International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol: 10 No: 03 1

Abstract-In Malaysia, there is no research done on the

tensile strength of structural size timber. The tension
stress found in the Malaysian code of practice, MS 544:
Part 2: 2001, was not determined directly and it was
taken as 60% of the bending strength values of small
clear specimens. This paper presents the results of the
tensile test on structural size timber specimens from
selected Malaysian Tropical hardwoods namely
Kedondong (Canarium spp), Keruing (Dipterocarpus
spp) and Bintangor (Calophyllum spp) under the
strength group SG5. A special tensile grip was fabricated
using the model suggested in ASTM D198 and the tests
were also conducted according to ASTM D198. The
tensile strength characteristics evaluated include tensile
strength, modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio, and
the data were analyzed statistically. In this study it was
found that the grade stresses for structural size
specimens were higher than that published in the
Malaysian code of practice.


Keywords tensile strength, structural size, Malaysian
tropical timber

INTRODUCTION

imber is the oldest and widely used construction
material. It is used in various structural forms such as
beams, columns, joists, trusses and many others. To
apply timber as structural components such as roof trusses,
the tension properties of the timber are particularly
important. The tensile strength of the lower truss chord or the
tension flange of an I-beam or box-beam is considered the
critical design parameter [1]. The tensile strength parallel to
grain is the highest strength property of wood [2]. However
the knots, cross grain and/or any other irregularity in growth,
considerably reduce the tensile strength [3]. The high tensile
strength of wooden parts cannot be utilized in construction
for several reasons. The shearing strength along the grain is

Manuscript received April 2, 2010. This work was supported by
Research Management Institute, Universiti Teknologi Mara, Malaysia.
Z.A and Y.C.B are with Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti
Technologi Mara Malaysia, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia, phone:
60355435236, Fax: 60355435275, e-mail: [email protected]
E.S.A.W is with Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Malaysia
Pahang, Lebuhraya Tun Razak, 26300, Kuantan, phone: 6095492939, Faz:
6095492998, e-mail: [email protected].


extremely low (only about 6 to 10%) in comparisons to the
tensile strength along the grain. Therefore the wood tends
towards shear failures or cleavage at the fastening or joints
[3]. Timber is grown naturally. Thus it is a difficult material
to characterize and partly accounts for the wide variation in
the strength of timber, not only between different species but
also between timber of the same species and even from the
same log [4].
The need to classify timber species by evaluating the
physical and mechanical properties of small clear specimens
has always existed. Because of sensitivity to irregularities of
gain, edge knots, notches and other stress risers, it is difficult
to realize this superior strength in structural members of
commercial lumber if it is only based on small clear
specimen. The need for precise design criteria for the tensile
strength of structural timber and composite lumber is
important for the effective design and utilization of timber. It
is therefore important to have direct measurements of the
actual tensile strength of the lumber. Structural uses of solid
wood and composite wood products require the knowledge
of physical and mechanical properties of timber as a basis for
design criteria. The research and the actual records of tensile
strength properties of Malaysian tropical timber are not
sufficient. In the past, testing for the tensile strength of
timber was seldom carried out directly, but was often taken
to be numerically equal to the bending strength. The code of
Practice for the Structural use of Timbers, MS 544:2000 for
example, recommends the use of the same design value for
tension and for bending. The necked-down shaped tensile
specimens are very difficult to prepare accurately. This could
be the reason for the relatively little information available on
the tensile strength of tropical timbers.

So far, in Malaysia, there is no research done on the
tensile strength of structural size timber. The tension stress
on structural size is not determined directly but is taken as
60% of the bending stress of the same grade.

The code of practice MS544: Part 2: 2001 gives
recommendations for the structural use of Malaysian timbers.
The grade stresses such as tension, compression and bending
stresses, given in Tables 1 and 2 of the code were obtained as
a factor of clear timber stresses. For testing small clear
specimens, it is assumed that the specimens tested are
entirely free from defects such as decay, knots, sloping grain,
compression failure, and brittle heart, shakes, checks, wanes
and borer holes. This is the reason why the values obtained
from such tests are reduced by a certain factor of safety in
Tensile Strength Properties of Tropical
Hardwoods in Structural Size Testing
Z. Ahmad, Y. C. Bon, E.S. Abd Wahab

