A Character in Search of Character:

Narcissistic Personality Disorder and

Ego State Therapy
Shirley McNeal
San Francisco, California
The word character has many definitions according to Websters Dictionary
(1983). They include the following: (a) the aggregate of features and traits that form the
individual nature of some person or thing, (b) moral quality or integrity, (c) an odd or
eccentric person, etc. The definitions given here are only three of the ten listed. The
term character is often used interchangeably with the term personality. In the
psychiatric literature, writers such as Allport (1961) opted for the term personality as
more inclusive, indicating that in everyday language, character implied an evaluation of
personality such as the phrase, of high moral character. Allport (1961) pointed out
that European psychologists preferred the term character while North American
psychologists preferred the term personality. Probably because of its European origins
the psychoanalytic literature usually prefers character disorder rather than
American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis
45:3 January 2003
Copyright 2003 by the American Society of Clinical Hypnosis
Request reprints from:
Shirley McNeal, PhD
425 Gough Street
San Francisco, CA 94102
233
The individual diagnosed with Narcissistic Personality Disorder presents with
grandiosity, extreme self-involvement, and lack of interest in and empathy for
others. This paper reviews current theories concerning the development and
treatment of Narcissistic Personality Disorder, and introduces the use of Ego State
Therapy for its treatment. The ego state model of treatment will be described and
demonstrated with case material. Initially ego states that reveal the grandiosity
will be accessed. As therapy progresses, ego states that hold the underlying
feelings of emptiness, rage, and depression are able to emerge. With further
treatment, transformation and maturation of the ego states occur, reflecting the
changes in internal structure and dynamics as well as improvement in external
interpersonal relationships. Issues concerning Ego State Therapy as utilized with
personality disorders will be discussed and contrasted with more traditional
methods of treatment.
Keywords: Character disorder, ego-strengthening, Ego State Therapy, false self,
hypnosis, hypnotic age progression, narcissism, personality
personality disorder. Though some degree of confusion persists, according to Livesley
(2001), character is usually used to refer to . . . aspects of personality that are assumed
to be the product of learning and interaction with the environment (p.8). This definition
is in contrast to the term temperament which refers more to genetically determined
traits, although as we know this distinction is never clear-cut.
For the purposes of this paper, the words character and personality will be
used interchangeably. Personality disorders have become more recognized and focused
upon during the past two decades, coinciding with the publication of DSM-III in 1980
(Livesley, 2001). A personality disorder, as defined by DSM-IV TR is,
An enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates
markedly from the expectations of the individuals culture. This pattern
is manifested in two (or more) of the following areas: (1) cognition (i.e.
ways of perceiving and interpreting self, other people, and events),
(2) affectivity (i.e. the range, intensity, lability and appropriateness of
emotional response), (3) interpersonal functioning, and (4) impulse
control. The enduring pattern is inflexible and persuasive across a
broad range of personal and social situations (American Psychiatric
Association, 2000, p. 287).
Included in the category of personality disorders are paranoid, schizoid,
schizotypal, antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic, avoidant, dependent, and
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
This paper will focus on the category of Narcissistic Personality Disorder
which is defined by DSM IV TR as,
A persuasive pattern of grandiosity (in fantasy or behavior), need for
admiration, and lack of empathy, beginning by early adulthood and
present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by five (or more) of the
following. (1) Has a grandiose sense of self-importance (e.g.
exaggerates achievements and talents, expects to be recognized as
superior without commensurate achievements), (2) is preoccupied with
fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, beauty, or ideal love,
(3) believes that he or she is special and unique and can only be
understood by, or should associate with other special or high status
people (or situations), (4) requires excessive admiration, (5) has a
sense of entitlement, i.e. unreasonable expectations of especially
favorable treatment or automatic compliance with his or her
expectations, (6) is interpersonally exploitive, i.e. takes advantage of
others to achieve his or her own ends, (7) lacks empathy: is unwilling
to recognize or identify with the feelings and needs of others, (8) is
often envious of others or believes that others are envious of him or
her, and (9) shows arrogant, haughty behaviors or attitudes (American
Psychiatric Association, 2000, p. 294).
