class size for Nepal is clearly demonstrated. The
class size or the student teacher ratios also needs to be justified on the grounds of
student achievement.
28. While it is believed that most of the out-of-school children in Nepal belong to the
hard-core population i.e., associated with economic and/or social hardships,
there is no information as to how many of them have never attended schools.
Considering the extremely high gross enrollment and high dropout rates especially
in grade 1, it can be assumed that many of the out-of school population might
have attend school at one point of time and that they could have dropped out for
some reason. If this is the case, we might need to look at the factors associated
school dropout more critically.
29. Among various analyses conducted in this study, cost-per-student and schools
physical facilities stand out as the most significant variable determining not only
the girls enrolment, promotion and repetition rates but also students achievement
scores in all three major subjects: Math, Social Studies, and Nepali. However,
schools physical condition and cost-per-student in public schools are both of sub-
standard and very low. Increasing cost-per-student is thus important not only to
increase student enrolment and achievement but also to reduce educational
wastage like repetition by increasing the proportion of promotees in schools.
30. Although the overall status of primary schoolteachers is not very encouraging, the
high rates of attendance, and education and training among female teachers in
primary schools suggest taking advantage of these characteristics by increasing
their participation both in school management and teaching.
31. With the current levels of data analysis it is found that schools with better physical
facilities and higher cost-per-student are effective in terms of the key indicators
used such as, girls enrolment, promotion and repetition rate, and student
achievement.
32. Most of the parents and guardians interviewed in this study expressed both lack of
interest and awareness about education. Information received from the parents
could not be used in the current analysis. This is partly because the present study
viii
at this stage is confined mainly to statistical analysis. Hence, content analysis of
what parents, guardians and the SMC members have said would be done more
thoroughly at the second stage.
33. Finally, although the observation and analysis of this study has shed some light on
several confounding issues in the primary education in Nepal, a longitudinal study
with nationally representing sample would be appropriate to argue these findings
more confidently.
34. Responding categorically to the research questions, this study has found that
schools physical condition and cost-per student contributes most to schools
effectiveness.
35. Community participation and contribution in public schools is lacking. It appears
that it is because the parents are mostly illiterate and unaware of the benefits of
education, and hence they are ignorant and lack interest.
Main Research Findings and Recommendations for Implementation
Findings 1: Enrolment in the community schools is increasing particularly in
case of Dalits.
Table 1: Student Enrolment
10 High
enrolment schools
10 Low
enrolment schools
Enrolment per school 282 202
Girl enrolment per school 136 100
Retention (regular attendance) 0.29 0.43
Cost per student 2,520 2,625
Student per class 47.8 36.8
Student per teacher 42.7 31.6
Math score 40.5 45.67
Social Studies score 39.7 48.8
Nepali score 43.0 53.5
Dalits and Disadvantaged
1
groups enrolment increased from 31% in 1999
to 31.7% in 2000, and 37.3% in 2001. Whereas Non-Dalits enrolment was
33.1% in 1999, 32.8% in 2000 and 34.1% in 2001.
1a: Underage enrolment in grade 1 has increased drastically in 2001.
Underage enrolment in grade 1 has increased from 0.6 percent in 1999 to
3.1% in 2000, and 17.2% in 2001.

1b: As a result of high proportion of underage children repetition in grade 1
has increased substantially.

1
Dalit and Disadvantaged group, in this sample study, includes Mushar, Chepang, Sunar, Kami, Pode,
Gadariya, Chamar, Bhuj, Loniya, Bhar, Dhimal, Damai, Kumal, and self reported Dalits.
ix
Repetition in grade 1 has increased from 15.3% in 1999 to 14.3% in 2000,
and 25% in 2001.

Findings 2: Average class size is inversely related with achievement level, i.e., the
smaller the class size the higher is the achievement level.
In the sample schools average achievement
2
in Math, Social Studies, and
Nepali is 40.5%, 43.3%, and 47.0% respectively.
Class-size and Math Score
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0
Class-size
M
a
t
h

S
c
o
r
e

Findings 3: High achieving schools have small class-size and high spending per
student.
Student achievement in Math is generally low with average scores below 50 in
schools. The scores ranges from 31.1 to 70.9 from lowest to the highest
scoring school.
Table 2: Achievement (Math Score)
10 High achieving schools 10 Low achieving schools
Findings 4: Schools with high student retention (regular attendance in schools) also
have high spending per student.

2
School administered test scores in three major subjects: Math, Social Studies, and Nepali are taken as a
measure of student achievement measured in terms of percentage in each subject.
x
Student retention in general is also low with average retention below 35
percent. The retention rate ranges from 0.25 to 0.43.
Table 3: Student Retention
10 High retention
schools
10 Low retention
schools
Social Studies score 44.7 43.8%
Findings 5: Schools with higher spending per student have high retention rate, small
class size, and high achievements.

Table 4: Spending per student
9 High spending
schools
9 Low spending
schools
Note: Cost data for two schools was not available.

Findings 6: Schools physical condition have been found to have positive impact on
student enrolment, retention, and achievement
Schools physical conditions have been determined using 13 basic indicators
such as separate toilet for girls, furniture in the classroom, classroom
condition, and classroom condition.
Only about 25 percent of sample schools have the necessary physical facilities.
Discussion and Possible Suggestions for implementation
Schools physical condition and the cost per student
Schools physical condition and cost per student both seem to have positive
impact on some of the key efficiency indictors, such as the enrolment,
achievement and promotion rates.
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Improving school conditions would be, without any doubt, a costly venture.
However, in the long run it would turn out to be cost-effective, as it will
eventually reduce the wastage and improve learning achievements.
To reduce the immediate financial pressure the following can be adopted:
- Making inventory of the minimum basic facility that any primary
schools must have.
- Prioritising these facilities according to their necessity and outcomes
so that it can be provided with an incremental basic.
- Seeking private-public partnerships as well as community support to
fulfil these facilities in schools.
School enrolment
Increasing enrolments in the community schools particularly that of Dalits and
the Disadvantaged groups is highly commendable. However, their retention
and cycle completion is the next challenge.
Making effective allocation of existing resources, such as girl and Dalits
scholarships, and incentive programs would possibly reduce the extra financial
burden as well as help retain these population in schools.
Sharing resource allocation between formal and non-formal programs and
focusing on only those programs that are particularly relevant and productive
could be more cost effective.
Increase in both underage enrolment and repetition are mostly intentional
schools would continue to retain their student population, whether underage or
over, to maintain the current inflow of resources.
Since ECD centers, as per the Education Act (7
th
amendment), can only enroll
those who are below the age of 4 and since the underage in grade 1 are mostly
between 4+ and under 6, these centers cant legally solve the underage
problem that exist in grade 1.
Pre-primary section is thus inevitable and perhaps the only solution to cater
the underage population of grade 1.
Opening pre-primary section in the community schools is more likely to
produce the desired benefits.
Facilitating community schools by providing some incentives and flexible
policies such as waiving registration fees, teacher quota and educational
materials are desirable. This might instantaneously seem as an additional
financial burden but in the long run these costs would be recovered through
reduced wastage and increased internal efficiency.
Class-size
Literature suggests that small class-size especially in the lower grades produce
significant results in students cognitive developments and learning
achievements. Studies in Nepal including this one have also indicated the
same findings.
xii
In 1987 a norm of 20, 30, and 40 was set to achieve by the year 2000. But, in
the Education Act (7th amendment) in 2001 has set a norm of 40, 45, and 50
students per teacher.
In an estimate strict enforcement to the new ratios 40, 45, and 50 would yield
a surplus of roughly over 20,000 primary school teachers. This would be
unfortunate, as it is generally believed that there arent enough teachers in
schools.
Instead, proper management of underage and overage students in the primary
schools and reducing the higher repetition rates would substantially reduce the
current ratios to reasonable levels.
However, liberal promotion policy has been found to be ineffective with
regard to reducing wastage in grade 1. In one of the CAS district, due to the
liberal promotion policy students who would have been repeaters in grade 1
have been reported as dropout and enrolled back again as new entrants.
This phenomenon is seen as a strategy to continue receiving inflow of the
government support in schools.
Overall suggestion
To make community schools effective, additional physical and financial
support, improving school management to reduce the wastage, and opening
pre-schools as a separate tier with the community schools have been observed
as both viable as well as desirable.
To reduce the immediate financial and management crises an incremental
strategy can be adopted by prioritising the necessary and productive measures
to be implemented first.
Public-private joint venture in areas of school improvement and management
can be cost saving as well as more effective.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLDGEMENT..........................................................................................................................................II
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.................................................................................................................................... IV

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 1
Problem Statement.................................................................................................................................... 1
Rationale and focus of the study............................................................................................................... 2
Purpose of the study ................................................................................................................................. 3
Objectives................................................................................................................................................. 3
Research questions ................................................................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................................. 5
Methodological issues .............................................................................................................................. 8
Definition and meanings of the terms....................................................................................................... 8

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY................................................................................................................... 10
Research design...................................................................................................................................... 10
Sampling................................................................................................................................................. 10
Data collection........................................................................................................................................ 11
Data analysis........................................................................................................................................... 11

CHAPTER IV: DATA ANALYSIS................................................................................................................... 12
General Description................................................................................................................................ 12
School and classroom..................................................................................................................... 12
Enrolment ....................................................................................................................................... 14
School Teachers.............................................................................................................................. 15
Descriptive analysis................................................................................................................................ 15
School characteristics ..................................................................................................................... 15
Student characteristics .................................................................................................................... 19
Student promotion, repetition and dropout ..................................................................................... 25
Girls enrolment.............................................................................................................................. 26
Student achievement....................................................................................................................... 29
Teacher characteristics.................................................................................................................... 31
Analysis by school.................................................................................................................................. 35

CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS...................................................................................................... 44
Student Enrolment .................................................................................................................................. 44
Equitable resource allocation.................................................................................................................. 44
Early enrolment and grade repetition ..................................................................................................... 45
Class-size/teacher-student ratio .............................................................................................................. 46
Schools physical condition and cost per student ................................................................................... 47

CHAPTER VI: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION........................................................................ 49

REFERENCE................................................................................................................................................. 51

APPENDIX: A - DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLE DISTRICT AND SCHOOL.................................................................. 53
APPENDIX B: SCHOOL IN PICTURE .................................................................................................................. 58
APPENDIX C: SURVEY TOOLS.......................................................................................................................... 58
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List of Tables

TABLE 1: SAMPLE SCHOOL CHARACTERISTICS ................................................................................................ 15
TABLE 2: SUMMARY OF SAMPLE DISTRICTS..................................................................................................... 17
TABLE 3: SUMMARY BY SCHOOLS................................................................................................................... 18
TABLE 4: STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS CASTE GROUP .................................................................................. 20
TABLE 5: STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS: ENROLLMENT STATUS ....................................................................... 22
TABLE 6: STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS ATTENDANCE .................................................................................. 24
TABLE 7: ENROLMENT BY GENDER AND CASTE GROUP ................................................................................... 28
TABLE 8: TEACHERS EDUCATION AND TRAINING STATUS .............................................................................. 32
TABLE: 9: TEACHERS ATTENDANCE AND CLASS PER WEEK............................................................................ 34
TABLE 10: SCHOOL PHYSICAL CONDITION AND COST PER STUDENT ................................................................ 35
TABLE 11: SPEARMANS RANK CORRELATION - 1............................................................................................ 37
TABLE 12: SPEARMANS RANK CORRELATION-2 ............................................................................................. 38
TABLE 13: MULTIVARIATE TEST - 1 ................................................................................................................ 39
TABLE 16: MULTIVARIATE POST-HOC COMPARISON - 1................................................................................... 42
TABLE 17: MULTIVARIATE POST-HOC COMPARISON 2. 43

List of Figures

FIGURE 1: STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS CASTE GROUP................................................................................. 19
FIGURE 2: STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS AGE GROUP .................................................................................... 21
FIGURE 3: STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS ENROLMENT AND ATTENDANCE STATUS ........................................ 23
FIGURE 4: REPEATING STUDENTS IN GRADE 1 ................................................................................................ 26
FIGURE 5: ENROLMENT BY GENDER ................................................................................................................ 27
FIGURE: 6: ENROLMENT BY GENDER AND CASTE............................................................................................. 27
FIGURE 7: ENROLMENT BY AGE AND GENDER AND GRADE.............................................................................. 28
FIGURE 8: ATTENDANCE STATUS BY GENDER IN GRADE 1............................................................................... 29
FIGURE 9: AVERAGE TEST SCORE .................................................................................................................... 30
FIGURE 10: AVERAGE SCORE BELOW 30 PERCENT...
47
FIGURE 11:AVERAGE SCORE ABOVE 70 PERCENT.................................................................................... 31
FIGURE 12: TEACHERS QUALIFICATION.................................................................................................. 48
FIGURE 13: TEACHERS TRAINING STATUS.................................................................................................. 32
FIGURE 14: TEACHERS TEACHING EXPERIENCE.............................................................................................. 33
FIGURE 15: TEACHERS MOTHER TONGUE... 33
FIGURE: 16: TEACHERS ATTENDANCE AND CLASS PER WEEK .34
FIGURE: 17: SCHOOLS OVERALL
STATUS....36

