CHAPTER-1

TRANSMISSION LINE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Electrical power is the basic need for the economic development of any country. The
energy consumption is the main index for the overall development and growth of a
country. The process of modernization, increase in productivity in industry and
agriculture and the improvement in the standard of living of the people basically depend
on the adequate supply of electrical energy.
The electrical energy is generated by hydroelectric power plants, thermal power plants
and nuclear power plants. The electrical power is transmitted from these power plants to
the consumers premises by using transmission and distribution systems. The power from
the generating station is transmitted at high voltage (such as !", ""#, $$# %&' over long
distances to the ma(or load centres. The line should have sufficient current carrying
capacity so as to transmit the required power over a given distance without excessive
voltage drop and overheating. The line losses should be small and insulation length
should be adequate to cope with the system voltage.
The transmission system of an area is %nown as )*+,-. The different grids are
interconnected through the )T,E lines to form a )regional grid and the different regional
grids are further interconnected to form a )national grid. Each grid operates
independently. .ower can be transmitted from one grid to another, over the tie lines under
the condition of sudden loss of generation or increase in load.
/ single phase /0 circuit requires " conductors. / "1phase /0 circuit using same size
conductor as a 1phase circuit can carry ! times the power which can be carried by a
single phase circuit and uses ! conductors of !1phase and 1conductor of neutral. Thus a
!1phase circuit is more economical then a 1phase circuit in terms of initial cost as well as
the losses. /ll transmission and distribution systems are, therefore, !1phase systems. ,n
fact, a balanced !1phase circuit does not require the neutral conductor as the instantaneous
sum of the ! line currents is zero.
1
Therefore, the transmission lines and feeders are !1phase, !1wire circuit. The distributors
are !1phase, $1wire circuit because a neutral wire is necessary to supply the 1phase load
for domestic and commercial consumers. The standard frequency in ,ndia and many other
countries is 2# 3z.
The overhead line conductors are bare and not covered with any insulating covering
coating. The line conductors are, therefore, secured to the supportive structures by means
of insulating fixtures, called the insulators, in order that there is no current lea%age to the
earth through the supports. The material most commonly used for overhead line is
).orcelain. 4ut toughened glass, steatite and special composition materials are used to
limited extent. ,nsulators are required to withstand both electrical and mechanical
stresses.
,n the present wor%, we have designed a !1phase transmission system to transmit a given
power through a given distance. 5ub(ected to the constraints such as efficiency and
regulation for a given power factor of the load. 6e have also attempted mechanical
design of a transmission line. The mechanical design comprises of selection and number
of insulators, proper sag and minimum distance of the line from the ground and based on
this, we have selected a suitable tower.
1.2 HISTORY OF TRANSMISSION LINE
4efore we dig deep into the principles of Transmission 7ine 7osses, let us first review a
brief history of the power transmission line particularly with 8verhead Transmission
7ine.
2
Fig no. 1.1: &iew of a transmission
line.
The first transmission of electrical impulses over an extended distance was demonstrated
on 9uly $, :"; by the physicist 5tephen *ray, in order to show that one can transfer
electricity by that method. The demonstration used damp hemp cords suspended by sil%
threads (the low resistance of metallic conductors not being appreciated at the time'.
3owever the first practical use of overhead lines was in the context of telegraphy. 4y
<!: experimental commercial telegraph systems ran as far as ! miles ("# %m'. Electric
power transmission was accomplished in <<" with the first high voltage transmission
between =unich and =iesbach. <; saw the construction of the first three1phase
alternating current overhead line on the occasion of the ,nternational Electricity
Exhibition in >ran%furt, between 7auffen and >ran%furt.
,n ;" the first # %&1overhead power line entered service followed by the first ""#
%&1overhead power line in ;"!. ,n the ;"#s +6E /* built the first overhead line for
this voltage and in ;"? built a +hine crossing with the pylons of &oerde, two masts !<
meters high.
,n *ermany in ;2: the first !<# %& overhead power line was commissioned (between
the transformer station and +ommers%irchen'. ,n the same year the overhead line
traversing of the 5trait of =essina went into service in ,taly, whose pylons served the
Elbe crossing . This was used as the model for the building of the Elbe crossing " in the
second half of the ;:#s which saw the construction of the highest overhead line pylons
of the world. 5tarting from ;?: in +ussia, and also in the @5/ and 0anada, overhead
lines for voltage of :?2 %& were built. ,n ;<" overhead power lines were built in +ussia
between Ele%trostal and the power station at E%ibastusz, this was a three1phase
alternating current line at 2# %& (.ower line E%ibastuz1Ao%shetau'. ,n ;;;, in 9apan
the first powerline designed for ### %& with " circuits were built, the Aita1,wa%i
.owerline. ,n "##! the building of the highest overhead line commenced in 0hina, the
Bangtze +iver 0rossing.
3
CHAPTER-2
COMPONENTS OF A TRANSMISSION LINE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The transmission lines are li%e the arteries of the power system. Transmission lines act as
medium for carrying bul% energy from one substation to other. The electric energy
transmission is carried out at 3igh and Extra 3igh &oltages (E3&'. &oltage above ""#
%& is usually referred as Extra 3igh &oltage. The transmission lines can be constructed
over head or underground. The overhead lines are bare conductors with proper clearances
from earthed structures and between the phase conductors.
2.2 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
7isted below are the typical points to be considered before starting or even operating an
Electrical .ower 5ystem. These factors can be best categorized into three main pointsC
Electrical -esign, =echanical -esign D 5tructural -esign.
Electrical -esign of /0 system involvesC
power flow requirements
system stability and dynamic performance
selection of voltage level
voltage and reactive power flow control
conductor selection
losses
corona1related performance(radio, audible, and television noise'
electromagnetic field effects
insulation and over voltage design
switching arrangements
4
circuit1brea%er duties
protective relaying.
=echanical -esign includes
5ag and tension calculations
conductor composition
conductor spacing (minimum spacing to be determined under electrical design'
types of insulators
selection of conductor hardware
5tructural -esign
selection of the type of structures to be used
mechanical loading calculations
foundations
guys and anchors.
=iscellaneous features
line location
acquisition of right1of1way
profiling
locating structures
inductive coordination (considers line location and electrical calculations'
means of communication
2.3 HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF TRANSMISSION LINE
5
The following are the most common overhead transmission line componentsE
5tructures for 5upport (.oles D Towers'
6ires and 0ables (phase conductors D 83*6'
,nsulators (ceramics D polymer'
0onnectors
*uying for support
7ine /rresters
8thers (vibration damper, corona ring, spacers, etc.
2.4 CONDUCTORS IN TRANSMISSION LINE
,n the past, electric power was transmitted through the use mostly of copper conductors.
0opper is ran% among the most ideal metals for transmitting electricity due to its low
resistivity also, of which it is second to silver. 3owever, in the modern days, aluminum
replaced copper as a main material for transmitting electricity simply because of the much
lower cost and lighter weight of an aluminum conductor in contrast to a copper conductor
6
Fig no. 2.1E .icture showing most common components of a transmission line.
with the same resistance. /nother advantage of an aluminum is when compared to a
copper with the same resistance, aluminum tends to have a larger diameter. ,t is an
advantage because with a conductor with a relatively larger diameter the lines of electric
flux originating on the conductor will be farther apart at the conductor surface for the
same voltage.
E!"#$i"% "on&'"#o$
,n physics and electrical engineering, a "on&'"#o$ is a material which contains movable
electric charges. ,n metallic conductors such as copper or aluminum, the movable charged
particles are electrons. .ositive charges may also be mobile in the form of atoms bound in
a crystal lattice which are missing electrons (%nown as holes', or in the form of mobile
ions, such as in the electrolyte of a battery, or as mobile protons in proton conductors
employed in fuel cells. ,n general use, the term FconductorF is interchangeable with
Fwire.F
P()*i"*
/ll conductors contain electric charges, which will move when an electric potential
difference (measured in volts' is applied across separate points on the material. This flow
of charge (measured in amperes' is what is meant by electric current. ,n most materials,
the direct current is proportional to the voltage (as determined by 8hmGs law', provided
the temperature remains constant and the material remains in the same shape and state.
7
Fig no. 2.2 &iew of overhead conductors carry electric power.
2.4.1 CONDUCTOR MATERIALS
0opper has a high conductivity. 5ilver is more conductive, but due to cost it is not
practical in most cases. 4ecause of its ease of connection by soldering or clamping,
copper is still the most common choice for most light1gauge wires. /luminum has been
used as a conductor in housing applications for cost reasons. ,t is actually more
conductive than copper when compared by unit weight, but it has technical problems that
have led to problems when used for household and similar wiring, sometimes having led
to structural firesE
/ tendency to form an electrically resistive surface oxide within connections,
leading to heat cycling of the connection (unless protected by a well1maintained
protective paste'C
/ tendency to FcreepF during thermal cycling, causing connections to become
loose due to a low mechanical yield point of the aluminumC and
/ coefficient of thermal expansion sufficiently different from the materials used
for connections, accelerating the creep problem and addressed by using only
plugs, switches, and splices rated specifically for aluminum.
These problems do not affect other uses, and aluminum is commonly used for the low
voltage FdropF between a power pole and the household meter. ,t is also the most
common metal used in high1voltage transmission lines, in combination with steel as
structural reinforcement.
7isted below are some of the %nown types of aluminium conductors that are used by
many transmission and distribution utility worldwideC
//0 /ll1/luminium 0onductors
///0 /ll1/luminium1/lloy 0onductors
/05+ /luminium 0onductor, 5teel +einforced
/0/+ /luminium 0onductor, /lloy +einforced
-ue to the low tensile strength of aluminium, experts created a way to fill this void. They
were able to create a higher tensile strength conductor by incorporating aluminium with
8
other types of metal. /05+ which consists of a central core of steel strands surrounded
by layers of aluminium strands is now the type of configuration that are popularly used as
conductors for transmission lines.
The most common conductor materials are hard drawn copper and aluminium. Their
properties are given in table "..
T%+! 2.1: P$o,!$#i!* o- Co,,!$ %n& A'.ini'. "on&'"#o$*
Co,,!$ A'.ini'.
E!"#$i"% "on&'"#i/i#) 0*i/!$ 1 1.23 #.;:2 #.2<2
R!*i*#i/i#) 04 5-".3 .::: ".<"?
S,!"i-i" g$%/i#) <.<; ".:#
T!n*i! *#$!ng#(0 3 !.<$ to
$!#
<# to "!$
Co!--i"i!n# o- in!%$ !6,%n*ion ,!$ : "!
9
Fig. no. 2.3 /luminium with 5teel
Fig. no. 2.4 -ifferent %ind of /05+ cables according to composition
T!.,!$%#'$! "o!--i"i!n# o- $!*i*#%n"!
%# 22
#.##!;! per #.##$
R%#io o- "on&'"#i/i#i!* -o$ !7'% %$!% #.?
R%#io o- &i%.!#!$* -o$ !7'%
$!*i*#%n"!
.";
R%#io o- 8!ig(#* -o$ !7'% $!*i*#%n"! "
2.4.2 TYPES OF CONDUCTOR
. S#$%n&!& H%$& D$%8n Co,,!$. 3ard drawn copper has the advantages of very
high conductivity (i.e., very low resistivity', good tensile strength and weather
resisting properties. =any years bac% it was widely used for construction of
overhead lines. -ue to non1availability and high cost involvement, it is generally
not use in ,ndia. ,n other countries, too, it is very rarely used.
". A'.ini'.. /luminium has the advantages of much lower cost and lesser weight
as compared to copper. The fact that an aluminium conductor has a larger
diameter than a copper conductor of the same resistance is also an extra
advantage. / large diameter. >or the same voltage, leads to a lower voltage
gradient at the conductor surface with a tendency of reduced ionisation level of air
and corona.
!. A'.ini'. Con&'"#o$ S#!! R!in-o$"!& 0ACSR3. /05+ (/luminium
0onductor 5teel +einforced' conductor comprises hard drawn aluminium wires
stranded around a core of single or multiple strand galvanised steel wire. >ig.
".(b' shows an /05+ conductor having : strands of steel and !# strands of
aluminium. /luminium provides the necessary conductivity while steel provides
the necessary mechanical strength. -uring manufacture, a layer of grease is put
between aluminium and steel to reduce electrolytic action (corrosion' between
zinc and aluminium (The steel strands are galvanised with zinc'. /ll transmission
lines and most of the distribution lines use /05+ conductor. These conductors are
10
manufactured in a wide variety of sizes from 2 mm to over $# mm overall
diameter.
/luminum conductor steel reinforced (or /05+' cable is a specific type of high1
capacity, high1strength stranded cable typically used in overhead power lines. The
outer strands are aluminum, chosen for its excellent conductivity, low weight and
low cost. The center strand is of steel for the strength required to support the
weight without stretching the aluminum due to its ductility. This gives the cable
an overall high tensile strength.
$. 9%/%ni*!& S#!!. *alvanised steel conductors have been used to advantage for
extremely long spans, or for short line selections exposed to normally high
stresses due to climatic conditions. These conductors are found most suitable for
lines supplying rural areas and operating at voltages of about %&, where
cheapness is the main consideration. ,ron or steel wire use is most advantageous
for transmission of small power over a short distance, where the size of copper
conductor desirable from economical consideration comes out to be smaller than
56*, which cannot be used because of poor mechanical strength. This conductor
is not suitable for E3T lines for the purpose of transmitting large amounts of
power over a long distance due to its following propertiesE
(i' .oor conductivity, !H that of copper.
(ii' 3igh internal reactance.
(iii' ,t is sub(ected to eddy current and hysteresis.
2. C%&.i'. Co,,!$. The conductor being used in certain cases is copper alloyed
with cadmium. /ddition of or " H of cadmium in copper increase the tensile
strength by about $#H and reduces the conductivity only by :H below that of
pure copper. 3owever, cadmium copper is costlier than the pure copper. @se of
cadmium copper will be economical for a line with long spans and small cross1
section i.e. where the cost of conductor material is comparatively small in
comparison to that of supports etc. 0admium1copper conductors are also
employed for telephone and telegraph lines where currents involved are quite
11
small. 3owever, owing to scarcity of copper, cadmium1copper conductors on
communication lines are being replaced by /05+ conductors.
?. Co,,!$-"%& S#!!. / composite wire, %nown as copper1clad or copper1weld steel
wire, is obtained by welding a copper coating on a steel wire core. 7ine
conductors made of copper1clad steel are preferable stranded, and have a
considerably large tensile strength than the equivalent all1copper conductors. The
proportion of copper and steel is so chosen that the conductivity of composite wire
is !#H to $#H of that of copper conductor of equal diameter. 5uch material
appears to be very suitable for river1crossings or other places where an extremely
long span is involved.
:. P(o*,(o$ :$on;!. 6hen harmful gases such as ammonia are present in
atmosphere and the spans are extremely long, phosphor bronze is most suitable
material for an overhead line conductor. ,n this conductor some strands of
phosphor bronze are added to the cadmium copper.