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Narcissistic Personality Disorder and Ego State Therapy
The Narcissistic Personality Disorder has been explored extensively from the
vantage point of differing theoretical systems including traditional psychoanalytic
theory, ego psychology, object relations, self psychology, and social learning theory.
Writers such as Kohut (1971, 1984), Kernberg (1975, 1984), and Masterson (1981, 1985,
1988) produced the most extensive analyses of this disorder during the 1970s and 80s.
More recently clinicians such as Chessick (1993), Johnson (1987, 1994), and Giovacchini
(2000) have reviewed, synthesized, added to, and integrated concepts from these theories.
Johnson (1987, 1994) in particular, has comprehensively presented a picture of the
narcissistic personality from a developmental perspective, and his conceptualizations
will be utilized extensively in this paper.
To complicate the diagnostic issues, a number of writers (Johnson, 1987, 1994;
Ronningstam, 2000) have identified a spectrum of narcissism and described what is
called a narcissistic style that could co-exist with other diagnostic categories. For
example Johnson (1987) speaks about a continuum with the lower end in the borderline
extreme of the narcissistic continuum. These individuals have less observing egos,
weaker ego boundaries, and more fragile and profoundly arrested senses of self. At the
other end of the continuum, those with only a narcissistic style have stronger observing
egos, stronger boundaries and defenses, more ego strength, and less damaged senses
of self. In the latter group there may also be more depression, pain, illness, or other
symptoms that appear more characteristically neurotic. The individual with a neurotic
style is less likely to act out, less prone to strong transference reactions, and more open
to the interpretation of these reactions. However, according to Johnson (1987), if the
treatment is successful in accessing the archaic demands and affects of the real self,
there may be extreme reactions to these intense emotions. An individual with a narcissistic
style is likely to become depressed in defense of these feelings and may act out self-
destructively. This kind of person is similar to what Masterson (1988) has referred to as
the closet narcissist who in the course of treatment must experience and work through
an abandonment depression. Johnson (1987) believes that people at both ends of the
continuum come for therapy when there is a severe breakdown in functioning. While
one condition appears more serious than the other, underneath the essential similarity
is the betrayal of the real self as a child and continued betrayal of the real self in
adulthood.
Psychodynamics of Narcissism
According to Masterson (1981, 1988) and Johnson (1987, 1994) the narcissistic
character is developed during Mahlers (1972) rapprochement subphase of separation-
individuation occurring approximately at the age of 15 to 24 months. During the previous
practicing subphase the child experienced great narcissistic investment in his own
functions and body, appearing oblivious to the mothers presence. At the end of this
period the rapprochement with reality involves experiencing separation anxiety when
the mother is not present, and also features the need to reconnect with mother. When
the child experiences his/her limitations, he/she loses a sense of grandiosity and
omnipotence. Fixation of the narcissistic personality takes place before the end of this
period resulting in the fantasy that the world revolves around him/her.
During each developmental phase, the child is frustrated by failure in certain
need gratifications. Through the maternal response to frustration, the child begins to
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develop ego structure and the experience of the self, as he/she internalizes the soothing
functions of the external caregiver. According to Johnson (1987), when the need to
integrate independence and dependence or grandiosity and vulnerability is frustrated
or inappropriately dealt with, the result may be a refusal to accept rapprochement with
reality. Then the infant regresses to illusions of grandiosity and symbiotic unity. In
normal development the child confronting separateness and vulnerability experiences
his/her own limitations and powerlessness. The good-enough mother provides the
necessary understanding, sympathy, mirroring, and respect. Narcissistic character
derives primarily from failure to accommodate around grandiosity and limitation
(Johnson, 1987, p. 29).
The narcissistic injury is the deep wound to the experience of the real self
that is caused by the failure of the caretaker to respond appropriately. According to
Johnsons developmental theories, those showing the most serious narcissistic
adaptation had clearly deficient parenting in the period requiring nurturing and holding.