Chapter I
Introduction
Introduction
Despite rugged terrain and scattered settlements, Nepal has indeed made remarkable
progress in achieving access to education within a short period of time. Primary school
facilities in the last couple of years have been expanded to almost every village of the
country. Study has shown that the commuting a distance between home to schools even in
remote areas has become comfortable for the primary students as well. The National
Living Standard Survey (HMG/N, NPC, 1997) found that 97 percent of urban and 88
percent of rural households have schools within a commuting distance of 30 minutes. The
exhilaration of successful expansion of the past has in fact obscured both its
manifestations dropout and retention, and its root poorly developed infrastructure and
meager resources in the public schools, from being recognized by the policy makers.
One thing we cant disagree is that public schools in Nepal are meagerly resourced and
that within the current level of resources there exist a marked difference in the public
schools in terms of enrolment, promotion, and student achievement. Delivery of
educational resources or inputs to public schools is centrally controlled and the bulk of
support goes through the government. Community support to public schools is very
limited. Therefore the quest is to reveal why some schools are doing relatively well and
why not the others? What makes public school better?
There is no denying that scholastic achievement is the ultimate objective of an education
system. However, as a matter of fact, enrollment and retention (keeping them to come to
school regularly) of student are the preconditions for quality improvement. If no student
comes to school regularly, all the inputs such as school infrastructure, teachers, and
curriculum and textbooks become redundant. Therefore, the measures for
school/educational effectiveness in Nepal could be more worthwhile if measured in terms
of enrolment, retention and achievements including effective use of educational
resources.
Problem Statement
BPEP I has already made huge investments to improve access, quality and management
in basic education in Nepal. BPEP II is more or less a continuation of the experiences of
BPEP I. From the very beginning, however, questions have been raised on the supply
driven government policy. While addressing educational issues, more schools, more
teachers, and more educational resources have been seen as one of the most viable
strategies from the government.
Governments intervention in improving access to education has been mostly successful
in almost all developing countries. The experience of expanding access, is however, also
eclipsed by the deteriorating quality in these countries. A trade-off between expansion
and quality is thus apparent in education in these worlds. Improving quality in education
is the catchphrase in many developing countries. However, government intervention in
this endeavor is often less successful in many countries - both in the developed and
developing world. This is partly because quality is so much abstract that it is defined and
2
perceived differently from one school to another, one community to another and from one
country to another. Achieving quality in education is difficult also because a multiplicity
of factors is associated with it and that they are so susceptible to change in the context
social and economic development that quality in education becomes a moving target.
In the case of Nepal, it can be argued that the problem is not only with the long held
supply driven policy of the government but also the blanket approach adopted for
resource allocation. The two fundamental correlates of local economy needs and
demand have never been fully assessed for educational development. Both government
and the public have meager resources and that the supply driven policy has proved both
unsuccessful as well as unsustainable. Therefore, there is a clear and demonstrated need
to assess schools effectiveness and to make more cost effective allocation of resources for
educational development. To make more cost-effective allocation of resources and to
address quality issues in education it requires a thorough understanding of the context,
contributing factors and their relevance, and an incremental strategy.
Achievement studies done recently in Nepal were instrumental in determining the level of
performance among students and also in setting-up the Minimum Learning Level (MLL)
for primary graders. However, there is a need to comprehend as to what factors account
most in school or student performance or achievement. This research aims to shed some
light on these issues.
Rationale and focus of the study
Government intervention in the development of basic and primary education in Nepal has
escalated since last two decades. The form of government intervention has largely been
ascribed as supply driven. Supply of more schools, more teachers, and more educational
resources to public schools have been the government strategy of educational
development. As a consequence, tremendous increase in student enrolment, number of
teacher and school has been recorded.
Current net enrolment ratio of 80.4 percent is indeed a remarkable achievement.
However, 119.8 percent of gross enrolment, at the same time, suggests otherwise a huge
wastage in education. Supplementing to these wastage, recently conducted National
Assessment of Student Achievement in Grade III have also indicated rather poor
performance of students in the classroom. Thus the quest is to assess school effectiveness
in terms of low wastage of educational resources and student achievement in the
classroom.
Nepal has yet to bring over 1 million primary school going age (PSGA) populations in
schools in the first place. And second, out of the total current enrollment in grade 1
(which is roughly 3.5 million, including overage and underage) 61 percent of them (over
2 million) is being wasted annually through grade repetition and school dropouts. This
causes humungous wastage in Nepals education system. If this dropout and repetition
phenomenon in schools is resolved, there would be a surplus of over two million student
year or two million unit of educational costs each year. These savings then could be used
for other qualitative measures such as increasing the number of primary school teachers,
providing more textbooks and improving school facilities. Improvements in the
proportions of dropout and repetition rates not only minimize per student cost but also
improve student access to more educational resources and thus improve students
achievement.
3
Following the infamous Coleman Report of 1966, more recent school effectiveness
research (SER) has drawn from numerous research literatures. The focus of SER is
mostly divided into two schools of thought family factor vs. school factor. However,
both schools agree that there is a threshold of minimum educational resources to which
educational quality is contingent on schools resource and infrastructures. The context of
schools in Nepal thus also needs to be analysed in the light of educational resources
available in schools.
Purpose of the study
The confounding issues in primary education in Nepal today are associated with its high
dropout and high repetition rates in grade 1 and that this phenomenon has existed since
last couple of decades. Ironically, the figures on school dropout and grade repetition have
remained as invincible despite millions of dollars have been already invest in the name of
primary education development. The main focus of this study is to assess school
effectiveness in terms of educational wastage and achievement.
The need for concerted efforts to reduce dropout and repetition rates and to improve cycle
completion rates in the primary education have already been identified. This research on
school effectiveness will not only reveal characteristics of the factors associated with
student performance but also help in determining priority for government intervention in
quality measures by identifying areas with specific needs.
This study thus focuses on more than one outcome measures to analyse school
effectiveness and also incorporates different perceptions to the findings.
Objectives
Basic and primary education in Nepal is in the public domain and community support and
private sector involvement is insignificant, implicating the government to take the lions
share in this investment. With the launching of the Basic and Primary Education Project
in 1984, the government has provided a tremendous amount of resources to improve
access and quality in the basic and primary education. The Ministry of Education has
recently carried out series of research and their follow-ups on student achievement in all
primary grades and has also worked-out minimum learning level (MLL) for primary
grades. Similarly, targets for improving MLL have been also set under BPEP-II.
However, what is not known to many of us is how much and what type of educational
input has been attributable to students achievement? Assessment of the quality of
educational input in public schools is another murky area that also needs a thorough
research to properly address school effectiveness.
Therefore, the objectives of this study is:
to assess school effectiveness with reference to enrollment and retention,
achievement test scores, and educational resources available in schools;
to assess whether economic and socio-cultural backgrounds of student
contribute or hinder schools effectiveness; and
to assess community/parents perception of schools.
4
Research questions
What are factors that contribute or hinder school effectiveness in Nepal? Is it
different in different geographic/socio-cultural traits?
Is there any difference in the quality of input (educational resources) from one
school to another? Does it have any significant impact on educational output?
How can schools contribute to improving community participation in school
management?
Note: In the first phase of this study research is focused mainly to the first
research questions. The remaining will be dealt in its next phase.
5
Chapter II
Literature Review
What works in education has long been an overarching issue in school effectiveness
research (SER). The early research beginning with the Coleman Report (Coleman et al.,
1966) claimed that teacher, school, and the fiscal resources had minimal, if any, effect on
student achievement (Cynthia et. al. 1998). Subsequent studies however emphasized
school factors as predominant in students learning achievement (Hyneman and Loxley,
1983; Fuller, 1986; Cynthia et al., Oct. 1998; Fuller and Clarke 1994). Hanushek (1998)
did not emphasize school characteristics as predominant in student achievement. Fuller
(1986), on the other hand, argues that within industrialized countries the effect of school
quality is eclipsed by the childs family background, whereas in the developing countries
school quality can be a major determinant of educational achievement. Because majority
of families are below the poverty line they are mostly illiterate. Hence, the familial
support to childrens learning at home is minimal, which forces students to rely on school
factors classroom, teacher, and textbooks for learning achievements. In developing
countries because learning outside schools, at least the pedagogical learning, is not fully
developed therefore students have to rely on school and teachers. Thus, school
effectiveness is mostly represented in two underlying dimensions - school factor and SES
(socio-economic status).
Following this controversial yet mostly referenced Coleman Report (1966), researcher
began using additional school inputs, such as enrollment, ethnic composition and staff
characteristics in school effectiveness research. More specific school attributes, such as
schools goal, instructional leadership, opportunities to learn, school climate, teacher
interaction were also brought into the research (Cynthia et. al., 1998). Similarly, more
attributes related to students home background such as parents education, single or
both parent, neighborhoods, family size and so forth (Jencks et al., 1972); and student
behavior and learning abilities (Heyneman & Loxley, 1983; Haddad, 1979) were also
brought into the analysis.
During the 1970s and 1980s, studies by Edmonds (1979) and Godald (1984) found that
all children can learn, regardless of their background and that some schools are more
effective, or satisfying, than others (Bolender, 1997). This gave extra impetus to SER
making it more comprehensive. Thus, recent studies on school effectiveness research
have attempted to predict educational outcomes by using a host of input variables and
have consistently contrasted with various educational inputs. However, despite of severe
criticism, the indicators of outcome measure have remained invariably the same - student
performance in the classroom. The shortcomings remain due to the fact that students are
consistently assessed using standardized tests in school to reveal their achievement. Many
researchers have strongly criticized standardized tests when they are used to measure
students learning achievements. Over many decades, assessment results have been
frequently used to define not only teaching but also to determine student's opportunity to
learn (Darling-Hammond, 1994). As a tool for tracking students into different courses,
levels, and kinds of instructional programs, testing has been a primary means for limiting
or expanding students life choices and their avenues for demonstrating competence
(Darling-Hammond, 1994).
6
Our interest is clearly not to obstruct students from learning opportunity but to improve
their educational quality, and therefore we cannot regard these tools to determine their
future options. Rather bluntly, Samuelson (1998) says:
People don't learn only at school. If they did, we'd be doomed. In isolation, test scores hardly count.
What counts-for the economy at least-is what people do at work. Do they fully use their skills? Do
they develop new ones? Are they engaged?
Learning is an ongoing process. People learn from different sources, contacts, events, and
from their surroundings. What and how they have learned, and where and how they are
going to use their skills often goes unpredicted and that achievement tests dont measure
these factors. Howard Gardner (1998) of the Harvard School of Education dismissed the
tests because they measure only the "lowest common denominator of facts and skills and
not whether students can think scientifically or mathematically. The RAND study has
also concluded that the "comparisons of simple unadjusted test scores from one year to
the next or across different schools or school districts do not provide a valid indicator of
the performance of the teachers, schools, or school districts
It is true that teachers, students, parents and even the community in Nepal are accustomed
to the long held practices of examination and test scores and that the test scores have
remained as the sole criterion for student promotion from one grade to the other. A
substantial body of research, however, has demonstrated that the effects of this kind of
test-based decision making are much more negative than positive (Darling-Hammond,
1994). One of the major bottlenecks in education system in Nepal is in fact associated
with its high repetition rates and that this sole criterion of student score has more
adversely affected in students achievement. As Shephard and Smith (1986) have put it,
Contrary to popular beliefs, repeating a grade does not help students gain ground
academically and has a negative impact on social adjustment and self-esteem (in
Darling-Hammond, 1994).
Even when school factors are treated as major determinants of educational quality,
effectiveness is measured only on the basis of sole outcome variable, i.e. student test
scores. The obvious ineffectiveness variables, such as high retention and dropout rates are
seldom considered. Often the factors associated with dropout and repetitions are poor
school quality, school test (examination), and students background. The dropout and
repetition together with the promotion are an important outcome or an efficiency indicator
of the educational system. Considering the extremely high dropout and repetition the
kind of effectiveness that is desirable might simply be to keep them coming to
school(Darling-Hammond, 1994) and their retention throughout the primary cycle. In
fact, research indicates that neither employability nor earnings are significantly affected
by students test score on basic skills, while chances of employment and welfare
dependency are tightly linked to graduation (Ekland, 1980; Gordon & Sum, 1988; Jaeger,
1991 in Darling-Hammond, 1994).
Factors, such as class-size, per-pupil expenditure and teacher quality, hold a common-
sense appeal in many school effectiveness researches. Such notion is even more deeply
rooted in researchers in the developing countries as they mostly lack resources in those
domains. The researchers do not explicitly support that these inputs will have themselves
resulted in greater academic gains. More importantly what kind of measures were pursued
remains critical in almost all of the research in education. It is partly because of the fact
that educational researches have virtually failed to establish explicit relationships between
input and outcomes. Educational inputs and outcomes are so vivid and contextual that it is
7
extremely complicated, if not impossible, to establish causal relationships. Therefore,
whatever the findings we might get from these studies, they are all predisposed to a
particular context, to a particular ambiance, and to a particular time.
Teacher inputs also have same mixed results as with the other input variables. There are
arguments that affluent schools get better teacher and hence secure better achievement.
However, what is often forgotten when these assertions are made is that affluent schools
also get student from affluent families, they live in a better neighborhoods, come from
educated parents and so forth. It may be possible to control teacher input to some extent
but it is impossible to control SES and other external influence on student behavior.
Therefore, it is really hard to know whether it was the teacher input or the SES that made
a difference in student's achievement.
From government perspectives it is rational to look at the overall achievement of schools
and districts rather than the differences among students individual scores. The case for
governmental involvement in education, as opposed to purely private decision making on
schooling, requires more than just the high rates of return commonly observed for
individual schooling (Hanushek, 1998). The government involvement in education is also
seen as an investment in the social sector ensuring equitable equal access to these basic
services regardless of the rate of return.
According to the MOE statistical report (MOE, 2000), about 19 percent of the enrolment
in grade 1 drop before or immediately after the end of the first year, and over 41 percent
of them repeat the same grade next year. Thus, only about 40 percent of the total
enrolments in grade1 go to the next grade and 60 percent of them either repeat or drop in
as early as grade 1. However sophisticated, comprehensive and scientific measures we
may apply to testing students achievement, it is useful only when students are in the
school throughout the year and throughout the primary cycle. Thus, the first and obvious
concern in primary education in Nepal is not evaluation of students test scores but to
keep them coming to school and to reduce repetition. Research suggests that, being
retained (holding in the same grade) increases the odds of dropping out by 40 to 50
percent. A second retention doubles the risk (Mann, 1987 in Darling-Hammond, 1994).
Thus, the policy of automatically holding students based on their test-score performance
may have actually produced low achievement for these students, lower self-esteem, and
higher dropout rates for them and for the nation (Darling-Hammond, 1994).
With above deliberation and synthesis of literature, the following conceptual basis is
formed:
1) that the most commonly held sole outcome measure student test scores is
particularly irrelevant in Nepal. Since, student participation rate is less than 40 percent
(after deducting dropout and repetition) assessment of school achievement based on
test scores is inappropriate.
2) that school effectiveness is a much more complicated construct to define. It is more
contextual and subjective to prevailing values. Therefore, the meaning of
effectiveness is different to different people from one system to another, from one
context to another. The staggeringly high dropout and repetition rates in primary
schools in Nepal stress the need to assess effectiveness in terms of internal efficiency
(low dropout and low repetition rates) and not just the students test scores.
8
Methodological issues
Compared to the classic input-output model, multi-level analysis is more advanced and is
mostly used in school effectiveness research. Its application in educational research,
school effectiveness research in particular, is increasingly popular. The advantage of this
multi-level analysis is that it allows researchers to predict the amount of variation in the
outcome explained both through the main effect as well as through the interaction across
levels. Many researchers believe that a multiplicity of inputs and outcomes are associated
with the educational achievements and that the student performance differs across the
levels among peer group, classroom, school, district and so forth. The classical input
and output analysis has failed to incorporate two things first, it didn't consider the
interaction through mediating variables between the input and output, such as classroom
activities and second, it did not analyze the variance across the layer- classroom, school,
districts. Although such sophisticated designs like structural equation modeling are
frequently used in studies in OECD countries, these are less common among studies in
developing countries (Scheerens, 1999).
Although multi-level analysis allows researcher to predict the size of both exogenous and
endogenous effects on the outcome, it is mostly a test of the theoretical construct of the
model rather than the causality. As with the other models, multi-level analysis does not
either predict anywhere near 100 percent of the variance. Nevertheless, there is no
denying that the variance in student achievement can be best predicted when it is applied
to each levels rather than on school aggregate.
Definition and meanings of the terms
School Effectiveness
The concept of school effectiveness has been defined variously. One of the definitions of
school effectiveness derived from an extensive review and synthesis of the school
research (NWREL, 1984) is that effective schools are those in which all students master
priority objectives. The difficulty with this so-called extensively synthesized definition
is that who is going to set the priority and objectives for students. How and who is going
to determine that the students objectives and the priorities have been fulfilled at the end
of schooling? There is also a conflict between the national and individual educational
interest in this definition, which is often the case with the private and public schools. The
construct of school effectiveness, for Nepal in this study is construed on the basis of
lower repetition, lower drop out, and higher promotion rates with increased girls
enrolment. In essence, indicators of internal efficiency are taken as the determinants of
school effectiveness for Nepal.
Dropout Rate
Some have made a distinction between the dropping-out and stopping-out as in the
later case some may have found the opportunity costs of attending school outweigh the
benefits elsewhere during the harvest seasons (Bedi and Marshall, 1999) and therefore
they stop going to school. However, in this study, those who are enrolled in the primary
school and leave schools without completing the grade or primary cycle whether due to
failing the grades or any other reasons are defined as dropout. The dropout rate is thus the
proportion of dropout population against the total enrollment at the beginning of the
school year.
9
Repetition Rate
Students that are retained in the same grade based on their failing examination score are
treated as repetition. The repetition rate is thus the proportion of failing or repeating
students against the total enrollment at the beginning of the school year.
Promotion Rate.
Those students they pass based on their annual examination scores are the promotees and
hence the promotion rate is the proportions of the promotees against the total enrollment
at the beginning of the school year.
10
Chapter III
Methodology
Research design
School effectiveness research is much more complicated due to the fact that there has
been a numerous and wide range of factors that have some association with or impact on
school effectiveness. Coupled with this is the diversity that exists in its definition and the
contextual relevance. School effectiveness researches as outlined earlier mostly whirl
between the two schools of thought learning outcomes vs. schools goals and objectives;
school factors vs. family factors. Moreover, the stakeholders e.g., schoolteacher, student,
parents, community leader, public authority all of them come from a different socio-
economic backgrounds and possess a different cognitive quality which ultimately impinge
upon school effectiveness and many of which is often difficult, if not impossible, to
measure. Therefore, the aim of this research is not to get into this debate but rather it
would be an attempt to explicit factors that are contributing the most to present disparity
of educational achievements across the school.
The construct of this study is to assess schools effectiveness in terms of the following
dependant and independent variables: enrolment and promotion rates, student
achievement, and schools physical condition. A two-stage research process is devised for
this study. In the first stage, the research has focused on the assessment of input variable
such as school resources that are associated with schools effectiveness. Due to the time
constraints, this initial research is based on a limited sample of schools.
Once, the factors most accountable for student achievement are identified they will be
further verified in a more systematic research in its second stage. Schools will be
randomly selected representing different social, economic and cultural/geographic traits.
Moreover, process variables will be included in the second phase of school effectiveness
study. Schools selected for this analysis will also work as a point of reference/information
for regular monitoring of students status and of the impact of both internal as well as
external inputs on student achievement. The expectation is that this research will also
provide a foundation for longitudinal studies on student achievement. However, to give a
longitudinal test students data have been collected for three consecutive years 1999
through 2001. Similarly, grade 1, 3, and 5 students are assessed to examine across grade
variation.
A mix of both qualitative and quantitative design would be the most appropriate method
for this kind of studies. The current analysis, due to small sample-size, is mostly limited
to a descriptive analysis. More rigorous analysis will be done in its second phase.
Sampling
Sampling frame for this study constitutes those nationally representing 161 schools
selected randomly for recently conducted National Achievement of Grade 3 Students
(2001). Out of the 161 schools, ten performing best and ten performing lowest in the
average score in Math, Nepali and social Studies were selected for this research. Thus, the
sampling procedure is basically purposive with the priority given to selecting extreme
cases. There are altogether 20 schools in the sample which are spread in 7 districts:
Dhankuta, Morang, Chitwan, Rupandehi, Dhading, Kathmandu, and Kavre. Of the 20
11
schools, 7 schools are primary schools, 3 are lower secondary schools with primary
section, 7 schools are secondary school with primary section, and finally 3 schools are
higher secondary school with primary section. A detail description of sample district and
schools are provided in appendix A.
Data collection
Data have been collect from 20 schools from 7 districts: Dhankuta, Morang, Chitwan,
Rupandehi, Dhading, Kathmandu, and Kavre (a detail description of sample district and
school are annexed). Both observation and interview methods were used for data
collection. While most of the information related to student characteristics and school
financing were gathered from school registers, teacher and parents were also interviewed
to get their perspective on schools performance. Similarly focus group discussion
including parents, community and school management members, and teachers were also
conducted. Three separate tools were developed to collect required information from
these sources. The tools used in this study are annexed in appendix C.
Data analysis
As mentioned earlier, this is a two-step research. In its first step, variables such as
schools physical condition, and teacher and student characteristics such as teacher
education and training, gender, ethnicity, and age of students and daily attendance are
selected as predictor variable. Student achievement, daily attendance, girls enrolment are
taken as criterion variable. Process indicators are not included at this time. Data analysis
at this stage is mostly descriptive, and cross-section analysis of some variables is also
conducted. Wherever appropriate, correlation and multiple regression analysis are also
conducted.
In this study data from 8,990 students, 161 primary school teachers and 20 schools have
been processed.
In the second stage a more thorough analysis of school effectiveness would be conducted.
The possibility of using more rigorous analysis, such as the multi-level analysis, will be
explored.
12
Chapter IV
Data Analysis
General Description
School and classroom
All the sampled schools were found to have permanent (Pakka) buildings. In most of the
cases, classrooms were built either by the earthquake project, BPEP/PEDP, municipality,
or by the I/NGOs. School physical conditions ten years ago were entirely different with
classes in many schools, especially in the Terai region, running under the tree and in a
temporarily roofed structure. Now many schools in Nepal have at least permanent
structure the next attempt should be to equip these schools with necessary educational
resources. This is indeed a remarkable achievement that the government has made in the
past couple of years. However, physical condition in almost all public schools in Nepal is
such that they all consist of bare bones lacking its vital lifeblood educational resources.
Classes in which primary grade students are taught were found mostly of sub-standard in
its quality compared to other classes in the same school. Classrooms for primary grades in
almost all schools were found barely equipped with any educational materials or displays
of any kind. Even in the Kathmandu city, public schools were found consisting of bare
walls and poor lights.
Many researchers, including those having rather strong indifference to school factors in
students achievement, have agreed to a minimum threshold of educational resources in
schools that matter in student achievement (Hanushek 1998; Hyneman and Loxley 1986;
Fuller 1986; Cynthia et al. Oct. 1998; Fuller and Clarke 1994). Public schools in Nepal
arent even near minimum threshold in terms of physical and educational resources
available. Obviously, all public schools in Nepal need resources with minimum basic
supplies of educational resources and only thereafter assessment of student achievement
would make sense. In other words, any SER in conditions like this would be ignoring
school effect on student achievement because school condition is itself sick and
vulnerable struggling to survive. Assessment of student achievement in these conditions
would only yield strengths of family factors. Research findings would thus mislead to a
wrong conclusion.
We cannot disagree, and this research has also found, that public schools today are
catering for children mostly of the working and deprived families. And many of these
families also need helping hands to sustain their family lives. Thus, children of these
families are more susceptible to become irregular in attending schools leading to grade
repetition and eventually dropout. What we also know is that family push for childrens
education in these families is negligible if theres any. Hence, the role of schools becomes
even greater in this situation. Schools should be able to exert strong pull, also
supplementing the lack of family push, to attract and retain students in schools
throughout the primary cycle. Ironically, even schools are not any better than the families
who send their children to these schools in terms of resources available.
Classroom environment was mostly grubby and less cared by the school management.
When asked one of the senior teachers why these classes are not clean? He said We
only have two peons in the school (hired from government resources) and they are busy
taking care of higher secondary and secondary classes. The third one that we hired from
13
our own funds is a school guard. He also added regarding primary classes that, Once a
month we ask students to clean their classroom. This is a common practice in almost all
public schools. Evidently, there is not enough resource in schools to hire helper and
cleaners so that certain cleanliness is maintained. A female teacher rather sadly expressed
her concern about students own cleanliness. She said, I repeatedly ask students to wash
their hands and face and to wear clean clothes, but look at them. She further added, I
have also remind parents several times of their childrens cleanliness, but no one cares.
What can we do?
While these concerns have their meanings in its place, there is also one thing that is not
explicitly discussed in the policy debate, and that is the role of teachers in school should
it be limited to teaching only? Should they also reach to the parents to discuss their
childrens status? Most public schools lack communication and interaction with the
parents. It is partly attributable to schools own inability and lack of resource and partly to
the parents apathy and lack of awareness. One of the parents was particularly selected for
interview in Morang. His son was found fairly neat and tidy in appearance, regular in the
class and had done remarkably well in all schoolwork. It was thought that his parents
must be relatively educated and that they must have been helping him to learn at home.
Ironically, both the parents had no formal education. The mother was able to just read and
write. Father had no job at the time of interview. Though he was professionally a
carpenter, he also had several other skills such as brick works, welding, and repairing
works. They had four children altogether and all of them were living in a rented room of
about 120 square feet. With one bed, a small table, and some space left for cooking there
was hardly any space to walk in the room. Father did not have jobs at the time and
therefore he was there to take care of the two younger siblings. When he had jobs, things
would be even worse, the next-door distant relative whispered.
This was the case of a better-looking student among all other enrolled in that particular
school. We can easily imagine family conditions of other students. It was not that the
parents were not willing to respond to our question about how to improve schools
condition but they did not have any idea what to say - showing extreme lack of
knowledge, awareness, and faith, in some cases, towards education. Most of the parents
interviewed were found to have visited school several times but to pick up their children
in most of the times. Even if some of the parents happen to participate through the SMC
or any other ways to schools development planning one cannot expect much contribution
unless the parents value education and understand their roles and responsibility for their
childrens education.
In one of the schools, of the two classrooms built by the Primary Education Development
Project (PEDP) one was being used for school library and even the library was not for the
junior students but only for the higher secondary students. When peeped through the open
window, the library seemed not in use for long time as the furniture and bookshelves in
the room were mostly dust covered. Ironically, this school was also the resource centre
school with a resource person to monitor.
Classrooms in all schools consisted of bare walls, a chalkboard, and some furniture. There
were no displays of any kind and nothing that would attract children in the classroom for
the entire day. The concept of joyful learning in these schools is found limited within the
policy guidelines. Virtually nothing is there in the classrooms in the public schools that
exhibit or motivate these young kids to come and be at school all the day and everyday.
14
Almost all schools grade 1 were split into two sections. One of the sections included
under age children most of who were supposedly going to repeat the same grade in the
next section next year.
Enrolment
The number of students enrolled in the primary grades was encouraging in all public
schools surveyed. In spite of poor educational resources and infrastructure in these
schools, girls enrolment and students of deprived families were noteworthy. Over the last
three years, students from almost all categories of the caste groups have been increasing
in school enrolments.
Students registered in primary grades (1, 3 and 5) were verified in their respective
classrooms. Except in one or two cases, most of the registered students were genuine.
Fake listings were rarely found in schools. However, schools do not list student as
dropout even though they are irregular for long time and even when one hasnt showed-
up in the final examination. Students who have supposedly dropped out are, in some
schools, automatically registered as repeater next year in the same grade. This strategy in
public schools seems very much influenced by the government policy that requires certain
student/teacher ratio to be maintained in order to retain desired number of teachers in
school.
In the case of grade 1, however, student enrolment is indeed influenced by the
government policy. In many public schools students in grade 1 are enrolled in two
sections: section A and B. Students enrolled in section A (section B in some schools) are
normally under age and those with poor learning ability. Students in section B (section A
in some schools) are mostly promotees from section A/B and only a few are newcomers.
For the school management, making two sections in grade 1 serves two purposes. Firstly,
it helps relieve community/parents pressure to enrol under age children and to filter
students with different cognitive levels into two sections. And secondly, they count on
students in both sections to maintain the desired student/teacher ratio so that they can
retain certain number of teachers in school.
In the DOEs record, dropout rates still stand as high as 19 percent in grade 1. The
dropout status of student as observed in schools is entirely different. The preliminary
analysis of this study indicates a real dropout rate of below 10 percent. The NMIS study
conducted in 1995/97 has also indicated rather low dropout rates in primary grades
compared to the MOESs record. MOES records on school dropouts in grade 1 have
remained virtually unchanged since last two decades. Only in this year 2001, that the
DOE has reported dropout under 20 percent. It used to be somewhere in between 21-23
percent before.
The huge difference that exists in the estimate of dropout between research findings and
MOES/DOEs reporting is caused mainly because of the methods involved. Research
estimates are mostly based on head-count of those who stopped coming to have school,
whereas the MOE/DOEs estimates are usually derived using two years enrolment and
one years repeater. It seems that the methods used by the MOES/DOE are continuously
over reporting the proportion of school dropouts. This study hence suggests testing and
verifying the method being used by the MOES/DOE since last two decades.
Students enrolled in the primary section are found mostly heterogeneous with regard to
their ethnicity, and the girls enrolment was astounding in all schools. Students belonging
15
to rather poor and working class families were in abundance in the public schools. The
common explanation to this phenomenon is that children of the affordable family go to
nearby private schools. This may, for some reason, be a problem but is also an
opportunity to address public schools with more concerted effort than before. Because
student population in public schools that come form deprived family, special focus group
and girls have been on the rise, and they are the target groups for government
intervention. Many of the government and I/NGO programs aimed at deprived; special
focus group; and girls education adopt non-formal mode of education. The current influx
of children from the same background in public schools, however, suggest shifting the
strategy to include formal mode of education as well. The support that exists in public
schools for deprived and focus group children is far less compared to their enrolments.
School Teachers
Though the schoolteacher they were qualified were mostly untrained. It is found that
teachers have received different forms of teacher training of which many forms are not
considered as a complete training.
Descriptive analysis
School characteristics
Out of 20 sample schools, 55 percent are from urban areas and 45 percent from the rural
(Table 1). Of the 20 schools 7 (35%) were primary schools, 3 schools had up to 8
th
grade,
7 had up to 10
th
grade, and finally 3 schools had even higher secondary grades in it (Table
1). Thus, the sample represents schools from all existing structures. Of course, primary
grades are attached to all these structures.
TABLE 1: SAMPLE SCHOOL CHARACTERISTICS
School Location
11 55.0 55.0 55.0
9 45.0 45.0 100.0
20 100.0 100.0
Urban
Rural
Total
Valid
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent

Grades in School
7 35.0 35.0 35.0
3 15.0 15.0 50.0
7 35.0 35.0 85.0
3 15.0 15.0 100.0
20 100.0 100.0
1 - 5
1- 8
1 - 10
1 - 12
Total
Valid
Cumulative
Percent

The average primary enrolment in the sample is about 241 students per school with girls
enrolment slightly over 114 per school (Table 2). The girls enrolment is thus close to that
of boys. Generally speaking, average primary school enrolment in the Terai districts is
higher than in the Hills. The findings of this study also confirm that schools in the Terai
are crowded. Chitwan had over 500 and Rupandehi had over 300 students in its primary
section whereas in the Hills - in Dhankuta and Kavre the average enrolment was only 169
and 190 students respectively (Table 2). Per class student pressure is also highest in
16
Chitwan with over 76 students on average followed by Dhading with over 52 students and
Morang and Rupandehi with over 51 students per class in each (Table 2).
Mega-schools with enrolments over 500 may seem effective in terms of immediate cost
for countries like ours, it has been however widely discredited in many researches in the
west. Large schools are not only difficult to manage and control student population but
also fail to render individual attention needy students. Many studies in the west have
found the remarkable progress in achievement among students in smaller classes.
Using the results from 77 empirical studies, Smith and Glass (1978) published a meta-
analysis in 1978 and did a second follow-up analyzing the relationship between class size
and other outcomes. They found that the major benefits of reducing class size occurred
where the number of students in the class was fewer than 20. In their second study, they
concluded that small classes were superior in terms of student's reaction, teacher morale,
and the quality of the instructional environment.
In 1986, Robinson and Wittebols published a review of more than 100 relevant research
studies using related cluster analysis approach. They have documented the positive effects
of small classes especially in the primary grades. But, they have also cautioned that the
positive effects were less likely if the teachers did not change their instructional methods
and classroom procedures in smaller classes.
Using data from more than 800 districts containing more than 2.4 million students,
Ferguson (1991) found significant relationships among teacher quality, class size, and
student achievement. For first through seventh grades, using student/teacher ratio as a
measure of class size, Ferguson found that district student achievement fell as the
student/teacher ratio increased for every student above an 18 to 1 ratio.
Based on an analysis of data on fourth-graders in 203 districts and eighth-graders in 182
school districts from across the United States, Wenglinsky found that class size served as
an important link between school education spending and student mathematics
achievement at both the fourth and the eighth-grade levels.
The Tennessees project STAR, one of the intensive as well as extensive researches, has
showed that the students in smaller classes outperformed students in the larger classes.
The Project STAR found that:
Smaller class students substantially out-performed larger class students on both
standardized and curriculum based tests. The study also found that the positive
achievement effect of smaller classes on minority students was double than that for the
majority of students.
Small classes represent a preventive, rather than a remedial approach. Time on task,
individualized instruction, well behaved class, and teacher satisfaction, discipline- classes
are less disruptive, and grade retention- passed the grades with wider range of scores.
The common assumption is that smaller classes allow teachers to increase the time
devoted to each student, either individually or in smaller groups, and thereby improve
quality of the students education.
However, class size reduction require not only considerable amount of funds but also its
implementation sizable impact on the availability of qualified teachers. Whether or not
governments can afford to reduce class size, it has been mostly agreed that small classes
produce a considerable impact on student performance in schools.
The Education Act (7
th
amendment) has stipulated a normal class size for the Mountains,
Hills, and Terai districts as 35, 45, and 50 respectively. By including this ratio in the
17
education Act, government has indeed shown its concern for regulating class size in
schools. Ironically, the ratio is more influenced by the availability of students in these
regions rather than optimizing their learning achievements. Lowering class size in the
mountains is triggered by the fact that settlements are much scattered, and the region is
sparsely populated. Increasing class size in the mountains would end up closing numerous
schools that are running with only few students. In the Terai and in the Valley the case is
entirely different. Quite a number of schools in this region exceed the ratio of 50 per
class. In all three Terai districts in our sample class size exceeds 50 students mark. Even
with the current ratio there is already a need of more schools or classes. Lowering the
class size in this region would require lot more than what is already needed.
The current policy of the government on class size is merely guided by the strategies for
accommodating as many students in the case of Terai districts and just barely running
schools in the mountains. Nevertheless, the need of critical research on appropriate class
size for Nepal is clearly demonstrated. The class size or the student teacher ratios also
needs to be justified on the grounds of student achievement. As we have learned from the
literature that student achievement is contingent upon not just one thing but many thing
and that class size could be the predominant one.
TABLE 2: SUMMARY OF SAMPLE DISTRICTS
Case Summaries
Mean
6.50 4.83 169.33 86.17 3031.29 326.97 32.20 26.37 9.41
6.50 3.50 288.00 103.00 951.27 20.00 51.62 44.14 4.33
9.00 2.00 536.00 276.00 776.97 .00 76.57 59.56 3.80
8.50 7.00 329.50 152.50 2453.28 262.08 51.20 38.67 5.07
4.00 3.00 260.50 115.50 1779.21 199.74 52.10 81.25 3.90
9.50 7.50 291.50 144.00 3761.34 79.00 43.95 30.23 4.64
5.00 1.60 189.60 91.00 1706.47 112.05 35.26 40.03 6.06
6.50 4.05 241.95 114.47 2269.36 182.19 42.19 40.33 6.32
District Name
Dhankuta
Morang
Chitwan
Rupandehi
Dhading
Kathmandu
Kavre
Total
P
r
i
m
a
r
y

T
e
a
c
h
e
r
s
P
r
i
m
a
r
y

F
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e
T
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s
P
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m
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r
y

E
n
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l
m
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n
t
P
r
i
m
a
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y

G
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A
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p
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N
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A
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p
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S
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l
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P
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y

S
t
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T
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e

(
S
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t

In Table 2, student/teacher ratio is found highest in Dhading with over 81 students per
teacher followed by Chitwan with almost 60 students per teacher. It is lowest in
Kathmandu with only 30 students per teacher followed by Dhankuta with slightly over 26
students per teacher. As per the 7
th
amendment act, student teacher ratio for hills, and in
the valley and Terai district is 45 and 50 students respectively. Schools with higher ratio
than the above can run another section with the permission of the SMC. In our sample,
while teachers in Dhading and Chitwan are over burdened, teachers in other districts are
relatively better with lesser students to be served.
Per student expenditure is also highest in Kathmandu with over Rs 3,800 per student per
year followed by Dhankuta with over Rs 3,350 (Table 2). Most of this (over 90 percent)
expenditure goes to the teachers salaries. Apparently, the student teacher ratio is also the
lowest in these two districts. On average, schools in the Terai have bagged more primary
school teachers compared to the Hills. However, in terms of student/teacher ratios it is
just the opposite. Thus the relationship between per student spending and student/teacher
ratio is clearly demonstrated. The distribution of female teachers across the districts is
fairly high except in Kavre and Chitwan. In Rupandehi, over 80 percent of primary school
teachers were female.
18
Across school
Data at the school level also confirms that primary school enrolment in Terai schools is
higher than in the Hills. The ratio of girls enrolment is almost same across the schools
and corresponds with the district pattern.
Per student expenditure on average was about Rs. 2,270 per year. Out of which, over 90
percent is spent on administrative costs mostly the teacher salary.
The 7
th
amendment has encouraged schools to spend more on non-administrative
activities by including percentage of non-administrative spending as one of the criteria to
qualify in A category school. However, the current scenario is hopeless with over 90
percent being spent on administrative cost. Moreover, the current student-teacher ratio
mostly in the Terai districts is high. The current level of spending on teacher salaries is
inadequate meaning more would have been spent on administrative costs, had there
enough resource available.
Across schools, per student expenditure in Gokundeswor Secondary School in Dhankuta
was found highest with Rs. 4580 spent per year. Schools were in Chitwan on the other
hand found to be the lowest with only Rs. 777 (the financial data though seems to have
been under reported) spent per year per student (Table 3). Excluding these two schools
would yield a cost of about NRs 2500 per student per year.
TABLE 3: SUMMARY BY SCHOOLS

School Code
P
r
i
m
a
r
y

T
e
a
c
h
e
r
s

P
r
i
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a
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y

F
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e

T
e
a
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r
s

P
r
i
m
a
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y

E
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m
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t

A
d
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t
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E
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p
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S
t
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N
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A
d
m
i
n
i
s
t
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a
t
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v
e

