Glossary

Appendix A Glossary
Only brief definitions are given to provide a quicklook reference for the reader with regard
to terminology. Bold face type within a definition refers to a subject---related entry.
5946)
5947) 5948)
Aberration. Geometrical errors in imagery whereby a perfect image is not formed. Typical
aberrations include spherical aberration, astigmatism, coma, and chromatic aberrations.
Lens bendings, locations, powers, materials, and increasing the number of lenses and aper-
ture stop positions are all used to minimize aberrations.
The aberration theory of images generated by an optical systemhas been gradually develo-
ped from the seventeenth century on. Early analyses by e.g. Descartes, Roberval and Huy-
gens concern the spherical aberration which arises when imaging an object point through a
single refracting or reflecting surface.
Absorption band. Arange of wavelengths, or frequencies, in the electromagnetic spectrum
within which radiant energy is absorbed by a substance (gas, liquid or solid). In the gaseous
phase, absorption lines are much narrower than in liquids or solids. In a polyatomic gas, an
absorption band is actually composed of discrete absorption lines which appear to overlap.
Eachlineis associatedwithaparticular modeof vibrationandrotationinducedina gas mol-
ecule by incident radiation. Examples:
Ozone (O
3
) has several absorption bands. They are: a) the Hartley bands (2000---3000
in UV with max absorption at 2550 ); b) the Huggins bands (weak absorption between
3200---3600 ); c) the Chappuis bands (weak anddiffuse at 4500 and at 6500 in VIS); d)
IR bands at 4.7, 9.6, and 14.1 mm.
Molecular oxygen (O
2
) also has several absorption bands. They are: a) Hopefield
bands (between 670 and 1000 in UV); b) diffuse between 1019 and 1300 (UV); c) the
Schumann---Runge continuum(between 1350---1760 ); d) Schumann---Runge bands (bet-
ween 1760 --- 1926 ); e) the Herzberg bands (between 2400---2600 ); f) the atmospheric
bands (between 5380---7710 , VIS); g) IR at about 1 mm (=10
4
).
Absorptivity. Ratio of the absorbed to the incident electromagnetic radiation on a surface.
Accuracy. Refers to an estimate of how well a certain parameter or measurement is known;
it is a measure of the absolute truth of a measurement requiring absolute (traceable) stan-
dards. Accuracy is a quality that characterizes the ability of a measuring instrument to give
indications equivalent tothe true value of the quantity measured. The quantitative expres-
sion of accuracy may also be given in terms of uncertainty. The actual or true value of a
quantity cannot be determined; it can only be said to exist within tolerance limits of a mea-
sured value. The measurement error is the algebraic difference between the measured (or
indicated) value and the true value. Hence, accuracy is by its very nature only an estimation
of the true value, taking into account all aspects of measurement.
Acid rain. Rain that is more acid than normal because the raindrops contain dissolved acid
gases and/or dust particles (aerosols) fromthe atmosphere. The principal gases responsible
for increasedacidity are oxides of sulfur andnitrogen. Generally, rainwitha pHbelow4.5 is
considered environmentally harmful.
Actinometer. A generic term for any instrument used to measure the intensity of radiant
energy, in particular that of the sun.
_____________________
5946) Portions of this glossary are takenfrom: Glossary andlist of Acronyms/Abbreviations,EarthObservationSystem
(EOS), July 1992, Courtesy of EOS Project Science Office (V. V. Salomonson), GSFC, Greenbelt, MD.
5947) Jeanne Hopkins, Glossary of Astronomy and Astrophysics, The University of Chicago Press, Second Edition,
1985
5948) R. J. Gurney, J. L. Foster, C. I. Parkinson (editors), Atlas of satellite observations related toglobal change, Cam-
bridge University Press, 1993
3304
Survey of Spaceborne Missions and Sensors
Active sensor. A sensor having its own source of EMR (Electromagnetic Radiation); it
transmits a series of signals to the target and detects the echo. ASARinstrument, a lidar, a
radar altimeter, etc., are examples of active sensors.
Actuators. Refer to a class of onboard devices or techniques (manipulators) that are being
used in support of a great variety of functions. Some examples are:
Actuators in the field of attitude control: reaction wheels, momentum wheels, magne-
torquer coil/rods, permanent magnets, gravity---gradient boom, nutation damper, control
moment gyros, cold gas thrusters, solid thrusters, ion thrusters, mono--- or bi ---propellant
engine, etc.
Deployment andrelease mechanisms such as antenna andinstrument deployment, po-
sitioners, aperture opening and closing devices
Actuators are being used for autonomous sample acquisition, autonomous instrument
placement, robotic arms, rovers, etc.
Starting with the 1990s, miniature actuators (demonstrators) are being introduced. Pi-
ezoelectric actuators
5949)
(ultrasonic rotary motors) offer special characteristics that are of
interest for a number of applications, for instance:
5950) 5951)
--- Non---powered holding torque in the same range as the maximumdriving torque (hard
brake without backlash)
--- High positioning accuracy (micropositioning) in direct drive mode
--- Feasibility of non---magnetic motor designs
The simplest actuators are direct piezoelectric actuators (DPA) which can produce dis-
placements of the order of ten to one hundred microns and exhibit high stiffness. These ac-
tuators are robust when highly pre---stressed and may be used in active satellite structures
without the need for a locking mechanism during launch. --- The number of applications of
piezoelectric actuators ininstruments flowninspace is growing, inparticular withregardto:
--- Precise pointing of optics (adaptive optics)
--- Active damping of vibrations
Small (mass, volume, power) CMGs (Control Moment Gyroscopes) are being
introduced at the start of the 21st century providing the dual function of actuator/sensor in
an attitude system of a spacecraft.
Adaptive optics. A technique which tries to compensate for the atmospheric degradation
(blurring) of the incoming signal of optical imaging systems. However, the compensations
achieved, regardless of method, are never perfect. The following approaches are in use:
5952) 5953)
An on---line adaptive optics system (hardware solution). In this version, the adaptive
optics systemis capable of compensating for the distortionof electromagnetic radiationas it
_____________________
5949) Note: The piezoelectric effect was discovered in 1881 when Pierre and Jacques Curie (Pierre Curie: 1859--- 1906;
Nobel prize in physics in 1903 together with Henri Becquerel) observed that quartz crystals generated an electric
field when stressed along a primary axis. The term piezoelectric derives from the Greek word piezein, meaning
to squeeze, and the electricity that results from pressure applied to the quartz crystal.
5950) R. Seiler, M.F. Six, M. Debarnot, R. Le Letty, F. Claeyssen, The Ultrasonic Piezo Drive An Innovative Solution
for High--- Accuracy Positioning, Proceedings of AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites, Logan, UT, Aug.
12--- 15, 2002, SSC02--- VIII--- 4
5951) Y. Bar--- Cohena, X. Baoa, W. Grandiab, Rotary Ultrasonic Motors Actuated By Traveling Flexural Waves, Pro-
ceedings of the Smart Structures and Materials Symposium, San Diego, CA, March 1--- 5, 1998, Paper 3329--- 82
5952) S. R. Restaino, D. M. Payne, Adaptive Optics on a shoe string, SPIE Vol. 3494, 1998, pp. 152--- 160
5953) D. Dayton, S. Browne, J. Gonglewski, Control LoopAnalysis for a Nematic Liquid Crystal Spatial Light Modula-
tor Used in an Adaptive Optics System, SPIE Vol. 3494, 1998, pp. 161--- 160--- 167
3305
passes through the turbulent atmosphere and the optical system. Elements of an adaptive
optical system are a high---speed wavefront sensor (sensing the turbulence---induced aber-
rations), a flexible mirror system whose surface can be electronically controlled to correct
for aberrations, and a computer controller that converts the wavefront measurements into
deformable mirror commands. --- More economic solutions are suggested by the use of
LCPM(Liquid Crystal Phase Modulator) to deformthe mirror, and by the use of the pupil
masking technique.
A post facto approach (software solution), where the data are acquired by an imaging
instrument and processedoff---line withsuitable iterative algorithms toincrease the overall
resolutionobtainedby theoptics system. Speckle imagingis anexample of suchatechnique.
5954)
Ahybridapproachusing anadaptive optics systemincombinationwithpost factoproc-
essing.
Advection. Refers to a change in property of a moving air parcel fromone region toanother
(say, from a warm region to a cool region, thereby changing its temperature). Commonly,
advectionis dividedintohorizontal andvertical components; it differs fromconvectiononly
in scale. Convection is transport by randomthermally induced currents, whereas advection
is transport by steady vertical currents.
Aerosol. The term is used to describe many types of small particles in the atmosphere that
both absorb and reflect incoming sunlight. Aerosols are a stable suspension of fine (solid or
liquid) particles such as dust, smoke particles, water droplets, etc. in the atmosphere. The
smallest aerosols are the atoms of the various atmospheric gases. The range of sizes varies
from a few nanometers (molecules) to tens of micrometers (wind---driven sand). Some
aerosols (sea salt and haze) occur naturally and some (smoke) are man---made (anthropo-
genic). The oceanis a significant source of natural tropospheric aerosols. Once in the atmo-
sphere, aerosols may be transported away fromtheir place of origin, sometimes over great
distances. --- Aerosols can directly and indirectly affect the radiation budget of the atmo-
sphere. Their direct radiative effect is due to their scattering, absorption, and emission
properties. Their indirect effect is a result of their ability to act as condensationnuclei inthe
formation of clouds. Both tropospheric and stratospheric aerosols play animportant role in
global climate change.
Airglow. Anighttime glow fromthe upper atmosphere, occurring over middle and lowalti-
tudes, duetotheemissionof light fromvarious atoms, molecules, andions. Inparticular, the
term airglow describes the process of photon emission resulting from the various natural
reactionof atomic oxygenwithitself or withother constituents of mesopause/lower thermo-
sphere. The intensity of each emission is dependent upon the densities of the reacting spe-
cies.
Air---mass---zero (AM0), etc. The solar radiationthat is availabletopower a solar cell onthe
surface of the Earth is less than that available to power a satellite in orbit above the Earth,
due to atmospheric absorption of some of the solar radiation. The available solar radiation
is frequently describedby giving anair mass value, suchas air mass zero (AM0), air mass
one (AM1), air mass 1.5 (AM1.5), etc.
5955) 5956)
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5954) J. C. Christou, et al., Physically ConstrainedIterative Deconvolutionof Adaptive Optics Images,SPIEVol. 3494,
1998, pp. 161--- 175--- 190, Proceedings of the SPIE EUROPTO Series, Sept. 23--- 24, 1998, Barcelona, Spain
5955) Solar, wind, and Fuel Cell Problems, Instrumentation and Measurement in Energy, ISAT301, 2001
5956) Solar Spectral Irradiance(Air--- mass--- zero=AM0). In1999, theAmericanSociety for TestingandMaterials deve-
lopedanAM0 reference spectrum(ASTME--- 490) for use by the aerospacecommunity. That ASTME--- 490Air---
Mass--- Zerosolar spectral irradianceis basedondatafromsatellites, space shuttlemissions, high--- altitudeaircraft,
rocket soundings, ground--- based solar telescopes, and modeled spectral irradiance. The integrated spectral irra-
diance has been made to conform to the value of the solar constant accepted by the space community; which is
1366.1 W/m
2
.
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AM0 refers to the solar radiation available just outside the earths atmosphere. The
corresponding total solar irradiance is 1353 W/m
2
, and this value is called the solar
constant.
5957)
AM1 refers to the solar radiation available at the earths surface when the sun is at the
zenith (total solar irradiance: 925 W/m
2
).
In general, when x >1, AMx is definedto be the solar radiation available at the Earths
surface when the sun is an angle: =cos
---1
(1/AMx) from zenith. Rewriting this equation,
the air mass value turns out to be: AMx=(cos )
1
. is the angle between the sun and ze-
nith. The standard spectrum for temperate latitudes is AM 1.5 which corresponds to an
angle of 48 from the vertical, equivalent to a solar irradiance of 925 W/m
2
.
Albedo. Refers to 1) The force (on a spaceborne surface) due to electromagnetic radiation
reflected by the Earth which is supplemented by thermal radiation emitted by the Earth,
and 2) The fraction of the total solar radiation incident on a body (or a natural surface such
as the ground, ice, snow, water, clouds, etc.) that is reflected by it (commonly expressed as a
percentage, see also planetary albedo). Measured albedo information may be applied to
cloud analysis, it may also serve in calculations of inherent contrast between targets and
background. By definition, white surfaces (i.e. an all reflective Lambert surface) have albe-
dos close to 1, black surfaces have albedos close to zero.
Aliasing. Atermin data processing referring to two or more distinctly different signals hav-
ing identical sample values.
Amplitude modulation (AM). The baseband signal is caused to vary the amplitude of the
carrier wave to create the wanted information content.
Analog data. Data represented in continuous form, as contrasted with digital data having
discrete values.
ngstrm (, after A. J. ngstrm, a Swedish physicist). Refers to a unit of length used in
the measurement of short wavelengths (X---rays, gamma rays, etc.) andin the measurement
of molecular and atomic diameters. 1 = 10
---10
m or 10
---4
mm.
Anamorphic effects in an imaging systemare distorting effects that may occur at various in-
terfaces in the optical path such as: in a dispersive grating (diffraction errors); in an image
slicing system (which makes optimum use of the detector surface with minimal dead space
and provides continuous mapping of each slice onto the detector), the sampling may be ac-
complished via anamorphic magnification in the instrument fore---optics; in situations
where intensity variations parallel tothelimb distort the interferogram, the spatial informa-
tion in this dimension can be washed out by using an anamorphic telescope. --- An ana-
morphic imaging system design (imaging spectrometer, imaging interferometer or a spec-
troradiometer) performs all these various optical corrections.
Example: Thedesigndifficulty is that anoff---axis Fourier optical system(of aninterferome-
ter) must be made anamorphic to generate an image perpendicular to the interferogram
pupil plane.
Antenna. Antennas and radio---wave propagation involve key technologies for space com-
munications, navigation and remote sensing, for all terrestrial wireless transmission sys-
tems, for radar, and for a number of other applications ranging frommine detection to bio-
logical wave interactions and medical electromagnetics.
An antenna is a sender and receiver systemof electromagnetic radiation(in remote sensing
terminology the antenna may be part of the sensing instrument, or may be regarded as a
coupling device betweenthe target and the sensing instrument). The termantenna refers a)
to that part of a transmitting system that converts electrical energy to electromagnetic
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5957) http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/standards/am0/newam0.html
3307
waves; and conversely b) to that part of a receiving system that converts electromagnetic
waves to electrical energy (current) in the receiver (a duplexer automatically switches the
antenna froma transmitting function into a receiving function). Physically, an antenna con-
sists of metal surfaces that provide conducting paths for oscillating electric currents and
charges. The radiated power of an antenna depends on the shape and size of its geometric
contour and on the amplitude and frequency of its oscillation. Some antenna designs:
Dielectric rod antenna. An antenna consisting of a dielectric cylinder that is partially
inside a circular waveguide (pipe). It is possible to have an electric field applied to this de-
vice --- no currents flow through it --- although energy passes from one end to the other,
thereby generating electromagnetic waves.
Dipole antenna. Athin metal cylinder or wire excitedby analternating current genera-
tor at its center sothat theends areoppositely charged. --- Adipole antennais aformof open
circuit in which the current oscillates between the ends of the conductor. A dipole antenna
may also be a type of array consisting of a systemof dipoles. Adipole antenna differs froma
dish antenna in that it consists of many separate antennas that collect energy by feeding all
their weak individual signals into one common receiving set.
Helix antenna. Ahelical wirewoundwitha circumferenceof about one wavelengthand
a pitch of 1/4 wavelength over a ground plane with a 1 wavelength minimum diameter.
Lens antenna. Several types are in use: a) dielectric lens --- the aperture of the antenna
is equal to the projection of the rimshape; b) artificial dielectrics; c) strip antenna --- metal
strips are used as waveguides to increase the phase velocity by acting as parallel ---plate
waveguides.
Loop antenna. The current circulates around or oscillates within the closed loop. The
most important application of the loop antenna is reception. The shielded loop antenna is
useful as a probe for measuring the magnetic field.
Microstrip patch antenna. A printed circuit antenna consisting of a radiating patch
supported by a dielectric layer over a ground plane.
Monopole antenna. A thin metal cylinder or wire erected vertically over a conducting
plane and excited by an alternating current generator connected between the base of the
cylinder and the conducting plane.
Pencil beam antenna. An antenna whose radiation pattern consists of a single main
lobe with narrow principal plane beamwidths and sidelobes having relatively low levels.
Phased---array antenna. Phased arrays are antenna systems composed of radiating
array elements and a network that distributes the signals and adjusts the element gain and
phase. For an active phased array, each antenna element is composed of a radiator and a
T/R (Transmit/Receive) module which contains the gain and phase adjustment. Active
phased arrays often allow corrections to be made to the weights by commanding different
gain and phase settings.
Phased arrays are inherently random---access devices consisting of multiple antenna ele-
ments (fixeddipoles) whichare fedcoherently anduse variable phase--- or time---delay con-
trol at each element to scan a beam to given angles. Arrays are sometimes used in place of
fixed aperture antennas (e.g. reflectors or lenses) because the array arrangement allows
more precise control of the radiation pattern (lower sidelobes). The primary reason for us-
ing phased arrays is to produce a directive beam that can be scanned (repositioned) elec-
tronically in two dimensions without any mechanical movement (see also Phased---array
Technology).
Stick antenna. Also referred to as a fan---beam antenna, it produces a major lobe
whose transverse cross section has a large ratio of major to minor dimensions.
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Slot antenna. A slot in a metal sheet with dimensions l/2 in length and width w (w l)
provides a means for achieving efficient directional energy radiation and reception. The
radiation leaving the slot antenna is polarized in the direction normal to the major slot di-
mension (if the slot is horizontal, then the polarization is vertical, and vice versa). Array
arrangements of slots permit the radiation of higher energies and consequently the illu-
mination of larger target areas.
Antenna reflectors. A reflector antenna is a large---aperture (gain) directional antenna. A
parabolic reflector (mirror) has the property of transforming rays emerging radially froma
point source at its focus into a bundle of parallel rays. The reflected parallel rays are all in
phase in any plane perpendicular to the axis of the parabola. The laws of optics apply with
respect totheradiationgeometries andprojections (focusing, bundling, redirectionof ener-
gy, diffraction effects, etc.). Characteristic parameters of a reflector antenna are a function
of the properties of the feed and the ratio of the reflectors focal length (F) to the diameter
(d) of its circular aperture.
Reflector antennas arewidely usedinthe microwaverange of the electromagnetic spectrum
in the fields of remote sensing, telecommunication, and radio astronomy. Reflectors are in-
herently broadband instruments; the bandwidth and polarization are determined by the
feedantenna. Reflector examples: paraboloidal, parabolic cylinder, dual (Cassegrain, Gre-
gorian), offset---fed, corner, dichroic.