When the environment provides too much (idealization), or too little (deficient mirroring
or humiliation), the developing child cannot fully realize himself or herself. Accordingly,
narcissistic pathology is the result of the child becoming who he or she needed to be
rather than the person he or she really is. The developmental arrest occurs at the point
when the child needs supportive mirroring to grow to become oneself. When appropriate
and sufficient mirroring are not available, the result is rejection of the real self. The false
self is developed and maintained as an attempt at compensation for what is missing.
What has been rejected in oneself (limitations, imperfection, dependency needs) also
becomes rejected in others, leading to their devaluation.
Traditional Treatment of Narcissism
Successful treatment of the narcissistic personality according to Johnson (1994)
involves reclaiming healthy narcissism and acceptance of being vulnerable, limited,
needy, dependent, and weak at times. Working through the inevitable abandonment
depression and integration of the grandiose and vulnerable selves is required. In the
process, the person shifts from the use of others to perpetuate the false self to use of
others to discover the real self. In therapy he/she may reveal feelings of never being or
having enough and may admit that he/she only fools others. These patients can become
very blaming of those perceived as causing their pain. The therapist needs to show
respect for the intensity of their pain. Transformation is possible when there is enough
of a therapeutic relationship and when the ego strength to experience the depth of
feelings of worthlessness and desperation has been acquired. The relationship is healing
in that the narcissistic individual can feel real human feelings that are unaffected by
parental acceptance or rejection.
The nature of transferences varies across the spectrum of narcissistic styles.
At the lower end is the merger transference in which the therapist is expected to be
available always and to gratify all needs. At the higher end of the spectrum, the
transference may be more like Kohuts (1971) twinship transference , one in which the
narcissistic patient thinks he and the therapist are just alike. At the highest end of the
spectrum, the patient expects the therapist to mirror the false self. It is the therapists
task to access whatever real self is there and further that development. Appropriate
empathy is crucial as the individual begins to feel extremely vulnerable and to experience
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overwhelming affect. The loss of the false self amounts to the loss of the ability to
manipulate the environment and to be in control; so, fears of being manipulated,
humiliated, and used can emerge, i.e. the fear of being injured again or as Masterson
(1988) terms it, the abandonment depression.
Johnson (1994) defines the therapeutic objectives as the discovery and
enhancement of natural self-expression. The patient must learn and feel how he/she has
sacrificed him/herself, then mourn his/her losses, rediscover his/her own deeply buried
needs, and attempt to meet them. Johnson (1994) defines character transformation as
maturation that involves the development of creativity, the acceptance of transience,
and development of the capacities for empathy, a sense of humor, and wisdom.
The therapist needs to provide empathy, regard, and a safe place for the patient
to experience his or her pain. Interpretation or reframing can emphasize pain as a signal
in such a way as to enhance internal exploration. Interpretation can relate current injuries,
anger, and disappointments to earlier failures of the environment to meet the persons
legitimate needs, while also providing support for the persons innate capabilities
combined with realistic assessment of abilities, resources, weaknesses, and limitations.
Trust is especially important because the narcissistic person needs most to be
understood. It is important to access his/her real need for others and to provide training
in how to become a more social being within a support system that will help the person
find himself or herself. The patient ultimately makes the decision to grow up, to accept
his or her humanity, and finally let in the love and acceptance that others can provide
(Johnson, 1994).
Hypnotic Treatment of Narcissism
Johnson (1994) mentions ways in which he believes that hypnosis can be helpful
in the treatment of Narcissistic Personality Disorder and narcissistic styles. He believes
that hypnosis can be helpful in the working-through process by facilitating the discovery
of the origins of symptoms. He also suggests that hypnosis may be helpful in speeding
up the process of discovering and developing the real self. However, Johnson does not
give examples of how he has used hypnosis in treatment.