T
International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol: 10 No: 03 2

the design. According to Hankinsons formula, a small clear
tension specimen would experience over 20 percent loss in
strength with as little as 5 degrees of grain angle [5]. The two
most significant growth characteristics affecting lumber
strength are knots and variations in grain orientation. The
ratio of parallel-to-grain tensile strength to perpendicularto-
grain tensile strength of clear wood for a structural softwood
species can be 40 to 1 [6]. In addition, timber dimension and
sawing pattern affect the structural properties of timber. With
increasing length, tension strength is reduced due to an
increase in material defect and density variation within the
member [7]. In fact based on the classical brittle fracture
theory, there are direct effects of length and width to the
strength properties of the structural timber. The tensile
strength parallel to grain is the highest strength property of
wood [8]. Sensitivity of the strength properties to
irregularities of grain, edge knots, notches, and other stress
risers makes it difficult to realize this superior strength in
structural members of commercial lumber if is only based on
the data available small clear specimens.

If using small clear specimen, the stresses have to be
modified by certain reducing factors to reflect the defects
permitted in the structural size member. In other country
such as United Kingdom, the concept of basic stresses has
been abandoned and the new approach for assessing the
strength of timber appears to be in line with limit states
design philosophy. The process would first involve grading
structural size timber into various stress grades. The graded
timber is then subjected to short-term load tests. The results
are used to determine the characteristic stress, which is taken
to be the value below which not more than 5% of the test
results fall. Lastly, the grade stress is obtained by dividing
the characteristic stress by a reduction factor which includes
adjustments for a standard depth of specimen of 300 mm,
duration of load and a factor of safety [4]. In general, the
stresses based on structural size shown that some of the
earlier assumptions were conservative [9,10].

Therefore it is important to determine the strength of timber
in structural size in order to have more reliable data for
design timber structural member. This study investigates the
tensile strength properties of selected Malaysian tropical
timber based on structural size specimens and compared the
results with the data from small clear specimens. In order to
obtain data for the tensile strength properties of timber in
structural size, a special tension grip was fabricated. The
device must have the end fastening secure enough for the full
tensile strength to be brought into play before the fastening
shear off longitudinally. Therefore in this study, a special
tensile grip was fabricated and the reliability of the
equipment had been validated through testing large number
of specimens and the investigation of failure mode.
I. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

A. Materials
Three timber species, Keruing, Kedondong, and Bintangor
were used in this experimental study. All timber materials
used in this project were selected on one occasion in order to
obtain a test material without too high a variation in strength
which could be arisen from different growth condition. They
are common types of timber available from the local saw-
mill. Based on MS544 Part 2, these species are in the
strength group. The total number of specimens was 60.

B. Preparation of specimens and experimental methods

Specimen preparation
The specimens were prepared according to ASTM D198.
The specimens were planned on four sides to the size of 50
mm x 50 mm x 1500 mm. These specimens were air dry at
room condition for about two months to attain a moisture
content less than 19% or dry condition. Then the specimens
were visually stress graded and the common grade was
selected for the study. Common grade means that the timber
contains a defect which reduces its strength by 50%. To
prevent crushing on the specimen by the grips, four pieces of
timber capping, each of length 250 mm were glued to the
ends of the specimen using phenolic resorcinol formaldehyde
resins as shown in Fig. 1.












(a)



(b)

Figure 1: (a) Schematic diagram of the tensile specimen (b)
preparation of the end capping.



Fabrication of tensile clamping jigs
Figure 2a shows the schematic drawing of the test set-up
of tension parallel to grain. The wedge-shape jaw grip (see
Figure 2b) was designed to provide firm grip on the
specimens without causing crushing on the end specimens.
This part of the grip transmit tensile load from the moveable
Capping
1000 mm
250 mm
250 mm
1500 mm
International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol: 10 No: 03 3

drive mechanism (Figure 2d) to the other end of the tension
specimen where another grip was placed. Load cell
(2000kN) (Figure 2c) was attached to record the loading
capacity. The side view of the test set-up is as shown in
Figure 2e.












(a)




(b)




(c)




(d)


(e)

Fig. 2: Jigs for tensile test. (a) Schematic diagram of test set-
up (b) Wedge-shape grip (c) Load cell (d) The drive
mechanism (e) Side view of structural size tension specimen.