E
x
p
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t
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r
e

p
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S
t
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d
e
n
t

P
r
i
m
a
r
y

S
t
u
d
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n
t

p
e
r

C
l
a
s
s

P
r
i
m
a
r
y

S
t
u
d
e
n
t

p
e
r

T
e
a
c
h
e
r

S
p
a
c
e

(
S
q

f
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t
)

p
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r

S
t
u
d
e
n
t

2001 9 7 170 4466.2 319.7 34.0 18.9 9.4
2003 5 4 183 2852.7 185.3 36.6 36.6 8.2
2004 10 7 300 1103.0 105.1 50.0 30.0 7.2
2006 4 4 111 2958.7 450.3 22.2 27.8 10.1
2009 5 4 90 3807.1 55.6 18.0 18.0 14.9
2010 6 3 162 3000.0 845.9 32.4 27.0 6.7
3001 5 3 217 1818.4 18.9 43.4 43.4 3.5
3003 8 4 359 84.2 21.1 59.8 44.9 5.2
6001 7 2 224 2617.2 255.7 37.3 32.0 4.1
6006 5 0 205 1004.1 163.6 41.0 41.0 3.2
6010 5 0 228 1480.9 65.8 45.6 45.6 4.4
6011 3 3 175 1869.9 32.9 29.2 58.3 4.8
6012 5 3 116 1560.3 42.2 23.2 23.2 13.8
9001 10 8 389 2879.3 115.3 55.6 38.9 2.8
9003 9 7 194 4643.4 42.7 32.3 21.6 6.4
11009 9 2 536 777.0 0.0 76.6 59.6 3.8
16002 7 6 267 2526.4 205.1 53.4 38.1 5.2
16010 10 8 392 2380.1 319.1 49.0 39.2 4.9
23006 6 4 294 1656.0 96.3 58.8 49.0 1.2
26014 2 2 227 1902.4 303.2 45.4 113.5 6.6
Total 7 4 242 2269.4 182.2 42.2 40.3 6.3
* Income and expenditure data from schools 3003 and 11009 seems underreported.
19
Student characteristics
Students data includes those enrolled in grade 1, 3, and 5. From all 20 sampled schools
three years: 1999-2001, student data have been collected. The student data consists of
students ethnicity, age, gender, and achievement score in Math, Social Studies, and
Nepali, and enrolment and attendance status. There are altogether 8099 students data
studied for this analysis. Some of the students, however, appear repeatedly in the analysis
of overall student characteristics.
Caste group
Student enrolment in the public schools over the last three years has substantially
increased. The participation of girls from deprived and poor income families has been
tremendous. In the table below, different castes are divided into 7 groups: Brahmin,
Chhetri, Tharu, Religious (Sherpa, Magar, Gurung, Limbu, Rai, etc.), professional
(Newar, Kami, Damai, Sarki, etc.), Deprived (Pode, Chamar, Mushar, etc.), Muslim, and
Others.
FIGURE 1: STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS CASTE GROUP

20
TABLE 4: STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS CASTE GROUP
Grade * Caste Grouping * Year Crosstabulation
191 145 82 401 117 124 103 31 10 1204
16% 12.0% 6.8% 33.3% 9.7% 10% 8.6% 3% .8% 100.0%
167 102 64 205 70 62 71 15 4 760
22% 13.4% 8.4% 27.0% 9.2% 8.2% 9.3% 2% .5% 100.0%
143 106 51 185 50 57 88 9 3 692
21% 15.3% 7.4% 26.7% 7.2% 8.2% 13% 1% .4% 100.0%
501 353 197 791 237 243 262 55 17 2656
19% 13.3% 7.4% 29.8% 8.9% 9.1% 9.9% 2% .6% 100.0%
166 123 89 340 117 126 92 39 28 1120
15% 11.0% 7.9% 30.4% 10% 11% 8.2% 3% 3% 100.0%
141 122 56 250 60 77 67 18 6 797
18% 15.3% 7.0% 31.4% 7.5% 9.7% 8.4% 2% .8% 100.0%
139 109 34 234 63 49 76 14 4 722
19% 15.1% 4.7% 32.4% 8.7% 6.8% 11% 2% .6% 100.0%
446 354 179 824 240 252 235 71 38 2639
17% 13.4% 6.8% 31.2% 9.1% 9.5% 8.9% 3% 1% 100.0%
156 127 67 358 111 158 79 31 18 1105
14% 11.5% 6.1% 32.4% 10% 14% 7.1% 3% 2% 100.0%
156 104 90 267 71 80 61 26 8 863
18% 12.1% 10.4% 30.9% 8.2% 9.3% 7.1% 3% .9% 100.0%
160 118 54 239 69 65 86 15 2 808
20% 14.6% 6.7% 29.6% 8.5% 8.0% 11% 2% .2% 100.0%
472 349 211 864 251 303 226 72 28 2776
17% 12.6% 7.6% 31.1% 9.0% 11% 8.1% 3% 1% 100.0%
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
1
3
5 G
r
a
d
e
T
o
t
a
l
1
3
5 G
r
a
d
e
T
o
t
a
l
1
3
5 G
r
a
d
e
T
o
t
a
l
Y
e
a
r
1
9
9
9
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
B
r
a
h
m
i
n
C
h
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e
t
r
i
T
h
a
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g
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o
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s
O
c
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p
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
D
a
l
i
t
N
e
w
a
r
M
u
s
a
l
m
a
n
O
t
h
e
r
s
Caste Grouping
T
o
t
a
l

The table above (Table 4) indicates fairly uniform distribution of student across the grade,
year and caste groups. Students from deprived, professional, religious, and the Ddalit
groups have been relatively high in almost all grades and in all three years. The ethnic
groups (Tamang, Magar, Gurung, Rai, Limbu, Sherpa etc.) have outnumbered all other
groups with over 31 percent of the total enrolment followed by Brahmin and the Dalits
with over 17 and 11 percents respectively (Table 4).
Male and female student across the caste group is also uniform and that girls enrolment
is either equal or higher than male students in each caste groups in all three years.
This suggests that students from the deprived and lower caste groups are on the rise in the
public schools.
21
Age group
Students age group varies from below 5 to over 12 years even in grade 1 (Figure 2). As
mentioned earlier, in most of the schools students in grade 1 are divided into two sections
but in this analysis we have considered all of them as grade 1 students regardless in which
section they are.
FIGURE 2: STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS AGE GROUP

Students enrolled in year 1999 were mostly mature with relatively higher ages in all
grades including in grade 1. In the year 2001, however, there is a remarkable increase in
student enrollment that is below the age of 6 especially in grade 1 (Figure 2). It is true
that correct age (age 6) student in grade 1 has also increased significantly in the year
2001. This may be because of the government policy of minimum age to enroll in grade
1. It seems that school did not pay much attention to students age before. Similarly, the
influx of under age children in grade 1 will eventually repeat the same grade next year.

22
There has been a satisfactory increase of student enrolment with appropriate ages in each
grade over the past three years. This may also be a sign of increasing number of
promotees and declining repeaters. The table and charts below (Table 5 and Figure 3)
indicate a considerable increase in the proportion of new entrants over the past three
years. Similarly, quite a significant change is observed in promotion rates in grades 3 and
5 over the same period. The promotion rate in grade 1 is also in progress but is rather
slow.
TABLE 5: STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS: ENROLLMENT STATUS
Grade * Enrolment Status * Year Crosstabulation
310 62 2 32 406
76.4% 15.3% .5% 7.9% 100.0%
9 20 17 316 362
2.5% 5.5% 4.7% 87.3% 100.0%
13 18 8 300 339
3.8% 5.3% 2.4% 88.5% 100.0%
332 100 27 648 1107
30.0% 9.0% 2.4% 58.5% 100.0%
379 71 45 495
76.6% 14.3% 9.1% 100.0%
13 20 8 377 418
3.1% 4.8% 1.9% 90.2% 100.0%
3 27 10 403 443
.7% 6.1% 2.3% 91.0% 100.0%
395 118 18 825 1356
29.1% 8.7% 1.3% 60.8% 100.0%
460 194 7 104 765
60.1% 25.4% .9% 13.6% 100.0%
53 53 27 592 725
7.3% 7.3% 3.7% 81.7% 100.0%
55 40 9 597 701
7.8% 5.7% 1.3% 85.2% 100.0%
568 287 43 1293 2191
25.9% 13.1% 2.0% 59.0% 100.0%
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
1
3
5 G
r
a
d
e
T
o
t
a
l
1
3
5 G
r
a
d
e
T
o
t
a
l
1
3
5 G
r
a
d
e
T
o
t
a
l
Y
e
a
r
1
9
9
9
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
N
e
w
E
n
t
r
a
n
t
R
e
p
e
a
t
e
r
T
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
r
e
d
P
r
o
m
o
t
e
d
Enrolment Status
T
o
t
a
l

23
FIGURE 3: STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS ENROLMENT AND ATTENDANCE STATUS

24
TABLE 6: STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS ATTENDANCE
Grade * Attendance Status * Year Crosstabulation
118 165 9 18 310
38.1% 53.2% 2.9% 5.8% 100.0%
98 31 16 17 162
60.5% 19.1% 9.9% 10.5% 100.0%
87 56 1 9 153
56.9% 36.6% .7% 5.9% 100.0%
303 252 26 44 625
48.5% 40.3% 4.2% 7.0% 100.0%
66 97 3 17 183
36.1% 53.0% 1.6% 9.3% 100.0%
241 56 10 7 314
76.8% 17.8% 3.2% 2.2% 100.0%
108 64 8 8 188
57.4% 34.0% 4.3% 4.3% 100.0%
415 217 21 32 685
60.6% 31.7% 3.1% 4.7% 100.0%
555 312 8 32 907
61.2% 34.4% .9% 3.5% 100.0%
445 184 27 10 666
66.8% 27.6% 4.1% 1.5% 100.0%
486 194 16 27 723
67.2% 26.8% 2.2% 3.7% 100.0%
1486 690 51 69 2296
64.7% 30.1% 2.2% 3.0% 100.0%
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
Count
% within Grade
1
3
5
Grade
Total
1
3
5
Grade
Total
1
3
5
Grade
Total
Year
1999
2000
2001
C
o
n
t
i
n
u
i
n
g
S
t
u
d
e
n
t
I
r
r
e
g
u
l
a
r
T
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
r
e
d
O
u
t
D
r
o
p

O
u
t
Attendance Status
T
o
t
a
l

As the numbers of new entrant have increased over the years so is the number of repeaters
in grade 1 (Figure 3). These repeaters are not those who have failed in grade 1 but rather
those who have passed section A or B of the same grade last year. Since schools did not
have the mandate to formally enroll as preschool they had to maintain certain student
teacher ratios in order to retain the desired number of schoolteachers. These preschool
(underage kids) were also counted as primary enrolment, and most of them had to repeat
because of their underage. The proportion of these so called repeaters in grade 1 has
been on the rise over the last three years. In grades 3 and 5, the proportion of the same is
only marginal, and it also corresponds with the MOES/DOEs publications.
Among students who have enrolled and are in school, a remarkable change over the past
three years can be seen in their attendance status. A majority of students in grade 1 in
1999 were irregular with their daily attendance below 75 percent in the month of
Poush/Magh. In the year 2001, the proportion of regular students with over 75 percent
daily attendance has increased substantially from 38 percent in 1999, to over 61 percent
in 2001. The trend of continuing students with higher attendance rates in all three grades
25
(1,3, and 5) is on the rise whereas the proportions of irregular students are declining
gradually (Figure 3).
Student promotion, repetition and dropout
The number of dropout students though existed some in 1999 became almost extinct with
only a few in 2001 (Table 6). In the sample schools, estimate of primary school dropout
in 1999 was 7 percent that fell sharply to 3 percent by the year 2001. However,
MOES/DOE has been consistently reporting rather astounding rates of dropout in the
primary and especially for grade 1. Until two years back dropout in grade 1 was as high
as 22-24 percent. It is only lately (last year and year before) that the MOES/DOE has
reported somewhat lower rates for primary dropout about 19 percent in grade 1. The
method being used by the MOES/DOE in estimating dropout is still the same old model
that was developed some 20 years ago by UNESCO. In the model, dropout population is
derived using two years enrolment and one years repetition data. This method is quite
effective when data collection from each school is difficult and the headcount is not
possible. The disadvantage of this model is that it ignores new entrant in grades other than
one. The fact is that students do enter as new entrants in almost every grade in public
schools. This phenomenon in the primary is even more frequent. In this study, it has been
found that only slightly over 25 percent of the total enrolments in grade 1 were new
entrants. In grade 3 there were over 7 percent, and in grade 5 about 6 percent of the total
enrolments were new entrants. But in the model, by default, all new entrants in grades
two and above are counted as promotees. The model therefore should instead produce
lower dropout and repetition rates.
The explanation for this situation possibly lies somewhere in the data quality the
enrolment data itself. Poor record keeping system in schools is mostly attributable for the
inconsistency that is found in education data. The other aspect with regard to dropout data
is that the MOES/DOE collect data on dropout, repetition and promotion from each
school annually but at the time of publication they use the same old method to estimate
dropout population. The dropout figures submitted by schools and compiled at the district
education offices are rarely used or revealed. Therefore, there is enough room to believe
that the data on promotion, repetition and dropout is not reliable or the method used
produces unbelievable figures. When the number of new entrant exceeds the number of
dropouts, the model will produce negative dropout rates. As is indicated earlier, on
average about 6 7 percent of the total enrolments in primary grades (2 through 5) are
new entrants.
The proportion of repeaters in grade 1, out of total enrolment in the same grade, was only
15 percent in 1999, which has increased to 25.4 percent by 2001. Repeaters in grade 3
and 5 during the same periods have remained almost unchanged with only 6 to 7 percent
(Table 5). Promotion rate, on the other hand, was only 8 percent in 1999, which has
increased to over 13 percent in 2001 in grade 1. Similarly, the proportion of the new
entrants in grade 1 has dropped from 76.4 percent in 1999 to 60.1 percent in 2001 (Table
5). Thus, a fall in the proportion of new entrants, an increase in repeaters, and an increase
in the proportion of promotees in grade 1 during the same periods indicate apparent
anomalies in the data quality. Public schools do not have the government commitment to
run pre-primary schools, though many have junior sections attached to grade 1. There are
possible anomalies in education data in order to recoup resources form the government to
run the additional section in the school. Hence, the data showing increase in the
proportion of promotees and repeaters in grade 1 could be associated with it.
26

FIGURE 4: REPEATING STUDENTS IN GRADE 1

Among ethnic groups, there is almost uniform increase in the proportion of repeaters in
grade 1 during 1999 2001 periods (Figure 4). However, there were no repeaters among
Tharu ethnic group until year 2001. Among repeaters, students were more mature in
grade 1 in the year 1999. Normally, repeating students lose their correct age status hence
1999 data seems quite reasonable. In the year 2001, however, the proportion of under age
student repeating in grade 1 has increased substantially. Of the total repeaters in grade 1
in 2001, about 41 percent was underage (6 year and below). The proportion of promotees
does not indicate any significant pattern across the ethnic groups and age categories.
Promotion, repetition and dropout (PRD) rates are the predominant indicators of internal
efficiency of an education system. Lack of reliable data and use of inappropriate methods
both attribute the inconsistency that exists in education statistics reported by the
MOES/DOE especially on PRD data. It is not only this research that has revealed a low
dropout rate but several other researchers have also indicated similarly low rates. For
example, the NMIS report has revealed dropout rates as low as 2 percent in the primary
level. Hence, it is high time to conduct serious study to figure out the real dropout
population and to regulate the dropout statistics with due care. It has been observed
among sample schools that they do not keep any records of dropout student. Information
of dropout student depends mostly on class teachers recollection. In schools with small
population this may work well but in larger schools this may not be helpful. Similarly,
teachers frequent turnover might also influence significantly.
While it is believed that most of the out-of-school children in Nepal belong to the hard-
core population i.e., associated with economic and/or social hardships, there is no
information as to how many of them have never attended schools. Considering the
extremely high gross enrollment and high dropout rates especially in grade 1, it can be
assumed that many of the out-of school population might have attended school at one pint
of time and that they could have dropped out for some reason. If this is the case, we might
need to look at the factors associated with school dropouts more critically.
Girls enrolment
Girls enrolment in public schools is also on the rise over the past three years in all three
grades. In 2001 girls enrollment has outnumbered boys in grade1, while in 3 and 5 their
numbers is close to that of boys. Girls enrolment is one of the indicators of school
effectiveness taken for this study. Girls participation in education has been rather slow
27
compared to the boys in the past. Over the past three years, however, not only the
numbers of students enrolled in primary have increased but also the gap that existed
between girls and boys enrolment has shrunk substantially. Most importantly, numbers
of girls in higher grades have also increased substantially, which is an indicator of
increasing promotion and declining drop out rates among girls in the primary section.
The charts and table below (Figure 5 and Table 7), indicate fairly uniform distribution of
girl student in primary grades and that they have also come from wide range of ethnic
backgrounds like boys. Population of the ethnic groups followed by the Brahmins has
been dominating in all three years enrolment. Chhetris population on the other hand has
remained lowest in all three grades during the same period. Age of girl students is also
not much different from boys. A remarkable shift in the age structure of student in the
primary can be seen over the past three years: under age students are increasing rapidly
especially in grade 1. In the higher grades, on the other hand, students are more mature
and apparently have repeated at least once in the primary grade. However, the ratio of girl
student in all age groups is equal with that of boys.
FIGURE 5: ENROLMENT BY GENDER