Baker (1981) has developed hypnotic techniques for use in the treatment of
patients with narcissistic and borderline personality disorders. He utilized concepts
from object relations and self psychology based in the work of Mahler (1968) that are
helpful in working with seriously disturbed patients. Bakers hypnotic exercises allow
patients to have corrective experiences in the present within the framework of the
psychotherapeutic session. His fifth, sixth, and seventh exercises in particular, address
stages of therapy with a patient with narcissistic character disorder in which the goal is
object constancy. The exercises enhance introjection of the therapist as a good object
and the self as good me. Then imagery can be created for the purpose of getting rid of
the bad object. The seventh step addresses integrating positive and negative
experiences. Imagery can also address how some things stay the same across changes,
such as the color of ones skin and eyes and going from one place to another in the same
clothes. It also emphasizes imagery for mending what has been broken, with
visualizations of fixing, blending, putting together, etc. Baker also promotes imagery for
management of affect and management of splitting as a defense. He recommends using
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imagery and fantasy rather than relaxation for the narcissistic patient. This helps to
create transitional objects that are experienced through symbols of safety, security,
and comfort. Baker also emphasizes the importance of empathy as well as the need for
the therapist to help the patient build an observing ego. Murray-Jobsis (1990a, 1990b,
1990c) also has developed imagery that involves moving through developmental stages
from discovering the physical body and boundaries, to dealing with the external
world, as well as accepting an imperfect world, and enjoying separateness.
These authors have focused on hypnotic imagery that helps to negotiate
incomplete developmental tasks. Their techniques are especially valuable in working
with patients who are diagnosed with psychosis, borderline personality disorder, and
with seriously disturbed narcissistic personality disorders. However, other hypnotic
methods may also be useful in working with patients with milder narcissistic disorders
or narcissistic styles. The present paper presents the therapy process with a narcissistic
patient who is fairly high functioning. This patient already had developed a good
observing ego and spoke of himself in the language of parts of his personality. In view
of his language of parts a decision was made to utilize Ego State Therapy (Watkins &
Watkins, 1987), and some interesting results ensued.
Case Study
George, age 48, came to see me because he was very interested in clinical
hypnosis. He had been reading books about it, and thought it would be helpful for him.
His previous treatment had involved a short course of cognitive-behavioral therapy for
dealing with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. He was currently attending Adults who
were Sexually Abused as Children Anonymous (ASCA) meetings, and had found them
to be very disturbing to him. He believed that he had been sexually abused by his
mother for much of his young life, and had memories of numerous traumatic events.
George also reported that he had observed his mother trying to kill his younger sister
by smothering her with a pillow, and he felt that he had always lived in fear of losing his
own life. He mentioned a number of unusual phobias and ways in which he knew his
emotional reactions were exaggerated. For example, when anything slid, fell, or moved
unexpectedly, he would feel panic. Whenever he leaned over in a sitting position, he
would feel nauseated and not know why. He also felt that he had never really achieved
his true potential or been successful in the way he would have liked.
From his initial presentation, it seemed as if a diagnosis of Post-Traumatic
Stress Disorder (PTSD) would be appropriate. However, in our early sessions he also
talked a great deal about how intelligent and creative he was and how much professional
reading he was doing. He also spoke about all of the well-known people in the San
Francisco Bay area whom he knew and with whom he interacted. George said that he
was in an MBA program and that he also intended to go to law school. He planned to
write several books and to pursue oil painting as well. However, the reality of his
present life was that he was a building contractor who had lost his license and was
unemployed. He had been evicted from his rental unit and was moving back into the
childhood home that he had inherited when his mother died. The house had been empty
for many years, and he was planning to fix it up. He also spoke very harshly and
critically of his ex-wife, his present girlfriend, his neighbors, and his lawyer. My diagnostic
impression was that in addition to the Axis A diagnosis of Post-Traumatic Stress
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Disorder (PTSD), an Axis B disorder, Narcissistic Personality Disorder, was also present.
In our beginning sessions the focus was on developing our relationship and
defining the therapeutic goals. Along with his frequent boasting, George could
occasionally also talk about his pain. I felt that his observing ego was strong enough to
do Ego State Therapy, and we began with trance work for accessing and strengthening
inner resources. In trance he reported a Tuscan palace filled with people including
Achilles, Marcus Aurelius, Genghis Kahn, General Patton, Leonardo de Vinci, and
Alexander the Great. Coming out of trance, he was enthused to find such an impressive
collection of powerful and talented individuals within himself. However, by the next
session he seemed to have forgotten about the experience and didnt mention these
individuals again. During subsequent sessions I utilized the affect bridge technique
(Watkins, 1971) to explore the origins of the phobic reactions he had reported, along
with further exploration of early trauma that he could recall. We accessed a strong
helper ego state who was an introject of his grandfather, the only person he felt had
been nice to him during his childhood. There was a young child ego state that had
been terribly traumatized. Two other ego states present were parental introjects. The
one he named Nave held his mothers perceived traits, and he described her as
pathetic, lazy, feeling worthless, and just waiting for something to happen. The other,
whom he termed Criminal, he saw as petty and scheming. Georges father had been
depressed and alcoholic. After his business had failed and he had served time in prison
for embezzlement, he died in a skid row hotel. George himself had previously used
drugs, primarily speed, and had at one time operated a methamphetamine laboratory. He
had been caught and spent some time in jail and on probation.