Testing procedures

The tensile tests were carried out in accordance with ASTM
D 198(Tension parallel to grain test). After physical
measurements had been taken and recorded, the specimen
was placed in the grips and securely clamped with special
care taken to have the longitudinal axis of the specimen and
the grip coincides (see Figure 2e) so that the tensile forces
should be axial and generally uniformly distributed
throughout the cross sections without flexure along its
length. A small preload was applied to ensure that all jaws
moved an equal amount and maintained axial alignment of
specimen and grips. The load was applied at a constant rate
(0.0006 mm/mm.min) for that maximum load is achieved in
about 10 minutes but not less than 5 minutes. Two strain
gauges were placed perpendicular to each other at the mid-
span of the test section to measure strains for determination
of Poissons ratio and extensometer was also attached to the
specimens The extensometer and strain gauges were
connected to data loggers for data recording. After testing,
the failed specimens were cut for moisture content
determination

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Tensile Failure Characteristics
It was found that the test set-ups used in this study was
able to produce tension failures with few specimens that
being rejected. 85% (51) of the specimens failed in tension.
Typical failures are as shown in Figs 3a, 3b and 3c.

Strain
gauges
Stationary
grip
Load cell
Data
logger
Drive mechanism
International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol: 10 No: 03 4


(a) (b)


(c)
Fig. 3: Typical tension failure characteristics of timber
specimens (a) Keruing (b) Bintangor (c) Kedondong

The other 15% of the specimens did not failed in tension
but slipped at the grip ends. This was due to improper gluing
of the capping as shown in Fig. 4.




(a)


(b)

Fig. 4: Failure due to slipping at the capping (a) side view
and (b) front view.

Besides that, the choice of timber species to be used as
capping also influenced failure type. It was found that in
order for the specimens not to slip at the grip, the species for
the capping must be of higher density than the species tested.
Performing tensile test is difficult. Kollmann [3] mentioned
that tensile tests parallel to the grain are difficult: the
manufacturer of the test specimens needs much skilled
manual labor, and clamping the samples in the machine
implies the possibility of torque or of compressive stresses
perpendicular to the grain which are too high. The failure in
the sample is often not entirely tensile. Tensile tests along
the grain are therefore scarce in comparisons to compression
or bending tests.

When the specimens failed in tension the line of the failure
were observed to be zigzag type along the depth of the
specimens. The failure time for Kedondong was generally
earlier than Bintangor and Keruing respectively. This
indicated that Keruing was tougher and this could also be
seen from the failure type of Keruing as shown in Figure 3a.
As for Bintangor, true tensile failure started at the bottom of
the test specimen near the center of the specimen through its
thickness but not to the fullness of the width as shown in
Figure 3b. The different behaviour amongst the three
hardwood species during tension was caused by the different
nature of wood grain arrangement i.e., straight grain in
Keruing and Bintangor and wavy grain in Kedondong. The
wood density was also seen as the major influence on the
failure characteristics especially in Bintangor where the
vessels arrangement was less dense and the cell structure was
larger thus thinner cell wall, than the other two species.

Tensile Strength properties of timber in structural size

Fig. 5 shows typical stress-strain graphs for tensile strength
of each species. The graph shows that strain increases with
load and is approximately linear until the point the specimen
failed. The slope of the graph represents the MOE. The
ultimate stress then occurs at the highest point when the load
reaches its maximum value. The samples broke at that final
stage and the reading indicated an abrupt drop of strength.
Therefore the solid timber is a brittle material.
Fig. 5: Stress-strain relationship

The summary statistics for the tensile strength of different
species is given in Table 1. An analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was performed to determine if there were
differences in mean tensile strength values among the species
tested. F-test indicated that there were no significant
differences in the mean tensile strength (p-value = 0.464) at
5% significance level. This also showed that these species
are in the same strength group (MS 544: Part 2, 2001). The
coefficient of variation of these species is within 15 to 20
percent in comparison with values of 25 to 35 percent
reported for visually graded lumber. This indicates that the
International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol: 10 No: 03 5

properties of solid timber by mechanical testing are more
uniform than by visually graded lumber.