(a' (b'
2.< INSULATORS
The overhead line conductors are bare and not covered with any insulating
coveringIcoating. The line conductors are, therefore, secured to the supporting structures
by means of insulating fixtures, called the insulators, in order that there is no current
12
Fig no. 2.< 5tranded 0onductors .
lea%age to the earth through the supports. ,nsulators are mounted on the cross1arms and
the line conductors are attached to the insulators so as to provide the conductors proper
insulation and also provide necessary clearances between conductors and metal wor%. The
important properties that an overhead line insulator must possess areE
. 3igh mechanical strength so as to bear the load due to the weight of line
conductors, wind force and ice loading if any.
". 3igh relative permittivity so as to provide high dielectric strength.
!. 3igh insulation resistance in order to prevent lea%age of currents to earth.
$. 3igh ratio of rupture strength to flash over voltage.
2. /bility to withstand large temperature variations i.e., it should not crac% when
sub(ected to high temperatures during summer and low temperature during winter.
The dielectric strength should remain unaffected under different conditions of
temperature and pressure.
2.<.1 INSULATOR MATERIALS
/ true in*'%#o$ is a material that does not respond to an electric field and completely
resists the flow of electric charge. ,n practice, however, perfect insulators do not exist.
Therefore, dielectric materials with high dielectric constants are considered insulators. ,n
insulating materials valence electrons are tightly bonded to their atoms. These materials
are used in electrical equipment as insulators or insulation. Their function is to support or
separate electrical conductors without allowing current through themselves. The term also
refers to insulating supports that attach electric power transmission wires to utility poles
or pylons.
The material most commonly used for overhead line insulators is porcelain but toughened
glass, steatite and special composition materials are also used to a limited extent.
. Po$"!%in. .orcelain is produced by firing at a controlled temperature a mixture of
%aolin, feldspar and quartz. ,t is mechanically stronger than glass. ,t gives less
13
trouble from lea%age, and is less susceptible to temperature variations and its
surface is not affected by dirt deposits.
8n the other hand, it is not so homogeneous as glass, owing to the fact that each
component shell of a porcelain insulator is glazed during manufacturing process
and its satisfactory performance in service depends to a considerable extent on the
preservation of this glaze which is only of the order of "2 microns in thic%ness.
/lso fault cannot detect easily as it is not transparent. ,n tension his material is
usually wea% and does not withstand tensile stresses exceeding . The
dielectric strength and compressive strength of a mechanically sound porcelain
insulator are about ?.2 %&Imm of its thic%ness and respectively.
". 9%**. *lass is cheaper than porcelain in the simpler shape and if properly
toughened and annealed gives high resistivity and dielectric strength ($ %& per
mm of thic%ness of the material'. 8wing to high dielectric strength, the glass
insulators have simpler design and even one piece design can be used. *lass is
quite homogeneous material and can withstand higher compressive stresses as
compared to porcelain. ,t has also a lower coefficient of thermal expansion which
minimises the strain due to temperature changes and owing to its transparent
nature flaws in the material can be readily detected by visual examination. The
main disadvantage of the glass is that moisture more readily condenses on its
surface and facilitates the accumulation of dirt deposits, thus giving a high surface
lea%age. /lso in large sizes the great mass of material combined with the irregular
shape, may result in internal strains after cooling. *lass insulator however, can be
used upto "2 %& under ordinary atmospheric conditions as well upto 2# %& in dry
atmosphere.
!. S#!%#i#!. 5teatite is a naturally occurring magnesium silicate, usually found
combined with oxides in varying proportions. ,t has a much higher tensile and
bending stress than porcelain and can advantageously be used at tension towers or
when a transmission line ta%es a sharp turn.
14
2.<.2 TYPES OF INSULATORS
&arious types of insulators used for overhead transmission and distribution lines areE
. Pin T),! In*'%#o$. / pin insulator is small, simple in construction and cheap. ,t
is used on lines upto and including !! %& lines. The conductor is bound into a
groove on the top of the insulator which is cemented on to a galvanised steel pin
attached to the cross arm on the pole or tower. To avoid a direct contact between
the porcelain and the metal pin, a soft metal (generally lead' thimble is used. /n
adequate length of lea%age path is obtained by providing the insulator with two or
three petticoats or rain sheds. These are so designed that even when the outer
surface of these insulator is wet due to rain, sufficient lea%age resistance is still
given by the inner dry surface. ,n its electrical behaviour, a pin type insulator may
be compared to a complicated series of conductors with resistances in series and
shunt. The petticoats with the inverting air spaces from the condenser system and
the lea%age paths over the surface and through the body of the material are
represented by the resistances.