Dipole
Ant
enn
a
Stick or Fan Beam
Antenna
Monopole
Ante
nna
Loop
Ant
enn
a
Shielded Loop
Antenna
Conical and Biconical
Horn Antennas
Prime Focus
Feed
(point
source)
Axially Symmetric Paraboloidal
(dish--- shaped)
Reflector Antenna
z
x
y
Hyperboloidal
Subreflect
or
Feed
Paraboloid
Focus
Paraboloid
Cassegrain Dual--- Reflector
Antenna
Ray paths in a horn
with dielectric
lens
Ray paths in a horn
without dielectric
lens
Dielectric rod antenna
Slotted Array Antenna
l/2
w
Simple Slot Antenna
Figure 1444: Some antenna geometries
Cassegrain dual---reflector antenna (telescope). Guillaume Cassegrain, a French sci-
entist, proposed the design in 1672. The basic properties of the Cassegrain dual ---reflector
are determinedfromthe principles of ray optics. Asmall convex hyperboloidal subreflector
is placedbetweenthe point source feedandthe prime focus of the parabolic dish. Rays from
the feed are transformed by the subreflector into rays that appear to be emerging fromthe
paraboloid focus. The rays reflect from the parabolic reflector parallel to its axis.
3309
Offset aperture reflectors. The blockingof portions of theaperture of a reflector anten-
na by its feed, supporting structures, or by the subreflector generally degrades the radiation
distribution. Hence, high---performance systems employ offset---fed antennas to eliminate
the effects of aperture blocking.
Hornantenna. Ahornis anapertureantenna fedfromawaveguide modeinanexpand-
ed waveguide. The bandwidth is determined by the feed waveguide. Corrugated horns are
widely used as feeds for reflectors and as direct radiators in applications that include radi-
ometers.
Dichroic reflector. The term dichroic (chros = color in Greek) implies selective ab-
sorption in crystals of electromagnetic radiation vibrating in different planes. --- Refers to
frequency---selective surfaces designed to exhibit different ratio---frequency properties. In
its simplest form, a dichroic surface is virtually perfectly reflecting at one frequency and
virtually transparent at another. The most common application of dichroic reflectors has
been as subreflectors in Cassegrain antenna systems. Besides reflectors the dichroic princi-
ple is also applied to beamsplitters and filters.
Antenna retroreflector. Retroreflectionis definedas radiationthat is returned inangu-
lar directions which are very close to those angular directions fromwhich it came. This (in-
coming/outgoing) property is maintainedover wide variations of the incident radiation. Re-
troreflector devices come in a variety of forms and have many uses. In remote sensing, a
retroreflector uses total internal reflection from three mutually perpendicular surfaces.
This kind of retroreflector is usually called a corner cube retroreflector. Acorner cube re-
flector is normally used for radar measurements having a known radar cross section.
Antenna reflectarrays. Generally, three types of reflectarray configurations can be dis-
tinguished: passive (fixed beam and passive reflection), semi ---active (electronic beam-
steering and passive reflection) and active (electronic beamsteering and amplified reflec-
tion).
Antenna RF prism concept (RF lens). At the start of the 21st century, RF prism is a new
space antenna concept where anarray (active array antenna) is fedthrougha meshof points
on the antenna back face with RF signals transmitted (or received) by another satellite,
called illuminator and flying on the same orbit. The RF prism concept opens up a new ap-
proachtolarge space antennas --- resultingfromthesatellite systemconfiguration. Thecon-
cept can be applied i remote sensing missions requiring a large antenna. Moreover, in pas-
sive imagery application, VLBI techniques may beusedtorestraintheantenna sizerequire-
ment to a single dimension.
5958)
Antenna aperture. Surface area (size) of a reflector or horn that is illuminatedby the outgo-
ing and/or incoming radiation.
Antenna bandwidth. Range of frequencies within which the performance of an antenna,
with respect to some characteristic, conforms to a specified standard. There are many dif-
ferent types of bandwidths, including gain, VSWR(Voltage Standing Wave Ratio), and po-
larization. For example, a typical bandwidth specification might be: The antenna gain with
isotropic must be > 10 dB 10 MHz from a center frequency of 2090.0 MHz.
Antenna beamwidth. Aplanar cut through the radiation pattern containing the direction of
the maximumof a lobe, the anglebetweenthetwodirections inwhichthe radiationintensity
is one---half the maximum value and one tenth the maximum value, or in which zero is de-
fined to be the half---power (3 dB), tenth---power (10 dB), or null beamwidth.
Antenna depressionangle. The angle betweenthe local horizontal andthe center line of the
antenna beam pointing at the target.
_____________________
5958) J.--- P. Aguttes, H. Bentsen, G. Caille, The RF Prism concept: A RF lens and its illuminator(s) on separated satel-
lites for enablingvery largeantennas, Proceedings International SymposiumFormationFlying, Oct. 29--- 31, 2002,
Toulouse, France
3310
Antenna directivity. Directivity is a measure of the concentration of radiation in the direc-
tion of the maximum. It is the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the
antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions.
Antenna feed. The device in an antenna systemthat transmits or receives energy to or from
the antenna aperture and the radio system.
Antenna footprint. Instantaneous projectionof a directional antenna beamilluminationon
a surface.
Antenna gain. Ratio of the transmitted radiation intensity in a given direction to the radi-
ation intensity that would be received if the power accepted by the antenna were radiated
isotropically. In this context, peak antenna gain refers to the maximum radiated intensity
expressed as a ratio to the radiation power intensity of a hypothetical isotropic antenna fed
with the same transmitting power.
Antenna --- intermediate frequency (IF). Inmicrowave systems, a frequency that is common
to all channels at which amplification takes place, interconnections are made, and/or auto-
matic gain is adjusted.
Antenna --- isotropic. Atheoretical antenna of infinitesimal size in which it is assumed that
all of the energy is radiated(point source). This concept serves as a reference basis for other
antennas of finite dimensions.
Antenna noise temperature. Refers to the increase of the receiver input noise temperature
of an antenna system.
Antenna polarization. Spatial orientation of the electric/magnetic field radiated by an an-
tenna. The vector electric/magnetic fields of free spacetraveling waves are perpendicular to
the direction of travel. Polarization describes how fields behave in time and space. For ex-
ample, a circularly polarized wave can be thought of as having the electric field rotating
about the direction of travel. The direction of the filed rotates one turn per period of the
wave. Alinearly polarized wave radiatedfromanantenna intoa specific direction has the
electric field direction fixed with time --- the only variations are in the instantaneous magni-
tudes of the electric/magnetic fields.
Antennascanningtechniques.
5959)
For SARobservations theantenna beamcasts anellipti-
cal footprint on the ground with an effective rectangular aperture antenna of typical size 10
m (along---track) and 3 m (across track).
Electronic scanning. Defines a method of positioning an electromagnetic beam in
space or scanning across a target surface by electronic means. The antenna aperture re-
mains fixed; no mechanical mechanism is involved in the scanning process.
--- Phase scanning (moved the beamby controlling the phase of the antenna illumination,
using phase shifters or delay lines --- see also Phased---array technology)
--- Frequency scanning (moves the beam by changing the carrier frequency of the trans-
mitter and receiver)
--- Electronic feed switching
Mechanical scanning. Defines a method of positioning an electromagnetic beam in
space by mechanical rotationor angular positioningof theradiating apertureof theantenna
system.
Electronic/mechanical scanning. Ahybrid method that employs electronic scanning in
one dimension, say in elevation, and mechanical scanning in azimuth.
_____________________
5959) P. J. Kahrilas, Electronic Scanning Radar Systems, Design and Architecture, in Practical Phased--- Array Anten-
na Systems, E. Brookner, Editor, Artech House, Boston, MA
3311
Antenna sidelobes. Undesired directions in which a directive antenna also receives or radi-
ates power. Sidelobes are generally much weaker than the mean beamin the desired direc-
tion.
Antenna waveguide. Usually a hollow metal structure (pipe or other profile) intended to
guide or to conduct along its path an electromagnetic wave in a given microwave range (a
waveguide is usually attached to a horn; it may also directly serve as a feed for a reflector).
The internal dimensions of a waveguide are relatedtothe transmissionefficiency of specific
frequencies. The cutoff frequency refers to that frequency below which a particular wave-
guide cannot satisfactorily transmit the wave.
Antenna waveguide modes. Refer to the wave propagation distribution patterns that may
exist within a waveguide. They depend on the shape and size of the waveguide with respect
to the length of the wave traversing the guide. Each mode has a specific topology, velocity,
and energy distribution along and across the guide cross section. The cross section of the
waveguide may be square, rectangular, circular, or elliptical.
Anthropogenic gases.Human---induced gases emittedintotheatmosphere andinteracting
with the environment. In a wider sense the termrefers to all gases emitted as a result of hu-
man activities (e.g., chlorofluorocarbons from technical combustion processes, carbon
dioxide and methane from livestock farms, rice paddies, biomass burning, etc.).
Aperture. Refers to the maximumdiameter of a radiation beamthat can pass through a sys-
tem (either an optical lens or mirror system or an antenna system) on a telescope or satel-
lite. The radiation---gathering power of such a system is proportional to the square of the
diameter (or aperture) of the lens (mirror or antenna). Hence, sensors with wider apertures
are able tocapture more information. Apertures are usedto restrict the fieldof view(FOV)
of the responsive element (such as a detector). This is often done to reduce noise (cooled
detectors are photon---noise limited) from extraneous sources.
Aperture (distributed aperture). Adistributed aperture refers toa collectionof sensor con-
figurations with relatively fixed positions, operating and observing in a collaborative way.
Examples: 1) An array of bore---mounted cameras (at some distance apart) represents a
simple distributed aperture. 2) An array of radiometers, mounted in Y---shape (like the
SMOS instrument) and representing a 2---Dconfiguration, is also a distributed aperture. 3)
The formation flight of several spacecraft forms also a distributed aperture. The sensor
configuration represents in this case a collection of optical (or of microwave) elements on
individual spacecraft. These so---called advanced arrangements of distributed aperture
create much larger distributed apertures (than fixed arrangements on a single S/C) thereby
eliminating the conventional restriction of physical structure.
Aperture stop. Location within a lens system where the principle ray passes through and
crosses the optical axis. The presence of a mechanical limiting aperture (hole, slot, etc.) typ-
ically creates a limiting size.
Aperture synthesis. Atechnique (pioneered in radio astronomy) of generating high spatial
resolution images by dividing the collection area of a telescope (or antenna) into smaller
apertures spread out in a pattern covering several baselines (distributed aperture). In mi-
crowave radiometry the concept employs aninterferometric technique inwhichtheproduct
from antenna pairs is sampled as a function of pair spacing. Substantial reductions in the
antenna aperture needed for a given spatial resolution can be achieved with this technique.
However, the performance leap inresolution must be paidfor withhigher requirements for
instrument precision sensing and stabilization. ESTAR (P.88) and MIRAS (P.138) are ex-
amples of airborne synthetic aperture microwave radiometers (bothinstruments operate in
L---band).
3312
Apodizing/unapodizing.
5960)
The terms are used in the context of data processing in a FTS
(Fourier TransformSpectrometer). The actual lineshape of a FTS interferogramis close to
(sin x)/x, which is a function with intense side---lobes (also referred to as feet). This is the
shape that the spectrum of an intrinsically sharp line (e.g. a laser line) would have if the
spectrum were untreated, or unapodized; to apodize means literally (Greek) to cut off
the feet. Apodizing consists of treating the spectrumto reduce the sidelobes at the expense
of degraded resolution (usually by a factor of about two). Apodizing can be done either by
tapering the interferogramprior to transforming, or by algebraically filtering the spectrum
after transforming.
5961)
Area Array Camera. Refers to a solid---state imaging device (CCD technology) with an
array (rows and columns) of pixels producing a 2---Dimage. The Area Array Camera is also
referred to as Matrix Array Camera.
Astigmatism. Refers to an aberration in which the light in one plane (for instance the plane
of the paper) focuses at a different location from light in the orthogonal plane.
163.90 163.95 164.00
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Wavenumber (cm
--- 1
)
apodized
unapodized
R
a
d
i
a
n
c
e
n
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d
t
o
2
7
7
K
B
B
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
Figure 1445: Sample illustration of an apodized and an unapodized radiation curve
Atmosphere. The envelope of gases surrounding the Earth and bound to it by the Earths
gravitational attraction. Studies of the chemical and radiative properties, dynamic motions,
and physical processes of the Earth---atmosphere systemconstitute the field of meteorolo-
gy.
_____________________
5960) Typical sources observed by a spaceborne or airborne FTS are extended such that (due to FOV) the rays through
the interferometer are not collimated, leading to side lobes.
5961) Courtesy of K. C. Chance of the Harvard--- Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Cambridge MA
3313
1 mm 10 mm 200 nm
0
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3
10
--- 11
10
--- 9
10
--- 7
10
--- 5
Total Upwelling
Radiance
Atmospheric
Transmittance
Wavelength (l)
Figure 1446: Atmospheric transmittance and radiance for UV to TIR regions
When electromagnetic radiation from the sun reaches Earths atmosphere, it may be: (see
also Solar radiation --- from Sun to Earth).
Transmitted: a process by which incident radiation passes throughmatter withmeasur-
able attenuation
Reflected: a process by which incident radiation bounces off the surface of a substance
in a predictable or unpredictable direction
Scattered: a process by which incident radiation is dispersed or spread out unpredict-
ably in may directions (see also Scattering)
Absorbed: a process by whichincident radiationis takeninby the medium. Aportionof
the radiationis convertedintointernal heat energy andemittedor reradiatedat longer ther-
mal infrared wavelengths.
Atmosphere: The atmosphere is a central component in the Earth systemand acts as a nat-
ural transport systemfor energy, water, nutrients and pollutants. It exchanges momentum,
heat, water, carbon and all trace gases and aerosols between the oceans and land surfaces.
Atmospheric circulation is driven by these interactions, as well as sea---surface temperat-
ure, soil moisture and surface albedo.
5962)
Since water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas, accounting for one to two thirds of
the greenhouse effect, scientists are looking for a better understanding of the coupledpro-
cesses of clouds, aerosols and atmospheric chemistry, including the global water cycle.
Atmospheric absorption. A process whereby some or all of the energy of electromagnetic
radiation is transferred to the constituents of the atmosphere. Absorption by atmospheric
gases is dominated by that of water vapor (H
2
O), carbon dioxide (CO
2
), and ozone (O
3
)
with smaller contributions from methane (CH
4
), carbon monoxide (CO), and other trace
gases. Water vapor is rather variableacross theEarths surface(location) as well as through-
out the atmosphere (altitude). CO
2
and CH
4
are essentially uniformly mixed in the atmo-
sphere, hence predictable in their effects (see also Absorption bands).
5963)
--- The sumef-
fect of absorption results in atmospheric opaqueness in many spectral regions as illustrated
in Figure 1446. Hence, observational techniques must by tailored to utilize those atmo-
spheric windows through which the surface can be viewed.
_____________________
5962) Michael Berger, Einar--- Arne Herland, Josef Aschbacher, Stephen Briggs, NewPossibilities for Science --- ESAs
operational Sentinel missions, ESA Bulletin, No 140, Nov. 2009, pp. 2--- 10, URL: http://esamultimedia.esa.int/
multimedia/publications/ESA--- Bulletin--- 140//offline.zip
5963) A. F. Goetz, J. B. Wellman, W. L. Barnes, Optical Remote Sensing of the Earth, Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol.
73, No. 6, June 1985, pp. 950--- 969
3314
Atmospheric attenuation. A process whereby some or all of the energy of electromagnetic
radiation is absorbed and/or scattered when passing through the atmosphere. The amount
of radiant energy that the atmosphere either removes or adds to that emitted or reflected
from the Earths surface depends on:
The constituents of the atmosphere
The path length of radiation (a function of geometry of the source, surface, andsensor)
The reflectance of the surface surrounding scene or target area
Atmospheric boundary layer (also referred to as Planetary boundary layer, PBL). This
boundary layer includes the bottom part of the atmosphere within which the energy ex-
change processes (between the Earths surface and the atmosphere) occur mainly through
vertical transport mechanisms of momentum and heat (production of wind shear turbu-
lence plus convective heat turbulence). The whole PBL is heated by convection. Tempera-
ture gradients are strongest near the surface, because there convective eddies are relative-
ly small andinefficient incarrying heat upward. The thickness of the daytime PBLis typical-
ly inthe order of akilometer; however, it may be threetimes as highwithstrong heating. The
PBL may also be limited by a top inversion. On a clear day the whole PBL is turbulent; it
increases rapidly in the morning and only very slowly after the time of maximum heating,
until it decreases to a minimum during the night (sensitivity to diurnal cycle).
Atmospheric correction. A problem with spaceborne surface observations is that a large
portionof the receivedsignal (about 80%) originates inthe atmosphere. Muchof this atmo-
spheric signal is due to Rayleigh (or molecular) scattering, primarily from stratospheric
ozone. Corrections attributed to Rayleigh scattering are normally estimated taking into ac-
count the geometry of a particular scene as well as the extraterrestrial solar radiation, ozone
concentration, and atmospheric pressure. Aerosol scattering, primarily encountered in the
marine boundary layer, represents another variable in the signal estimation. Since it is not
possible to make direct measurements of these aerosols and their contribution to atmo-
spheric optical properties, the remote---sensing community has relied on an indirect ap-
proach. The ocean is assumed as largely black in the VNIRportion of the spectrum; any
radiance measured in this spectral region is assumed to originate in the atmosphere. The
spectral dependence of aerosol scattering is inthis manner propagatedintotheUVandVIS
portionof the spectrum. Atmospheric correctionalgorithms try toaccount for of all thevari-
ous signal influences in their processing schemes.
Hyperspectral imaging in the TIR (Thermal Infrared) region at long slant path ranges re-
quires atmospheric correction to enhance the capability of object detection and spectral
identification. An algorithm for such a problem is given in the following reference.
5964)
Atmospheric drag. For LEO spacecraft the atmospheric drag is dependent on the atmo-
spheric density, whichmay vary significantly along the orbit, because of changes inthesatel-
lites altitude and geomagnetic influences, but also from day to day, depending mainly on
the solar activity. Operational orbit determination must take care of the atmospheric drag
effects using atmospheric models (the effective cross---sectional area of a spacecraft may
contribute significantly to atmospheric drag depending on orbital altitude and attitude).
Atmospheric properties (with regard to high---energy radiation). The properties of the
Earths atmosphere are affectedby the sun, but in somewhat different ways at highaltitudes
than in the lower atmosphere. Inthe troposphere, the maineffect of the suns radiation is to
heat the atmosphere, either directly or indirectly by heating theEarths surface. At highalti-
tudes (ionospheric region), however, the atmosphere is affected by types of solar radiation
(UV, x---ray, gamma---ray) which are being absorbed; these do not penetrate into the lower
_____________________
5964) B. A. Gorin, R. C. Blosser, J. Sweet, New method to optimize atmospheric correction for hyperspectral thermal
imaging, Optical Engineering, Vol. 41, No 9, 2002, pp. 2088--- 2097
3315
regions of the atmosphere. [Note: The radio range (microwave region) of the electromag-
netic spectrumis limitedby the ionosphere at wavelengths greater thana fewmeters, andby
atmospheric absorption at wavelengths shorter than about 2 cm.] --- The atmosphere is also
affected by energetic charged particles (mainly electrons and protons) which are produced
by the sun (directly or indirectly). These radiations not only heat the atmosphere, but may
directly affect the chemical composition of the atmosphere (e.g., by dissociating molecules
and ionizing atoms and molecules).