FIGURE: 6: ENROLMENT BY GENDER AND CASTE

28
TABLE 7: ENROLMENT BY GENDER AND CASTE GROUP
Gender * Caste Grouping * Year
Count
252 174 99 422 113 136 112 37 7 1352
249 179 98 369 124 107 150 18 10 1304
501 353 197 791 237 243 262 55 17 2656
221 185 103 458 112 146 109 54 17 1405
225 169 76 366 128 106 126 17 21 1234
446 354 179 824 240 252 235 71 38 2639
221 172 119 444 96 171 109 48 16 1396
254 182 93 432 155 132 124 24 12 1408
475 354 212 876 251 303 233 72 28 2804
Male
Female
Gender
Total
Male
Female
Gender
Total
Male
Female
Gender
Total
Year
1999
2000
2001
Br
ah
mi
n
C
hh
etr
Th
ar
u
R
eli
gi
ou
O
cc
up
ati
on
l
D
ali
N
e
w
M
us
al
m
Ot
he
rs
Caste
To
tal

FIGURE 7: ENROLMENT BY AGE AND GENDER AND GRADE
Year=1999, Grade=1
Gender
Female Male
C
o
u
n
t
200
100
0
Student Age Group
Below 6 Year
6 Year
7 Year
8 Year
9 year
10 Year
11 Year
12 Year
13 Year and Above

29

FIGURE 8: ATTENDANCE STATUS BY GENDER IN GRADE 1

A noticeable change in student attendance has been recorded in this study: a majority of
students in 1999 were mostly irregular and by the year 2001 have mostly become regular
especially in grade 1 (Figure 8). Girls' daily attendance in schools has largely remained
lower compared to boys in the past three years. The lower attendance rate of girls in
school can be attributed to existing culture that require girls time more at home than the
boys'. Interestingly, however, girls dropout rate, despite of their low daily attendance in
school, has also remained lower than boys in all three years. Thus, girls are in better
situation than boys in schools due to their increasing numbers as well as retention. This is
indeed a positive sign for girls educational development provided that their daily
attendance in school is increased.
Student achievement
Every school conducts internal test or examination annually as well as half-yearly.
Student in each grades are evaluated on each subject that is taught in the school annually
and bi-annually. The annual examination scores of student also determine whether or not
s/he is going to the next grade the following year. Scoring method varies from one teacher
to another and from one school to another. A multiplicity of factors could be associated
with students achievement. However, since final score of the internal test determines
students overall success or failure in specific grades, this test scores have been taken as a
measure of student achievement in this study.
30
Average test scores
Students average test score (in Math, Social Studies) is on a gradual improvement but
not to the satisfactory levels yet. In grade 1, while the proportion of students receiving
below 30 percent has remained almost unchanged over three years, the proportion of
those scoring 30-50 percent has moved to higher score groups in the same period (Figure
9). The possible reason for this large number of students scoring low in grade 1 could be
associated with the under age children. Importantly, the trend is moving towards better
score groups over the past three years. In grades 3 and 5 however the trend is slightly
more negative than positive. Numbers of student scoring poorly have been increasing and
those scoring better are declining over the past three years.
FIGURE 9: AVERAGE TEST SCORE

An increase in the numbers of student is fairly distributed across the three achievement
categories and regardless of their caste students have scored evenly. Thus, students' score
by their cast group does not indicate any significant pattern suggesting that caste is not an
important correlate of student achievement.
31
FIGURE 10: AVERAGE SCORE BELOW 30 PERCENT FIGURE 11:AVERAGE SCORE ABOVE 70 PERCENT

In grade 1, the number of students scoring below 30 percent on average in three subjects
of Math, Nepali and Social Studies have increased consistently from 1999 to 2001 in all
caste categories (Figure 10). Though marginally, the numbers of student scoring above 71
percent have also increased during the same period (Figure 11). A more noticeably
change is seen among ethnic and Occupational caste categories with quite substantial
increase in the proportion. Similarly, Dalit, Chhetri and Brahmin caste categories have
also shown some progress. However, none of the Tharu caste population scored above 71
percent on average in the three subjects: Math, Nepali, and Social Studies.
The pattern of achievement scores in individual subjects, i.e., Math, Nepali, and Social
Studies is not significant +at least in this study.
Teacher characteristics
Most of primary school teachers were found both qualified and trained. For the primary
grade required minimum qualification SLS pass or equivalent. In the sample schools (20
schools) there were altogether 161 primary teachers. Of which, only 4 (2.5%) teachers
were under SLC. These under SLC teachers were mostly recruited as support staff to
teach in one of the sections in grade 1 and sometimes to look after administrative and
clerical works in school. But because of insufficient teachers in school they were also
temporarily given the teaching job. Of 4 under SLC teachers, only one was female
teacher. In general, both male and female teacher were found to have almost equal status
in terms of educational attainment. Female teachers were slightly more qualified than
their male counterparts. Nevertheless, it is important to note that over 55 percent of the
primary teachers have qualification in only SLC and below. About 45 percent of the
primary teachers have higher qualification than SLC (Figure 12 and Table 8). This is
indeed a positive gesture towards quality education. However, the general trend among
primary teachers with higher qualification is that they look for opportunity to teach in
higher levels. This is mostly because there is no extra incentive for teachers with higher
qualification.
32
FIGURE 12: TEACHERS QUALIFICATION FIGURE 13: TEACHERS TRAINING STATUS

Of the total primary teachers only slightly over 25 percent are fully trained. Another 21
percent are semi-trained nearing to complete training packages. Some 12 percent have
received one or the other type of training. About 41 percent of the total primary teachers
are still untrained (Figure 13 and Table 8). Training status among female teachers is
somewhat promising compared to their male counterparts. Of the total female teachers in
the primary, over one-third were fully trained whereas only 16 percent of all male
teachers in the primary were fully trained.
Table 8: Teachers education and training status
Gender * Highest Education Crosstabulation
3 41 20 9 73
4.1% 56.2% 27.4% 12.3% 100.0%
1 46 31 9 87
1.1% 52.9% 35.6% 10.3% 100.0%
4 87 51 18 160
2.5% 54.4% 31.9% 11.3% 100.0%
Count
% within Gender
Count
% within Gender
Count
% within Gender
Male
Female
Gender
Total
Under SLC SLC IA/IEd Equiv BA/BEd Equiv
Highest Education
Total

Gender * Training Status Crosstabulation
12 17 10 35 74
16.2% 23.0% 13.5% 47.3% 100.0%
29 17 10 31 87
33.3% 19.5% 11.5% 35.6% 100.0%
41 34 20 66 161
25.5% 21.1% 12.4% 41.0% 100.0%
Count
% within Gender
Count
% within Gender
Count
% within Gender
Male
Female
Gender
Total
Trained Semi Training
Some
Training Untrained
Training Status
Total

Both in terms of teaching experience and years in the same school, female teachers
outnumber their male counterparts (Figure 14).
33
FIGURE 14: TEACHERS TEACHING EXPERIENCE

Among primary schoolteachers Nepali was found to the predominant mother tongue in
both gender. However, male teachers were found to have come from wide language
backgrounds whereas female teachers were confined to mainly two language backgrounds
- Nepali and Newari (Figure 15).
FIGURE 15: TEACHERS MOTHER TONGUE

Teachers daily attendance in schools and their instructional time both were found rather
unsatisfactory among quite a large number of primary school teachers. Out of 25
workdays in the month of Mangsir, nearly 40 percent of the primary school teachers
were absent (on leave) for 5 or more workdays. Between the two genders, male were
found more absent than the females. Over 68 percent of the female teachers were present
in schools for more than 20 workdays. While only 52 percent of the male were present in
schools for more than 20 workdays (Table 9, Figure 16). The instructional hours on the
other hand is shared higher among males than for the females. About 39 percent of the
male teachers were found to have 29 classes per week whereas only 15 percent of the
female teachers had 29 classes per week. Apparently, the problem is that female teachers
34
are more regular in attending school but have less classes per week to teach. Male
teachers on the other hand have more classes to teach but are frequently absent (Table 9,
Figure 16).
TABLE: 9: TEACHERS ATTENDANCE AND CLASS PER WEEK
Gender * Average Attendance Crosstabulation
2 28 33 63
3.2% 44.4% 52.4% 100.0%
3 23 55 81
3.7% 28.4% 67.9% 100.0%
5 51 88 144
3.5% 35.4% 61.1% 100.0%
Count
% within Gender
Count
% within Gender
Count
% within Gender
Male
Female
Gender
Total
Poor(<15
days)
Average
(16-20 days)
Better
(>20days)
Average Attendance
Total

Gender * Class per Week Crosstabulation
23 15 24 62
37.1% 24.2% 38.7% 100.0%
35 26 11 72
48.6% 36.1% 15.3% 100.0%
58 41 35 134
43.3% 30.6% 26.1% 100.0%
Count
% within Gender
Count
% within Gender
Count
% within Gender
Male
Female
Gender
Total
< 25 class 25-28 Class 29 Class
Class per Week
Total

FIGURE: 16: TEACHERS ATTENDANCE AND CLASS PER WEEK

35

Analysis by school
In this section, a comparison of schools is done on the basis of several indicators, i.e.,
schools physical condition, student per class, student per teacher, student per space in
school, and the average cost per student. Student achievement scores were not available
for all schools for 2001; hence schools ranking on the basis of student test scores were
obtained from the National Achievement Study. Average physical conditions of schools
were determined on the basis of 13 different responses/observations received from
schools. Each of the 13 responses was given a 3 point score 3 for having the
facility/services, in question, fully available in school. Partial availability of the services
/facility in schools were given 2 points and 1 point was given to schools that did not have
such facilities at all. Schools were then ranked based on the average score thus received
out of the 13 responses - highest scoring school receiving high ranking. Similarly, based
on average scores each of the indicators mentioned above have been ranked. Schools with
better standing were ranked high on each of the indicators. Thus, higher ranking on each
indicator would mean better conditions.
A simple descriptive analysis of schools reveals that of the 20 schools, only 5 schools had
the minimum physical facility available in school. In other words, 75 percent of the total
schools were lacking the minimum basic physical facilities in schools (Table 10).
TABLE 10: SCHOOL PHYSICAL CONDITION AND COST PER STUDENT
School's Overall Physical Rating
8 40.0 40.0 40.0
7 35.0 35.0 75.0
5 25.0 25.0 100.0
20 100.0 100.0
Poor
Moderate
Better
Total
Valid
Cumulative
Percent

Total Cost per Student
9 45.0 45.0 45.0
5 25.0 25.0 70.0
6 30.0 30.0 100.0
20 100.0 100.0
2000 and Below
2001 - 3000
3001 and above
Total
Valid
Cumulative
Percent

36
Per student cost were also found substantially different among schools ranging from
below Rs. 800 to over Rs. 4500 per student per year. Of the total public schools surveyed,
45 percent schools had per people spending below Rs. 2000 and 30 percent of schools had
spending above Rs 3000 per people per year (Table 10).
FIGURE: 17: SCHOOLS OVERALL STATUS
School's Overall Status (higher the better)
0
5
10
15
20
25
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
4
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
3
0
0
1
3
0
0
3
6
0
0
1
6
0
0
6
6
0
1
0
6
0
1
1
6
0
1
2
9
0
0
1
9
0
0
3
1
1
0
0
9
1
6
0
0
2
1
6
0
1
0
2
3
0
0
6
2
6
0
1
4
School Code
Space per Student Cost per Student Physical Condition
Student per Class Student per Teacher
The overall status of schools, as indicated in the above graph (Figure 17), reveals
somewhat proportional status to each other on a couple of indicators. The student-per-
class and student-per-teacher exhibit similar pattern across the school. Similarly, space-
per-student and cost-per-student also has the same trend with slight deviation in some
cases. This greater association between variables may have been caused by the fact that
the number of student is the sole determinant in cases student per teacher and per class
ratios whereas the cost is the determinant of expenditure and space per student.
Among other things, schools physical condition does not seem to have any explicit
relationship with other indicators. Whereas, space-per-student and student-per-teacher are
all somewhat skewed toward cost per student. A correlation coefficient of all these
indicators would give a much better idea. Hence, spearmans correlation is conducted.

37
TABLE 11: SPEARMANS RANK CORRELATION - 1
Correlations - Spearman's rho
1.000 .131 .354 .011 -.269 .156
. .581 .126 .965 .252 .511
.131 1.000 -.591** .459* .639** .678**
.581 . .006 .042 .002 .001
.354 -.591** 1.000 -.194 -.651** -.388
.126 .006 . .413 .002 .091
.011 .459* -.194 1.000 .594** .672**
.965 .042 .413 . .006 .001
-.269 .639** -.651** .594** 1.000 .629**
.252 .002 .002 .006 . .003
.156 .678** -.388 .672** .629** 1.000
.511 .001 .091 .001 .003 .
Correlation Coefficient
Sig. (2-tailed)
Sig. (2-tailed)
Sig. (2-tailed)
Sig. (2-tailed)
Sig. (2-tailed)
Sig. (2-tailed)
RANK of
PHYCOND2
RANK of
SPCPSTD
RANK of
GRLPCLAS
RANK of
COSTPSTD
RANK of
STDPCLAS
RANK of
STDPTCH
R
A
N
K

o
f
P
H
Y
C
O
N
D
2
R
A
N
K

o
f
S
P
C
P
S
T
D
R
A
N
K

o
f
G
R
L
P
C
L
A
S
R
A
N
K

o
f
C
O
S
T
P
S
T
D
R
A
N
K

o
f
S
T
D
P
C
L
A
S
R
A
N
K

o
f
S
T
D
P
T
C
H
Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).
**.
Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed).
*.

The correlation coefficient of school indicators reveals no relationship of schools
physical condition with other indicators. Although it is statistically not significant, girl
student per class has the highest correlation coefficients (r = 0.354) indicating that girls
enrollment is higher in schools with better physical conditions (Table 11). A negative
correlation (r = -.269) between schools physical conditions and student per class has
been found. Since lower class-size (student per class) is considered better, school with
lowest student-per-class ratio is ranked highest. Thus, a negative correlation between
schools physical condition and class-size indicates that class-size also increases with the
increase in schools physical condition. There may be a loop here caused by the fact that
increase in the class-size would also mean increase in schools income through
student/parent contribution. However, student contribution in the public schools,
especially in the primary sections is so trivial that it could hardly make any significant
impact on schools physical condition. This may have been true but due to the poor
quality of financial data from schools such investigation has been postponed.
A statistically significant and strong negative correlation (-.591) between girls class size
and per-student-space in school is found. This indicates that classes are mostly crowded
in schools with high girls enrollment in other words, per-student-space is low in
schools with higher girls enrolment. But on the other hand girl per class is negatively
correlated with student-per-class (r = -.651). The correlation is also statistically
significant at 99 percent of confidence level (Table 11). Normally, small class-size is
considered better. Hence, small class size is ranked higher. A negative correlation
between the two therefore indicates that girls enrollment is higher in schools with small
class size.
There is a strong positive correlation between space in school and costs per student (r =
.549). The correlation is statistically significant at 95 percent confidence level. Indicating
38
that cost per student is high in schools with higher space-per-student. Similarly, student-
per-class and student-per-teacher both are highly positively correlated with space-per-
student and that the correlation is statistically significant at 99 percent confidence. A
positive correlation with these two variables indicates that class-size and student-teacher
ratios both are better in schools with more space per student. Since all three indicators are
contingent upon student size, a positive correlation seems inevitable.
TABLE 12: SPEARMANS RANK CORRELATION-2
Spearmans rho (Rank Correlation)

S
c
h
o
o
l
s

P
h
y
s
i
c
a
l

C
o
n
d
i
t
i
o
n

S
p
a
c
e

p
e
r

S
t
u
d
e
n
t

G
i
r
l
s

p
e
r

C
l
a
s
s

C
o
s
t

p
e
r

S
t
u
d
e
n
t

S
t
u
d
e
n
t

p
e
r

C
l
a
s
s

S
t
u
d
e
n
t
p
e
r
T
e
a
c
h
e
r
Correlation Coefficient 0.129 0.125 0.019 0.278 0.116 0.211
Student Age Sig. (2-tailed) 0.588 0.6 0.937 0.235 0.627 0.372
Correlation Coefficient 0.081 0.079 -0.165 -0.267 0.042 0.017
New Entrant Sig. (2-tailed) 0.734 0.739 0.487 0.256 0.862 0.943
Correlation Coefficient 0.17 0.006 0.21 -0.117 0.046 -0.106
Repeater Sig. (2-tailed) 0.474 0.979 0.374 0.623 0.846 0.657
Correlation Coefficient 0.22 0.259 -0.179 0.378 0.139 0.338
Transferred In Sig. (2-tailed) 0.352 0.271 0.45 0.1 0.558 0.145
Correlation Coefficient -0.048 -0.01 -0.043 0.226 -0.042 0.109
Promoted Sig. (2-tailed) 0.84 0.967 0.856 0.337 0.861 0.647
Correlation Coefficient 0.151 0.218 0.097 0.322 0.003 0.121
Regular in School Sig. (2-tailed) 0.525 0.356 0.685 0.166 0.99 0.613
Correlation Coefficient -0.005 -0.334 0.15 -0.376 -0.061 -0.156
Irregular in School Sig. (2-tailed) 0.982 0.15 0.529 0.102 0.8 0.51
Correlation Coefficient -0.058 0.173 -0.202 0 -0.145 0.116
Transferred Out Sig. (2-tailed) 0.808 0.465 0.392 1 0.543 0.627
Correlation Coefficient -0.046 0.13 -0.301 -0.137 -0.039 0.122
Drop Out Sig. (2-tailed) 0.846 0.584 0.197 0.564 0.871 0.607
Student characteristics such as enrollment and attendance status were also correlated with
school variables. None of the variables, however, has significant correlation with each
other. Though weaker and statistically insignificant, some correlation is observed between
cost-per-student and the number of students transferred-in. Since high per-student cost is
considered better, a positive correlation of .378 indicates that the proportion of students
transferred-in is higher in schools with high per-student cost (Table 12). Similarly,
transferred-in students are more in schools that have low student-teacher ratio. In a
previous analysis, a close association between student-teacher ratio and per-student-cost
has been established. Hence, both the correlations indicate same thing: cost-per-student.
A correlation of .322 between regular attendance and per-student-cost also reveals that
the proportion of regular students is also high in schools that have high per-student cost.
A negative correlation of -.376 between irregular student and cost-per-student suggest
that the proportion of irregular students are higher in schools that have low per student
cost (Table 12). Thus, the cost-per-student stands out from this analysis as the best
predictor of student status: attendance and enrollment, and the higher the cost per student
the better is the attendance and enrolment status.
Schools physical condition has once again shown no significant correlation with either
students enrolment and attendance or with any other indicators used in this analysis. This
may have been caused by the fact that schools physical condition even among better
public schools is still rudimentary. Hence, the impact of schools physical condition on
39
student status and on the other indicators is trivial, and it is hardly possible to reveal using
statistical tools. General linear models such as univariate, multivariate and linear
regression were also conducted to examine the possible impact of schools physical
condition on student enrolment and attendance. Although none of the above yields results
that are statistically significant, some of those that predicted quite large variance have
been presented below:
TABLE 13: MULTIVARIATE TEST - 1
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable: Promoted
.638
a
7 9.112E-02 1.938 .150
6.180 1 6.180 131.451 .000
.295 2 .147 3.135 .080
3.199E-02 2 1.599E-02 .340 .718
.276 3 9.212E-02 1.960 .174
.564 12 4.701E-02
7.700 20
1.202 19
Source
Corrected Model
Intercept
SCHCOND
COSTGRUP
SCHCOND * COSTGRUP
Error
Total
Corrected Total
Type III Sum
of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
R Squared = .531 (Adjusted R Squared = .257)
a.