Fig. no. 2.= .in ,nsulators (a' %& (b' !! %&
15
.in type insulators are used only up to about !! %& because for higher voltages
they tend to be very heavy and more costly than suspension type insulators.
". S'*,!n*ion T),! In*'%#o$*. The cost of a pin insulators increases very rapidly
with increase in line voltages. Therefore, suspension insulators are used for line
above !! %&. They are also %nown as disc insulators or string insulators.
Fig. no. 2.> .icture of a 5uspension ,nsulator
/ suspension insulator consists of porcelain disc units mounted above the other.
Each disc consists of a single shed of porcelain grooved on the under surface to
increase the creep age distance. The upper surface of each disc is inclined at a
suitable angle to the horizontal in order to ensure free drainage of water. Each disc
is provided with a metal cap at the top and a metal pin underneath. The cap is
recessed so as to ta%e the pin of another unit and thus a string of any required
number of units can be built up. The most commonly used disc is the cemented
cap type.
!. Po*# In*'%#o$*. These are used for supporting the bus bars, and disconnecting
switches in sub1stations. / post insulators is similar to a pin type insulator but has
a metal base and frequently a metal cap so that more than one unit can be mounted
in series. ,n extra high voltage sub1stations ($## %& and above' polycon post
insulators are used. ,n this insulator the porcelain elements are in the form of
cones smugly fitting one inside the other and bounded by special cement. The
puncture path is through many layers of porcelain cones and the voltage required
to puncture this path is many times the external flash over voltages so that
insulator is almost puncture proof.
16
Fig. no. 2.? .icture of a .ost ,nsulator
$. S#$%in In*'%#o$*. These are special mechanically strong suspension insulators
and are used to ta%e the tension of the conductors at the line terminations and at
positions where there is a change in the direction of line. The discs of a strain
insulator are in a vertical plane as compared to the discs of suspension insulator
which are in a horizontal plane. 8n extra long spans, viz, at river crossings, two or
three strings of strain insulators, arranged in parallel, are often used.
Fig. no. 2.@ .icture of a 5train ,nsulator
The electrical brea%down of an insulator due to excessive voltage can occur in one of two
waysE
Puncture voltage is the voltage across the insulator (when installed in its normal
manner' which causes a brea%down and conduction through the interior of the
insulator. The heat resulting from the puncture arc usually damages the insulator
irreparably.
Flashover voltage is the voltage which causes the air around or along the surface
of the insulator to brea% down and conduct, causing a GflashoverG arc along the
outside of the insulator. They are usually designed to withstand this without
damage.
17
=ost high voltage insulators are designed with a lower flashover voltage than puncture
voltage, so they will flash over before they puncture, to avoid damage. -irt, pollution,
salt, and particularly water on the surface of a high voltage insulator can create a
conductive path across it, causing lea%age currents and flashovers. The flashover voltage
can be more than 2#H lower when the insulator is wet. 3igh voltage insulators for
outdoor use are shaped to maximize the length of the lea%age path along the surface from
one end to the other, called the creepage length, to minimize these lea%age currents. To
accomplish this surface is molded into a series of corrugations or concentric dis% shapes.
These usually include one or more shedsC downward facing cup1shaped surfaces that act
as umbrellas to ensure that the part of the surface lea%age path under the GcupG stays dry in
wet weather. =inimum creep age distances are "#J"2 mmI%&, but must be increased in
high pollution or airborne sea1salt areas.
2.= LINE SUPPORTS
The function of line support is obviously to support the conductors. 7ine support must be
capable of carrying the load due to insulator and conductors including the ice and wind
loads on the conductor along with the wind load on the support itself.
The main requirements of the line supports areE
. 3igh mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors and wind
loads etc.
". 7ight in weight without the loss of mechanical strength.
!. 0heaper in cost.
$. 7ow maintenance cost.
2. 7onger life.
The choice of line supports for a particular situation depends upon the line span, cross1
sectional area, line voltage, cost and local conditions
18
Fig. no. 2.12 .icture showing different parameters of a transmission line.
2.=.1 TYPES OF LINE SUPPORTS
The line supports are of various types including wood, steel and reinforced concrete poles
and steel towers either of the rigid or flexible type.
. Woo&!n Po!*. These supports are cheapest, easily available, provide insulating
properties and therefore, are extensively used for the distribution purposes
specially in rural electrification %eeping the cost low. Their use is usually limited
to low pressures (upto ""%&' and for short spans (upto ?# meters'. The wooden
poles well impregnated with creosite oil or any preservative have life from "2 to
!# years. 6ooden poles are very elastic and lines employing wooden supports are
often designed throughout for the transverse load. 7ongitudinal strength at
terminals and for anchor support is provided by means of guys. -ouble pole
structures of / or 3 types are often employed for obtaining a higher transverse
strength than that could be economically provided by means of single poles.
19
Fig. no. 2.11 .icture of a 6ooden .ole.
". RCC Po!*. .oles made of reinforced cement concrete (+00', usually called the
concrete poles, are extensively used for low voltage distribution lines upto !! %&.
Their construction should conform to the standard specification for +00 wor%,
but in low case the dimension shall be less "2 cm "2 cm at the bottom and !cm
!cm at the top. These poles are of two types in shape. 8ne type is square cross1
section from bottom to top. The other type has rectangular bottom and square top
with rectangular holes in it to facilitate the climbing of poles and reduce the
weight of poles. These give good appearance, require no maintenance, have got
insulating properties and resistance against chemical action, very strong, have
longer life and can be used for longer spans (<#1"## m'. 5uch poles are most
suitable for water logged situations where other types will not be at all suitable, as
due to standing water wooden poles will decay very rapidly, and steel construction
will be having deposit of rust. 5ince these poles are very bul%y and heavy,
therefore, transportation cost is heavy and need care in handling and erection.
20
Fig. no. 2.12 .icture of a +00 .ole.
!. S#!! Po!*. The steel poles are of three types (i' tubular poles (ii' rail poles and
(iii' rolled steel (oists. The tubular poles are of round cross1sections, the rail poles
are of the shape of trac% used for railways and rolled steel (oists are of , cross1
sections. 5uch poles possess greater mechanical strength and permit use of longer
spans (2#1<# m' but cost is higher. Their life is longer than that of wooden poles
and life is increased by regular painting. These poles are set in concrete muffs at
the foundation in order to protect them from chemical action. The average life of
steel poles is more than $# years.
21
Fig. no. 2.13 .icture of a 5teel .ole
$. L%##i"! S#!! To8!$*: The steel tubular poles and concrete poles are usually used
for distribution in urban area to give good appearance and steel rails or narrow1
base, lattice1steel towers are used for transmission at %& and !! %& and broad1
base lattice1steel towers are used for transmission purposes at ?? %& and above.
The broad1base, lattice1steel towers are mechanically stronger and have got longer
life. -ue to their robust construction long spans (!## m or above' can be used and
are much useful for crossing fields, valleys, railways lines, river etc.
Fig. no. 2.14 .icture of a 7attice 5teel Tower
CHAPTER-3
22
DESI9N OF TRANSMISSION LINE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The design of a transmission line involves a number of technical and economical aspects.
The power capacity and distance of transmission are specified. The voltage regulation and
efficiency are also specified. The design details include line voltage, size of phase
conductors, span, spacing and configuration of conductors, number and size of earth
wires, number of insulators, clearances, sag under operating and erection conditions, etc.
8nce these design features are available, the voltage regulation and efficiency can be
calculated.
3.2 CHOICE OF AOLTA9E
The cost and performance of the line depend, to a great extent, on the line voltage. /n
empirical formula for optimum voltage is
& (!.'
6here & K line voltage in %&
7 K distance in %m
. K power in %6
/ standard voltage nearest to this value should be adopted.
The above formula gives only a preliminary estimate. The choice of the most economical
voltage requires a detailed study of many technical and economical aspects. 8ne a
preliminary estimate is available a detailed analysis is necessary. This becomes all the
more necessary when the final choice is li%ely to fall in E3&I@3& range.
5ystem &oltages in Transmission 7ines
23
Table shown is the standard system voltages from /L5, standards 0<$ and 0;"."
/ccording to /L5, standards 0<$ and 0;".", system voltages are recommend to be
within the table shown below. !$2%&, 2##%& and :?2%& are considered to be in the Extra
3igh &oltage (E3&' level. The choice of system voltage is in the decision of the utility.
3owever, some points needs to be considered in choosing such, li%e voltage economics,
conductors, distances, equipments, etc.
T%+! no. 3.1 S#%n&%$& /o#%g!* i*#!& in ANSI *#%n&%$&* C?4 %n& [email protected]
3.3 SELECTION OF CONDUCTOR SIBE
The cost of conductor size is about !# to $2 percent of the total cost of the line. =oreover
the cost of towers, foundation and line losses also depend on the conductor size. / proper
selection of the size of phase conductors is, therefore, very important.
8verhead transmission lines invariably use /05+ conductors. These conductors are
manufactured in a variety of sizes (/ppendix /'.
The size of the conductors should be such that it can carry the rated current continuously
without excessive rise in temperature. The temperature affects the sag and the loss of the
tensile strength (due to annealing' of the conductor. >or copper and aluminium, annealing
starts at about and the operating temperature should be well below this value. The
standard practice is to design the line for a conductor temperature of .
24
The temperature rise of the conductor depends on the conductor heating due to loss
and heat dissipation. ,n overhead lines heat is dissipated by convection and radiation. /
steady temperature will be reached when
(!."'
6here K rms value of conductor current, amperes.
K ac resistance of conductors, ohmsImeter length.
K heat loss due to convection, watts per surface area.
K heat loss due to radiation, watts per surface area.
K conductor surface area per meter length.
The heat loss due to convection is given by the equation.
(!.!'
6here p K pressure in atmosphere, Ta is the temperature of air in , v is the velocity of
air in mIsec, d is the diameter of the conductor in m and is the difference between the
temperatures of conductor and air. The above formula is valid is v #.2 mIsec and d
m.
The heat loss due to radiation is proportional to the difference of the fourth power of the
temperature of the conductor and the surroundings. This loss can be found from the
equation
25
(!.$'
The T is the conductor temperature in , T" is the temperature of surroundings and e
is the relative emissivity of the surface (e K .# for blac% body and about #.2 for oxidised
copper'.
3.4 CHOICE OF SPAN
/ longer span means a smaller number of towers but the towers are taller and more
costly. The higher the operating voltages, the greater should be the span to reduce the
high cost of insulators. =oreover the insulators constitute the wea%est part of a
transmission line and a reduction in the number of towers per %m (by using longer span'
increases the reliability of the line. >or every proposed line there is a definite length of
span which will give the minimum cost of the line. >rom mechanical consideration there
is a maximum value of span for each conductor size. =any a time it happens that the
conductor size, as determined from electrical calculations is very small and it is possible
to reduce the cost of line by using thic%er and stronger conductor so that a longer span
may be employed. 5ometimes it is not feasible to determine the tower height and span
length on the basis of the line cost alone because lighting hazards increase greatly as the
height of conductors above ground is increased. =odern high voltage lines have spans
between "## to $## m. >or river and ravine crossings exceptionally long spans up to <##
m or so have been satisfactory employed.
S,!"i-i"%#ion*
7ong span overhead transmission line
=inimum wear
/nti1loose
6ell corrosion resistance
26
Easy installation
C(%$%"#!$i*#i"*
1. >or a single wire material, whether it is damaged or continue, preformed line splicing
section ##H recoverable mechanical strength, and the length of the connecting wire
inside can greatly improve conductivity.
2. >or /05+ for repair were not damaged, steel core, wire aluminium wire connecting
section can be restored to ##H strength and #H of the steel core strength, and the
installation of wires within the article follow, lead performance greatly improved .
3. ,f the steel core damage, please select the article follow the whole tension.
T%+! 3.2: T(! '*'% *,%n*
Wi#( 8oo&!n ,o!* 42-<2 .
Wi#( *#!! #'+'%$ ,o!* 2#1<# m
Wi#( RCC ,o!* <#1"## m
Wi#( *#!! #o8!$* "##1$## m and above
3.< CHOICE OF CONDUCTORS
=any conductor configurations are used in practice. There is no special advantage in
using symmetrical configuration and in most cases flat horizontal or vertical
configuration are used from mechanical consideration. / flat horizontal configuration
means a lesser tower height but a wider right of way. / vertical configuration means a
taller tower and increased lighting hazards. ,n spite of these facts, flat horizontal and
vertical configuration is used in many cases. >or single circuit lines an 7 type
configuration is quite popular.
/ transmission line may be a single circuit line or double circuit line. / double circuit
line has a higher power transfer capability and greater reliability than a single circuit line.
Each circuit of a double circuit line is usually designed for :2H of the line capacity. ,n
,ndia, both single circuit and double circuit lines exist in the E3& and high voltage class
(?? %&, !" %&, ""# %& and $## %&'. ,n foreign countries also both single and double
circuit line exist. The number of circuits for a proposed line can be determined from the
surge impedance loading (5,7'.
27
3.= SPACIN9S AND CLEARANCES
There must be adequate spacing between conductors so that they do not come within
spar%ing distance of each other even while swinging due to wind. /n empirical formula
commonly used for determining the spacing of aluminium conductor lines is
5pacing K meters (!.2'
6here 5 K 5ag in meters
& K 7ine voltage in %&
T%+! 3.3: So.! #),i"% /%'!* o- *,%"ing
Lin! /o#%g!0CA3 2.4 11 33 == 132 222 422
S,%"ing 0.3 #." ." ".# ".2 !.2 ?.# .2