Table 1 Summary statistics for tensile strength

Species
Tensile Strength For Solid (MPa)
Mean Tensile
Strength

1 Percentile*
1
MS 544 Part 2*
2
Grade stress
Common grade
stress
Keruing 41.2 6.2 10.2 6.6
Bintangor 38.8 5.8 8.3 5.9
Kedondong 38.7 6.2 10.2 5.9
*
1
Grade stress for structural size timber
*
2
Grade stress based on small clear specimens, MS544 Part2


In order to compare this result with MS 544 Part 2, grade
stress was computed base on 1
st
percentile as shown in Table
1. It was also assumed that the tensile stress distribution was
normal. The 1
st
percentile of grade stresses is given by :



FOS
. T
T
N mean
%
1
1
33 2

[1]

where,
mean
T = The average tensile strength
2.33 = 1
st
percentile coefficient

1 N
= Standard deviation
FOS = Factor of Safety = 2.5

It was also assumed that the tensile stress distribution was
normal. By comparing the grade stresses, the grade stresses
from the experiment were higher than the grade stresses from
MS 544: Part 2. This indicates that when using MS 544 Part
2 the design could be over-designed. This would lead to
bigger section and higher cost.



Modulus of Elasticity (MOE)

An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to
determine if there were differences in mean MOE values
among the species tested. F-test indicated that there were
significant differences in the mean MOE of different species
(p-value = 0.01) at 5% significance level. By DUNCAN
multiple comparisons, it was found that there was significant
different between Kedondong and Bintagor and between
Kedondong and Keruing but there was no significant
different between Bintagor and Keruing. The summary
statistics for the MOE of different species is given in Table
2.
The values of MOE for both Bintangor and Keruing
showed little difference either in the mean or minimum
values. However, Kedondong has wavy grain fibers that
could make it stiffer and higher MOE. Whilst, a straight
grain timber such as Bintangor or Keruing might not have
significant effect on stiffness.


Table 2: Summary statistics of MOE values for all species
Species

MOE (GPa)
Mean Minimum
MS 544 Part 2
Mean Min.
Kedondong 13.4 3.26 9.6 3.20 12.0 7.5
Bintangor 11.9 4.28 8.2 5.17 14.0 9.6
Keruing 11.2 4.25 8.2 2.49 11.9 8.7

For design, the mean value of MOE is used for load
sharing factor, while the minimum value of MOE is for non-
load sharing for the structural design purposes. Load sharing
factor is used in the design for joist, or joint timber and etc.,
while non-load sharing factor is used in the design of column
and beam.

From Table 2, it can be seen that the mean and minimum
values for MOE for structural size specimens are not in the
same order as in MS544 Part2. These results further enhance
the need to revise the mechanical properties of tropical
timber based on structural size specimens.

Poissons Ratio

ANOVA was performed to determine if there were
differences in mean Poissons ratio values among the species
tested. F-test indicated a p-value = 0.063 at 5% significance
level, which indicates that there was no significant
differences in Poissons ratios among the different species
and it was also found that the Poissons ratios vary within
species.

Table 3: Summary statistics of mean and coefficient of
variation of Poissons ratio
Species
Poissons ratio
mean COV
Kedondong 0.63 0.90
Bintagor 0.60 0.28
Keruing 0.54 0.10

After testing, the failed specimens were cut for moisture
content determination. It was also found that the moisture
content does not vary within species. This is because the
average of moisture content for the three species is less than
19% which is considered dry.

International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol: 10 No: 03 6

IV. CONCLUSION
The properties of tensile strength of solid timber made
from Kedondong (Canarium,spp), Bintangor
(Calophyllum,spp) and Keruing (Dipterocarpus,spp) were
investigated. The following conclusions were derived:

i. There is no significant difference in tensile strength
for the investigated species; Kedondong, Keruing and
Bintangor. This investigation confirmed that these
species are in the same strength group.

ii. The grade stresses for timber in structural size are
relatively higher than the grade stresses based on
small clear specimen.

iii. The species which has the highest value of MOE is
Kedondong followed by Bintangor and Keruing.
There is no significant difference in the MOE of
Bintangor and Keruing since the timbers are of
straight grains.

iv. The MOEs based on structural size specimens were
not in the same order as the MOEs based on small
clear specimens.

ACKNOWLEGMENT

The work reported here was financially supported by the the
Institute of Research, Development and Comercialization,
Universiti Teknologi Mara, Malaysia.

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