Dependent Variable: Repeater
3.217E-02
a
7 4.595E-03 .521 .803
.188 1 .188 21.260 .001
6.470E-03 2 3.235E-03 .367 .700
9.074E-03 2 4.537E-03 .514 .610
1.677E-02 3 5.590E-03 .634 .607
.106 12 8.819E-03
.380 20
.138 19
Source
Corrected Model
Intercept
SCHCOND
COSTGRUP
SCHCOND * COSTGRUP
Error
Total
Corrected Total
Type III Sum
of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
R Squared = .233 (Adjusted R Squared = -.214)
a.

According to the tables given above (Table 13), schools physical condition and cost-per-
student together explain over 50 percent (unadjusted) of the total variance in the
proportion of promotees across the school. Similarly, the same independent variables
explain over 20 percent (unadjusted) of the variance in the proportion of repeaters across
school. Promotion and repetition rates in the primary school have been a matter of serious
concern among educationists, policy-makers, and planners. While it is obvious that
student pass or repeat the grade because of their test scores, the enquiry in many research
however is mostly confined to the teaching, curriculum, textbooks and so forth. Schools
physical conditions have been less explored to explain why students repeat. The present
analysis, in that regard, sheds some light on the consequence of poor school condition on
students performance. Girls enrolment is one of the indicators taken in this study. The
current analysis with a positive correlation between schools physical condition and girls
enrolment reveals that the girls enrollment is higher in schools with better physical
facilities. Since the study is based only on a limited sample, any assertions thus made
would require to be verified through a nationally representing study.
Schools physical condition and cost-per-student were used to predict student
achievement scores by conducting a multivariate analysis. At this time quite significant
results were obtained.

40
Multivariate Tests
c
1.00 515.20
a
4.00 9.00 .00
.00 515.20
a
4.00 9.00 .00
228.98 515.20
a
4.00 9.00 .00
228.98 515.20
a
4.00 9.00 .00
1.09 2.98 8.00 20.00 .02
.16 3.36
a
8.00 18.00 .02
3.68 3.68 8.00 16.00 .01
3.19 7.98
b
4.00 10.00 .00
.91 2.09 8.00 20.00 .09
.10 4.70
a
8.00 18.00 .00
8.41 8.41 8.00 16.00 .00
8.39 20.98
b
4.00 10.00 .00
1.02 1.42 12.00 33.00 .21
.21 1.60 12.00 24.10 .16
2.68 1.71 12.00 23.00 .13
2.27 6.23
b
4.00 11.00 .01
Pillai's Trace
Wilks' Lambda
Hotelling's Trace
Roy's Largest Root
Pillai's Trace
Wilks' Lambda
Hotelling's Trace
Roy's Largest Root
Pillai's Trace
Wilks' Lambda
Hotelling's Trace
Roy's Largest Root
Pillai's Trace
Wilks' Lambda
Hotelling's Trace
Roy's Largest Root
Effect
Intercept
SCHCOND
COSTGRUP
SCHCOND *
COSTGRUP
Value F Hypothesis df Error df Sig.
Exact statistic
a.
The statistic is an upper bound on F that yields a lower bound on the significance level.
b.
Design: Intercept+SCHCOND+COSTGRUP+SCHCOND * COSTGRUP
c.

In order to conduct multivariate analysis, a mean score of students achievement, i.e. in
Math, Social Studies, and Nepali in grade-one in the year 2000 were determined for each
school. Similarly, an overall score including all three subjects were also determined for
each school. While it is true that the average score eliminates within school and within
classroom discrepancy, the large size of student population does help to minimize
extreme variation. The multivariate model with two independent variables, i.e., schools
physical condition and the cost-per-student were not only statistically significant across
all categories but also predicted substantially large difference among each category.

41
1255.36
a
7.00 179.34 6.54 .00
1577.68
b
7.00 225.38 7.45 .00
1692.79
c
7.00 241.83 6.37 .00
1455.18
d
7.00 207.88 12.01 .00
33607.89 1.00 33607.89 1226 .00
35800.07 1.00 35800.07 1183 .00
43161.25 1.00 43161.25 1137 .00
37073.12 1.00 37073.12 2141 .00
220.72 2.00 110.36 4.03 .05
370.26 2.00 185.13 6.12 .01
285.02 2.00 142.51 3.76 .05
279.63 2.00 139.81 8.07 .01
705.65 2.00 352.83 12.87 .00
1168.72 2.00 584.36 19.31 .00
1493.35 2.00 746.68 19.68 .00
1107.88 2.00 553.94 31.99 .00
598.84 3.00 199.61 7.28 .00
212.49 3.00 70.83 2.34 .12
332.14 3.00 110.71 2.92 .08
336.19 3.00 112.06 6.47 .01
328.95 12.00 27.41
363.07 12.00 30.26
455.33 12.00 37.94
207.78 12.00 17.32
38727.89 20.00
41119.70 20.00
48786.60 20.00
42144.96 20.00
1584.31 19.00
1940.75 19.00
2148.12 19.00
1662.96 19.00
Dependent Variable
Average Score in Math
Average Score in Social
Studies
Average Score in Nepali
Overall Average Score
Studies
Studies
Studies
Studies
Studies
Studies
Studies
Source
Corrected
Model
Intercept
SCHCOND
COSTGRUP
SCHCOND *
COSTGRUP
Error
Total
Corrected
Total
Type III Sum
of Squares df
Mean
Square F Sig.
a.
b.
c.
d.

The model predicted almost or over 80 percent (unadjusted) of the variance in score in
each subject (Table 15). Indicating that the mean score difference across three groups in
independent variables is significant. Hence, a post-hoc test was also conducted to
determine which two groups differ the most. The post-hoc result indicated a significant
difference in Math score between schools with poor and moderate physical facilities. The
mean score in Social Studies and Nepali was not significantly different across the school.
The overall average mean score across the school was however significantly different
42
between poor and moderate, and between moderate and better categories in terms of
physical facility available in school.
TABLE 16: MULTIVARIATE POST-HOC COMPARISON - 1
Multiple Comparisons
Tukey HSD
8.09* 2.71 .03 .86 15.32
1.45 2.98 .88 -6.52 9.41
-8.09* 2.71 .03 -15.32 -.86
-6.64 3.07 .12 -14.82 1.54
-1.45 2.98 .88 -9.41 6.52
6.64 3.07 .12 -1.54 14.82
6.79 2.85 .08 -.81 14.38
-1.74 3.14 .85 -10.11 6.63
-6.79 2.85 .08 -14.38 .81
-8.53 3.22 .05 -17.12 .07
1.74 3.14 .85 -6.63 10.11
8.53 3.22 .05 -.07 17.12
5.69 3.19 .22 -2.81 14.20
-.48 3.51 .99 -9.85 8.89
-5.69 3.19 .22 -14.20 2.81
-6.17 3.61 .24 -15.79 3.45
.48 3.51 .99 -8.89 9.85
6.17 3.61 .24 -3.45 15.79
7.29* 2.15 .01 1.55 13.04
-.32 2.37 .99 -6.65 6.01
-7.29* 2.15 .01 -13.04 -1.55
-7.61* 2.44 .02 -14.11 -1.11
.32 2.37 .99 -6.01 6.65
7.61* 2.44 .02 1.11 14.11
(J)
School's
Overall
Physical
Rating
Moderate
Better
Poor
Better
Poor
Moderate
Moderate
Better
Poor
Better
Poor
Moderate
Moderate
Better
Poor
Better
Poor
Moderate
Moderate
Better
Poor
Better
Poor
Moderate
(I) School's
Overall
Physical
Rating
Poor
Moderate
Better
Poor
Moderate
Better
Poor
Moderate
Better
Poor
Moderate
Better
Dependent
Variable
Average Score
in Math
Average Score
in Social
Studies
Average Score
in Nepali
Overall Average
Score
Mean
Differ
ence
(I-J)
Std.
Error Sig.
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
95% Confidence
Interval
Based on observed means.
The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
*.

Cost-per-student also yielded quite significant results. A post-hoc test revealed the group
difference in the mean score statistically significant across all categories indicating that
the cost-per-student is significantly associated with the mean difference in score in Math,
Social Studies, and Nepali. Another analysis has also revealed positive correlation (.452
at <.05) between cost-per-student and the mean score indicating higher the cost-per-
student the higher is the mean score. With the current analysis, thus, it can be confirmed
that the cost-per-student is significantly associated with students achievement score, and
that increasing per student cost would also increase student achievement in all three core
subjects.
43
TABLE 17: MULTIVARIATE POST-HOC COMPARISON - 2

Multiple Comparisons
Tukey HSD
5.62 2.92 .17 -2.17 13.41
-8.33* 2.76 .03 -15.70 -.97
-5.62 2.92 .17 -13.41 2.17
-13.95* 3.17 .00 -22.41 -5.50
8.33* 2.76 .03 .97 15.70
13.95* 3.17 .00 5.50 22.41
6.56 3.07 .12 -1.62 14.75
-12.86* 2.90 .00 -20.59 -5.12
-6.56 3.07 .12 -14.75 1.62
-19.42* 3.33 .00 -28.31 -10.53
12.86* 2.90 .00 5.12 20.59
19.42* 3.33 .00 10.53 28.31
6.06 3.44 .22 -3.11 15.22
-13.76* 3.25 .00 -22.42 -5.09
-6.06 3.44 .22 -15.22 3.11
-19.81* 3.73 .00 -29.76 -9.86
13.76* 3.25 .00 5.09 22.42
19.81* 3.73 .00 9.86 29.76
6.26* 2.32 .05 .07 12.45
-11.78* 2.19 .00 -17.63 -5.93
-6.26* 2.32 .05 -12.45 -.07
-18.04* 2.52 .00 -24.76 -11.32
11.78* 2.19 .00 5.93 17.63
18.04* 2.52 .00 11.32 24.76
(J) Total Cost per
Student
2001 - 3000
3001 and above
2000 and Below
3001 and above
2000 and Below
2001 - 3000
2001 - 3000
3001 and above
2000 and Below
3001 and above
2000 and Below
2001 - 3000
2001 - 3000
3001 and above
2000 and Below
3001 and above
2000 and Below
2001 - 3000
2001 - 3000
3001 and above
2000 and Below
3001 and above
2000 and Below
2001 - 3000
(I) Total Cost per
Student
2000 and Below
2001 - 3000
3001 and above
2000 and Below
2001 - 3000
3001 and above
2000 and Below
2001 - 3000
3001 and above
2000 and Below
2001 - 3000
3001 and above
Depende
nt
Variable
Average
Score in
Math
Average
Score in
Social
Studies
Average
Score in
Nepali
Overall
Average
Score
Mean
Differenc
e (I-J)
Std.
Error Sig.
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
95% Confidence
Interval
Based on observed means.
The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
*.

44
Chapter V
Discussion of the results
Student Enrolment
Enrolments over the past three years have been found increasing in all community
schools. The average school-size among sample schools is 241 students and the average
class-size is 42 students in the primary level. Increase in the primary enrolments is
encouraging because of the increasing participation of the girls, socially disadvantaged
and deprived populations. Nationally, girls enrolment in the primary levels in year 2000
was only 41 percent. Among sample schools girls enrolment was found over 50 percent
in the year 2001.
Similarly, enrolments across ethnic groups and especially among Religious and
Occupational groups, and the Dalits are also increasing in the community schools. Of the
total population in community schools, Religious and Occupational group have the largest
share with 40 percent enrolment. Followed by Brahmin and Chhetri 30 percent, and the
Dalits - 11 percent. Thus, students belonging to rather poor and working class families are
in abundance in the community schools.
While it remains ambiguous, due to the absence of empirical evidence as to what is truly
contributing and how much for such increment in student enrolment, a common sense
appeal goes to the growing awareness among families. Although questions have been
raised about insufficient and ineffective use of various targeted programs such as the
scholarships for girls, Dalits and disadvantaged population
3
, its impact on student
enrolment cannot be ignored. Similarly, the policy of female teacher in each school might
also have some impact on girls enrolment. Whatever may be the cause, increase in
student enrolment cannot be just taken triumphantly and that enrolment alone doesnt
make school effective. Increase in enrolments also demands increased public as well as
community liability. Hence, it is worth examining the correlates of increasing enrolments
with some other aspects of primary education.
Equitable resource allocation
Although some pockets still exist
4
in which despite close access to schools participation
of special focus group population is poor, the general trend of student enrolment in
community schools is encouraging with improving participation from the girls, deprived
and socially disadvantaged population. Students in community schools that come from
deprived family, special focus group and girls are also the target groups and at risk
population for many specialised government and I/NGO intervention. However, the
government and I/NGO programs aimed at deprived; special focus group; and girls
education mostly adopt the non-formal mode of education. The current influx of children
from the same background in community schools calls for shifting the strategy to include

3
A number of scholarships that includes both cash and kind are provided by the MOES each year for
special focus groups including the girls. Some of these include Rs 500 for dress and Rs. 300 for supplies,
some provide cooking oil, kerosene oil, and so forth. There are also several I/NGOs such as Save the
Children (US) that are also providing scholarships and other support for these school-going children. Also
see Study of Access to Education for Special Focus Group, CERID, 2002.
4
Study on Access to Education for Special Focus Group CERID, 2002 has identified several pockets in
which despite close access to school, participation of special focus group population is almost none.
45
formal mode of education by increasing appropriate support for community schools. The
trend among community schools is such that they are mostly catering to the needs of the
non-affordable families. For the affordable ones, there are numerous opportunity and
access to education. Apparently, they are the children of the families mostly at risk. The
support, in whatever form scholarship: cash or kind that exists in community schools
for deprived and focus group children is both insufficient and ineffective compared to
their enrolments.
5

Early enrolment and grade repetition
As the number of new entrants has increased over the years and so is the number of
repeaters in grade 1. In the year 1999, there were only 15 percent repeaters in grade 1,
which soared up to over 25 percent among sample schools in the year 2001. The
increasing number of repeaters in grade 1 is also characterized with increasing underage
enrolments in the same grade. These repeaters are seemingly not those who have failed in
grade 1 but rather those who have passed section A or B of the same grade last year.
Making two sections in grade 1 is becoming widespread among community schools. To
the school management, making two sections in grade 1 serves two purposes. Firstly, it
helps relieve community/parents pressure to enrol under age children and to filter
students with different cognitive levels into two sections. And secondly, they count
students in both sections as grade 1 student in order to maintain the desired
student/teacher ratio so that they can retain certain number of teachers in school. While
this seems logical as a survival strategy for most of the community schools and a relief
from day-care for many working family, it cannot be denied that this could be an
opportunity or a serious problem depending upon available resources and infrastructure in
schools.
Early enrolment in schools certainly improves school attendance and eventually students
achievement. However, the underage students are receiving grade 1 curriculum and
learning environment, which is quite inappropriate. We all know that community schools
in Nepal are meagrely resourced and students are barely surviving with almost any
attraction available for learning. Failing to provide sufficient and appropriate facilities for
the pre school children would only increase frustration, distraction and deviant
characteristics among students in their early ages.
Making pre-primary section as a separate tier by empowered Municipality/VDC by
giving the authority to approve pre-primary schools, the Education Act (7
th
amendment)
has indeed realised the importance of both pre-school education as well as of the role of
local authorities for the development of local education. However, the review of the Act
reveals the lack of guiding concepts as to what is an ideal pre-primary school and how it
might help improve students learning achievement. The Act doesnt explicit as to what
are the essential services and facilities that must be available in these pre-primary schools.
The third party review of the BPEP Phase-II has recommended for the minimum level of
physical facilities for primary schools and to meet those minimum requirements jointly by
the BPEP and community participation. Need of the same for the pre-primary cannot be
ruled out.