The ,ndian Electricity +ules specify the minimum clearance between the ground and the
conductor. These values areE
T%+! 3.4: Mini.'. "!%$%n"! +!#8!!n #(! g$o'n& %n& #(! "on&'"#o$
CA 2.4 11 33 == 132 222
C!%$%n"! #o g$o'n&
0%3 A"$o** S#$!!# 0.3 2.< 2.< ?. ?. ?. :.#
0+3 Aong S#$!!# 0.3 2.2 2.2 2.< ?. ?. :.#
0"3 O#(!$ A$!%* 0.3 $.? $.? 2." 2.2 ?. :.#
These rules also specify the minimum clearance for power lines from buildings, railway
trac%s and telecommunication lines, etc.
3.> INSULATION DESI9N
28
The insulation design affects the performance of the line to a great extent. 7ine insulation
should be sufficient to ta%e care of switching over voltages, temporary over voltages and
atmospheric over voltages.
The insulation level of the transmission lines is based on the switching surge expectancy
on the system. The maximum switching surge over voltage to the ground is ta%en as ".2
p.u and the insulation is designed for this voltage. ,n addition adequate protection against
atmospheric over voltages (direct lighting stro%es' is provided. ,n E3& and @3& lines
over voltages due to switching surge assume a greater importance than atmospheric over
voltages.
D!#!$.in%#ion o- in! in*'%#ion:
The insulation of line has to be based upon the consideration or lightning and switching
surges and power frequency over voltages.
6ith the present day %nowledge of lightning behaviour it is possible to build lines to a
certain predetermined level of performance. ,n case of high voltage lines of !" %& and
above, these can be made particularly lightning proof by (i' efficient sliding, (ii' low
tower footing impedances. *ood shielding is obtained when the shielding angel is about
!#
#
and similarly optimum conditions are generally obtained when the tower1footing
impedance is reduced to about # ohms.
The line insulation must be sufficient to prevent a flashover from the power frequency
over1voltage and the switching surges, ta%ing into account all the local unfavourable
circumstances which decrease the flash1over voltage (rain, dust, insulator pollution, etc.'.
it is usual to adopt the following over1voltage factorsE
T%+! no. 3.<: O/!$ /o#%g! -%"#o$*
S8i#"(ing *'$g! -%*(-o/!$
/o#%g!
Po8!$ -$!7'!n") -%*(-
o/!$ 08!#3
Fo$ 222 CA ?.2 &
pn
#.! &
pn
Fo$ 422 CA 2.# &
pn
!.! &
pn
6here &
pn
is the phase to neutral voltage (rms.'
29
,t is a good practice to ma%e an allowance for one or more insulator discs to ta%e care of
the possibility of an insulator unit in the string becoming defective, and also for hot line
maintenance, over and above those required to withstand the above flash1over values.
/ccordingly, for lines upto ""#%&, one extra disc, and $## %& lines two extra discs may
be used.
T%+! no. 3.= F.O.A. o- *#%n&%$& Di*"* 02<4D14= ..3
No. O- Di*"*