Atmospheric refraction. As a signal (electromagnetic radiation) traverses the atmosphere,
it experiences propagation delay and bending due to the variable characteristics of the me-
dium through which it is passing. The Earths ionosphere introduces significant systematic
perturbations onall microwavetracking data. At lower frequencies (150MHz) daytimeion-
ospheric biases can easily reach several kilometers in range, several meters per second in
range rate, anduptotwoor three milliradians inposition. Since most of the effects decrease
as the inverse square of frequency, modern radiometric systems track at dual and well sepa-
rated higher frequencies. As a signal traverses the troposphere it experiences a varying re-
fractive index resulting primarily fromspatial variations in atmospheric pressure, tempera-
ture and humidity. For radiometric technologies, variations in water vapor content is of
chief concern. Optical signals have a muchweaker dependence onwater vapor. The varying
refractive index influences the propagating signal in several ways. For optical signals, the
most important effect is the varying group velocity where the pulse speeds up as it travels
from the ground station to low pressure regions at higher altitudes. This change is a conse-
quence of Snells law of refraction, which predicts the bending and speed of a light ray as it
moves through atmospheric layers with differing refractive indices.
5965)
Atmospheric sciences. Study of the dynamics and structure of the Earths atmosphere.
There are three main areas:
Meteorology. Primary concernis short---termweather variations in the lower regions of
the atmosphere, in particular the troposphere.
Climatology. Primary concern is long---term weather conditions on a global scale.
Aeronomy. Involves research of the atmospheric regions above the lower stratosphere,
dealing withsuchphenomena as ionospheric physics, photochemical processes of the upper
atmosphere, aurorae, magnetospheric storms, etc. In general, aeronomy is the science that
studies all planetary atmospheres in which physical and chemical processes, resulting from
the dissociation and ionization phenomena under the influence of the solar radiation, oc-
cur.
Atmospheric window. Spectral bands for which atmospheric attenuation is relatively low
(i.e., the bands for which the atmosphere presents minimal interference).
Atomic clocks: An atomic clock is a type of clock that uses an atomic resonance frequency
standard as its timekeeping element. They are the most accurate time and frequency stand-
ards known, and are used as primary standards for international time distribution services,
to control the frequency of television broadcasts, and in global navigation satellite systems
such as GPS, GLONASS, or Galileo.
5966)
In 1967, the cesiumatoms natural frequency was formally recognized as the new SI (Inter-
national System of Units) time standard. SI has defined the second as the duration of
9,192,631,770 cycles (Hz) of radiation corresponding to the transition between two energy
levels of the caesium---133 atom. This definition makes the caesiumoscillator (often called
an atomic clock) the primary standard for time and frequency measurements.
_____________________
5965) Ivan I. Mueller, S. Zerbini, The Interdisciplinary Role of Space Geodesy, Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences,
Springer Verlag, 1989, p. 187
5966) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_clock
3316
Atomic clocks use the precise microwave signal that electrons in atoms emit when they
change energy levels.
--- Early atomic clocks were based on masers
--- In the first decade of the 21st century, the most accurate atomic clocks are based on
absorptionspectroscopy of coldatoms inatomic fountains. --- Example: NIST---F1 (Nation-
al Institute of Standards and Technology) is a caesium fountain atomic clock that serves as
the United States primary time and frequency standard (since 2005).
--- In March 2008, physicists at NIST demonstrated optical atomic clocks based on indi-
vidual mercury and aluminum ions --- referred to as quantum logic clock. (so called be-
cause it borrows the logical processing usedfor atoms storing datainexperimental quantum
computing).
5967) 5968)
Atomic oxygen. Neutral atomic oxygen is the dominant atmospheric species at typical LEO
altitudes of satellites. Its altitude range includes the mesosphere (50---100 km), the thermo-
sphere (100---400 km), and the lower part of the exosphere (>400 km). Atomic oxygen, the
most abundant atmospheric species over most of this altitude range, can affect a space-
crafts operational capability. Adverse influences include material degradation. Of particu-
lar concern are the following effects: impact of particulate matter (debris), of high---energy
UVradiation and of x---ray radiation, both of which are predominantly of solar origin. Deg-
radation due to these phenomena is often synergistic and must be taken into account in the
S/C design process, particularly for long---term LEO missions. --- Atomic oxygen is formed
in the lower thermosphere by photodissociation of molecular oxygen induced by solar UV
radiation (l<243 nm). Atomic oxygen is a highly reactive species. Spaceborne instruments
for the measurement of atomic oxygen include non---optical devices to derive flux and/or
density, and those using optical measurements. The latter involves the measurement of the
emission, scattering, or absorption of radiation (in the VIS, IR or UV ranges) caused by
atomic oxygen. Typical non---optical devices are: a) mass spectrometers, b) actinometers,
and c) catalytic probes.
5969)
Aurora. Light radiated by ions in the Earths upper atmosphere, mainly near the geomag-
netic poles, stimulatedby bombardment of energetically chargedparticles of the solar wind.
Aurorae appear about twodays after a solar flare andreach their peak about two years after
a sunspot maximum. The northern aurora is also referred to as the aurora borealis while
the southern aurora is also called aurora australis.
5970)
For many centuries the aurora was referred to as the northern lights because it is a polar
phenomenon and lies to the north when viewed from Europe. An aurora is a visible man-
ifestation of space weather --- the highly variable interaction between the sun and the
Earths magnetosphere, upper atmosphere, and ionosphere. The aurora is visible because
of interaction of electrons andprotons that are acceleratedalong the Earths magnetic field
lines fromthe magnetosphere (the cavity in the solar wind created by the Earths magnetic
field) into the Earths atmosphere, where they undergo collisions with the background gas.
In 2006, new results by the Cluster mission of ESA clearly show that multi ---point observa-
tions are the key to understanding the magnetic substorm phenomenon. The Cluster mis-
sion has established that high---speed flows of electrified gas, known as BBFs (Bursty Bulk
Flows), in the Earths magnetic field are the carriers of decisive amounts of mass, energy
and magnetic perturbation towards the Earth during magnetic substorms. When substorms
occur, energetic particles strike our atmosphere, causing aurorae to shine. The analysis
_____________________
5968) AluminumIonDrives Most PreciseQuantumLogicClockEver,Space Daily, Feb. 5, 2010, URL: http://www.spa-
cedaily.com/reports/Aluminum_Ion_Drives_Most_Precise_Quantum_Logic_Clock_Ever_999.html
5969) J. J. Osborne, I. L. Harris, G. T. Roberts, A. R. Chambers, Satellite androcket--- borne atomic oxygen sensor tech-
niques, Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 72, No 11, Nov. 2001, pp. 4025--- 4041
5970) L. J. Paxton, C.--- I. Meng, Auroral Imaging and Space--- Based Optical Remote Sensing, Johns Hopkins APL
Technical Digest, Vol. 20, No 4, 1999, pp. 556--- 569
3317
from combined observations from three out of the four Cluster spacecraft revealed that
95.5% of the substorms are accompanied by BBFs (it seems possible that all substorms are
accompanied by BBFs).
5971) 5972)
Another key result of the analysis is that the average BBFduration is longer thanpreviously
estimated. Single satellite observations confirmed past results that the BBF duration was
around 10 minutes. However, by combining the data from three of the Cluster spacecraft,
the observations reveal an average duration almost twice as long: 18 minutes and 25 sec-
onds. So again, the multiple spacecraft data offered by Cluster was found to reveal more
about the Earths magnetic environment than data collected by single spacecraft.
Auroral oval. Refers to the approximately circular band in the northern or southern hemi-
sphere where aurora are most intense. The near---midnight portionof the oval, where some
of the brightest emissions occur, is located about 65 latitude. The mean diameter of the
oval is about 4000 km.
Avionics. The term is derived from the expression aviation electronics (a contraction of
bothterms) andrefers toall types of instruments for use in the navigation function(sensing,
control, and performance) of aircraft or spacecraft.
Anavionics systemof a spacecraft may includesome of the followingelements: 1) a databus
(like MIL---STD---1553Bor SpaceWire) which interfaces withall devices; 2) typical sensing
devices make up the AOCS (Attitude and Orbit Control System) like: gyro, Earth horizon
sensor, IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit), GPS receiver, magnetometer, and star sensor;
3) typical control devices (actuators) are: torque rods, reactionwheels, etc. for attitude con-
trol, and a thruster system for orbit or attitude changes.
For anaircraft the avionics systemincludes the attitude gyroandany number of instruments
that indicate power, torquemeter (in turboprops), and exhaust pressure ratio indicator (in
turbojets). Performance instruments include the altimeter, Machmeter, turn and slip indi-
cator, andvarieddevices that showairspeed, vertical velocity, andangleof attack. Electron-
ic radio navigation equipment ranges from radar to instrument landing systems.
Avionics engineering is theart of electronically integratingeverything onthe spacecraft into
a smoothly operating unit. At the start of the 21 century, spacecraft avionics has advanced
beyondmerely wiring together all theseparate boxes of functioningsubsystems. Nowspace-
craft engineers are working to put all the interfaces and electronics together on a single mi-
crochipalong withsoftware. This engineering advance has requireda leapinthinking about
how systems work together.
Azimuth plane (direction). Observationby aninstrument inthe along---track direction, i. e.
in the direction of the subsatellite track. In general the azimuth is the angle of horizontal
deviation, measured clockwise, of a bearing from a standard direction.
Background noise. Refers tothe noise present ina sensor (detector) independent of the sig-
nal strength or ambient temperature. Normally caused by thermal, generation---recombin-
ation characteristics or 1/f effects.
Backscatter. Scattering of radiation (or particles) through angles greater than 90
with re-
spect to the original direction of motion.
Band. A specification of a spectral range (say, from0.4 --- 0.5 mm) that is used for radiative
measurements. The termchannel is also in common use with the same meaning as band.
In the ITU convention (see Table 929) for the electromagnetic spectrum, the term band
refers to a specific frequency range, designated as L---band, S---band, X---band, etc.
_____________________
5971) J. B. Cao, Y. D. Ma, G. Parks, H. Rme, I. Dandouras, R. Nakamura, T. L. Zhang, Q. Zong, E. Lucek, C. M. Carr,
Z. X. Liu, G. C. Zhou, Joint observations by Cluster satellites of bursty bulk flows in the magnetotail Journal of
Geophysical Research, Vol. 111, 2006, A04206, doi:10.1029/2005JA011322
5972) ESAs Cluster mission establishes why Earths aurorae shine, http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMRKHZ7QQE_in-
dex_0.html
3318
Band---to---band registration (also referred to as co---registration). Refers to multispectral
image resolution, i.e. how well the same scene is recorded in different spectral bands. Co---
registration of spectral bands is measured by the displacement of corresponding pixels in
two different bands from their ideal relative location. Two pixels are corresponding if
their footprints should ideally coincide or if the footprint of one should ideally lie within a
specific region of the footprint of the other.
Bandpass. Defined as the frequency band(s) over which a microwave radiometer detects
radiation. The equivalent for IR radiometers is the filter response.
Bandpass filter. A filtering device that allows transmission of only a narrow band of fre-
quencies (the other frequencies are blocked out). The spectral width of this filter is charac-
terized by its bandwidth.
Bandwidth. Range of frequencies over whichaninstrument (or communicationlink) canbe
used. It is usually specified in terms of 3 dBpoints that is, frequencies at which the response
has fallen by 3 dB or 30% from the mid---frequency response. Bandwidth may also refer to
the width of a spectral feature as measured by a spectroscopic instrument.
Baroclinic waves (disturbances). Any migratory cyclone more or less associated withstrong
baroclinity of the atmosphere, as evidenced on synoptic charts by temperature gradients in
the constant---pressure surfaces, vertical wind shear, and concentration of solenoids in the
frontal surface near the ground.
Baseband. Band of frequencies, usually the lowest frequencies ina microwave communica-
tions system, where basic information is assembled. This spectrum is generally that pro-
vided to the microwave systemto be delivered to a distant point in the same format and in-
formation content.
Bathymetry. Refers tothe measurement of water body depths, in particular ocean floor sur-
veys. Generally, bathymetry surveys cannot be directly performed froma satellite. Howev-
er, there are some areas of satellite applications: --- bathymetry surveys in coastal regions
(with a SAR instrument) or of shallow bodies of water; the other method is the interpreta-
tionandcorrelationof radar altimeter data (the technique relies on the assumption that the
relationship between the gravity field and bathymetry is uniformover relatively small areas
(200 x 200 km). Bathymetry is a necessary prerequisite in the study of the oceans role in,
and response to, climate and climate change. Bathymetry represents a control on both,
ocean currents and mixing [ocean currents move a vast volume heat and mass (energy stor-
age) over great distances, affecting the climate of large regions].
Beamsplitter (also referred to as beam combiner). A mirror, sometimes built into a prism,
with the ability of reflecting part of a beamof radiation andtransmitting the other part. The
splitting or diverting is performed on the energy level (frequency---selective surfaces), not
on the spectral level (no spectral separation by dispersion). Such a partially diverted beam
may be used in color separation cameras, or for the superposition of images in special cam-
eras or in Fourier Transform Spectrometers (FTS), generating an interferogram in com-
bination with an interferometer.
Spectral beam combining inevitably generates output beams with several (or many) spec-
tral components, thus spanning a significant optical bandwidth. This means that thespectral
brightness is even reduced compared with that of the single emitters. This does not matter
for some applications while excluding others, where a narrow---bandwidth output is re-
quired.
Bias. In electronics the term refers to the application of a voltage between two terminals
(electrodes) resulting in current flow (also referred to as forward bias). The termreverse
bias refers to the application of a voltage in such a way that no current can flow. The term
unbiased designates that no voltage is applied.
3319
Beat wave. A composite wave formed by the superposition of two waves having different
frequencies (f
1
, f
2
) and wavenumbers (k
1
, k
2
). Beat waves form at the sum and difference
frequencies (f
1
f
2
) and wavenumbers (k
1
k
2
). See also heterodyne detection.
Biological productivity. The amount of organic matter, carbon, or energy that is accumu-
lated during a given time period.
Bioluminescence. Refers to the production of light from chemiluminescent reaction in liv-
ing organisms. Althoughbioluminescence is very dim, it features prominently intheecology
of the seas, occurring in all oceans; it is produced by a wide variety of marine plankton and
nekton.
Biomass. The total dry organic matter or stored energy content of living organisms that is
present at a specific time in a defined unit (community, ecosystem, crop, etc.) of the Earths
surface.
Biomass burning. Arecognizedmajor source of trace gases, including CO
2
, NO
2
, CO, CH
4
,
and of aerosol particles. It takes on many forms: burning of forested areas for landclearing,
extensive burning of grasslands and savannas to sustain grazing lands, burning of harvest
debris, use of biomass fuel for heating, forest fires induced by lightning or other hazards.
The emissions of biomass burning represent a large perturbation to global atmospheric
chemistry, especially in the tropics.
Biosphere. The portion of the Earth and its atmosphere that can support life. The part (res-
ervoir) of the global carbon cycle that includes living organisms (plants, animals,) andlife---
derived organic matter (litter, detritus). The terrestrial biosphere includes the living biota
(plants and animals), litter and soil organic matter on land; the marine biosphere includes
the biota and detrius in the oceans.
Bistatic system. The bistatic remote---sensing concept refers to a measurement arrange-
ment in which the transmitter and receiver locations are separated by a distance compara-
ble tothat of the target distance. --- Incontrast, monostatic radars employ a transmitter and
receiver (Tx/Rx) at thesame location(oftenusingthe sameantenna) andmeasure theback-
scattered radiation. The great majority of all radars (SAR instruments, Doppler radars,
etc.) in use today are monostatic.
Blackbody (BB). An idealized body that absorbs all the radiation incident upon it and re-
radiates it according the Plancks law.
Black holes: Ablack hole is a regionof space fromwhichnothing, not evenlight, canescape.
The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass will deformspace-
time to form a black hole. Around a black hole there is an undetectable surface called an
event horizonthat marks the point of noreturn. It is called black because it absorbs all the
light that hits the horizon, reflecting nothing, just like a perfect black body inthermodynam-
ics. Quantum mechanics predicts that black holes emit radiation like a black body with a
finite temperature. This temperature is inversely proportional tothe mass of the black hole,
making it difficult to observe this radiation for black holes of stellar mass or greater.
5973)
Black holes that originate from the collapse of massive stars are very compact objects, en-
closing up to a few tens of solar masses within a radius of only a fewkilometers. Black holes
are so dense that nothing, not even light, can escape their gravity. In theory, these black
holes should therefore be impossible to observe; however, when a black hole is part of a
binary stellar system, interesting effects arise that can uncover the surroundings of these
otherwise invisible objects. It is this phenomenon that enables astronomers to probe the
environment of the black hole.
In a binary system, a black hole and a normal star are gravitationally bound and orbit each
other around their common centre of mass. With its intense gravitational field, the black
_____________________
5973) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole
3320
hole draws matter from its companion, and the stripped material spirals around the black
hole, forming an accretion disc. As friction in the disc heats the material up to millions of
degrees, making it shine in X---rays, these objects are known as XRBs (X---Ray Binaries).
First observed in the 1960s, soon after observations at these wavelengths became possible,
these objects raised immediate interest as black hole candidates; furthermore, in the fol-
lowing decades, data gathered in the radio band revealed jets of relativistic particles eman-
ating from several XRBs, suggesting that a link exists between accretion and ejection of
matter in the proximity of such stellar black holes.
Astronomers call these objects microquasars because they appear as miniature versions of
quasars the nuclei of active galaxies that harbor, in their cores, supermassive black holes
that are millions of times more massive than their stellar counterparts. In spite of their very
different sizes, black holes inboth types of systems exhibit very similar dynamics, vigorously
accreting matter fromtheir surroundings via a disc and funnelling part of it, by means of the
disc rotation, into highly collimated, bipolar jets of particles that are released at relativistic
speeds.
There is evidence of a black hole environment in the Cygnus---1 binary system. Cygnus---1 is
one of the brightest galactic sources in the high---energy sky and one of the first X---ray bin-
aries that was discovered (soon after the advent of X---ray astronomy in the 1960s) in the
Milky Way. Cygnus X---1 is also the first galactic source for which optical measurements, in
the early 1970s, suggested the presence of a black hole, as boththe optical and X---ray emis-
sion exhibit variability on very short time scales.
5974)
Blaze wavelength. The wavelength of the highest efficiency for a ruled diffraction grating,
the blaze being the controlled shape of the rulings on the grating.
Blooming. Refers to the saturation effect in image detection devices, like CCDs.
Body---pointing. Refers to the pointing technique of an instrument within the field of re-
gard. The instrument is pointedalong withits platform(satellite) intothe desireddirection.
Bolometer. Adetector typemaking useof thechange inelectrical resistanceof certainmate-
rials (with small thermal capacity) when their temperature is changed. The resistance of
most conductors varies with temperature, this change in resistance is measured by the
bolometer. Bolometers are suitable detectors for observations the infrared and microwave
regions.
Boresight. A technique for aligning sensors or detectors on a target in parallel.
Bragg scattering theory. According to this theory the normalized radar cross---section
(NRCS) is proportional to the spectral energy density of the Bragg waves, i.e. of those sur-
face waves with wave numbers k
B
that satisfy the Bragg resonance condition:
k
B
=
4 sin
l
o
where l
o
denotes the radar wavelength and the incidence angle.
BRDF(Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function). Specifies the behavior of surface
scattering as a function of illumination and viewangles at a particular wavelength. BRDFis
defined as being the ratio of the reflected radiance to the incident flux per unit area.