5
There is unfavorable school environment for the children from the disadvantaged community - Education
for All: Year 2000 Assessment, Nepal Country Report, EFA committee, MOES, 2000. See also Study of
Access to Education for Special Focus Group, CERID, 2002.
46
We, together with many other developing nations, have been experiencing quality trade-
off against expanding access to primary education. Much of the trade-off in the primary is
commonly observed as associated with the inability to provide the necessary resources
sufficiently, inefficiency in school management, and lack of leadership
6
. The fear is that
we might fall prey to the same outcomes as in the primary if we just think of expanding
access and ignoring the basic correlates of quality in the pre-primary education. Opening
pre-primary schools by providing just an extra teacher and a classroom would only shift
the problem momentarily from the primary sections.
As stated earlier, making two sections in grade 1 is mostly a survival strategy for many
community schools to recoup more resources from the governments basket. Enrolment
of underage students in grade 1 is thus compelling in order to survive whereas repeating
them in the same grade becomes necessary, as per the Act, due to their underage. In order
to alleviate high repetition rates in grade 1 the government is piloting in several districts a
Continuous Assessment System (CAS) also known as the liberal promotion policy. As
per the policy, everyone in grade 1 in the pilot district should go to grade 2 next year with
no one repeating the same grade anymore. This may be a quick and effective strategy to
eliminate the high repletion rates from grade1 but is obviously not in the interest of many
economically and educationally weak schools.
Recent findings from Chitwan
7
indicate a dramatic change in the strategy adopted by
community schools those who would have been considered, in other districts, as
repeaters due to their underage, are now called the dropouts in CAS districts and re-
entered in the same grade as new students for next year. Thus, opening pre-primary
schools without adequate and appropriate resources and even adopting the liberal
promotion policy would alleviate the problem only momentarily and partially, if at all. As
the root of the problem is the inadequate resource in community schools
8
strategies other
than those addressing directly into the root would only yield remedies superficially.
Class-size/teacher-student ratio
Another area that also needs critical analysis is the availability of teachers in school or the
teacher student ratio or class-size for that matter. The Act has stipulated a normal class
size for the Mountains, Hills, and Terai and Valley districts as 40, 45, and 50 respectively.
By including this ratio in the Act, the government has indeed shown its concern for
regulating the class size in schools. The Act also allows schools to open a new section
once they exceed the ratio. However, effective enforcement of these ratios has been
mostly shadowed under the governments financial constraints and political interest.
Instead of achieving the ratios, the ratio itself has been changed, time and again, to adjust
increasing student enrolments.

6
Comparing the better results among private schools it has been argued that Week school leadership,
sporadic supervision and monitoring, and inadequate equipment further constrain the teaching and
learning environment in the public schools - Nepal: Priorities and Strategies for Education Reform.
Human Development Unit, South Asia Region. The World Bank. July 2001.
7
See Study of Access to Education for Special Focus Group, CERID, 2002.
8
Recently conducted third-party review of the BPEPII program Report on a Third Party Review of
BPEP Phase-II, TEAM Consult, 2001 has reported several factors that are responsible for students better
performance in the private schools such as better school facilities and better school management, qualified
teachers and the parents ability to help. The report also suggests determining the minimum level of
facilities in the primary schools.
47
The Basic Needs Fulfillment Program 1985-2000, published by the National Planning
Commission in 1987 had set-up a target of achieving student teacher ratio of 20, 30, and
40 students per teacher in the mountain, hill and Terai districts by the year 2000. The
average student teacher ratio in the primary in 1987 was 35 with a total enrolment of
1,812,098 students. By the year 2000 there has been a two-fold increase in the primary
enrolment to 3,623,150 students. Primary school teachers, on the other hand, havent
doubled in the last 13 years. There were 51,266 primary school teachers in 1987, which
has increased to only 97,879 teachers in 2000. To meet the BNP targets a total of over
120,000 primary school teachers about 23,000 additional teachers - would have been
required. Apparently, it wasnt possible for the government to support such a huge
number of additional teachers. However, increasing the ratio of 40, 45, and 50 doesnt
support anything other than adjusting within the number of teachers currently existing.
Ironically, strict enforcement to the new ratios would not only adjust but also yield a
surplus of over 15,000 primary school teachers.
On the other hand, a different teacher student ratio of 1:30, regardless of location, is
specified for the institutionalized schools in the Act. This dual policy reflects the
governments realization of the importance of lower teacher student ratios as well as
being unable to supply additional teachers to the community schools. As we have learned
through the literature that student achievement is contingent upon not just one thing but
many thing and that class size often plays crucial role in student achievement particularly
in grades 1-3. Teacher student ratio is found highest in Dhading with over 81 students
per teacher followed by Chitwan with almost 60 students per teacher. It is lowest in
Kathmandu with only 30 students per teacher followed by Dhankuta with slightly over 26
students per teacher. Not surprisingly, both Kathmandu and Dhankuta rank as the highest
scoring districts whereas Dhading and Chitwan rank lowest ranking districts measured in
terms of student achievement in grade III. Similarly, 70 percent of the high scoring
schools
9
in the sample districts the average class size was 40 student or below, whereas in
80 percent of the low achieving schools class-size were over 40 students. A direct
relationship between student-teacher ratio and student learning achievement signifies the
lower the ratio the higher the student achievement. Apparently, raising student teacher
ratio in the one hand and expecting higher education quality or higher student
achievement on the other contradict itself.
Schools physical condition and cost per student
Using 13 basic indicators of schools physical condition it is found that 75 percent of the
community schools fall into moderate and poor conditions. Those in the moderate and
poor conditions lack the very basic amenities such as the usable and separate toilets for
girls, drinking water, clean school environment, enough furniture and ventilation in the
classrooms, and play ground. Most of the classrooms in the community schools were
found consisting of bare walls, a chalkboard, and some furniture. There were no displays
of any kind and nothing that would attract children to be in the classroom for the entire
day. The concept of joyful learning in the community schools is found mostly crippled in
the absence of materials, environment, and the very guiding concepts to making the
classrooms attractive and joyful. Virtually nothing is there in the classrooms in the
community schools that exhibit or motivate these young kids to come and be in the school

9
Ten schools ranking highest and ten ranking the lowest in the test scores in Nepali, Math and Social
Studies taken by the Studies on National Assessment of Grade III Students were selected as sample
schools for this study.
48
all the day and everyday. Instead, mostly in the junior classes, it looked like the teacher
kept students hostage in the classroom. Once the teacher was out momentarily, every one
ran out in the field. They find joy not inside the classroom but out in the fields. This very
characteristic is also cultural because classrooms have been strictly regarded as for the
teaching only. Since many schools lack playground and playing inside the classroom is
insane, no surprise school environment producing repelling effect among students. Hence,
it is quite important to define
10
and enforce to maintain the minimum basic services and
facilities in schools.
Among various analyses conducted in this study, cost-per-student and schools physical
condition stand out as the most significant variable determining not only the girls
enrolment, promotion and repetition rates but also students achievement scores in all
three major subjects: Math, Social Studies, and Nepali. Several other studies related to the
internal efficiency in primary education in Nepal have focused more onto school
management, supervision and monitoring. It cant be denied that, among other things,
school management, supervision and the leadership are the fundamental correlates of
effective school. However, the pre-condition to make use of these correlates effectively is
making schools ready with at least the minimum basic infrastructure and resources.
Although school effectiveness research is mostly divided into two schools of thought
family factor vs. school factor; both schools agree that there is a minimum threshold to
which even educational quality is contingent on schools resources and infrastructure.
Implying that improving effectiveness would require the minimum resources and
facilities in schools as pre-condition. Improvements in management and supervision
would probably work best in schools lagging behind in terms of educational quality
despite having the basic resource in place. It would also work best in school that has
higher wastage caused by improper use of available resources. Both the dropout and
repetition rate in grade 1 is substantially high in Nepal. Hence improving management
and supervision becomes the first and easy choice. In this study, we have found that
reporting high repetition and dropouts has become mostly compelling for many
community schools to secure resources from the governments basket. Thus, increasing
cost-per-student is not only important to increase student enrolment and achievement but
also to reduce educational wastage like repetition and dropout rates.

10
See also Report on a Third Party Review of BPEP Phase-II, TEAM Consult, 2001.
49
Chapter VI
Conclusion and Recommendation
Making two sections in the primary, especially in grade 1, is becoming widespread
among public schools. To the school management, making two sections in grade 1 serves
two purposes. Firstly, it helps relieve community/parents pressure to enrol under age
children. And secondly, they could count students in both sections as grade 1 student in
order to maintain the desired student/teacher ratio and they can retain certain number of
teachers in school. This seems logical as a survival strategy for most of the public schools
and a relief from day-care for many working family. However, it cannot be denied that
this phenomenon could be either an opportunity or a problem. It largely depends on how
we perceive it. Early enrolment in schools would certainly improve school attendance and
eventually students achievement. However, inappropriate and insufficient infrastructures
would only produce more dislike among underage students. Public schools in Nepal are
already meagrely resourced and students are barely surviving with almost any attraction
for learning in schools. Underage students or the pre-school age children in this case need
more fun, games and plays not just the teacher or a building. Failing to provide these
facilities in schools would increase frustration, distraction and deviant characteristics
among students in relatively early ages. Hence, it is quite urgent and timely to make
appropriate government intervention to regulate under-age enrolments (pre-school
enrolment) in schools by establishing a separate tier of school and teachers for pre-school
children.
Students enrolled in the primary section are found mostly heterogeneous with regard to
their ethnicity, and the girls enrolment was astounding in these public schools. Students
belonging to rather poor and working class families were in abundance in the public
schools. The common explanation to this phenomenon is that children of affordable
family go to nearby private schools. This may, for some reason, be a problem but is also
an opportunity to address public schools with more concerted effort than before. Because,
student population in public schools that come from deprived family, special focus group
and girls have been on the rise, and they are the groups in target for government and I/NG
interventions.
The Education Act (7
th
amendment) has stipulated a normal class size for the Mountains,
Hills and for Terai and Valley districts as 35, 45, and 50 respectively. By including this
ratio in the education Act, the government has indeed shown its concern for regulating
class size in schools. Ironically, the student-teacher ratio (or the minimum class-size) is
more influenced by the availability of students in these regions rather than optimizing
their students learning achievements. Nevertheless, like many other researches, here and
abroad, class-size has been found as significant determinant of student achievement
across the school. Hence, the need for a critical research on appropriate class size for
Nepal is clearly demonstrated. The class size or the student teacher ratios also needs to be
justified on the grounds of student achievement. As we have learned from the literature
that student achievement is contingent upon not just one thing but many thing and that
class size could be the one predominant.
Promotion, repetition and dropout (PRD) rates are the predominant indicators of internal
efficiency of an education system. Lack of reliable data and use of inappropriate methods
attribute the inconsistency that exists in education statistics reported by the MOES/DOE
especially on PRD data. It is not only this research that has revealed a low dropout rate
50
but several other research have also indicated similarly low rates. For example, the NMIS
report revealed dropout rates as low as 2 percent in the primary level. Hence, it is high
time to conduct serious study to figure out the real dropout population and to regulate the
dropout statistics with due care. It has been observed among sample schools that they do
not keep any records of drop out student. Information of dropout student depends mostly
on class teachers recollection. In schools with small population this may work well but in
larger schools this may not be helpful. Similarly, teachers frequent turnover might also
influence significantly.
In order to constitute the SMC as per the current education act (7
th
amendment), schools
require update information not only of the students but the parent and guardians as well.
The awful record system in schools could pose both administrative as well as legal threat
to the larger interest envisioned in the amendment. Hence, a serious attempt is urgently
needed to bring scientific record keeping in all schools, and it should be updated and
validated by appropriate authority on a regular basis.
While it is believed that most of the out-of-school children in Nepal belong to the hard-
core population i.e., associated with economic and/or social hardships, there is no
information as to how many of them have never attended schools. Considering the
extremely high gross enrollment and high dropout rates especially in grade 1, it can be
assumed that many of the out-of school population might have attended school at one
point of time and that they could have dropped out for some reason. If this is the case, we
might need to look at the factors associated school dropout more critically.
Among various analyses conducted in this study, cost-per-student and schools physical
facilities stands out as the most significant variable determining not only the girls
enrolment, promotion and repetition rates but also students achievement scores in all
three major subjects: Math, Social Studies, and Nepali. However, schools physical
condition and cost-per-student in public schools are both of sub-standard and very low.
Increasing cost-per-student is thus not only important to increase student enrolment and
achievement but also to reduce educational wastage like repetition by increasing the
proportion of promotees in schools. .
With the current levels of analyses it has been found that schools physical condition and
the cost-per-student are both significant predictor of schools effectiveness measured on
key criterion such as, girls enrollment, promotion and repetition rates, and student
achievement.
Finally, although the observation and analysis of this study have shed some light on
several confounding issues in the primary education in Nepal, a longitudinal study with
nationally representing samples would be appropriate to argue these findings more
confidently. The current study also strongly recommends, among other things, including
school factors like cost-per-student and schools physical facility he included in future
studies on school effectiveness.
51
Reference
Bedi, Arjun S. and Marshall, J.H. (Apr. 1999). School Attendance and student
achievement: Evidence from rural Honduras. Economic Development and Cultural
Change; Chicago.
Cairns, R.B., Cairns. B.D., and Neckerman, H.J. (1989). Early school dropout:
Configurations and determinants. Child Development. 60, 1437-1452.
Coleman, J.S. et al. (1966). Equality of educational opportunity. Washington D.C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office.
Cynthia L., UlineDaniel M., Miller Megan, and Tschannen-Moran. (Oct 1998). School
Effectiveness: The underlying dimensions. Educational Administration Quaterly.
Thousand Oaks.
Darling-Hammond, Linda (Spring, 1994). Performance-based assessment and educational
equity. Harvard Educational Review; Cambridge.
Edmonds, R.R. (1979). Effective schools for urban poor. Educational Leadership, 37(1),
15-24.
Ferguson, Ronald F. (1991) paying for public education: New evidence on how and why
money matters. Harvard Journal on Legislation; 128, 457-465.
Fuller, Bruce and Clarke, Prema (1994). Raising school effects while ignoring culture?
Local conditions and the influence of classroom tools, rules, and pedagogy. Review of
Educational Research, 64 (1), 119-157.
Gardner, Howard, NewYork Times, NewYork 3/2/98.
Haddad, W. (1979). Educational and economic effects of promotion and repetition
practices. Washington DC: World Bank Staff Working paper No, 319.
Halpen, Robert and Myers, Robert. (1985). Factors of early childhood intervention on
primary school progress and performance in the developing countries. High School
Educational Research Foundation, USAID.
Hanushek, Eric A. (March 1998). Conclusions and controversies about the effectiveness
of school resources. FRBNY: Economic Policy Review.
HMG/N, Ministry of Education (1997a). BPE II Phase: Project Implementation Plan
(PIP). Basic and Primary Education Project, Kathmandu Nepal.
HMG/N, Ministry of Education (1997b). BPE Master Plan 1997-2002. Basic and Primary
Education Project, Kathmandu Nepal.
HMG/N, Ministry of Education (1997c). Social Sector Assessment Study. Basic and
Primary Education Project; Kathmandu, Nepal.
HMG/N, Ministry of Education (1998). Basic and Primary Education Sub-sector
Development Plan. Basic and Primary Education Project, Kathmandu Nepal.
HMG/N, National Planning Commission (1997). National Living Standard Survey.
Kathmandu, Nepal.
Heyneman, S. and Loxley, W. (1983). The impact of primary school quality on academic
achievement across 29 high and low income countries. American Journal of
Sociology, 88, 1162-1194.
52
Hyneman, Stephen P. and Loxley, William A. (1986). The search for school effects in
developing countries: 1966-1986. Seminar Paper no. 33, IBRD, Washington DC.
Jencks C.,et al. (1972). Inequality: A reassessment of the effect of family and schooling in
America. London.
Merla Bolender (1997). A study of the evolving image of a new school within the context
of school effectiveness: A summary of a masters thesis. STA Research Centre Report
#97-08.
Riddell, Abby Rubin. (Nov. 1989). Focus on challenges to prevailing theories: An
alternative approach to the study of school effectiveness in third world countries.
Comparative Education Review.
Riddell, Abby Rubin. (Oct. 1998). Reforms of educational efficiency and quality in
developing countries: An overview. Compare; Oxford.
Samuelson, R.J. (1998). Stupid students, smart economy. The Washington Post, 3/12/98.
Scheerens, J. (1999). School Effectiveness in developed and developing countries: A
review of the research findings. The World Bank: Washington, DC.
Smith M. and Shepard L. (1987). What doesnt Work: Explaining policies of retention in
the early grades. Phi Delta Kappa.
Teddlie, Charles and Reynolds, David. (Eds.) (2000). The International Handbook of
School Effectiveness Research. Falmer Press, London.
53
Appendix: A
Description of Sample District and School
There are 20 schools selected on the basis of their average achievement score in Math,
Nepali and Social Studies in the National Assessment of Grade 3 Students (2001). These
20 schools happen to come from seven districts: Dhankuta, Morang, Chitwan, Rupandehi,
Dhading, Kathmandu, and Kave. It is believed that a brief description of each of the
districts and schools would be helpful in making assertions by relating research findings
with this background information.
District Background
1. Dhankuta is located in the eastern hill region. Primary school enrolment in the
district is 31,703 of which there are 15,553 girls in 305 primary schools. The number
of primary teachers in the district is 1,114 among which 303 are female teachers.
Thus, teacher-student ratio for the primary level is 28.5 and student per trained
teacher is over 47. The promotion rate at grade 1 for the district is just above 55
percent. The gross enrolment rate at primary level for the district is above 144
percent. The net enrolment rate is about 95 percent.
2. Morang is located in the eastern Terai region. Primary school enrolment in the
3. Kavrepalanchok is located in the central Hill region. Primary school enrolment in
the district is 71,646 of which there are 33,329 girls in 580 primary schools. The
number of primary teachers in the district is 1,872 among which 413 are female
teachers. Thus, teacher-student ratio for the primary level is 38.3 and student per
trained teacher is over 76. The promotion rate at grade 1 for the district is just above
54 percent. The gross enrolment rate at primary level for the district is above 144
4. Dhading is also located in the central Hill region. Primary school enrolment in the
percent. The net enrolment is about 92 percent.
5. Chitwan is located in the central Terai region. Primary school enrolment in the
district is 86,435 of which 43,099 are girls in 451 primary schools. The number of
primary teachers in the district is 2,382 among which 783 are female teachers. Thus,
student per teacher ratio for the primary level is 36 and student per trained teacher is
over 72. The promotion rate at grade 1 for the district is just above 53 percent. The
gross enrolment rate at primary level for the district is above 146 percent. The net
enrolment rate is about 94 percent.
54