"
!
$
2
?
:
<
;
#

"
!
$
2
?
:
<
;
"#
"2
D$) FOA CA $.*.
<#
22
"2
":#
!"2
!<#
$!2
$<2
2$#
2;#
?$#
?;#
:!2
:<2
<!#
<:2
;"#
;?2
##
#22
"<#
W!# FOA CA $.*.
2#
;#
!#
:#
"2
"22
";2
!!2
!:2
$2
$22
$;#
2"2
2?2
?##
?!#
??#
?;#
:"#
:2#
;##
I.,'*!
FOA0*#%n&%$& -'
8%/!*3 CA "$!*#
2#
"22
2!
$$#
2"2
?#
?;2
:<#
<?#
;$2
#"2
#2
<2
"?2
!$2
$"2
2#2
2<2
??2
:$2
"$2
30
!# 2#2 #2# "22#
,n the light of the above discussion, the number of isolator discs of "2$M$? mm size
required to withstand switching surge and the power1frequency over1 voltage for !" %&,
""#%&, and $## %& lines is given belowE
T%+! no. 3.> R!"o..!n&!& In*'%#ion L!/! -o$ Lin!*
Lormal
system
voltage(%&
'
&
pn
%&
5witching
over1voltage
%& crest
Lo.
8f
-isc
s
reqd.
.ower freq.
8ver1
voltage
(wet' %&
Lo.
8f
-isc
s
reqd.
Lo. 8f -iscs
+ecommende
d
Employe
d at
present
!"
""#
$##
:?
"
:
"!

:?M?.2K$;2
":M?.2K<"
2
"!M2K2
2
2
;
!
:?M!K""<
":M!K!<
"!M!.!K:?
"
?
#
"#
:

""
;I#
2I?
"$
,t can be wor%ed out to see that lines wor%ing at voltages !" %& and above are immune
to lightning provided, of course, if proper shielding and low tower footing resistance are
provided. >or example, assuming a value of 2# %/ (rms.' for the severest lightning
discharge and a tower footing resistance of about # ohm, the required impulse strength
of the insulation should be N"M2#M#
!
M# i.e. :## %& for a line to be immune from
lightning affects. :discs as recommended in table above for a !" %& line, would provide
impulse strength of almost (?;2 %&' the same value (:## %&', still better results in this
case can be obtained by reducing the tower footing resistance. >or !" %& lines the
maximum tower footing resistance %ept is : ohms.
31
3.? SELECTION OF 9ROUND WIRE
The primary function of ground wires is to shield the phase conductors from the lightning
stro%es. They are placed above the phase conductors and are grounded at everyIalternate
towers. Thus they help in dissipating the lightning currents to the ground.
The selection of the number and configuration of the ground wires is of great importance
in the protection of transmission line against direct stro%es. The number of ground wires
may be one or two. / shielding angle of about !# is considered to be adequate for high
voltage lines. 3owever, for high voltages lines in areas with low lightning hazards,
shielding angle up to $2 have been used. E3& lines are usually provided with two
ground wires and the shielding angle for such lines is %ept at about "# . To prevent bac%
flashover from the earthed metal to the phase conductors, the tower footing resistance
should not exceed # ohms. The vertical separation between the ground wires and phase
conductors should be greater at mid span than at the supports, i.e., the ground wire should
have lesser sage as compared to the phase conductors. The material most commonly used
for ground wires is galvanised steel.
/ ground wire should be able to carry the maximum expected lightning current, without
undue heating. ,t should also have sufficient mechanical strength. Experience has shown
that if a ground wire is mechanically strong, it can carry the maximum, it can carry the
maximum lightning current without excessive heating. Therefore, the size of ground wire
is generally decided on the basis of mechanical strength.
3.@ EAALUATION OF LINE PERFORMANCE
The line parameters are used to evaluate the efficiency and regulation. ,t is sufficiently
accurate to represent the line by a nominal or circuit for the efficiency and regulation
calculations. 3owever, if the line is very long, the calculations should be based on /40-
constants. ,f the efficiency and regulations are not within the prescribed values, it may be
necessary to revise the design by selecting a thic% conductor cross1section and changing
32
the conductor configuration. ,n some cases it may be necessary to use a higher
transmission voltage in the revised design.
3.12 HEI9HT OF TOWER
Lumber of insulation strings K x
3eight of one string K h

Total height of insulation strings K x M h

=inimum clearance between the ground and the conductor K h

' O h
"
O h
!
(!.?'
3.11 LOSSES IN TRANSMISSION LINES
Total transmission line losses can be bro%en down into three relevant parts namelyC
conductor losses, dielectric heating D radiation losses, and coupling D corona losses.
Con&'"#o$ Lo**!*:
0onductor losses is also popularly %nown as line heating losses since electric current
that passes through a conductor releases heat. ,t is %nown that any metallic materials
possess inherent resistive nature that is why it is inevitable that during electrical flow
through these materials unavoidable power loss occurs. Typical transmission line
conductors consist of resistance that is uniformly distributed throughout the systemC as a
result it is safe to say that the total power loss in the line is directly proportional to the
square of the current that passes and the total resistance of the wire. ,n addition to that,
resistance of the wire is inversely proportional to the diameter of the conductor thus, the
bigger the wire diameter, the lower resistance it can give.
The discussion of transmission lines so far has not directly addressed 7,LE 7855E5C
actually some line losses occur in all lines. 7ine losses may be any of three types 1
08..E+, -,E7E0T+,0, and +/-,/T,8L or ,L-@0T,8L 7855E5.
NOTEE Transmission lines are sometimes referred to as rf lines. ,n this text the terms are
used interchangeably.
Co,,!$ Lo**!*
33
8ne type of copper loss is ,
"
+ 7855. ,n rf lines the resistance of the conductors is never
equal to zero. 6henever current flows through one of these conductors, some energy is
dissipated in the form of heat. This heat loss is a .86E+ 7855. 6ith copper braid,
which has a resistance higher than solid tubing, this power loss is higher.
/nother type of copper loss is due to 5A,L E>>E0T. 6hen dc flows through a
conductor, the movement of electrons through the conductorGs cross section is uniform.
The situation is somewhat different when ac is applied. The expanding and collapsing
fields about each electron encircle other electrons. This phenomenon, called 5E7>
,L-@0T,8L, retards the movement of the encircled electrons. The flux density at the
center is so great that electron movement at this point is reduced. /s frequency is
increased, the opposition to the flow of current in the center of the wire increases. 0urrent
in the center of the wire becomes smaller and most of the electron flow is on the wire
surface. 6hen the frequency applied is ## megahertz or higher, the electron movement
in the center is so small that the center of the wire could be removed without any
noticeable effect on current. Bou should be able to see that the effective cross1sectional
area decreases as the frequency increases. 5ince resistance is inversely proportional to the
cross1sectional area, the resistance will increase as the frequency is increased. /lso, since
power loss increases as resistance increases, power losses increase with an increase in
frequency because of s%in effect.
Di!!"#$i" Lo**!*
-,E7E0T+,0 7855E5 result from the heating effect on the dielectric material between
the conductors. .ower from the source is used in heating the dielectric. The heat produced
is dissipated into the surrounding medium. 6hen there is no potential difference between
two conductors, the atoms in the dielectric material between them are normal and the
orbits of the electrons are circular. 6hen there is a potential difference between two
conductors, the orbits of the electrons change. The excessive negative charge on one
conductor repels electrons on the dielectric toward the positive conductor and thus
distorts the orbits of the electrons. / change in the path of electrons requires more energy,
introducing a power loss.
The atomic structure of rubber is more difficult to distort than the structure of some other
dielectric materials. The atoms of materials, such as polyethylene, distort easily.
34
Therefore, polyethylene is often used as a dielectric because less power is consumed
when its electron orbits are distorted.
R%&i%#ion %n& In&'"#ion Lo**!*
+/-,/T,8L and ,L-@0T,8L 7855E5 are similar in that both are caused by the fields
surrounding the conductors. ,nduction losses occur when the electromagnetic field about
a conductor cuts through any nearby metallic ob(ect and a current is induced in that
ob(ect. /s a result, power is dissipated in the ob(ect and is lost.
+adiation losses occur because some magnetic lines of force about a conductor do not
return to the conductor when the cycle alternates. These lines of force are pro(ected into
space as radiation and this results in power losses. That is, power is supplied by the
source, but is not available to the load.
Co$on% o**
0orona as defined by ,EEE standard 2!;1;;#
.ower lost due to corona process. 8n overhead power lines, this loss is expressed in watts
per meter (6Im' or %ilowatts per %ilometre (%6I%m'. / luminous discharge due to
ionization of the air surrounding an electrode caused by a voltage gradient exceeding a
certain critical value is called corona.
W(%# i* Co$on% E--!"#E
8ne of the phenomena associated with all energized electrical devices, including high1
voltage transmission lines, is corona. The localized electric field near a conductor can be
sufficiently concentrated to ionize air close to the conductors. This can result in a partial
discharge of electrical energy called a corona discharge, or corona.
W(%# i* Co$on%E
Electric transmission lines can generate a small amount of sound energy as a
result of corona.
0orona is a phenomenon associated with all transmission lines. @nder certain
conditions, the localized electric field near energized components and conductors
35
can produce a tiny electric discharge or corona that causes the surrounding air
molecules to ionize, or undergo a slight localized change of electric charge.
@tility companies try to reduce the amount of corona because in addition to the
low levels of noise that result, corona is a power loss, and in extreme cases, it can
damage system components over time.
0orona occurs on all types of transmission lines, but it becomes more noticeable
at higher voltages (!$2 %& and higher'. @nder fair weather conditions, the audible
noise from corona is minor and rarely noticed.
-uring wet and humid conditions, water drops collect on the conductors and
increase corona activity. @nder these conditions, a crac%ling or humming sound
may be heard in the immediate vicinity of the line.
0orona results in a power loss. .ower losses li%e corona result in operating
inefficiencies and increase the cost of service for all ratepayersC a ma(or concern
in transmission line design is the reduction of losses.
So'$"! o- Co$on%:
The amount of corona produced by a transmission line is a function of the voltage
of the line, the diameter of the conductors, the locations of the conductors in
relation to each other, the elevation of the line above sea level, the condition of the
conductors and hardware, and the local weather conditions
The electric field gradient is greatest at the surface of the conductor. 7arge1
diameter conductors have lower electric field gradients at the conductor surface
and, hence, lower corona than smaller conductors, everything else being equal.
,rregularities (such as nic%s and scrapes on the conductor surface or sharp edges
on suspension hardware' concentrate the electric field at these locations and thus
increase the electric field gradient and the resulting corona at these spots.
0orona also increases at higher elevations where the density of the atmosphere is
less than at sea level. /udible noise will vary with elevation.
+aindrops, snow, fog, hoarfrost, and condensation accumulated on the conductor
surface are also sources of surface irregularities that can increase corona.
36
3owever, during wet weather, the number of these sources increases (for instance
due to rain drops standing on the conductor' and corona effects are therefore
greater.
0orona produced on a transmission line can be reduced by the design of the
transmission line and the selection of hardware and conductors used for the
construction of the line.
P()*i"% P%$%.!#!$* o- Co$on%:
0orona is caused by the ionization of the media (air' surrounding the electrode
(conductor'
0orona onset is a function of voltage
0orona onset is a function of relative air density
0orona onset is a function of relative humidity
M!#(o&* #o $!&'"! Co$on% Di*"(%$g! E--!"#:
. :) .ini.i;ing #(! /o#%g! *#$!** %n& !!"#$i" -i!& g$%&i!n#.: This is
accomplished by using utilizing good high voltage design practices, i.e.,
maximizing the distance between conductors that have large voltage differentials,
using conductors with large radii, and avoiding parts that have sharp points or
sharp edges.
". S'$-%"! T$!%#.!n#*: 0orona inception voltage can sometimes be increased by
using a surface treatment, such as a semiconductor layer, high voltage putty or
corona dope.
!. Ho.og!no'* In*'%#o$*: @se a good, homogeneous insulator. &oid free solids,
such as properly prepared silicone and epoxy potting materials wor% well.
$. I- )o' %$! i.i#!& #o '*ing %i$ %* )o'$ in*'%#o$F then you are left with geometry
as the critical parameter. >inally, ensure that steps are ta%en to reduce or eliminate
unwanted voltage transients, which can cause corona to start.
2. U*ing :'n&!& Con&'"#o$*: on our !$2 %& lines, we have installed multiple
conductors per phase. This is a common way of increasing the effective diameter
37
of the conductor, which in turn results in less resistance, which in turn reduces
losses.
?. Ei.in%#ion o- *(%$, ,oin#*: electric charges tend to form on sharp pointsC
therefore when practicable we strive to eliminate sharp points on transmission line
components.
:. U*ing Co$on% $ing*: 8n certain new !$2 %& structures, we are now installing
corona rings. These rings have smooth round surfaces which are designed to
distribute charge across a wider area, thereby reducing the electric field and the
resulting corona discharges.
<. W!%#(!$: 0orona phenomena much worse in foul weather, high altitude
;. N!8 Con&'"#o$: Lew conductors can lead to poor corona performance for a
while.
#. :) in"$!%*ing #(! *,%"ing +!#8!!n #(! "on&'"#o$*: 0orona -ischarge Effect
can be reduced by increasing the clearance spacing between the phases of the
transmission lines. 3owever increase in the phases results in heavier metal
supports. 0ost and 5pace requirement increases.
Co$on% D!#!"#ion
7ight @ltraviolet radiationE 0orona can be visible in the form of light, typically a
purple glow, as corona generally consists of micro arcs. -ar%ening the
environment can help to visualize the corona.
5ound (hissing, or crac%ing as caused by explosive gas expansions'E Bou can
often hear corona hissing or crac%ing 5ound.
,n addition, you can sometimes smell the presence of ozone that was produced by
the corona.
5alts, sometimes seen as white powder deposits on 0onductor.
=echanical erosion of surfaces by ion bombardment
3eat (although generally very little, and primarily in the insulator'
38
0arbon deposits, thereby creating a path for severe arcing
The corona discharges in insulation systems result in voltage transients. These
pulses are superimposed on the applied voltage and may be detected, which is
precisely what corona detection equipment loo%s for.
Po8!$ -%"#o$
.ower >actor is defined in the fundamentals of electrical engineering as the cosine of the
phase angle between the voltage and the current. /n inductive circuit is said to have a
lagging power factor, and a capacitive circuit is said to have a leading power factor
indicate, respectively, whether the current is lagging or leading the applied voltage.
(5tevenson 9r.'
CHAPTER-4
SAMPLE EGAMPLE
E6%.,!:
,t is proposed to transmit <# =6 at #.; power factor lagging over a distance of 2# %m.
The line efficiency and regulation at full load should be better than ;2H and #H
respectively. 6or% out the following details of the transmission line. =a%e suitable
39
assumptions.
(a' 5elect line voltage and number of circuits.
(b' 0hoose proper conductor and span for this line.
(c' 5elect a suitable value of inter1phase spacing and a suitable configuration of
conductors.
(d' 0alculate line parameters. Estimate the line efficiency regulation for full load
condition.
(e' Estimate corona loss.
(f' >ind the capacity of shunt compensation equipment to improve the receiving end
power factor to #.;2 lagging.
(g' Estimate line efficiency and regulation for full load at #.;2 power factor lagging.
(h' The line will be erected a temperature of !#P0 in still air condition. ,t is desired that a
factor of safety of ".2 should be maintained under bad weather condition when the
temperature is 2P0 and wind load is !:< LIm
"
of pro(ected area. >ind the sag and tension
under erection condition. /lso find the sag under the bad weather conditions.
(i' 5elect a suitable number and size of ground wires for this time.
So'#ion:-
(a' @sing Eq. (!.' the optimum line voltage is,