5975)
All remote sensing of the Earths surface in the solar wavelengths is impactedby the BRDF,
all Earth surfaces scatter light anisotropically. The BRDF describes the angular distribu-
tionof scattered light and is thus what most remote sensing instruments sample. The BRDF
is dependent on the structural as well as the optical characteristics of surfaces and multiple
samples of the BRDF may be exploited to retrieve structural parameters.
_____________________
5974) INTEGRAL discovers gamma rays originating from black hole jets, ESA, March 24, 2011, URL: http://sci.es-
a.int/science--- e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=48587
5975) F. E. Nicodemus, J. C. Richmond, J. J. Hsia, I. W. Ginsberg, T. Limperis, Geometrical Considerations andNomen-
clature for Reflectance, National Bureau of Standards, US Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. 1977
3321
Brightness temperature. Aconcept referring tothe equivalent blackbody temperature for a
given frequency (range) according to Plancks law. The term brightness temperature is
often employed for data of radio/microwave observations where the radiation is in the Ray-
leigh---Jeans tail of thethermal distribution. It means that thesource emits (at thefrequency
of interest) the same amount of radiation as a blackbody at the brightness temperature. In-
tensities are measured in terms of brightness temperature (that is, the temperature a black-
body would have if it emitted an equal intensity of radiation at the same frequency). Exam-
ples of brightness temperature applications:
Measurement and/or computation of the top of the atmosphere brightness tempera-
ture or troposphere moisture content fromdata of particular channels of such sensors as:
AVHRR, TOVS, etc.
The measurement of ocean surface roughness at microwave frequencies (with a radi-
ometer) permits estimates of ocean---surface wind speeds. The method employs the con-
cept of brightness temperature anisotropy which increases with ocean---surface roughness.
The SSM/I sensor of the DMSPseries uses this principle tomap oceansurface windspeeds.
The Earths surface brightness temperature can be measured by channel 6 (TIR) of the
Landsat TM sensor, or by the MWR instrument of ERS missions.
Cadastre. An official (governmental) land registry defining the ownership of a parcel along
with ancillary information (description of parcel location, boundaries, shape and size, in-
ventory of actual features and structures, value for taxation, etc.). Positional accuracies are
an important issue of such registries. --- Cadastral mapping takes many forms around the
world, based on current and historic land registry, land reformpolicies, and available fund-
ing levels. In Europe the cadastre is linked to the legal land registration system within the
context of a national geodetic reference system. In the US and Canada there is no central
land registry (land registry information is maintained at multiple levels). In all parts of the
world, however, land ownership information plays a key role in defining local and national
economies and in managing natural resources and handling environmental issues.
Calibration. Characterization of a sensor (radiometer, spectrometer, etc., see also chapter
O.2) in the spatial, spectral, temporal and polarization responsive domains. The termcal-
ibration is being used so often by different people that it has several additional meanings,
such as:
1. The activities involved in adjusting an instrument to be intrinsically accurate, either be-
fore or after launch (i.e. instrument calibration).
2. The process of collecting instrument characterization information (scale, offset, nonlin-
earity, operational andenvironmental effects), usingeither laboratory standards, fieldstan-
dards, or modeling, which is used to interpret instrument measurements (i.e. data calibra-
tion).
Candela (cd). Aunit of luminous intensity equal to one sixtieth of the luminous intensity of
one square centimeter (1 cm
2
) of a blackbody surface at the solidificationpoint of platinum.
Carbon cycle. A sequence of conversion processes from matter into energy. All reservoirs
and fluxes of carbon; usually thought of as a series of the four main reservoirs of carbon in-
terconnected by pathways of exchange. The four reservoirs --- regions of the Earth in which
carbonbehaves ina systematic manner --- arethe atmosphere, terrestrial biosphere(usually
includes freshwater systems), oceans, and sediments (includes fossil fuels). Each of these
global reservoirs may be subdivided into smaller pools ranging in size fromindividual com-
munities or ecosystems tothe total of all living organisms (biota). Carbonis exchangedfrom
reservoir to reservoir by various chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes.
Carrier. An electromagnetic continuous wave (CW) ina communicationpath (basic center
frequency of asignal) whichdoes not carry informationbut is generally modulatedby anoth-
er wave (subcarrier) which contains the information.
3322
Carrier---phase. Refers to the fraction of a cycle, often expressed in degrees (360 to a
cycle). Carrier---phasecanalsomeanthe number of completecycles plus a fractional cycle.
In GPS terminology, carrier---phase refers to a receiver capable of locking onto a GPS sig-
nal and keeping track of the whole number of cycles of the carrier; this method creates a
cumulative phase of the signal which is also known as integrated Doppler. Much higher
ranging accuracies can be obtained with carrier---phase than without carrier---phase track-
ing.
A GPS receiver determines the biased distance between the electrical phase center of its
antenna and the phase center of a GPS satellites transmitting antenna as a pseudorange or
carrier---phase measurement. This distance measure is biased due to the lack of synchro-
nization between the satellite and the receiver clocks, atmospheric propagation delays am-
biguities, and other factors. To determine the position of the receiving antenna, the receiv-
ers operating software combines a number of simultaneous measurements on different
GPS satellites with information on the position of the satellites, the offsets of the satellite
clocks, and other parameter values in an accurate theoretical model of the measurements.
The precise GPS ephemeris produced by the IGS (International GPS Service) and others
refer to the satellite center of mass (the offset between the center of mass and the satellites
antenna must be accurately known).
Catadioptric telescope (see also Schmidt telescope under Telescopes). Refers to a tele-
scope design with a large FOV to eliminate image distortions (a catadioptric telescope de-
signincorporates the best features of both, the refractor andreflector, i.e., it has bothreflec-
tive and refractive optics. The Schmidt telescope has a spherically shaped primary mirror.
Since parallel light rays, that are reflected by the center of a spherical mirror, are focused
farther away than those reflected from the outer regions, Schmidt introduced a thin lens
(called the correcting plate) at the radius of curvature of the primary mirror. Since this cor-
recting plate is very thin, it introduces little chromatic aberration. The resulting focal plane
has a field of view several degrees in diameter.
Charge---Coupled Device (CCD). A CCD is a photosensitive solid---state imaging sensor
(detector) implemented with large---scale integration technology (normally based on MOS
technology). A MOS capacitor is a three---layer sandwich formed by positioning a metal
electrode, insulated by a layer of silicon dioxide, onto a silicon substrate. Incident radiation
into the system is sampled by photodetectors, converted into an electronic charge and
trapped in the depletion region of the substrate. The isolated charge packets are trans-
ported by manipulating potential wells (place of minimum potential) within the substrate.
The ability to store a charge is fundamental to the operation of CCDs. It corresponds to a
memory device storing analog quantities. --- CCD readout techniques employ clock---con-
trolled circuits which transfer these charges to a matching grid of elements and shift all
charges by one row at a time. --- The CCDtechnology was first demonstrated in 1969 at the
Bell Laboratories. See also chapter O.4.2.1.
Charge Injection Device (CID). A photo---sensitive image sensor (detector) implemented
in large---scale integration technology. Charge packets are typically measured by injecting
themintoa substrate or by shifting charge packets under anelectrode to induce a voltage on
the capacitance formed by the electrode and the substrate. A CID can be randomly ad-
dressed. The pixel structure is contiguous with maximum surface to capture incident light
which is useful for sub---pixel measurement (O.4.2.2).
Chemiluminescence. Emissionof light as a consequenceof achemical reaction, the result of
thermal generation of electronic excited states. Chemiluminescence can be seen when oc-
curring in the dark. --- Anumber of chemical reactions generate products not in their lowest
energy states, but rather in upper levels. That is, some of the exothermicity of the reactionis
channeled internally into electronic, vibrational, or rotational energy of one or more of the
products, rather than being released as heat. The excited product molecules may emit this
energy as light, known as chemiluminescence because of the chemical source of energy. ---
3323
The termof surface chemiluminescence belongs also into this context. In this scheme air is
passed over a chemiluminescent plate causing the gas (eg., ozone) molecules to diffuse into
the coating of the plate and in turn generating a chemiluminescent reaction. The reaction
sequence causes the emittance of light (radiation) whose intensity is proportional to the
ozone concentration.
Chirp principle. A microwave modulation technique in which the frequency of the trans-
mitted microwave pulse is not constant but linearly changed in a positive sense (up---chirp)
or in a negative sense (down---chirp). A frequency---modulated chirp is a signal with a (lin-
ear) increase in frequency or pitch.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). A family of inert, nontoxic, and easily liquefied chemicals
used in refrigeration, air conditioning, packaging, and insulation, or as solvents or aerosol
propellants. Because they are not destroyed in the lower atmosphere, they drift into the up-
per atmosphere, where --- given suitable conditions --- their chlorine components destroy
ozone.
Chlorophyll. Agreen pigment essential for photosynthesis foundin plants. It usually occurs
in discrete bodies (chloroplasts) in plant cells, and is what makes green plants green. In re-
mote sensing of aquatic ecosystems, the reflectedradiance is related tothe concentrationof
chlorophyll andother associatedpigments. Since chlorophyll is green, the color of reflected
light changes from blue to green as the concentration of chlorophyll increases. The con-
centration of chlorophyll is used to estimate the abundance of phytoplankton in ocean wa-
ters, and hence the abundance of ocean biota.
5976)
Climate. The statistical collection and representation of the weather conditions for a speci-
fied area during a specified time interval, usually on a decade---scale, together with a de-
scription of the state of the external system or boundary conditions. The properties that
characterize the climate are thermal (temperatures of the surface air, water, land, and ice),
kinetic (windandoceancurrents, together withassociatedvertical motions and the motions
of air masses, humidity, cloudiness and cloud water content, groundwater, lake winds, and
water content of snow on land and sea ice), and static (pressure and density of the atmo-
sphere and ocean, composition of the dry air, salinity of the oceans, and the geometric
boundaries and physical constants of the system). These properties are interconnected by
various physical processes such as precipitation, evaporation, infrared radiation, convec-
tion, advection, and turbulence. --- --- At the start of the 21st century, clouds represent the
biggest source of uncertainty in our understanding of climate prediction since it is not yet
clear whether clouds actually have the general effect of cooling or warming the Earth. This
is because high altitude clouds warm the Earth while clouds lower in the atmosphere con-
tribute to cooling.
Climate change. The long---term fluctuations in temperature, precipitation, wind, and all
other aspects of the Earths climate. External processes, such as solar---irradiance varia-
tions, variations of the Earths orbital parameters (eccentricity, precession, and inclina-
tion), lithosphere motions, and volcanic activity, are factors in climatic variation. Internal
variations of the climate, e.g., changes in the abundance of greenhouse gases, may also pro-
duce fluctuations of sufficient magnitude andvariability toexplainobservedclimatechange
through the feedback processes interrelating the components of the climate system.
5977)
Correction/Calibration methods for sensor data (see chapters O.2 and O.2.2)
Clouds. A visible mass of condensed water vapor particles or ice suspended above the
Earths surface. Clouds may beclassifiedby their visual appearance, height, or form. Clouds
typically cover about 60%of our planet. They have two contrary effects on the Earths radi-
ation budget. On one hand, they tend to cool the Earth by reflecting the light coming from
_____________________
5976) Courtesy of W. Esaias of NASA/GSFC
5977) S. Weart, The Discovery of Rapid Climate Change, Physics Today, Aug. 2003, pp. 30--- 36
3324
the sun back into space. On the other hand, the cloud mantle keeps the surface warm by
absorbing the upwelling radiance and reflecting it back to the ground. The properties of
clouds can vary widely with location, with time of day, with changing weather and with sea-
son. Satellite observations are the most effective way to observe clouds on a large scale.
Cloud albedo. Reflectivity that varies from less than 10 to more than 90 percent of the in-
solation and depends on drop sizes, liquid water content, water vapor content, thickness of
the cloud, and the suns zenith angle. The smaller the drops and the greater the liquidwater
content, the greater the cloud albedo, if all other factors are the same.
Cloud feedback. The coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature in which a
change insurface temperature couldleadtoa change in clouds, which couldthen amplify or
diminishthe initial temperature perturbation. For example, anincreaseinsurfacetempera-
ture could increase evaporation; this in turn might increase the extent of cloud cover. In-
creased cloud cover would reduce the solar radiation reaching the Earths surface, thereby
lowering the surface temperature. This is an example of negative feedback and does not in-
clude the effects of longwave radiation or advection in the oceans and the atmosphere,
which must also be considered in the overall relationships within the climate system.
Cloud microphysics. Study of cloud and precipitation particles (individual or populations)
and their interactions with the environment. Of key importance are mass exchange pro-
cesses such as nucleation, growth, and fallout leading to the broad characteristics of clouds
and precipitation.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA). Refers to an access scheme which employs
spread---spectrummodulations andorthogonal codes toshare acommunicationlinkamong
its users. In the CDMAscheme, all users transmit simultaneously and at the same frequen-
cy, with each being assigned a unique pseudorandom noise code. Usually, the data is first
phase---modulatedby a carrier andthenthe carrier is bi ---phase---modulatedwith a pseudo-
random noise (PNR) code. This concept generates a wide bandwidth, low---energy spread
spectrum signal.
Coherence. A fixed relationship between the phases of waves in a beam of radiation of a
single frequency. Two beams of light are coherent when the phase difference between their
waves is constant; they are noncoherent (or incoherent) if there is a randomphase relation-
ship. In active measurement systems like radars, coherence refers to the availability of
phase and amplitude measurements of the radar cross section of the recovered signals. Co-
herence provides the ability to maximize SNRand to measure other features like target ra-
dial velocity.
Coma. Anoff---axis aberrationwhereby the outer periphery of a lens systemhas a higher (or
lower) magnification then the central portion of the lens. The image typically is comet
shaped.
Contrast. The ratioof a certainquantity of radiation betweenthe brightest and darkest part
of an image or between two arbitrary places of an image, where the contrast is to be deter-
mined.
Convection (meteorology). Vertical wind motions and associated horizontal circulations
associated with buoyancy.
Convolution. Mathematical process, appearing in linear or circular form, that models the
input---output filtering process.
Convolution filter. Alinear filter type as used in digital image processing of which the win-
dowoperation has a mathematically linear character (weighted summation). Examples are
low---pass filter, high---pass filter, gradient filters, Laplacian filters, etc.
Corona. Refers to the outer atmosphere of the sun whose structure is controlled by solar
magnetic fields. The corona has temperatures between one and three million degrees. It
3325
merges intothe solar windat its upper boundary about 1---2 solar radii above the visible sur-
face of the photosphere.
Coronagraph. A coronagraph is a telescope designed to block light coming from the solar
disk, in order to see the extremely faint emission fromthe region around the sun, called the
corona. It was invented in 1930 by Bernard Lyot (French astronomer) to study the suns co-
rona at times other thanduring a solar eclipse. The coronagraph, at its simplest, is anoccult-
ing disk in the focal plane of a telescope or out in front of the entrance aperture that blocks
out the image of the solar disk, and various other features to reduce stray light so that the
corona surrounding the occulting disk can be studied.
Coronal Mass Ejection(CME). CMEs are very large structures (billions of tons of particles,
super hot hydrogen gas) containing plasma and magnetic fields that are expelled from the
sun into the heliosphere at speeds of several hundred to over 1000 km/s. CMEs often drive
interplanetary shock waves which, upon arrival at Earth (after a few days), may cause geo-
magnetic disturbances. Geomagnetic storms are a major component of the space weather.
The geomagnetic storms that signify the arrival of a CME in near---Earth space pose haz-
ards to all space operations. Amajor effect is the release of trapped particles fromthe mag-
netosphere into the auroral zones, causing increases in S/C charging, single---event upsets,
and hazardous radiation dose rates for astronauts. Other effects include interference with
satellite communication and surveillance systems. Atmospheric heating by charged par-
ticles results in increased satellite drag. Geomagnetic storms may also cause harm to the
magnetic attitude control systems of S/C.
Note: CMEs are also referred to as solar flares.
Figure 1447: Image of a large solar flare (image credit: ESA, NASA)
Cosmic background radiation (CBR), also known as CMB (Cosmic Microwave Back-
ground) radiation. Refers to the faint isotropic (omnipresent) cosmic microwave back-
ground radiation at 2.725 K in the universe which peaks in the microwave range at a fre-
quency of 160.2 GHz (wavelength of 1.9 mm). The discovery of cosmic background radi-
3326
ation occurred in 1965 by Arno Allen Penzias and his astronomer colleague Robert Woo-
drow Wilson at the Bell Laboratories in Holmdel, N. J. Their discovery has been used as
evidence in support of the big bang theory that the universe was created by a giant explo-
sion billions of years ago. Both scientists received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1978 (along
with Peter Kapitza). The scientists used the companys radio astronomy antenna facilities
for their research (they were testing a highly sensitive new type of radio telescope for com-
munications). Because the signal was so faint and pervasive, the two scientists initially be-
lieved the noise could have come fromany number of sources, including the antenna itself.
No matter what direction they pointed their horn---shaped antenna --- the signal persisted.
The signal never wavered from day---to---day, season---to---season, thus marking itself as
unique.
Cosmic dust. A slow, steady rain of cosmic space dust is always falling through the Earths
atmosphere. These particles from space are infused with a rare isotope of helium that
makes it immediately identifiable compared to a more common isotope of helium we find
here onEarth. Scientists recently drilledanice core inAntarctica containing a recordof this
dust fall that goes back 30,000 years. This new data (2006) gives scientists another line of
data to study global climate history as the ratio between the isotopes varies between inter-
glacial periods.
5978)
Cosmic rays. Anincoming ultrahigh---energy radiation[withnucleonenergies rangingfrom
1 MeVto >EeV(Exa =10
18
) and higher] of sub---atomic particles that have beenaccel-
erated close to the speed of light.
5979)
Cosmic rays with energies < 10
15
eV (or PeV) are
believed to have been accelerated in supernovae remnants in our galaxy. Cosmic rays with
energies > 10
15
eV are of extragalactic origin. Generally, cosmic rays do not penetrate
Earths atmosphere, but they may produce a shower of secondary particles that penetrate
the Earths upper atmosphere, producing Cherenkov radiation in the process. An infre-
quent shower of cosmic rays can be detected by arrays of scintillators on the ground; they
also announce their presence by producing a trail of ultraviolet fluorescent light, exciting
the nitrogen atoms in the atmosphere. The existence of such showers has been known since
1963.
Astronauts have long reportedthe experience of seeing flashes while they are in space, even
when their eyes are closed. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin both reported these flashes
during the Apollo 11 mission, and similar reports during the Apollo 12 and 13 missions led
to subsequent Apollo missions including experiments specifically looking at this strange
phenomenon. These experiments involved blindfolding crewmembers and recording their
comments during designated observation sessions, and later missions had a special device,
the ALFMED(Apollo Light Flash Moving Emulsion Detector), which was worn by the as-
tronauts during dark periods to record of incidents of cosmic ray hits.
5980)
The origin of cosmic rays has been one of the most enduring mysteries in physics, and it
looks like its going to stay that way for a while longer. One of the leading candidates for
where cosmic rays come from is gamma ray bursts, and physicists were hoping a huge Ant-
arctic detector called the IceCube Neutrino Observatory would confirm that theory. But
observations of over 300 GRBs turned up no evidence of cosmic rays. In short, cosmic rays
arent what we thought they were.