As a result of individual therapy with the ego states, Criminal and Naive,
Criminal became more motivated to go straight, maintain sobriety, and use his street
smarts in more productive ways. The ego state, Nave, began to learn that she had made
bad decisions in the past and had associated with others who were unscrupulous.
Nave gained insight about self-sabotage and began to understand that she had not
given George permission to achieve and go beyond what his parents had been able to
accomplish. In his external life George began to pick up some loose ends and finish
projects he had started. He initiated action to regain his contractors license and enrolled
again in school to continue taking courses toward his MBA.
Then a transference issue surfaced. It had to do with Georges fear that if he
didnt get it all together real soon, I would kick him out of therapy. As we worked
through the transference, George became more vulnerable and began to talk about his
loneliness, misery, and confusion about what he felt he was really capable of doing. He
spoke at length of how he had always lived as if, at any moment, he could die. His
grandiosity greatly decreased. He had been in the habit of shaking my hand at the end
of the session. Coinciding with this period in therapy he said at the end of a session,
Im not going to shake your hand anymore, because that made me feel like we were
colleagues, and I know we are not.
Combined with ego-strengthening his vulnerable child ego state, we continued
to access, explore, and reframe early traumatic experiences. Two themes were
predominant. One was linked to an incident that had occurred when he was four. He had
walked into his one-year-old sisters room and observed his mother holding a pillow
over her head. After that time George lived in fear that his mother would try to kill him,
too. It became clear why small things such as something slipping or falling could cause
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such panic for George. He felt he had learned to handle obvious life or death situations,
but not the small unexpected, unanticipated happenings of everyday life.
Another theme that emerged involved Georges fear that whatever he managed
to achieve would be taken away from him. The early sexual abuse had involved his
mother exhibiting her genitalia to him and anally molesting him with her fingers in the
bathroom. Additionally, both parents had also ridiculed him. Both the humiliation and
the invasion of his boundaries had produced the belief that nothing about him was his
alone and not to be used or manipulated by others.
A further development had to do with Georges relationship with his girlfriend
of whom he had spoken very critically early in treatment. He began to refer to her more
positively, saying that although he knew she wasnt perfect, she had some qualities he
could respect. He reported that they were becoming closer. He expressed pride in the
fact that he was learning to hold his tongue and be kinder toward her. At the same time
he expressed (with some amazement) that he was beginning to feel that he didnt have
to know everything. He mused that maybe it was okay at times to just admit to others
that he didnt know about something, but that maybe he could learn. He stated that he
didnt have to win at all times anymore, or always be right. George began to talk about
the importance of values and of figuring out what he wanted his values to be. He spoke
of wanting to achieve something that he could do honestly and ethically. Hypnotic age
projections (Phillips & Frederick, 1993) were useful in facilitating ideas of what he could
do in the future. He saw himself building a studio where he could have his computer
and perhaps materials for painting and crafts. In these visualizations the emphasis was
on utilizing his building skills to create a private and comfortable space for himself.
Recently, Ego State Therapy has revealed his ego states moving into a new
constellation. The ego states of Nave and Criminal are intertwined, and George has
said that they represent his old self that is not his current and real self. He now
experiences a part of himself, formerly the vulnerable child ego state, as what he terms
his authentic self. We are currently working on strengthening this authentic self with
ego-strengthening techniques and self-hypnosis (Frederick & McNeal, 1999). Therapy
continues at this time, a year since the beginning, but it is definitely approaching the
final stages of treatment.