"

## ? .
2 . 2
,
_

+
P L
V
6here, K 7ine voltage in %&.
K -istance in %m.
40
K .ower in %6.
K %&
K ?$.$! %&
The nearest standard line voltage is ""# %&. Therefore it should be a ""# %& line. The
surge impedance of a single circuit line is about $## ohms.
5urge impedance loading (5,7' K
K
K " =6
5ince the required power transfer is less than 5,7, a single circuit is sufficient.
(b' K
K /
K "!!.": /
7et the ambient temperature be . Therefore, temperature rise of can be allowed.
+eferring to /ppendix /, a suitable conductor for this current is /05+ ?II!.?? mm
conductor .
,t is necessary to calculate the line losses and the line efficiency to chec% the suitability of
this conductor. 7ine losses are approximately equal to where is the total line
resistance per phase .
MINH 0ACSR =I1I3.== ..3 :-
41
>or the /05+ ?II!.?? mm conductor the resistance at is #.$2?2 QI%m. To
calculate the resistance at we use Eq.,

K
K
"$<
!#!
K
K
K .2? QI%m
K
L r
:2
K#.2?
K <$ ohms
7ine efficiency K
K .<2 or <2H
The efficiency is very poor. 3ence this conductor size is not suitable.
TI9ER 032I>I2.3= ..3:-
,f we choose the /05+ conductor !#I:I".!? mm conductor. The resistance of this
conductor at is #."""# ohmsI%m.
:2
r
K
"$<
!#!
"#
r
42
K
K #.": ohmsI%m
+ K
K $#.?< ohms
7ine efficiency K
losses r outputpowe
r outputpowe
+
K
K #.;"!!
K ;".!!H
The efficiency is still poor, that shows Tiger is still not a correct selection.
PANTHER 032I>I3.2..3:-
>or the /05+ !#I:I!.# mm conductor the resistance at is #.$# ohmsI%m.
K
K #.: ohmsI%m
+ K
K "2.?2 ohms
7ine efficiency K
( ) ( ) [ ] ?2 . "2 ": . "!! ! # <#
# <#
" ?
?
+