5981)
Crossover (difference). A crossover is defined as the intersection points of the satellite
ground track with itself (due to Earth rotation). At this location, the two crossing passes
_____________________
5978) http://www.universetoday.com/2006/08/07/constant--- rain--- of--- space--- dust--- adds--- up/
5979) F. W. Stecker, The Curious Adventure of the Ultrahigh Energy Cosmic Rays, Astrophysics abstracts (astro---
ph/0101072), Jan. 11, 2001, URL: http://owl.gsfc.nasa.gov/stecker01.pdf
5980) Nancy Atkinson, Seeing Cosmic Rays in Space, Universe Today, April 19, 2012, URL: http://www.univer-
setoday.com/94714/seeing--- cosmic--- rays--- in--- space/
5981) Nancy Atkinson, CosmicRays: They Arent What WeThought They Were, UniverseToday, April 19, 2012, URL:
http://www.universetoday.com/94703/cosmic--- rays--- they--- arent--- what--- we--- thought--- they--- were/
3327
(one ascending and one descending) provide independent subsatellite ground track mea-
surements at the same location but at different times. In altimetry crossover differences
contain information about uncertainties in the satellite ephemeris and therefore enable
correction of radial orbit error.
Crossover point. Refers to radar measurements concerning the curves showing the depen-
dency of the radar backscatter behavior on the incidence angle of the radar transmission
signals onto surfaces of differing roughness. The crossover point is the incidence angle
where the diffuse region changes into a specular region on the curves (or: the incidence
angle where the effect of soil roughness vanishes and the radar backscatter value is deter-
mined by the presence of soil moisture).
Cryosphere (fromthe Greek word kryos, frost or icy cold). The cryosphere collectively de-
scribes frozen water in the Earth System. As an integral part of the global climate system, it
influences surface energy, moisture, gas and particle fluxes, clouds, precipitation, hydrolo-
gy, and atmospheric and oceanic circulation. The Earths cryosphere consists of four main
elements: sea ice, seasonal snow on land, land ice (including glaciers, ice sheets, and ice
shelves), and permafrost. The time scales on which these elements impact human activity
range from daily to seasonal for sea ice and snow, while ice shelves respond in the range of
10---100 years, ice sheets (Antarctic and Greenland) have periods in the order of
1000---10,000 years. Land ice occupies about 11% of the continental surfaces. Sea ice and
ice shelves spread around 7% of the total oceanic area.
Figure 1448: Schematic of cryosphere--- climate interactions (image credit: University of Wisconsin)
The cryosphere plays an integral part in all other Earth system components because of the
high shortwave reflectivity of snow and ice, and because of all the freshwater locked up as
ice (almost 80%of the freshwater on Earth). It has a strong influence on the surface energy
and moisture fluxes, precipitation, hydrology, sea---level rise and atmospheric and ocean
3328
circulation. The freshwater provided by the melting of glaciers and land ice sheets is re-
sponsible for an increase in sea levels of 18 cm during the last century.
Decibel (dB) --- named in honor of Alexander Graham Bell. A measurement of signal
strength, properly appliedtoa ratioof powers. For the signal power Pcomparedby a ratioto
a reference power P
ref
, the definition is: P
db
= 10log
10
(P/P
ref
). As an example, the power
ratio of 1/2 corresponds to 3 dB, derived from: log
10
(0.5) =0.3010.
Detectivity (D*). A parameter used to compare the performance of different detector
types. D* is the signal ---to---noise ratio (SNR) at a particular electrical frequency and in a 1
Hz bandwidth when 1 Watt of radiant power is incident on a 1 cm
2
active area detector. The
higher D* the better the detector. D* is normally expressed either as a blackbody D* or as a
peak wavelength D* within the practical operating frequency of the detector. The units of
D* are centimeter---square root hertz per watt.
Deforestation. The removal of forest stands by cutting and burning to provide land for agri-
cultural purposes, residential or industrial building sites, roads, etc., or by harvesting the
trees for building materials or fuel. Oxidation of organic matter releases CO
2
to the atmo-
sphere, with possible regional and global impacts.
Densiometer. Aphotometer designedfor measuringthe optical density of a material, gener-
ally a photographic image by visual or photoelectric effects.
Depolarizationratio. The ratioof intensities of light scatteredperpendicular andparallel to
the E---vector of the incident radiation.
Detector. A device that detects and linearly transduces radiative power into an electrical
signal. Direct detectors may be categorized as photon detectors (an electrical signal is pro-
duced by free charges on the detector surface fromthe incident photons) or thermal detec-
tors (anelectrical signal is produceddue tothe temperature change). Detectors may alsobe
classified according to their arrangement: single line detectors, array detectors. Thermal
detectors usually require cooling (active or passive). Infrared radiation is thermal by na-
ture, hence the detector is affected by the mediumthat is measured. As a rule of thumb, the
longer the IR wavelength that is to be measured, the colder the detector must be. In the
VNIRregionthe detector element temperatures rarely needtobe below200 K. From1---17
mm, temperatures are typically in the range 50---80 K. The longer wavelengths of the micro-
wave region usually demand temperatures below 20 K. The detectivity of a cooled detector
is much higher than one operating at roomtemperature The noise contribution fromback-
ground radiation at 300 K is several orders of magnitude higher than that of the 4 K sur-
roundings of the detector (see O.4).
Detector types for spectral ranges.
5982)
From the UV to VNIR (0.3---1 mm), silicon photo-
diodes and photoemissive devices such as photomultiplier tube (PMT) are normally used.
Between 1---12 mm, two technologies dominate: InSb (indiumantimonide) from1---5.5 mm,
and HgCdTe (mercury cadmium telluride, also referred to as MCT). Both, InSb and MCT
operate in a photovoltaic mode. For the spectral range of 12---35 mm, photoconductors or
MCTare being used. Beyond30 mm, the only available technology in use is the semiconduc-
tor bolometer (bolometer detectors are energy---balancing devices).
5983)
A photomultiplier tube (PMT) is a sensitive radiation detector for low intensity ap-
plications (spectral range from EUV to NIR or from 0.1 to 1.1 mm). A PMT consists of a
photoemissive cathode, a series of electrodes (dynodes), and ananode sealedwithin a com-
mon evacuated envelope. Photons that strike the cathode emit electrons due to the photo-
electric effect. Voltages applied to the cathodes, dynodes, and anode cause electrons that
are ejected from the photoemissive cathode to make collisions with the dynodes in succes-
_____________________
5982) R. Beer, Remote Sensing by Fourier TransformSpectrometry,JohnWiley &Sons, Inc., NewYork, 1992, Chapter
4.1.2
5983) Note: Silicon is transparent in the spectral ranges of 1.4 --- 7 mm and from 25 mm to well beyond 100 mm
3329
sion, knocking out more electrons at each collision. In this arrangement the dynodes pro-
vide signal amplification up to factors of 10
6
. The amplified signal is taken off the anode.
Microchannel plate (MCP). Adetector system, covering the spectral range fromUVto
x---ray and to gamma---rays and particles, employing large---area electron multipliers that
provide spatial resolution as well as amplification. Depending on requirements MCPs may
be coupled with a scintillator, a film, or a CCD array to provide imaging in the spectral
range. MCPs consist of a matrix of hollowglass tubes. The hole diameter andspacing is typi-
cally 5---50 mm. The surface of a plate is usually coated with a photocathode material, while
the interior of the holes is coated with a material of a high secondary emission coefficient.
MCPs are used for plasma particle, ion, photon, and/or electron counting applications
(measurement of ionospheric fluxes in the solar wind, etc.). They exhibit a highcount---rate
capability; a stack of twoor more MCPs allowray---tracing for angular measurements (posi-
tion---sensitive). Among photomultiplier detectors of single photons, MCPs have the best
intrinsic detector resolution, in the order of 20 ps. The detection efficiency of a microchan-
nel plate for photons is a function of the angle of incidence and photon energy.
Figure 1449: State--- ot--- the--- art single photon counting imaging (image credit: UCLA)
5984)
S Avalanche Photodiode (APD). These are photodetectors that can be regarded as the
semiconductor analog to photomultipliers (PMTs). By applying a high reverse bias voltage
(typically 100---200 V in silicon), APDs show an internal current gain effect (around 100)
due to impact ionization (avalanche effect). However, some silicon APDs employ alterna-
tive doping and beveling techniques compared to traditional APDs that allow greater volt-
age to be applied (> 1500 V) before breakdown is reached and hence a greater operating
gain (> 1000). In general, the higher the reverse voltage the higher the gain. --- A typical
application for APDs is laser range finders and long range fiber optic telecommunication.
New applications include positron emission tomography and particle physics. APDs are
widely used in instrumentation and aerospace applications, offering a combination of high
_____________________
5984) KangL. Wang, XinyuZheng, Towards UltimateSingle PhotonCounting Imaging, WorkshoponCMOSApplica-
tions in Astronomy and Space Sciences, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, Jan. 5--- 6, 2011, URL:
http://crab0.astr.nthu.edu.tw/CMOS--- workshop--- 2011/0105/0105_1540--- 1720_KLWang_TowardsUl-
timateSinglePhotonCountingImaging.pdf
3330
speed and high sensitivity unmatched by PIN [Positive Insulator Negative (diode)] detec-
tors, and quantum efficiencies at > 400 nm unmatched by PMTs.
Dewar [after Sir James Dewar (1854---1928) a Scottish chemist and physicist]. The termde-
notes a vessel to store hot or cold substances over long periods of time. It is a container with
at least two walls and a space between the walls evacuated so as to prevent the transfer of
heat. There are various techniques in use for minimizing the heat transfer in spaceflight for
liquid helium, like: multilayer insulation, multiple reflective surfaces in vacuum, vapor---
cooled shields, passive orbital disconnect struts, etc.
Dielectric. Aninsulating material or a very poor conductor of electric current. Whendielec-
trics are placed into an electric field, practically no current flows in them because, unlike
metals, they have no loosely bound, or free, electrons that may drift through the material.
Instead, electric polarization occurs, reducing the electric field within the dielectric. Avac-
uumis the only perfect dielectric. --- Adielectric gas is a nonconductor of electricity to high
applied electrical stress; a gas with a high breakdown voltage.
Dielectric constant. A property of an insulating material (a dielectric) equal to the ratio of
the capacitance of the capacitor filled with the given material to the capacitance of an iden-
tical capacitor in a vacuum without the dielectric material (=C/C
o
). --- The soil dielectric
constant, for instance, is determinedlargely be the soil physical properties, andis afunction
of the individual dielectric constants of the soil components (i.e. air, water, rock, etc.). The
dielectric constant of the rock (soil) fraction is determined by factors such as temperature,
salinity, soil textural composition, and sensor frequency. Soil moisture is a key land surface
parameter in many Earth science disciplines.
Diffraction. A process by which the direction of radiation is changed so that it spreads into
the geometric shadow region of an opaque or refractive object that lies in a radiation field.
Diffraction is an optical edge effect, (differing only in degree from scattering) caused by
particles withdiameters of thesame order of magnitudeas, or larger than, the wavelengthof
radiation; scattering is caused by smaller objects. Diffraction causes a modification which
light undergoes in passing by the edges of opaque bodies or through narrow slits or in being
reflectedfromruledsurfaces, andinwhichtherays appear tobedeflectedproducingfringes
of parallel light and dark or colored bands.
Under ideal circumstances, theresolutionof anoptical systemis limitedby the diffractionof
light waves. This so---called diffraction limit is generally described by the following angle
(a) calculatedusing the lights wavelength(l) andoptical systems pupil diameter (D, or the
effective aperture of the optics):
sin a = 1.22 l/D (Rayleigh formula)
Note that the diffraction limit (i.e. resolution) improves in proportion to the aperture
diameter.
Diffraction grating. A system of close equidistant and parallel lines or bars (also grooves)
on a polished surface used for producing spectra by diffraction.
Diffraction---limited system. An optical systemin which aberrations are negligible with re-
spect to diffraction effects.
Diffuse radiation. Radiationpropagating inmany different directions througha givensmall
volume of space (converse is specular radiation). The ideal formof diffuse radiation is iso-
tropic radiation (uniform radiation in all directions).
Digital count. Refers to the total number of pixels occurring in an image for each possible
data value.
Digital Earth. A vision/initiative of Vice President Al Gore, presented in a speech at the
3331
California Science Center in Los Angeles, on Jan. 31, 1998.
5985)
The proposed concept
model of Digital Earthrefers to a multi ---resolution, 3---D representation of Earth, into
which geo---referenced data can be embedded. A Digital Earth could, for instance, pro-
vide a mechanism for users to navigate and search for geospatial information, etc. --- Ob-
viously, suchanobjective is sovast, that noone organizationingovernment, industry or aca-
demia could undertake such a project. A vast standards infrastructure is needed to make it
happen! The benefits of such a seamless system are apparent to the entire Earth Observa-
tion community.
Digital filter. Adigital device (or a mathematical procedure) capable of altering the magni-
tude, frequency or phase response of a digitally encoded input signal (it may alsoselectively
transmit digital signals).
Digital Terrain Model (DTM). Refers to a land surface represented in digital form by an
elevation grid or tables of three---dimensional coordinates to form surface contours. The
DTM definition is identical to that of a DEM (Digital Elevation Model). A DTM or DEM
forms the basic building block for combining other data for analysis. For instance, digitized
spatial data (images) can be draped onto a DEM and analyzed using a GIS. The quality of
such a DEM depends on the spatial resolution (in particular the topographic accuracy) of
image data available. Interferometric SARdata and/or altimeter data are currently the best
sources for DEM generation.
DEMs are being used in all kinds of geo---scientific disciplines, e.g. in geology, where the
shape of the Earth surface is of interest, and in hydrology for modelling water runoff. Sur-
face deformationmeasurements are indispensable for earthquake andvolcano research. In
contrast to isolated ground measurements, DInSAR (Differential Interferometric SAR)
data give a full map of the motion and, thus, reveal the shape of the deformation pattern.
DInSAR measurements of glacier motion, for instance, are used extensively by glaciolo-
gists.
Digitization. Refers to the process of converting an image into a discrete array of numbers.
The array is calledadigital image, its elements are calledpixels (short for pictureelements),
and their values are called gray levels. Digitization involves two processes: sampling the
image value at a discrete grid of points, and quantizing the value at each of these points to
make it one of a discrete set of gray levels.
Diode. Asemiconductor diode consists of a crystal (two terminals), part of which is n---type
(negative charge) andpart p---type(positive charge). The boundary betweenthetwoparts is
called a p---n junction. There is a population of holes on the p---type side of the junction and
a population of electrons on the n---type side. The p---n junction of the diode conducts cur-
rent with one polarity of applied voltage but not with the other polarity. Rectification (cur-
rent flow only in one direction) is a very important characteristic of the p---n junction.
Another characteristic of the p---njunctionis its direct conversioncapability of radiant ener-
gy into electrical energy (optoelectronic effect).
5986)
An incident photon, striking a p---n
junction, has the same effect as a hole (positive charge); it is absorbedthereby creatingelec-
tron---hole pairs. The resulting current can be detected (see photodiode).
Dipole. An electric system composed of two equal charges of opposite sign, separated by a
finite distance; e.g. the nucleus and orbital electron of a hydrogen atom. An ordinary bar
magnet is a magnetic dipole.
Dipole antenna. A type of array consisting of a system of dipoles. A dipole antenna differs
froma dishantenna inthat it consists of many separate antennas that collect energy by feed-
ing all their weak individual signals into one common receiving set.
_____________________
5985) G. W. Fuller, A Vision for a Global Geospatial Information Network (GGIN) Creating, Maintaining and Using
Globally Distributed Geographic Data, Information, Knowledge and Services, ASPRS, May 1999, pp. 524--- 538
5986) Note: The termhole refers to a fictitious particle which carries a positive charge and moves, under the influence
of an applied electric field (bias), in a direction opposite to that of an electron. The motion of electrons and holes
in semiconductors is governed by the theory of quantum mechanics.
3332
Discrete Fourier Transform. A mathematical method of transforming a time series into a
set of harmonics in the frequency domain and vice versa.
Dispersion of spectra. The following methods are used to separate radiation (light) into its
component spectra (colors):
Refraction. Historically, prisms were first used to break up or disperse light into its
component colors. The path of a light ray bends (refracts) whenit passes through the prism,
i.e. from one transparent medium to another (from air to glass).
Diffraction. Diffraction gratings are composed of closely spaced transmitting slits on a
flat surface or alternate reflecting andnon---reflecting grooves. --- Inany grating spectrome-
ter, if a slit aperture is moved along the surface where the spectral lines are focussed, the
lines are transmitted successively through the aperture.
Interference. Aninterferometer divides a wave front by semitransparent surfaces. This
allows the beams to travel different paths. The beams are then recombined generating in-
terference patterns.
AOTF(Acousto---Optic Tunable Filter). The AOTF principle is based on acoustic dif-
fractions of light in an anisotropic medium. An AOTF device consists of a piezoelectric
transducer bonded to a birefringent crystal. When the transducer is excited by an applied
RFsignal, acoustic waves aregeneratedinthe medium. The propagatingacoustic wavepro-
duces a periodic modulationof theindex of refraction. This provides amoving phasegrating
that, under proper conditions, will diffract portions of an incident beam. --- In operation,
acousto---optic tunable filters resemble interference filters and can replace a filter wheel,
grating, or prism in many applications (see O.4.5).
Diurnal cycle (Lat. diurnalis). A24---hour (daily) cycle associated with solar heating during
the day andradiative cooling during the night. Aperiodic cycle affecting nearly all meteoro-
logical variables.
Doppler effect (after Christian J. Doppler, Austrian physicist, 1803---1853). The alteration
in frequency of a wave of radiation caused by relative motion between the observer and the
source of radiation. --- The acoustic Doppler effect applies to the propagation of source
waves; the optical Doppler effect depends onthe relative velocity of the light source andthe
observer; the thermal Doppler effect causes a widening of the spectral lines.
Doppler radar. A radar system which differentiates between fixed and moving targets by
detecting the change in frequency of the reflected wave caused by the Doppler effect. The
system can also measure target velocity with high accuracy.
Doppler shift. Displacement of spectral lines (or difference in frequency) in the radiation
received from a source due to its relative motion in the line of sight. Sources approaching
(---) the observer are shifted toward the blue; those receding (+), toward the red. Used to
determine radial distance.
3333
Figure 1450: The Doppler effect on the receivedfrequency froma transmitter in straight--- line uniformmo-
tion allows determination of transmitter frequency and velocity and the time and distance of closest ap-
proach. (a) Transmitter/receiver geometry andrelative motion. (b) Received frequency pattern andprincip-
al measurements.
5987)
Delay Doppler radar altimeter.
5988)
An evolving technique which exploits signal process-
ing algorithms borrowed from SAR processing schemes. When applied to an ocean---ob-
serving altimeter, real ---time onboard processing achieves an integration level of the re-
ceived signal that is about a magnitude higher (tenfold) than that achieved in conventional
radar altimeters. This in turntranslates intoa tenfoldreduction inrequired radiative power
of the transmitter (or into a smaller radar antenna or a combination of both effects), im-
proving instrument performance considerably.
Downlink. Refers to the communication direction from a satellite (or aircraft) to a ground
station. The prime informationinthis link is usually referredtoas telemetry. There may be
different logical links in a downlink for instrument data and for the return (verification) of
the telecommanddata. Invery elaborate communicationsystems withintermediategeosta-
tionary transmission satellites, the term downlink is usually replaced by return link to
avoid confusion.