Discussion
This case study illustrates the progress of treatment of an individual with
Narcissistic Personality Disorder unfolding much as would be expected in traditional
psychodynamic treatment. George progressed from grandiosity, entitlement, and a lack
of empathy for others toward maturation and development of more realistic perceptions
of self and others. However, the use of hypnotic techniques such as the affect bridge
(Watkins, 1971), future projections (Phillips & Frederick, 1993), an assortment of other
ego-strengthening techniques (Frederick & McNeal, 1999), and Ego State Therapy
(Watkins & Watkins, 1987) have reduced the course of treatment from the usual two to
three years to a little over one year.
In the early stage of treatment, reliance on the grandiose false self was illustrated
by Georges short-lived discovery of an internal world populated by powerful male
figures. As therapy progressed, he was able to access a helper ego state modeled on a
real-life nurturing person, his actual grandfather. Initially work needed to be done with
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his internalized bad objects, i.e. the ego states of Nave and Criminal that were parental
introjects. As his anger toward them began to dissipate, he was able to experience a
wounded child ego state and work through the traumas that he had experienced. This
was very much akin to working through abandonment depression. It is possible that
Ego State Therapy facilitated this stage of treatment because the functions of the ego
states could be so clearly differentiated and understood. Then the vulnerable child
state was nurtured and strengthened, ultimately transforming into the authentic or real
self.
In traditional psychotherapy the patient often displays strong resistance to
letting go of the false self because of fear of being overwhelmed by the pain that is
being held by the wounded real self. With the use of Ego State Therapy, the wounded
real self can be contained, nurtured, strengthened, and protected from malevolent ego
states so that the fear of being overwhelmed is reduced and the false self can be
released more easily. This is one of the major advantages of Ego State Therapy with the
narcissistic patient.
The use of age regression with the affect bridge technique (Watkins, 1971)
also facilitated working through the traumatic origins of symptoms in a safe, paced, and
contained manner allowing for George to deal with intense painful emotions in a context
of safety. In the transference George illustrated Kohuts concept of twinship, whereby
George initially wanted to believe that he was on an equal footing with the therapist. A
turning point in Georges therapy was his acknowledgment that he was not really a
colleague of the therapist.
The loss of his false self was accompanied by Georges fears of being
abandoned by his therapist and used and manipulated by others. However, the continued
use of Ego State Therapy allowed him to develop insight into the origins of those
feelings and subsequently to develop more realistic and empathic relationships with
others in his life. With Ego State Therapy there is less interpretation involved than in
traditional therapy. This reduces the possibility of further narcissistic injury to the
patient by the therapist.
Now, in the final stages of therapy, Ego State Therapy has been helpful in the
maturation and strengthening of Georges real self. Future projections and ego-
strengthening techniques have facilitated this phase of therapy. George is now
experiencing his real self, and he calls it his authentic self. The use of self-hypnosis can
further enhance this process in helping him to build internal structure, and consolidate
his new identity. We might say that the character named George has almost completed
his search for character.
In this case study, Ego State Therapy was successfully utilized and integrated
into hypnotically facilitated psychotherapy with an individual diagnosed with
Narcissistic Personality Disorder. However, hypnotic methods such as the ones
described here might be contraindicated in the presence of a more severe degree of
pathology in a person with narcissistic symptoms. Careful evaluation of the patients
ego strength and reality contact is important before using these methods. Hypnotic
approaches such as those developed by Baker (1981) or Murray-Jobsis (1990a, 1990b,
1990c) might be more appropriate for more severely disturbed patients. It is wise not to
use ego-strengthening in the early stages of therapy with patients with Narcissistic
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Personality Disorder. If ego-strengthening techniques are employed too soon, they
could inadvertently strengthen the false self and reinforce the patients grandiosity.
Careful timing of the use of ego-strengthening techniques is necessary and must always
be used in combination with a strong therapeutic alliance and an empathic therapeutic
stance. In conclusion, it appears that Ego State Therapy can enhance and speed up the
treatment of Narcissistic Personality Disorder. It is anticipated that this may prove to be
true in the treatment of other personality disorders as well.
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