K #.;2 or ;2H
The /05+ conductor !#I:I!.# mm (./LT3E+' has much higher current rating than the
rated current of the purpose line. The line efficiency for this conductor will be higher than
;2H
43
H!n"! #(! "(%$%"#!$i*#i"* o- #(i* "on&'"#o$ %$!:
Lumber of aluminium strands K !#
-iameter of each /l strand K !.# mm.
Lumber of steel strands K :
-iameter of each steel strand K !.# mm
overall diameter K " mm
6eight of conductor K ;:$ %gI%m
@ltimate strength K <;.?: %L
0ross section area of /l K "". sq mm
The conditions governing the selection of span has been discussed in section !.$.
3ence experience has shown that a 5pan of !## m is suitable for a ""# %& line.
=inimum clearance between the ground and the conductor is estimated as : m using
Table !.$
Lumber of insulation strings is calculated as ? using Table !.:
Low using Table !.? total insulation string length K #."2$ M ? K $ m
3ence, total tower height using eq. !.? is calculated as $ O : O ? K : m
(c' /s per values given in Table !.!, an inter1phase spacing of ? meters is suitable for a
""# %& line. The conductor configuration can be horizontal or 71type. 0hoose horizontal
configuration and ? meters spacing between ad(acent phases (" meters between the two
phases'.
(d' K
44
K :.22;2 m
- K " mm
so, r K
"
"
mm
K #.2 mm
1
!
# 2 . #

m
*eometric mean radius (*=+',
K r ::<< . #
K
!
# 2 . # ::<< . #

m
K m
7ine inductance K m3I%m
K m3I%m
K .!? m3I%m
,mpedence R K +O(S7 K +O("Tf 7 (where l K length of transmission line'
K ohmsIphase
K "2.?2O j?$. ohmsIphase
K " . ?< #$ . ?; ohmsIphase
7ine capacitance K

,
_

G
log
#"$" . #
r
D
eq U>I%m
K U>I%m
K V3I%m
B K S0
45
K
K siemensIphase
5ince the length of the line is 2# %m, a sufficiently accurate results can be obtained by
the nominal T or T representation. 7et we use nominal T representation.

( )( ) + +

;# # ?? . !;< " . ?< #$ . ?;
"

"

?
ZY
K

( ) ( )( )
1
]
1

+
,
_

+

;# # ?? . ;!< " . ?< #$ . ?;
$

;# # ?? . !;<
$

? ?
ZY
Y
K
K
V
!

(V K voltage of transmission line in volts'

1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

1
]
1

r
r
s
s
I
V
ZY ZY
Y
Z
ZY
I
V
"

"

K
K
46
K!::$2.;: $<
K
K
K "!.! ": . ! /
5ending end power factor K
K #.;2 lagging
5ending power factor K
K
?
# ;2 . # ! . "! ;: . !::$2 !


K <!.<! =6
7ine efficiency K
K ;2.$!H
at no load K
"

ZY
V
s
+
K
;<: . #
;: . !::$2
K !;2?#."2!! &
+egulation K
K
##
":#:
":#: "2!! . !;2?#

K
(e' Ta%ing W K , .ressure(p' K :$ cm of mercury
/nd usin

":!
<? . ! p

K
2# ":!
:$ <? . !
+

47
K #.<<$
7et, K #.<$
@sing equation,

,
_

r
D
m r V
eq
d
ln
"
# !
?

,
_

!
!
?
# 2 . #
22;2 . :
ln <$ . # <<$ . # # 2 . #
"
# !
d
V

2 . #<
d
V
Av

!
#
2 . #<
":#:


d
r
V
V
K .:
" .
@sing table given in section ?.$
> K #.#<
0orona loss K
K
K #.??
The corona loss (
c
P
' of less than #." %6IphaseI%m is considered to be tolerable. 3ence
the corona loss for this line is within limits.
Total corona loss K #.?? 2# !
K :$.: %6
(f' 6hen K lagging
K #.$<$!
+eceiving end reactive power K
48
K !<.:$$ =&ar lagging
6hen K lagging
K
+eceiving end reactive power K !"<: . # <#
K "?.";? =&ar lagging
0apacity of shunt capacitors to improve the receiving end power factor from #.; lagging
to #.;2 lagging K ";? . "? :$$ . !<
K ".$$< =&ar leading
(g' 6hen the receiving end power factor has been improved to #.;2 lagging.
K
K
K ""#.;;
K /
K "" "# . < /
K
K
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) + " . ?< #$ . ?; "# . < "" ! . # ;<: . # # ":#:

K &

,
_

+ +
,
_

+
"

Y Z
I
Y Z
Y V I
r r s
K
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) +

! . # ;<: . # "# . < "" $ . ;# # . !;? # ":#:
?
49
K "#<." ? . $ /
5ending end power factor K
K #.;<2 lagging
5ending end power K
K <!.$: <!.2 =6
7ine efficiency K
K ;2.< H
at no load K
"

Y Z
V
s
+
K
;<: . #
! . !2:!$
K !:2".; !:2"" &
+egulation K
##
":#:
":#: !:2""

K <.": H
(h' d(overall diameter of conductor' K " m
d K ".
"
#

m
/rea / K number of strands
"
r
6here r K
"
strand each of diameter
"
"
###

"
!
!: m A
,
_

K ".?
$
#

sq. =
Low, Boungs =odulus of elasticity E K ;.$
" ;
I # m

/nd co1efficient of linear expansion X K <.$$
! per
?
#
(6here E and X are constants'
50
6eight w K ;:$ %gI%m

w
K w
!
#

g
K ;:$
< . ;
K ;.2$ LIm
>or bad weather conditions (subscript'
d load wind F
w


"
# . " !:<


K :.;!< LIm
( )
" "

w t
F w F +
K ( ) ( )
" "
;!< . : 2$ . ; +
K ".$ LIm
factor safet"
strenght ultimate
#

K
$
2 . "
?: . <;
K !2<?< L ,

K 2 P0
>or erection condition (subscript "'

"
#
Y ,
! !#
"

@sing equation,
( )
"$ "$
" "
"

"
" "
"
"
"
l F % A
#
l F % A
% A # # #
t t

1
1
]
1

'

6here
tension are # and #
"
in L,
Z is area in sq m
X is co1efficient of linear expansion,
51
E is Boungs =odulus of elasticity in LIm
"
and are temperatures in P0
"
t t
F and F
are forces in LIm
l is the length of span in m
now, & / E ( )
"$ "$
" "
"

" "
"
"
l F % A
#
l F % A
t t

( ) ( )
( )
"
" " $
"

" "
!2<?< "$
!## $ . " $ . ; # ? . "
"$

#
l F % A
t
K #?$2.?!
( ) ( )
"$
!## 2$ . ; # $ . ; # ? . "
"$
" " ; $
" "
"

l F % A
t
K <#.2
;
#
[ ]
; " "
"
# 2 . <# ? . #?$2 "#$ . #;22 !2<?< + + # #
# # 2 . <# ?!$: . $"?:
; "
"
!
"
# #
@sing hit and trial technique,
# "?$#
"

5ag under erection condition K
m
#
l w
"
"
<
6here l K length of span
"?$# <
!## !## 2$ . ;

'
K .$#2: $. m
5ag under bad weather condition K m
#
l F
t

"
<

52
!2<?< <
!## !## $ . "

'
K !.<; m
&ertical sag under bad weather condition
&ertical sag K ' cos (
tan [ K
i
w
w w
F
+
where
w
F
K wind load or wind force in L

w
F
K p D
6here p K wind pressure
- K diameter of conductor O diameter of ice coating
5ince tan [ K
i
w
w w
F
+
hence

,
_

i
w
w w
F
1
tan
6here w K weight of conductor

i
w
K weight of ice
5ince theres no ice hence
( K
,
_

w
F
w
tan
vertical sag K 5 cos ( m
K 5
1
]
1

,
_

w
F
w
tan cos
K !.<;
1
]
1

,
_

2$ . ;
;!< . :
tan cos

53
K ".;; ! m

CHAPTER-<
CONCLUSION
,n this pro(ect we have designed transmission line which comes to be single circuit line
since the required power transfer through a given length is less than 5,7 (5urge
impedance loading'. /s per our design requirement the efficiency and regulation of the
line comes within the stipulated limits.
54