_____________________
5987) Robert L. Henderson, WilliamS. Devereux, Thomas Thompson, Navigationat APL: AHistorical Perspectiveand
aLookForward,Johns Hopkins Technical Digest, Vol. 29, No3, 2010, pp. 201--- 217, URL: http://www.jhuapl.edu/
techdigest/TD/td2903/Henderson.pdf
5988) G. H. Fountain, Robert E. Gold, et al., A Technology Path to Distributed Remote Sensing, Small
Satellites for Earth Observation, 2nd International Symposium of IAA, Berlin, April 12---16, 1999,
pp.189---193
3334
Drag---free control (DFC) system.
5989)
ADFCsystemconsists of accelerometers, thrusters
and a computer. The DFCsystemis usedto stabilize a satellite that is continually being per-
turbed by external disturbances by counteracting these disturbances so that they do not in-
duce motion into the system that would otherwise interfere with the scientific measure-
ments. ADFC accelerometer is implemented by enclosing a proof (test) mass in a housing
within the spacecraft so that the proof mass is isolated from the surrounding environment.
The motion of the proof mass is therefore not disturbed by external surface forces such as
atmospheric drag or solar radiationpressure, but is only determinedby gravity. Aspacecraft
with an onboard DFC is equipped with thrusters, specifically designed to allow it to main-
tain its position relative to the proof mass so that they do not come into contact with each
other. Therefore, the spacecraft and the proof mass both behave as if they were not acted
upon by external forces; this state is described as being drag---free.
Dryline. A meteorological term referring to a boundary which separates moist and dry air
masses. The dryline is an important factor in the frequency of severe weather in the Great
Plains of the continental USA. It typically lies north---south across the central and southern
high Plains states during the spring and early summer, separating moist air fromthe Gulf of
Mexico and dry desert air from the southwestern states.
Dual spin. Refers to a spacecraft design whereby the main body of the satellite is spun to
provide attitude stabilization. In this concept the antenna assembly is despun by means of a
motor and bearing systemin order to continually direct the antenna earthward. The dual ---
spin configuration thus serves to create a spin---stabilized satellite.
Duty cycle. Fraction of orbital periodin whicha sensor (or a sensor mode) is actually opera-
tional, determined by the overall power limitations of the payload. The concept of a duty
cycle applies in particular to sensors with large power requirements such as active sensors,
in particular SAR instruments.
Dwell time. The short periodof time during whicha detector collects radiationfroma target
area or volume. --- A very short dwell time usually results in a low (i.e. poor) signal ---to---
noise (SNR) ratio with all its problems of proper signal recognition and discrimination. A
small dwell time also implies fast detectors and electronics.
Dynamic range. Refers to the range of brightness levels that can be captured by a sensor
(detector) without under--- or oversaturation. The dynamic range of a sensor system is de-
termined by the ratio of the maximum observable energy (Q
max
) and the minimum still ---
useful energy (noise level Q
min
); it is defined in decibels (dB) as 10 log (Q
max
/Q
min
). All
radiant energy <Q
min
vanishes intonoise, while the energy above Q
max
disappears intothe
saturation of the detector (see also Signal---to---Noise---Ratio).
Earth observation: The term Earth observation is generally used when referring to satel-
lite---based remote sensing, which provides a whole range of information regarding the
Earths land masses, the oceans, the atmosphere and, in general, the environment and situ-
ational awareness, based on imagery or measurements.
Electromagnetic spectrum (EMS). The total range of wavelengths or frequencies of elec-
tromagnetic radiation, extending from the longest radio waves to the shortest known gam-
ma rays. --- EMS energy for passive remote sensing, as derived from the sun, is either re-
flected sunlight or re---emitted thermal radiation. The transfer mode of reflectedradiation
is dominant in the window associated with VNIR and SWIR, while the preferred mode of
long---wave transfer (thermal radiation) is inthe TIRwindow(see also Figure 1465 onpage
3398).
In the VNIR and SWIR (0.4 --- 3 mm) wavelength regions, the predominant mode of
energy detection is that of reflected sunlight
_____________________
5989) R. Leach, K. L. Neal, Discussion of Micro--- Newton Thruster Requirements for a Drag--- Free Control System,
Proceedings of AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites, Logan, UT, Aug. 12--- 15, 2002, SSC02--- VIII--- 1
3335
In the MWIR region (3---6 mm) the detected energy is a mixture of solar reflected and
thermally emitted radiation
In the TIR window (6---13 mm), practically all energy received (detected) is attributed
to thermal emission.
Note: Although the sun, witha brightness temperature of about 6000 K, is much hotter than
the Earths surface at about 290 K, the dominance of the Earths thermal energy at longer
wavelengths is a result of geometry (the sun subtends only about 0.5 at the Earth --- the
suns disk angle is actually about 32), and that the solar energy is subsequently scattered by
the Earths surface into 2 space. --- The solar energy, arriving at the topof the atmosphere,
amounts to about 1.3---1.4 kW/m
2
.
Figure 1451: Illustration of the EMS (image credit: NASA)
Electron tube. The term is the generic name for a class of devices that includes: vacuum
tubes, phototubes, gas---filled tubes, cathode---ray tubes, and photoelectric tubes. An elec-
tron tube typically consists of two or more electrodes enclosed in a glass or metal ---ceramic
envelope, which is wholly or partially evacuated. Its operation depends on the generation
and transfer of electrons through the vacuum from one electrode to the other. Electron
tubes have properties that cannot be surpassed by solid---state devices for particular ap-
plications. Their thermal ruggedness, operating efficiency, and high---power capabilities
are features well beyondthose of solid---state devices. As components of electronic systems,
electron tubes are used as amplifiers, rectifiers, signal generators, and switches (in particu-
lar in the microwave region).
Electron volt (eV). A unit of energy used in atomic and nuclear physics; the kinetic energy
acquired by one electron in passing through a potential difference of 1 volt in vacuum. 1 eV
= 1.602 x 10
---12
erg (or = 1.602 x 10
---19
Joule). An electron with an energy of 1 eV has a
velocity of about 580 km/s. The wavelength associated with 1 eV is 12,398 . The eV is a
convenient energy unit when dealing with the motions of electrons and ions in electric
3336
fields; the unit is also the one used to describe the energy of X---rays and gamma---rays. Nu-
clei in cosmic rays typically have energies ranging fromabout 1 MeV(or less) to many GeV
per nucleon.
5990)
Electrooptics. An imaging technique which uses optics, such as the collimation of light
beams and the magnification of images by lenses and mirrors, rectification by prisms, and
diffraction by gratings (usage: generally in the VNIR spectrum). --- The newer devices of
electrooptics make use of more electronic components such as the generation of light by
lasers andsolidstate devices, featuring electronic scanning of the images anddatapresenta-
tion on electrically activated displays. To an increasing extent, computers are employing
electrooptical techniques for their own operation and display. See also chapter O.9.2.
Emissivity (). The ratio of radiative energy (power) emitted by a body to that emitted by a
blackbody at the same temperature. For all cases: (l) 1.
Energetic particles. Theseare electrons, ions, or atoms that have muchhigher energies than
expectedfor the temperature of the gas inwhich they are transported(the solar wind is such
a transport medium).
Energetic Neutral Atom(ENA). ENAs arecreatedinthe inner magnetosphere whencharge
exchange collisions occur between energetic ions and the cold neutral population of the
Earths extended atmosphere. ENAs travel in approximately straight---line trajectories
away from the charge---exchange sites (because gravitational forces are negligible for typi-
cal energies of interest and they are unaffected by the Earths electric and magnetic fields)
and carry with themvaluable information about the pitch angle and energy distributions of
the ion population from which they were emitted. As of the 1990s the ENA emissions can
actually be sensed remotely by appropriate imagers. Several NASA missions have such in-
strumentation: POLAR, IMAGE, and TWINS.
ENSO(El Nio Southern Oscillation). ENSO is regarded as a large---scale interannual cli-
mate variability (anomaly) especially with regard to precipitation regimes and sea surface
temperature (SST) changes in the tropical Pacific Ocean. The warming effect of ENSOcan
dramatically alter precipitationpatterns over muchof the Pacific basin. Its recurrenceevery
three to seven years provides a clear signal of climate variability on a global scale. Its land
surface manifestations are illustrated by heavy torrential rains on the west coast of South
America and droughts in Sahelian Africa, southern Africa, Australia, and eastern Brazil.
The forecasting of ENSO events can greatly benefit the peoples and economies of the im-
pacted areas.
Scientists believe El Nio conditions between Australia and South America are sparked
when the steady westward trade winds weaken and even reverse direction. This wind shift
moves a large mass of warm water, normally situated near Australia, eastward along the
equator, pushing it toward the coast of South America. The transportation of such a large
body of warmwater affects evaporation, causing rain clouds to formthat, in turn, alter typi-
cal atmospheric jet stream patterns around the world.
Background: In the 16 century, the El Nio climatic phenomenon was first observed by Pe-
ruvian fisherman as a warm current running along the coast of Peru. Since this recurrent
event happened around the Christmas season, they christened the warmcurrent as El Nio
(meaning Christmas in Spanish). This virtually periodic phenomenon appears at two--- to
seven---year intervals, it has economic andenvironmental consequences that aresometimes
catastrophic. The entire climate is thoroughly disturbed. Due to the warming of the Peruvi-
an waters, normally the most productive in the world, the ocean is depleted of nutrients,
causingrarefactionof thephytoplankton. Aconsequence of the disappearanceof theaquat-
ic life is a massive destruction of oceanic bird life.
_____________________
5990) The energy unit Joule is named in honor of James Prescott Joule (1818--- 1889), a British physicist who established
that the various forms of energy --- mechanical, electrical, and heat --- are basically the same and can be changed
into one another. Thus he formed the basis of the law of conservation of energy, the first law of thermodynamics.
3337
Etvs experiment. An experiment performed in 1909 by the Hungarian physicist Lornd
Baron von Etvs (1848---1919) to establish that the gravitational acceleration of a body
does not depend on its composition --- i.e. that inertial mass and gravitational mass are ex-
actly equal (later a major principle of Albert Einsteins general theory of relativity). In Ein-
steins version, the principle asserts that in free---fall the effect of gravity is totally abolished
in all possible experiments and general relativity reduces to special relativity, as in the iner-
tial state. Today, the linear gradient of gravity is definedinunits of Etvs, where1 Etvs =
10
---9
s
---2
; i.e. difference of 10
---9
ms
---2
accelerationper meter. The vertical gradient of grav-
ity at the Earths surface is about 3100 Etvs.
Ephemeris. Atabular statement of the spatial coordinates of a celestial body or a spacecraft
as a function of time.
Equatorial electrojet current. Current created around the Earths equator by counter---ro-
tating electrons and protons. This electrojet current causes ionization, and subsequently
UVradiation, similar toauroral phenomenonusually associatedwiththe Earths F---Layer.
Equinox. Either of two points on the celestial sphere where the celestial equator intersects
the ecliptic. At these twoinstances thesunis exactly abovethe equator andday andnight are
of equal length (see also vernal equinox).
Equivalence Principle (EP). Afundamental lawof physics that states that gravitational and
inertial forces are of a similar nature and often indistinguishable. EP in fact states that two
fundamentally different quantities, inertia andpassive gravitational mass, always be exactly
proportional to one another. This is usually interpreted as implying that the two quantities
are equivalent measures for a single physical property, the quantity of mass of an object;
hence, the term Equivalence Principle.
Adirect consequence of this Equivalence Principle is the universality of free fall such that
all objects fall with exactly the same acceleration in the same gravity field. EPturned out to
be a major principle of Albert Einsteins general theory of relativity.
The EP concept was formulated by Albert Einstein in 1907 and in 1911. He made the ob-
servation that the acceleration of bodies towards the center of the Earth with acceleration
1g is equivalent tothe accelerationof inertially moving bodies that one wouldobserve if one
was on a rocket in free space being accelerated at a rate of 1g. Einstein deduced that free---
fall is actually inertial motion (the universality of free---fall is also referred to as the weak
equivalence principle). --- By contrast, in Newtonian mechanics, gravity is assumed to be a
force.
5991) 5992)
The strongequivalence principleof Einsteinstates that all of the laws of physics (not just the
laws of gravity) are the same in all small regions of space, regardless of their relative motion
or acceleration. This is the only formof the equivalence principle that applies to self---grav-
itating objects (such as stars), which have substantial internal gravitational interactions.
In the Newtonian form, EP implies that, within a windowless laboratory freely falling in a
uniformgravitational field, experimenters wouldbe unaware that thelaboratory is inastate
of nonuniform motion. All dynamical experiments yield the same results as obtained in an
inertial state of uniform motion unaffected by gravity.
In physics, the symbol h (eta) is normally used to define the Etvs ratio of two masses A
and Bin a gravitational field (in the absence of drag). By definition, h quantifies any differ-
ential acceleration that the two masses may experience as a fraction of their common---
mode acceleration. If the EP holds true, then h is identically equal to zero.
_____________________
5991) Equivalence principle, Wikipedia, March 1, 2006, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_principle#History
5992) N. A. Lockerbie, T. J. Sumner, HighPrecisionTests of theEquivalence Principle,Proceedings of the 39thESLAB
Symposium Trends in Space Science and Cosmic Vision 2020, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, April 19--- 21, 2005,
ESA SP--- 588
3338
The origins of the equivalence principle begin with Galileo demonstrating in the late 16th
century that all objects are accelerated towards the center of the Earth at the same rate.
Galileo measured the EP parameter h to approximately 1% level (or h= 10
---2
).
In the meantime the knowledge of the h value has improved steadily using better experi-
mental techniques.
Some history and tests of the weak EP:
Historically, there have been distinct methods of testing the Equivalence Principle with
macroscopic bodies. The most accurate tests havebeentheEtvs torsion---balanceexperi-
ments and the lunar---laser---ranging method.
Figure 1452: Accuracy achievedin testing the EP (image credit: CliffordM. Will, University of Washington,
St Louis, MO)
5993) 5994)
Legend to Figure 1452: Selected tests of the weak equivalence principle as a function of ,
which measures fractional difference in acceleration of different materials or bodies. The
free---fall and Et---Wash experiments were originally performed to search for a fifth force
_____________________
5993) Clifford M. Will, The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment, 2006, URL: http://relativ-
ity.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrr--- 2006--- 3/
5994) Naceur Gaaloul, T. v. Zoest, H. Ahlers, Y. Singh, S. T. Seidel, W. Herr, W. Ertmer, E. Rasel, M. Eckart, E. Kajari,
S. Arnold, G. Nandi, R. Walser, W. P. Schleich, A. Vogel, K. Sengstock, K. Bongs, W. Lewoczko--- Adamczyk, M.
Schiemangk, A. Peters, T. Knemann, H. Mntinga, C. Lmmerzahl, H. Dittus, T. Steinmetz, T. W. Hnsch, J.
Reichel, Quantumtests of theEquivalence PrinciplewithAtomInterferometry, Proceedings of the60thIAC(In-
ternational Astronautical Congress), Daejeon, Korea, Oct. 12--- 16, 2009, IAC--- 09.A2.1.6
3339
(green region, representing many experiments). The blue band shows evolving bounds on
for gravitating bodies from lunar laser ranging (LLR).
Experiments with ordinary pendulums test the principle of equivalence to no better
than about one part in 10
5
. The Hungarian physicist Roland Etvs (1909) measured the
torsion on a wire, suspending a balance beam, between two nearly identical masses under
the acceleration of gravity and the rotation of the Earth. Etvs obtained sensitivity values
in the range of h = 10
---9
.
In the 1960s a series of careful observations (employing up---to---date methods of servo
control and observation) were conducted by the American physicist Robert H. Dicke and
his colleagues (Princeton University). They found that the weak equivalence principle held
to about one part in 10
11
for the attraction of the sun on gold and aluminum(or EPsensitiv-
ity h= 10
---11
).
Alater experiment (1971), with very different experimental arrangements, by the Rus-
sian researcher Vladimir Braginski, gave a limit of about one part in 10
12
for platinumand
aluminum (or h= 10
---12
).
In1987 a groupof physicists at the University of Washington, St. Louis, MO, referredto
as the Et---Wash group, developed a number of very sensitive torsion bars for EP mea-
surements. They achievedthe most sensitive terrestrial measurements of EPso far with h =
~ 5 x 10
---13
.
The Microscope mission of CNES (launch planned for 2012) employs FEEP thrusters
for drag compensation. The objective is to achieve an EP sensitivity of h= 10
---15
.
Afuture NASA/ESAmission, calledSTEP(SatelliteTest of the EquivalencePrinciple)
or MiniSTEP (the launch date is not fixed), has the objective to test EP to a precision of 1
part in 10
18
(or an EP sensitivity of h= 10
---18
).
Equivalent (or effective) Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP). Ameasure of power radiatedby
anantenna inthe directionof a receiver, expressedas the equivalent power that wouldhave
to be radiated uniformly in all directions.
Erlang. Ameasure of communication(telephone) traffic loadexpressedinunits of hundred
call seconds per hour (CCS). One Erlang is defined as the traffic load sufficient to keep one
trunk busy on the average and is equivalent to 36 CCS. The measure is also used for DCS
(Data Collection Satellite) access capabilities.
Etalon. (see Fig 1453) A spectroscopic instrument measuring wavelengths by interference
effects produced by multiple reflections between parallel half---silvered glass or quartz
plates. A Fabry---Perot etalon is a non---absorbing, multi ---reflecting device, similar in de-
sign to the Fabry---Perot interferometer, that serves as a multilayer, narrow---bandpass fil-
ter. The Fabry---Perot design contains plane surfaces that are all partially reflecting so that
multiple rays of light are responsible for the creation of the observed interference patterns.
The remarkable diversity of applications for etalons results from their high---resolution,
high---performance imaging characteristics. Amultiple etalonsystemdesigncan provide an
imaging interferometer that works in four distinct modes: as a spectro---polarimeter, a fil-
ter---vector magnetograph, an intermediate---band imager, and broadband high---resolu-
tion imager.
3340
Figure 1453: Parallel plate scheme of a Fabry--- Perot etalon
tendue (also: etendue, see Fig. 1454). The term(French for extent) describes a very fun-
damental property of an optical system, namely A W, the product of the area A of a light
beamand the solid angle Wcontained within a beam. The importance of tendue lies in the
fact that it is one of the major factors indetermining the SNR(Signal ---to---Noise Ratio) of a
system; it is in fact a design parameter which can be maximized by the proper choice of con-
figuration. tendue has the units: cm
2
sr. It is a property that is at best conserved throughan
optical train, i.e., the system tendue will be that of lowest value in any part of the system.
5995)
A
1
A
2
W
1
W
2
Exit Aperture
Entrance Aperture
Optimal System tendue:
A
1
W
1
= A
2
W
2
Figure 1454: Definition of tendue
Excimer. In photochemistry a molecular aggregate formed by loose association of an ex-
citedstate anda groundstate of the same compound, where such associationdoes not occur
between two ground state molecules.
Exoplanets. Refers toplanets of other stars (the existenceof other living worlds like our own
in the universe has been the subject of speculation for centuries). Conventional telescopes
_____________________
5995) R. Beer, Remote Sensing by Fourier Transform Spectrometry, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1992
3341
are not powerful enoughtodiscernextra---solar planets. The first widely accepteddetection
of extrasolar planets was made by Alexander Wolszczan (astronomer at the Pennsylvania
State University) and Frail in 1992 (they discovered Earth---mass objects orbiting a pulsar).