6. Kathmandu is located in the central region, is a valley and also the capital of the
country. Primary school enrolment in the capital district is 117,197 of which there are
55,532 girls in 1014 primary schools. The number of primary teachers in the district is
4,205 among which 2,677 are female teachers. Thus, student per teacher ratio for the
primary level is 27.9 and student per trained teacher is over 107. The promotion rate
at grade 1 for the district is just above 74 percent. The gross enrolment rate at primary
level for the district is above 115 percent. The net enrolment rate is about 86 percent.
7. Rupandehi is located in the western Terai region. There are 419 primary schools and
83,192 primary students enrolled in the district. Girls enrolment in the primary is
35,140. The number of primary teachers in the district is 2085 among which 730 are
female teachers. Thus, student per teacher ratio for the primary level is 39.9 and
student per trained teacher is over 88. The promotion rate at grade 1 for the district is
just above 57 percent. The gross enrolment rate at primary level for the district is
above 91 percent. The net enrolment rate is about 74 percent.
Data Source: MOES/DOE. Educational Statistics of Nepal, 2057B.S.
School Background
Sample Schools in Kavre District
1. Shree Pancha Kanya Primary School, Daregaunda, Chhatrabanjh VDC.
Location: The school is located in north-faced hill of the Dapcha area of Kavre
district. The school is about 20 KM away from the district headquarter Dhulikhel. It
is at the centre of Daregaunda village and surrounded by houses. It has a small
playground. In terms of space it has no scope to upgrade classes in the school. It
serves six small settlements including 157 households. The catchment area also
includes four settlements from Puranagaon VDC, in addition to the two settlements
from the Chhatrebanjh VDC.
Inhabitants: Most of the habitants (69 %) of the catchment area are Brahmins. The
other major caste groups residing in the catchment area are Tamang (19 %), and Sarki
(Dalit) (11 %). The School Improvement Plan (SIP) states that average literacy rate
for the area is 60.75 % and GER is 144 %. However, the average Net Enrolment Rate
(NER) is reported as 65 %. The NER broken down by ethnicity indicates the major
problem area. It reports that the NER for Tamang is 27 % and that for the Sarki
(Dalit) as only 15.9 %. Moreover, the discussion with the teachers revealed that many
of the students from the Tamang and Sarki community repeat grades and they drop
before completing primary education. These communities seasonally go to work in
the brick industries in the urban areas. The school age-children go with their parents
either to help them in the work or to look after the younger brothers/sisters. Thus,
there is a problem of non-enrolment and retention of the children, especially from the
Tamang and Sarki community.
General feelings: The school was selected as one of the better performing schools in
the national assessment. The physical facilities in the school cannot be considered
very good. It does not have windows in the classroom, furniture for the student is not
sufficient, and toilet is yet to be built. However, the teachers were found well
motivated. They had a lot of confidence on them. Few years back, it had a different
55
story. The villagers were not that happy and they started taking their kids to other
public or private school. Now, the teachers have worked hard and the enrolment is in
the rising trend. The school has good reputation in terms of extra-curricular activities.
It has won district level and RC-level competitions few times in song and dance
events. Most importantly, the teachers were found proud of their students and they
claim that their students have performed well even in the secondary school after
graduating from the school. Similarly, they claimed that the record management in the
school is one of the best in the area. They provided every kind of information we
asked for except the examination results for the current year. To sum up, team-work
and confidence on the part of the teachers can be regarded as the strengths of the
school.
2. Shree Namobuddha Primary School, Kurugaon, Simalchaur Shyampati VDC.
Location: The school is located in a hill-top of the Dapcha area, Simalchaur VDC of
Kavre district. The school is about 20 KM away from the district head-quarter. It is
located about 1.5 km away from the nearest settlement, i.e., Kurugaon. It serves 184
households from four settlements, i.e., Bimire, Swanra, Kurugaon, and Chegen. Since
the school is attached to non-of the settlements, it is difficult even to fetch water. It is
very close to graveyard of the Tamang community. So the location of the school
cannot be considered appropriate.
Inhabitants: The population in the catchment area of the school is comprised of
solely Tamang community. The literacy status was low as reported by the teacher but
the exact statistics was not known. The School Improvement Plan for the school has
not yet been prepared and the relevant documents are with the head teacher at his
home. So information about the households and the enrolment statistics (GER/NER)
could not be gathered. However, it was sensed through the discussion with the
teachers and the parents that the school community was not that much serious about
the performance of the school. One of the parents, when asked what could be done to
improve the school, said: "We are completely illiterate. What could we say about the
school. It is the teachers who know everything. Nevertheless, it would be better if all
the teachers could visit school regularly." It indicates the ignorance of the villagers in
the management of schools and at the same time points to the fact that the teachers are
not regular at school. It was observed that only two of the five teachers were present
on the day of visit.
General feelings: The teachers were not very serious to their job. They say, "These
kids are like mentally retarded. They dont understand. They dont have capacity to
learn. The parents are indifferent to the school matters. Actually, it is a matter of
shame to be a teacher of such a school." This indicates the lack of confidence on the
part of the teachers. Among the five teachers, one was deputed to an urban school on
the interest of the teacher rather than on the interest of the school. Two of the
remaining teachers were reported to visit to the DE Office. At the day of the visit,
only 40 students were present in total. However, the attendance register shows that the
total enrolment was more than 150. The record keeping system was poor. More
serious was that even the attendance registers do not give the true picture about
enrolment and attendance. In all respects, the performance of the school cannot be
regarded as satisfactory. The most lacking part was the commitment on the part of the
teachers.

56
3. Shree Ladkeshowr Primary School, Kolbhanjyang, Balthali VDC.
Location: The school is about 15 km away from the district headquarters. The
availability of physical facilities in the school is satisfactory. It has small playground
in the school compound. It serves three villages, namely, Dandagaon, Majhtol, and
Kolbhanjhyang. Moreover, according to the teachers and one of the parents, 10 to 15
students from other neighboring villages (Lukuwa and Dhunganadanda) come to this
school as they regard it as a "Good" school. There is a private primary school within a
five minutes walking distance and a public primary school within a 15 minutes
distance. Moreover, there is a secondary school nearby. Even then the number of
students in the school was found quite good (about 115 regular students).
Inhabitants: Different ethnic/caste groups reside in the area. The major caste groups
in the area are Brahmins, Chhetries and Tamangs. The school has received some sort
of assistance from a German tourist. He has been continually supporting the school
for last three years for two additional teachers. Moreover, the assistance includes the
improvement of physical facilities.
General feelings: The confidence of the teachers was really praiseworthy. The
teachers reported that it is at par with the private school in the nearby village in terms
of quality. They were again asked what made their school superior to other schools.
The following answers were obtained:
Teachers are committed; so they are regular and work very hard.
It has offered additional courses (in fact additional textbooks) on English, Nepali and
Mathematics. The parents were quite ready to buy those additional textbooks. There
are six teachers (4 in the government payroll and the other two on the support
provided by tourist).
They have a one-year preparatory course before grade 1. They have started this for
last three years and the students with pre-primary education are presently at grade
two. The teachers claim that those students will certainly produce better results in the
grade five examinations.
There is a provision of monthly test and the teachers report back the students' progress
to the parents. This was one of the striking feature of the school, which is not common
in other public schools. Moreover, the teachers reported that they give homework and
correct in-group.
4. Shree Lankhanamai Shanti Primary School, Dhulikhel Municipality
Location: The school is located at the centre of the Dhulikhel city and is surrounded
by houses on almost three sides. Nevertheless it has a playground and good buildings.
The student enrolment in the school is not encouraging. Last year, there were no
students in grade five. There are three other schools in the five minutes walking
distance. So, if the school is forced to compete for students and thereby receive
grants-in-aid accordingly, it may be difficult for the school to survive in the locality.
Inhabitants: The residents of the surrounding houses are mainly Dalits (Kasai). The
head-teacher was asked why he was loosing students. What do you need to do to win
confidence of the parents? The response to the first question was that the school is
wrongly located. Parents from upper caste groups do not like to enroll their kids to
57
this Dalit locality. Secondly, if I get two more teachers (there are four teachers now), I
can start pre-primary classes, and they will be better prepared for primary education.
Thus, there are social and economic issues.
General feelings: By observing at the physical facilities, the school can be rated as
good or very good. However, the parents feel that the teachers are not very much
committed. They are very harsh to students. Nevertheless, It is clear that the
characteristics of student population of the school are different from other
neighboring schools.
5. Shree Ram Secondary School, Koshidekha VDC
Location: The school is located about 30 km away from the district headquarters. It is
very close to the local market and to the motorable road. The school was selected as
one of the poor performing school in the national assessment.
Inhabitants: The population is comprised of different ethnic/caste groups. The major
ethnic/caste groups residing in the area include Tamang, Brahman, Magar and Dalits.
There are five settlements in the catchment area of the school. They are Naralthowk,
Tripathithowk, Jyamire, Thapaliyathowk, and Kalinjor. The total 6-10 population in
the area is 180 among that 87 are girls.
General feelings: Though the school was selected on the poor-performing category,
the feeling in the field was quite different. The head-teacher commands good respect
from his colleagues, though he is in the primary position. All the teachers plan jointly
and there is no problem in execution. They have prepared a good SIP. The parents and
the local representatives (VDC chairperson, ward-chairperson) were contacted. They
were quite happy with the performance of the school. They further claimed that this is
one of the best schools in this Palanchowk area.

Appendix B: School in Picture

58
Appendix C: Survey Tools
School Effectiveness: Synthesis of indicators
Formative Research Program for BPEP I I
CERID/TU 2058 (2002)
Researcher: Vishnu Karki
For the Surveyor/I nterviewer
PLEASE REMEMBER: While full cooperation and trust of the respondent is the key to
our success, maintaining integrity is our research ethics.
Note:
1) Introduce yourself, your purpose and this projects objectives in brief;
2) Before proceeding for interview or data collection, inform respondent or interviewee
that all information will be dealt confidentially and that these information will be
used only to analyze schools effectiveness and in educational planning, policy
making and implementation purposes. We must insure each of the respondents that
none of the individual/personal information will revealed in any form. Only
summarized information will come out for the general use.
3) Though much of the information in these forms look heavily contained with
quantitative data, our analysis depends much on qualitative information. Therefore,
while taking notes or copying data please pay extra attention to anything that looks
different, unusual, inconsistent, interesting or something that catches your eyes.
Note down these feelings or findings on the form wherever you find space or on the
back and do relate your notes with the question/response. You may also use your
personal diary to note your observations.
4) Please do not write/copy any information that you think is right. You may note your
feelings/observation about the given information and probe to find the truth.
5) All sections are critically important for our analysis. Please do not leave any section
or question empty.
6) Finally, please note if you find difficulty in presenting question to the interviewee or
retrieving/copying data from school/community sources due to the structure of the
survey instruments. Or anything that you would suggest, based on your current
experience, to improve this instrument.
7) Upon completion of the survey in the school/community or with the parents, do not
hesitate to express gratitude for their time.

59
Thank you for your cooperation

Form A. School Data Form

School Code: Name of the School:
Location: Urban / Rural Address (VDC/Municipality):
District: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Village: Ward:

Schools Basic:
i) Number of grades in school:
ii) School status (Please circle): Public / Private / Semi-public
iii) Number of Teachers:
Total Female
Total (including secondary*)
Primary only
* Do not include Higher Secondary teachers
iv) Number of Students:
Total I ncluding
Secondary*
Primary
only
Total Girls Total Girls
This Year (2001)

Previous Year(2000)

* Do not include students in Higher Secondary grades.

v) Number of classes* in school (count section as separate class)
Number of total class (including secondary)
Number of primary class only
*Do not include higher-secondary class.
vi) Number of classrooms* in school (including secondary):
Number of total classrooms (including secondary)
Number of primary classrooms
*Include classrooms used for primary and/or secondary class instruction only.
60
a) School Finance:
Schools total income last year:
Source Amount
HMG Regular
Other

Schools total expenditure last year:
Expenditure by category:
Categories Amount
Teachers salary
School administration
School maintenance
Educational materials and equipment
Extracurricular activities
Others: . . . . .. .. . .. . . . .

b) Class size and enrolment:

Primary Enrolment:
Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5
Total
Girls

Primary classroom size: approximate length and width (in feet)
1 2 3 4 5 Grade

Sectio
n1

Sectio
n 2

61
d) Educational quality: (Teacher in Primary grades only)

Teachers Name
H
i
g
h
e
s
t

L
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o
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E
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T
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i
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g

E
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p

#

Y
e
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s

#

Y
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s

i
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t
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i
s

s
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M
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h
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t
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e

G
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A
v
g
.

a
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d
a
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e

i
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M
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(
N
=

)

A
v
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a
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i
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s
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r
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t
i
o
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a
l

h
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p
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w
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O
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:

L
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/

o
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i
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C
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P
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s
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n

(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H) (I)
1
2

3

4
5

6
7
8
9
10
Note: (A) mention the level/degree of education achieved; (B) mention type of training received including its length; (D) language spoken at home for general
communication; (F) N=number of days school was open in Mangsir; (I) Current position on deputation (to this or to other school), study leave .. etc.

63

e) Open questions to schoolteacher:

i) Approximately how many school going age (6-10/15) population lives
in the service area of this school?

ii) Approximately how long students commute to/from this school (mention in minutes)?

ii) Approximately how many are out-of-school (do not go to school)?

iii) In your opinion, what are the main reasons to be out-of-school?

iv) What do you think can help bring these out-of-school children in school?

v) What are the main reasons for students to repeat in grade-one in your school?

vi) What can be done to improve this situation?

vii) What activity/facility do you think could help this school become community center?

Form B: Parental Interview Form

1. Parents perception to school
a) How do you see this school (mention name of this school) in terms of
performance?

64

b) In your opinion what are the strong aspects in this school?

c) What are the weak aspects in this school?

d) In your opinion, what would make this school better to serve the needs of your
family as well as of the community?

e) Have you ever visit this school?

f) What would make this school a community center so that you and others feel
comfortable to visit more frequently?
2. Family background
A) Family size family members living together and sharing to/from family income.
Begin with the household head and mention his relation to others.
Name Gender Age
M/F Current
Household-heads relation to
others, e.g., if the other one
is his/her son mention son
and so forth.
Occupation
if any
1 Household Head
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

B) Parent's Education:(Highest level of education achieved/passed including
NFE)
Father's Education
Mother's Education
C) Caste Caste of the family:
D) Family status: (appropriate box) Single parent Both parent
First married Second married.
65

If second married,
1) How many times did you marry?
2) With how many spouses you are currently living?
E) Family stability frequency of movement (from one place to another).
1) How long have you lived in this place? ( appropriate box)
< 1year 1-2 year 2-5 year >5year
2) How many times did you change your habitat in this place?
None Once Twice More than twice
E) Language spoken at home

3 Family economy
a) What is your occupation? (tick on appropriate box)
Occupation Main Second Other
Agriculture/ Farm field laborer
Industrial worker
Public servant
Private worker
Self employed (own business)
Housewife/husband
Other (specify) . . . .

b) What is your spouse's occupation? (tick on appropriate box)
Occupation Main Second Other
Agriculture/ Farm field laborer
Industrial worker
Public servant
Private worker
Self employed (own business)
Housewife/husband
Other (specify) . . . .

c) How many (number of persons) in your family earn?
d) Do you own land? Yes No If yes, how much? (bigha/ropani)
e) Do you own livestock? Yes No
If yes, how many? (mention numbers in respective boxes):
Cow/Bulls, Buffalo
Goat/Sheep
Poultry
Other animals (specify):

Resource Person
Mr. Tulashi Thapaliya

Editor (Language)
Mr. Gaja Sundar Pradhan

Support Staff
Mr. Ganesh Silwal
Mr. Suresh Shakya
Mr. Bishnu Bikram Giri
Mr. Bishnu Hari Guragain
Mr. Bhakta Bahadur Shrestha

Cover Design & Layout
Mr. Gautam Manandhar

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