Earth---mass and even smaller planets orbiting a pulsar were detected by measuring the pe-
riodic variation in the pulse arrival time (they used a technique known as gravitational mi-
crolensing). The gravitational microlensing planet search technique differs from other
planet search techniques in that it is most sensitive to planets at a separation of 1---5 AU
fromtheir star. Gravitational microlensing occurs whenone star happens tocross in front of
another as seen from Earth. The nearer star magnifies the light from the more distant star
like a lens. If planets are orbiting the lens star, they boost the magnification briefly as they
pass by.
Most of the detection methods
5996) 5997)
currently used aimat measuring the reflex motion
of the star around which a planet is possibly orbiting. Among those techniques, velocimetry
(accurate spectroscopic Doppler measurements) and interferometry (differential astrono-
my) are limitedtothe detectionof massive planets of about Jupiters mass. The first of these
methods has been extremely successful since it lead to the detection of several planets, in-
cludingthe first planet (in1995) arounda solar---typestar by Michel Mayor andDidier Que-
loz of the Geneva Observatory, Sauverny, Switzerland.
Extinction. The superimposedeffect of two radiationeffects that cancel eachother, e.g. ab-
sorption and scattering.
Fault---tolerant system. Refers to a system (model) where a fault is accommodated with or
without performance degradation; but where a single fault does not develop into a failure
on a subsystem or the system level.
False color. A color imaging process which produces an image that does not correspond to
the true color of the scene (as seen by the eye).
Fast Fourier Transform(FFT). Analgorithmthat is oftenusedtoimplement DiscreteFour-
ier Transforms.
Feedback mechanisms. Asequence of interactions in which the final interaction influences
the original one. Negative feedback: An interaction that reduces or dampens the response
of the systemin which it is incorporated. Positive feedback: An interaction that increases or
amplifies the response of the system in which it is incorporated.
Field of Regard (FOR). The pointing capability of a sensor with regard to the cross---track
direction and/or along---track direction may provide additional coverage to the sensor in its
orbit. This can be an advantage for monitoring (or imaging) events that are outside the
swathwidth[or FOV(Fieldof View)] of a regularly nadir---pointing instrument. --- Animag-
ing sensor with a cross---track and an along---track pointing capability may have the poten-
tial of stereo imaging by taking the same image fromdifferent along---track positions in the
same orbit.
Field of View (FOV). The total range of viewing of a sensor into the direction of the target.
The cross---track component of FOV is equivalent to the swath width (see also IFOV).
Fill Factor. Refers to the measurement of FPA (Focal Plane Array) performance, which
measures how much of the total FPAis sensitive to IRenergy. Because the FPAis made of
numerous individual detector cells, the total amount of sensitivity is measured by the path-
ways used to separate the cells and transmit signals. The higher the fill factor, the higher the
ratio of sensitivity.
_____________________
5996) A. Wolszczan, Confirmation of Earth--- Mass Planets Orbiting the Millisecond Pulsar PSR B1257+12, Science,
Vol. 264, Apr. 22, 1994, pp. 538--- 542
5997) M. Mayor, D. Queloz, A Jupiter--- mass companion to a solar--- type star, Nature, Vol. 378, Nov. 23, 1995, pp.
355--- 359
3342
Filter (in optical sensors). Adevice that --- by interference absorption or reflection --- selec-
tively modifies the radiation transmitted through an optical system (see also convolution
filter).
Fluorescence. Refers to the absorption of a photon of one wavelength and re---emission of
one or more photons at longer wavelengths (known as Stokes shift), especially the trans-
formation of ultraviolet radiation into visible light. Plants re---emit a portion of the ab-
sorbed radiant energy in the visible region into the red and near---infrared region
(0.65---0.75 mm). The distributionof wavelength---dependent emission intensity caused by a
givenwavelengthexcitationis knownas the emissionspectrum. Themethodof fluorescence
has its advantages over other spectroscopic methods mainly due to its high sensitivity (ap-
plications in cell biology, photochemistry and the environmental sciences). --- Note, since
lasers are used as the excitation light source to induced fluorescence, this active remote---
sensing method has become known as the laser---induced fluorescence (LIF) technique.
Focal length (f). Distance measured along the optical axis from the image to the plane,
where the axial imaging cone of light intersects the input light bundle. The F---number or
F---stop is defined as f/d (the focal length divided by the diameter of the lens opening). In
antenna designthe termfocal lengthrefers tothe distancefromthecenter feedtothecenter
of the dish.
Focal plane array (FPA). Refers to a 2---D array of detectors (from UV to TIR) used to
create an image. (Earlier systems used either a single element detector or a small array of
detectors and scanned the scene across the detectors with rotating mirrors). Most modern
infraredcommercial infraredcameras utilize anuncooledFPAas its infrareddetector. Oth-
er FPA technologies include both uncooled (microbolometer, pyroelectric vidicon) and
cooled (platinum silicide, indium antimonide) FPA systems. See also O.3.5 and O.4.3.1.
Footprint. Refers to the projection of the instantaneous area of coverage of a sensor (or an-
tenna) onto the Earths surface. Afootprint may also be the instantaneous area of visibility
of a data collection platform on a satellite.
Formation flying definition:
5998)
Formation flying is defined as a set of more than one
spacecraft whose dynamic states are coupled through a common control law. In particular,
at least one member of the set must:
1) Track a desired state relative to another member, and
2) The tracking control law must at the minimum depend upon the state of this other
member.
The second point is critical. For example, even though relative positions are being actively
maintained, GPS is a constellation since orbit corrections only require an individual satel-
lites position and velocity (state).
Forward error correction (FEC). A transmission scheme which adds unique codes to the
digital signal at the source so errors can be detected and corrected at the receiver.
Fourier TransformSpectrometer (FTS). An optoelectronic (or an optomechanical) instru-
ment, usually for the infrared region of the spectrum, providing high spectroscopic resolu-
tion and sensitivity for remote---sensing applications (Earth surface imaging, atmospheric
soundings, etc.). The technique employs the Fourier series concept as ameans of converting
a detector signal output --- referred to as the interferogram --- into a formuseful for spectral
analysis. There are several ways in which the detector signal can be created from the inci-
dent radiation. The approach taken by the majority of FTS instruments is to use an inter-
ferometer (Michelson, Sagnac, Fabry---Perot, etc.) andcorrespondingforeoptics (lenses) to
createtheinterferencepatterninsucha way that eachoptical frequency is codedas aunique
_____________________
5998) D. P. Scharf, F. Y. Hadaegh, B. H. Kang, ASurvey of Spacecraft FormationGuidance, Proceedings International
Symposium Formation Flying, Oct. 29--- 31, 2002, Toulouse, France
3343
electrical signal output of the detector. The amplitude of each frequency is proportional to
the incident radiation (see also chapter O.6).
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). Aprocess that shares a spectrumof frequen-
cies among many users by assigning to each a subset of frequencies in which to transmit sig-
nals. Each user is assigned a unique center frequency within the operational bandwidth.
Fuel cells. Refer todevices that generateelectricity cleanly andefficiently using hydrogenor
hydrocarbons as the fuel.
5999)
Fuel cells are more efficient in converting energy to electric-
ity (work) than internal combustion engines and most combustion systems. Because of the
more favorable environmental impact and more efficient energy conversion, fuel cells are
viewed by many as the energy source of the 21st century. Fuel cells consist of an electrolyte
--- an ion containing liquid or solid --- in contact with positive and negative electrodes. The
device converts consumable fuels directly to electrical energy via chemical reactions. Fuel
cells bypass the traditional route wherein a fuel is combusted to give work andheat, andthe
work from combustion powers a turbine that generates an electrical current.
The difference between a fuel cell and a battery is a battery contains the fuel to make elec-
tricity andcan only be replenishedby recharging whereas a fuel cell is a device that converts
incoming fuel directly to electricity. At the start of the 21st century, fuel cells are being con-
sidered as potential energy sources for spacecraft. Current fuel cell systems are very heavy
and it takes a fair amount of propulsion fuel to place one into space.
Full WidthHalf Maximum(FWHM). Inthemicrowave regionthe resolutionis oftenstated
in terms of half---power points or half---power response width of the measuring system.
The half---power width of a response is easier to describe than true resolution because the
concept does not involve the contrast of the target. --- The true resolution for targets of any
character can be derived from the actual response and estimated from the half---power
width (resolution) of microwave instruments.
Fundamental physics in space: defined by the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR).
It covers researchactivities whichmay beclassifiedintotwoclosely correlatedcategories, 1)
the study of fundamental laws governing matter, space and time, and 2) the use of Space to
investigate the principles governing the structure and complexity of matter.
Gain. Ameasure of the amplification of the input signal in an amplifier. The gain of an am-
plifier is often measured in decibels (dB), which is ten times the common logarithm of the
ratio of the output power of the amplifier to the input drive power [= 10 log (Q
2
/Q
1
)].
Galilei (Gal or gal). A unit of acceleration, 1 gal = 1 cm/s
2
; 1 milligal = 10
---3
cm/s
2
. The
term is commonly used in gradiometry.
Gamma---ray bursts (GRBs). Gamma---ray bursts are the most energetic and luminous ex-
plosions known in the universe since the Big Bang. They are flashes of gamma rays, coming
fromseemingly randomplaces inthe sky andat randomtimes, that last frommilliseconds to
many minutes, and are often followed by afterglow emission at longer wavelengths, re-
leasing more energy in a few seconds than our sun will put out in its lifetime. GRBs were
discovered in the 1960s by the US military Vela nuclear test detection satellites.
6000) 6001)
6002)
Initially, the observations GRBs couldnt be properly identified. But in 1972, scientists of
LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) were able to analize various GRBs of the Vela
spacecraft. They concluded that gamma---ray bursts were indeed of cosmic origin.
_____________________
5999) Note: Afuel and an oxidant are injected into a fuel cell and a chemical reaction occurs, generating electricity. This
will continue until the fuel is consumed. If the products of the reaction can be transformed by electrolysis to the
original fuels (e.g., hydrogenandoxygenfromwater), thenthesystemis saidtobereversible. Ina secondary battery,
it can be done in the same system --- in a primary system another cell is needed to perform the electrolysis.
6000) Gamma--- ray bursts --- a brief history, URL: http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/GRB_his-
tory.pdf
6001) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray_bursts
6002) http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/bursts.html
3344
--- On April 5, 1991, NASA launched the CGRO (Compton Gamma Ray Observatory)
whichcarriedalsoBATSE(Burst AndTransient Source Experiment) device. BATSEdetec-
ted over 2,700 gamma---ray bursts in nine years. BATSE data proves that GRBs are uni-
formly distributed across the sky, not concentrated along the plane of the Milky Way. This
means that gamma---ray bursts originate far outside of the Milky Way galaxy.
--- In the early 21st century, astronomers are finally starting to unravel the cataclysmic
events that cause these energetic explosions. Twoclasses of GRBs are recognized, long dur-
ation events and short duration events. Short gamma---ray bursts are likely due to merging
neutron stars and not associated with supernovae. Long---duration GRBs are critical in un-
derstanding the physics of GRB explosions, the impact of GRBs on their surroundings, as
well as the implications of GRBs onearly star formation andthe history and fate of the Uni-
verse.
--- OnApril 23, 2009, the Swift satellite of NASA(launchNov. 20, 2004) detectedthemost
violent and and distant GRB of a massive star so far in the early universe. This spectacular
gamma ray burst was seen 13 billion light years away, with a redshift of 8.2, the highest ever
measured. This event is referred to as GRB 090423.
6003)
Geocoding. Registration of images to the reference geometry of a map. In this process the
imagery is corrected for all source---dependent errors and transformed to the desired map
projection, andresampledtoa standardpixel size. This is alsocalledgeoreferencing (or rec-
tification of the acquired scanner data to a local coordinate systemwith given ellipsoid and
datum). The accuracy of the rectification result is crucial for overlaying the data with exist-
ing data sets or maps and using them for evaluations like change detection, map updating,
etc. In general, the geometry of the raw imagery is influenced by several factors:
6004)
The imagers interior orientation
The imagers exterior orientation (position and attitude) sensor and optics system
The boresight misalignment angles between navigation
The topography of the Earths surface
Proper georeferencing requires all these items to be known to sufficient accuracy.
Geodesic: Within General Relativity, gravity is not a force acting on material particles, but
instead is identified with curvature in spacetime geometry. Particles, in the absence of
forces, travel in the straightest possible way in curved spacetime: this path is called a geode-
sic. In the absence of gravity, spacetime is flat and geodesics are simply straight lines trav-
elled at constant velocity. --- All experiments aimed at directly measuring curvature caused
by celestial bodies, like gravitational wave observatories, measurements of Post---Newto-
nian light deflection and time delays, and general relativistic dragging of reference frames,
requireparticles ingeodesic motion. Inaddition, all experiments aimedat probing thelimits
of General Relativity and the possibility of alternative theories of gravitation search for
violations of geodesic motion.
Geodesy. The science of measuring the dynamic shape (and size) of the Earth (the geoid),
including the Earths gravity fieldandits rotation. This definitionincludes the orientationof
the Earth in space, and temporal variations of the Earths orientation, its surface and its
gravity field. Space geodesy is an interdisciplinary science which uses spaceborne and air-
borne remotely sensed, andground---basedmeasurements tostudy the shape andsize of the
_____________________
6003) Nancy Atkinson, GRB Smashes Record for Most Distant Known Object, April 28, 2009, URL: http://www.uni-
versetoday.com/2009/04/28/grb--- smashes--- record--- for--- most--- distant--- known--- object/
6004) Rupert Mller, M. Lehner, Rainer Mller, P. Reinartz, M. Schroeder, B. Vollmer, AProgramfor Direct Georefer-
encing of Airborne and Spaceborne Line Scanner Images, Pecora 15/Land Satellite Information IVConference,
ISPRSCommissionI Mid--- termSymposium/FIEOS(Future Intelligent Earth Observing Satellites), Nov. 10--- 14,
2002, Denver, CO
3345
Earth, the planets and their satellites, and their changes; to precisely determine position
andvelocity of points or objects at thesurface or orbiting theplanet, withina realizedterres-
trial reference system. Geodetic techniques include VLBI observations, SLR and LLR
measuring distances to satellites and other heavenly bodies (moon, etc.), GPS and other
satellite microwave techniques making use of the Doppler effect of signals sent out by satel-
lites. All these measurement techniques are used to define the celestial and terrestrial ref-
erence systems, andtomeasure the link betweenthe twosystems, namely the Earthrotation
parameters, and the origin of the reference frame relative to the geocenter. --- By virtue of
their geometric properties, the geodetic measurement techniques make possible other pre-
cise measurements such as ocean radar altimetry, land/ice laser altimetry, GPS occultation
measurements for atmospheric sounding, interferometric SAR, andnetwork groundmove-
ments. The dynamic orbit of a spacecraft can be used to determine the Earths gravity field,
the technique is called SST (Satellite---to---Satellite Tracking).
6005)
Geographical Information System(GIS). Acombination of mutually referring data sets of
various kinds of position---bound thematic data (database) and the necessary software to
visualize this database, to manipulate it interactively and to analyze it in order to attain
meaningful results.
Geoid. The Earths conceptual gravitational equipotential surface (an ellipsoid) near the
mean sea level, used as a datum for gravity surveys (a hypothetical ocean surface at rest ---
with the absence of winds, tides and currents). The geoid also serves as a reference surface
for topographic heights, for example, as they are shownonmaps. The geoiditself represents
the surface of zero height. A precise model of the geoid (a level surface defined by equal
gravitational potential) as defined by the gravity field, is crucial to understanding more
about ocean circulation.
Note: The notion of a geoid was already suggested by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1828, he re-
ferred to it as the geometric surface of the Earth.
Earths gravity field varies due to uneven mass distribution and the dynamics of the surface
and Earths interior. These include high mountains, deep ocean trenches, ground water
reservoirs, oil, gas and mineral deposits, tidal effects, sea---level rise, Earths rotation, vol-
canic eruptions and changes in topography. A precise knowledge of the geoid a virtual
surface with an equal gravitational potential is needed for many applications, such as lev-
elling and construction, and for understanding ocean currents and monitoring sea---level
dynamics.
_____________________
6005) B. F. Chao, Geodesy Is Not Just for Static Measurements Any More, EOS Transaction of AGU, Vol. 84, No 16,
April 22, 2003, pp. 145 and 150
3346
Figure 1455: The global model of the Earths gravity field --- the Geoid (image credit: ESA, GFZ)
Geomorphology (from Greek morph, form). The explanatory science dealing with the
form (shape) and surface configuration of the solid Earth (land and submarine relief fea-
tures).
Geospace. The term refers to the region of the Earths envelope that is affected by the sun,
not only by its continuous radiation, but alsoby the solar windwithits associatedphenomen-
on of space weather. The suns variability (referred to as solar activity) can trigger storms in
geospace, so---called magnetic storms can disrupt modern navigation systems, communica-
tions networks andsatellites systems ingeneral. High---energy radiationof such solar activi-
ty may also affect life on Earth. Earth may be viewed as an island in our solar systemunder
the protective shield of the magnetic field and the atmosphere. The study of geospace in-
volves an understanding of the changing sun and its effects on the Earth systemas a whole,
including life. Geospace is commonly definedas the region of space, that stretches fromthe
Earths upper atmosphere to the outermost reaches of the Earths magnetic field.
Geospatial information.
6006)
Defined as information that identifies the geographic loca-
tion and characteristics of natural or constructed features and boundaries on the Earth, in-
cluding: statistical data; information derived from, among other things, remote sensing,
mapping and surveying techniques; and mapping, charting and geodetic data, including
geodetic products.
Geosynchronous orbit. An orbit in which the satellites orbital period is identical to the or-
bital period of the Earth. A geosynchronous orbit, unlike a geostationary orbit (with zero
_____________________
6006) J. C. King, Keynote Address to the ASPRS 2000 DC Annual Conference, PE&RS, Sept. 2000, pp. 1043--- 1053
3347
inclination, where the satellite motion relative to the Earth is at rest), does not impose any
any restrictions on the orbits eccentricity or inclination.
Gradiometry. Study of the spatial gradient of the Earths gravitational field.
Grating. See diffraction grating.
Gravity assist maneuver. In orbital mechanics, a gravitational slingshot, gravity assist or
swing---by is the use of the relative movement and gravity of a planet or other celestial body
to alter the path and speed of a spacecraft, typically in order to save fuel, time, andexpense.
The gravity assist can be used to decelerate a spacecraft (useful when traveling to an inner
planet) or accelerate a spacecraft (useful when traveling to an outer planet). Examples:
6007)
The Mariner 10 probe of NASA was the first spacecraft to use the gravitational sling-
shot effect toreachanother planet, passing by Venus on Feb. 5, 1974, on its way tobecoming
the first spacecraft to explore Mercury.
The Galileo spacecraft was launched by NASA in 1989 aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis.
Its original mission was designed to use a direct Hohmann transfer, but following the loss of
the Space Shuttle Challenger, Galileos intended Centaur booster rocket was no longer al-
lowedtofly onShuttles. Using a less---powerful solidbooster rocket instead, Galileoflewby
Venus once and Earth twice to reach Jupiter in December, 1995.
In 1990, ESA and NASA launched the spacecraft Ulysses to study the polar regions of
the Sun. All the planets orbit approximately in a plane aligned with the equator of the Sun
(ecliptic plane). To move to an orbit passing over the poles of the Sun, the spacecraft would
have to eliminate the 30 km/s speed it inherited from the Earths orbit round the sun and
gain the speed needed to orbit the sun in the pole---to---pole plane tasks which were im-
possible with current spacecraft propulsion systems.
Ulysses was sent towards Jupiter, aimed to arrive at a point in space just in front of and
below the planet. As it passed Jupiter, the probe fell through the planets gravity field,
borrowing a minute amount of momentumfrom the planet; after it had passed Jupiter, the
velocity change had bent the probes trajectory up out of the plane of the planetary orbits,
placing it in an orbit that passed almost over the poles of the Sun. This maneuver required
only enoughfuel tosendUlysses toa point near Jupiter, whichis well within current techno-
logies.
The MUSES---C (Mu Space Engineering Satellite; launch May 9, 2003), a deep space
asteroid sample return mission of JAXA, Japan (Note: MUSES---C is also referred to as
Hayabusa) used an Earth swing---by one year after launch(the gravity assist maneuver took
place May 19, 2004), spacecraft arrival at the target in Oct. 2005, two months of close target
observations and sampling after landing.
The Rosetta spacecraft of ESA(launch March 2, 2004) on its way to a rendezvous with
Comet 67P/Churyumov---Gerasimenko in 2014, swung by the home planet (Earth) in
March 2005, followed by the MESSENGER spacecraft of NASA in August of the same
year.
etc.
Many gravity---gradient stabilized LEO S/C use extendable booms to achieve a favorable
moment---of---inertia distribution providing two---axis (pitch and roll) attitude control. The
addition of an actuator, such as a momentum wheel, to a gravity---gradient stabilized S/C
provides gyroscopic stiffness to passively stabilize the third (yaw) axis. The advantages of
gravity---gradient stabilization are simplicity of control, long life and low power require-
ments.
_____________________
6007) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_assist
3348
Satellite
cente
r--- of
--- ma
ss
Mass 1
Mass 2
Earth
Orbit
Gravity---gradient boom. A deployable extension of a
spacecraft (a rod fixed to the S/C with a small mass at its
other end) intended to give the spacecraft elongated mass
properties to contribute to gravity---gradient stability (the
concept was first successfully demonstrated by JHU/APL
on the Transit 5A---3 satellite with a launch on June 16,
1963). The principle: The attractive force F1 of mass 1 (sat-
ellite) about the common center of mass exceeds the at-
tractive force F2 of mass 2. Hence, a torque arises to align
the satellite to the vertical. --- An elongated dumbbell-
shaped spacecraft is the most gravity gradient stable con-
figuration with the long axis oriented vertically in orbit, i.e.
(usually) the smaller mass is always pointing toward the
center of the Earth. The gravity---gradient torque, small
even for LEO S/C, decreases with the cube of the orbital
radius. In GEO, gravity---gradient stabilization can barely
be achieved.
F1
F2
Boom
Gravity wave. A wave disturbance in which buoyancy acts as the restoring force on parcels
displaced from hydrostatic equilibrium. In fluid dynamics, gravity waves are waves gener-
ated in a fluid medium or at the interface between two mediums (e.g. the atmosphere or
ocean) whichhas the restoring force of gravity or buoyancy. Whena fluidparcel is displaced
on an interface or internally to a region with a different density, gravity restores the parcel
toward equilibrium resulting in an oscillation about the equilibrium state or wave orbit.
Gravity waves on an air---sea interface are called surface gravity waves or surface waves
while internal gravity waves are called internal waves. Ocean waves generated by wind are
examples of gravity waves.
Gravity waves are global events. Muchlike the ripples ona massivepond, theselarge---scale
waves canpropagate fromanatmospheric disturbance over thousands of kilometers. These
waves are maintained by the gravitational force of Earth pulling down and the buoyancy of
the atmosphere pushing up. In 2008, new research suggests that gravity waves passing over
storms can spin up highly dangerous and damaging tornados.
6008)
Grazing angle. Angle between the instantaneously transmitted signal of an active sensor (a
SAR) and the local horizontal of the target. In other words, the grazing angle = 90 --- ,
where is the incidence angle. Grazing incidences occur usually at very shallow angles. Its
like skipping stones across a stream (the rock will skip only if it glances off the surface at a
small angle).
Greenhouse effect. Refers tothe trapping of heat fromthe sunby theatmosphere (mainly by
its water vapor, which absorbs and reemits infrared radiation), in the same manner that the
suns heat is trapped by the glass walls of a greenhouse. The atmosphere, like the glass, is
largely transparent to the suns radiation, but it absorbs the longer wavelength radiation
from the Earths surface into which the suns radiation is converted.
Greenhouse gases. Those atmospheric trace gases, suchas water vapor (H
2
O), carbondiox-
ide (CO
2
), methane CH
4
), chlorine, and CFCs that are largely transparent to incoming so-
lar radiation but opaque to outgoing longwave radiation. Their action is similar to that of
glass in a greenhouse. Some of the longwave (infrared) radiation is absorbed andreemitted
by the greenhouse gases. The effect is to warmthe surface and the lower atmosphere of the
Earth. Water vapor is the most important greenhouse gas due to its dominant role in the
atmospheric processes (evaporation, cloud formation, etc.). CO
2
is the most prevalent
_____________________
6008) I. ONeill, Gravity Waves in the Atmosphere can Energize Tornados (Video), March 19, 2008, URL:
http://www.universetoday.com/2008/03/19/gravity--- waves--- in--- the--- atmosphere--- can--- energize--- tornados---
video/#more--- 13260
3349
knownanthropogenic greenhouse gas. Its concentrationhas increasedby morethan95ppm
inthelast 150 years. The majority of CO
2
variability occurs inthelower atmosphere(~1000
to 800 mbar). The natural geographic distribution and temporal variability of CO
2
sources
and sinks, however, are still not well understood.
Gridding. Use of a uniform system of rectilinear lines superimposed on imagery (such as
photographs, mosaics, maps, charts, or other representations of the Earths surface).
Ground pattern. Any specific identifying feature of the land surface which can be used for
classification purposes.
Ground sampling distance (GSD). GSDis defined as the distance moved onthe ground(in
the along---track direction of the target area) during the integration period of the detector
line array of an imaging instrument. Normally, the GSD is equated with the spatial resolu-
tion of a pixel or simply with IFOV (Instantaneous Field of View). However, this need not
bethecase. If the radiometric andelectronic performance of a sensor allow, theGSDcanbe
made smaller thanIFOVto achieve better image quality because of the reduction of smear.
Ground track. Refers to the vertical projection of the actual flight path of a satellite (or air-
craft) onto the surface of the Earth.
Ground truth. Reference data which is collected in the field (generally on or near the
Earths surface). The objective is to verify remotely---sensed primary sensor data against a
typical reference. Ground truth data is generally used in support of the analysis of re-
motely---sensed data. This ground truth may be gathered either by a single ground station,
or by a network of ground stations (including buoys, remote terminals, etc.) whose data is
collected by a data collection satellite, or by airborne underflights of a spaceborne sensor.
The ground reference that is being sought depends very much on the application. For
instance, it may be a simple visual verification of the vegetation types in a particular scene,
or it may be a particularly prepared ground patch with known radiative characteristics (re-
flectance, etc.) that is being usedfor the calibrationof anairborne sensor. Avery prominent
groundtruthstationis for instance MOBY(see chapter P.145 onpage 3924), whichmakes in
situ measurements of ocean color near the Hawaiian island of Lanai.
Hall effect. Edwin H. Hall (1855 --- 1938, American physicist) discovered what became
knownas the Hall effect in1879 wheninvestigating thenature of force actingonaconductor
carrying a current in a magnetic field. Today, Hall effect measurements are used to charac-
terize the electronic transport properties of semiconductors and metals. --- In a model Hall
effect measurement system, a uniformcurrent density flows through a uniformslab of elec-
trically conducting material inthe presence of anappliedperpendicular magnetic field. The
Lorentz force then acts on the moving charge carriers, deflecting them to one side of the
sample to generate an electric field perpendicular to both the current density and the ap-
plied magnetic field. The ratio of the perpendicular electric field to the product of current
density and magnetic field is the Hall coefficient. The ratio of the parallel electric field to
the current density is the resistivity.
The Hall effect is also employed in Hall plasma thrusters (electric propulsion).
Heterodyning (see chapter O.4)
High---pass filter (inoptical sensors). Anabsorptionfilter pervious toelectromagnetic radi-
ation above a certain wavelength only.
Hosted payloads: The termhostedpayloads refers to the utilization of available capacity on
commercial satellites to accommodate additional transponders, instruments, or other
3350
spacebound items.
6009) 6010)
By offering piggyback rides or hitchhiking opportunities
oncommercial spacecraft already scheduledfor launch, satellite firms allowentities suchas
government agencies to sendsensors andother equipment into space on a timely andcost---
effective basis. The hosted payloads concept is similar to the ridesharing or multiple mani-
festing concept, but instead of sharing a space launch vehicle, the partners share a satellite
bus. In some cases, hosted payloads may also be referred to as secondary payloads. Hosted
payloads oncommercial satellites inGEOprovide inparticular many launchopportunities.
Aparticularly promising area of development for hosted payloads is in Earth---observation
missions. There are countless environmental monitoring missions, both heritage and new,
which will need to be launched in the coming years. Whether observing the earths oceans,
its atmosphere, or worldwide weather patterns, government Earth---observation satellites
have increasing requirements to incorporate a variety of payloads in affordable and timely
programs. Individual sensors, flown as hosted payloads, represent an opportunity to off---
load missions from increasingly challenged government satellite programs.
Humidity. The water vapor content of air. The term is commonly used to mean relative
humidity, the dimensionless ratioof vapor that a givenquantity of air cancontainat agiven
temperature, expressed as a percentage. Perfectly dry air has a relative humidity of 0%; to-
tally saturated air has a relative humidity of 100%.
Huygenss principle (ChristianHuygens, Dutchphysicist, 1629---1695). Avery general prin-
ciple applying toall forms of wave propagationwhichstates that every point on the instanta-
neous position of an advancing wave/phase front may be regarded as a source of secondary
spherical wavelets. The position of the phase front an instant later is then determined as
the envelope of all secondary wavelets. --- This principle is extremely useful in understand-
ing the effects due to refraction, reflection, diffraction, and scattering of all types of radi-
ation. At his time, Huygens was the leading proponent of the wave theory of light.
Hydrologic cycle (or water cycle). Refers to a conceptual model of the hydrosphere that de-
scribes the storage and movement of water between the biosphere, atmosphere, and litho-
sphere. Its cycle describes the journey of water, as water molecules make their way fromthe
Earths surface to the atmosphere, and back again. Virtually all the water of the hydro-
sphere is in constant circulation, moving through the hydrological cycle, a vast series of in-
terchanges of geographic position as well as of physical state. Broadly speaking, the hydro-
logic cycleinvolves thetransfer of water fromtheoceans throughthe atmospheretothecon-
tinents and back to the oceans. The processes involvedare complex combinations of evapo-
ration, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, runoff, infiltration, subterranean per-
colation, and others. The mean residence time of water in the atmosphere, on the land sur-
face, and in the oceans is an important climate parameter.
The hydrosphere consists of all liquidandfrozensurfacewaters (includingthe oceans, lakes
and streams), groundwater held in soil and rock, and atmospheric water vapor. The Earths
total water budget is estimated at roughly 1.386 x 10
9
km
3
. However, of this amount, 97.5%
is contained in the oceans and other saline bodies of water. Of the remaining 2.5% of fresh
water, 68.7%is tiedup inglaciers (andpermanent snowcover) andpolar ice caps (1.72%of
total budget). Atotal of 29.9%of the freshwater exists as groundwater. Hence, only 0.3%of
the total amount of the fresh waters on Earth are concentratedin lakes, reservoirs andriver
systems (renewable water). Hence, approximately 0.62% of the total amount of water may
be regarded as freshwater in rivers, lakes and groundwater supplies.
The following list provides estimates of the static water budgets inthe hydrosphere, consist-
ing of a total budget of 1.386 x 10
9
km
3
:
_____________________
6009) http://www.space.commerce.gov/general/commercialpurchase/hostedpayloads.shtml
6010) DonBrown, HostedPayloads --- NewRoles for Commercial Satellite Operators inGovernment Space Missions,
APSCC Quarterly Newsletter, April 2009, URL: http://www.intelsatgeneral.com/docs/
news/2009--- 07--- 16_APSCC_Hosted_Payloads.pdf
3351
Ocean volume (97.5%): 1.35 x 10
9
km
3
(salt water)
Fresh water volume (2.5% of total): 34,600,000 km
3
--- Polar ice caps + glaciers+ permanent snow (68.9%): 24,000,000 km
3
--- Ground water (29.9%): 10,300,000 km
3
--- Lakes and rivers systems(0.3%): 100,000 km
3
(renewable water)
--- Other (0.9%) including soil moisture, swamp water and permafrost: 300,000 km
3
The average atmospheric water content (<0.01% of Earths total) is equivalent to an
estimated volume of about 13,000 km
3
.
6011)
This corresponds to a mass of 13 x 10
12
tons.
The atmosphere provides in effect a gigantic transport service [it would take 130 billion
trucks (13 x 10
10
), each with a net load of 100 tons, to transport this amount of water]. Most
water is transportedinthe formof water vapor, whichis actually the thirdmost abundant gas
in the atmosphere. Precipitation is the primary mechanismfor transporting water fromthe
atmosphere to the surface of the Earth.
--- If all the atmospheric water fell as precipitation at once, the Earth would be covered
with only about 2.5 cm of water.
--- Each day, about 1,170 km
3
of water evaporate or transpire into the atmosphere.
6012)
Water cycle (according to Ref. 6011): Every year, the turnover of water on Earth involves
577,000 km
3
of water. This is water that evaporates fromthe oceanic surface (502,800 km
3
)
and from land (74,200 km
3
). The same amount of water falls as precipitation, 458,000 km
3
onthe oceanand119,000 km
3
onland. The differencebetweentheprecipitationandevapo-
rationfromthe landsurface (119,000 --- 74,200 =44,800 km
3
/year) represents the total run-
off of the Earths rivers (42,700km
3
/year) anddirect groundwater runoff tothe ocean(2,100
km
3
/year). These are the principal sources of fresh water to support the necessities of life
and the economic activities of humankind.
Water of Hydrosphere Period of Renewal Water of Hydrosphere Period of Renewal
World ocean 2500 years Ground water 1400 years
Polar ice 9700 years Mountain glaciers 1600 years
Ground ice of perma-
frost zone
10000 years Lakes 17 years
Soil moisture 1 year Atmospheric moisture 8 days
Table 931: Periods of water resources renewal on the Earth
_____________________
6011) http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/hyd/home.rxml
6012) How much water is there on, in, and above the Earth?, USGS, URL: http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/earthhow-
much.html
3352
Oceans
1.35 x 10
9
km
3
(salt water)
Land Surface
34.6 x 10
6
km
3
(total fresh water
volume)
Atmosphere
13,000 km
3
of water content
Precipitation
119,000
km
3
/year
Evaporation
502,800
km
3
/ye
ar
Evaporation/
Transpira
tion
74,200
km
3
/year
Precipitation
458,000
km
3
/year
Total Runoff
44,800
km
3
/yea
r
Figure 1456: Illustration of yearly water volumes in the hydrospheric cycle
Hydrometeors. These are cloud scatterers (when measured by a lidar or radar instrument)
in different phases such as rain or frozen precipitation with a definite fall velocity.
Hyperspectral imager (optical region). In remote sensing the termimplies a spectral signa-
ture of narrow, continuous and contiguous spectral bands per pixel, i.e. a fine spectral reso-
lution(Dl/l =1 5%), over anextended spectral range. Ahyperspectral sensor has a mini-
mum of 20 spectral bands (normally 30 --- 200 bands). On the other hand, multispectral
usually implies fewer, spectrally broader bands, whichmay benoncontiguously spacedcolor
bands per pixel. Hyperspectral imaging implies a hyperspectral signature for each pixel of
the image. The detailed spectral information captured in a hyperspectral image allows de-
tailed examination of the observed scene.
CCDs (Charged Coupled Device) detectors have been used for many years for hyperspec-
tral imaging missions and have been extremely successful. However, CMOS sensors have a
number of advantages whichmeans that they will probably be usedfor hyperspectral applic-
ations in the longer term. There are two main advantages with CMOS sensors:
6013)
--- First a hyperspectral image consists of spectral lines witha large difference inintensity;
inaframetransfer CCDthe faint spectral lines have tobe transferredthroughthepart of the
imager illuminated by intense lines. This can leadto cross---talk and whilst this problemcan
be reduced by the use of split frame transfer and faster line rates CMOS sensors do not re-
quire a frame transfer and hence inherently will not suffer from this problem.
--- Second, witha CMOSsensor the intense spectral lines canbe readmultiple times with-
in a frame to give a significant increase in dynamic range.
_____________________
6013) P.A.Jerram, M.Fryer, J.Pratlong, A.Pike, A.Walker, B.Dierickx, B.Dupont, A.Defernez, Hyperspectral CMOS
Imager, ICSO 2010 (International Conference on Space Optics), Rhodes Island, Greece, Oct. 4--- 8, 2010, URL:
http://congrex.nl/ICSO/Papers/Session%201A/FCXNL--- 10A02--- 1986550--- 1--- JERRAM_ICSO_PAPER.pdf
3353
Figure 1457: Schematic view of a hyperspectral imager (Ref. 6013)
Hyperspectral microwave operations: In analogy to hyperspectral imaging in the optical
(infrared) region, the term hyperspectral microwave is being used since about 2010 to
refer generically tomicrowave sounding systems withapproximately 50spectral channels or
more. The term hyperspectral microwave is used to indicate an equivalent all ---weather
sounding performance similar to that of hyperspectral infrared sounders in clear air with
vertical resolution of approximately 1 km. Hyperspectral microwave operation is achieved
through the use of independent RF antenna/receiver arrays that sample the same area/
volume of the Earths surface/atmosphere at slightly different frequencies and therefore
synthesize a set of dense, finely spaced vertical weighting functions.
6014)
Hyperspectral infrared sensors have been available since the 1990s and have demonstrated
high---resolution sounding performance. However, clouds substantially degrade the in-
formation content in the infrared portion of the spectrum, and a hyperspectral microwave
sensor is therefore highly desirable to achieve all ---weather performance.
Image. Remotely sensed imagery (collected by CCD instrument, camera, or radar --- in a
wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum) is measured data which is transformed by nu-
merical algorithms intoanimage. This is referredtoas computedimaging.
6015)
Animage
is a two---dimensional grid of data; each of its elements is a pixel (picture element) whose
coordinates are known and whose light intensity has a DN (Digital Number) value. The
_____________________
6014) W. J. Blackwell, C. Galbraith, T. Hancock, R. Leslie, I. Osaretin, M. Shields, P. Racette, L. Hilliard, Design and
Analysis of a Hyperspectral Microwave Receiver Subsystem, Proceedings of IGARSS (International Geoscience
and Remote Sensing Symposium), Munich, Germany, July 22--- 27, 2012
6015) Other forms of computed imaging (i.e. a restructured image of measured data) are in such fields as: tomography,
x--- ray crystallography, electron microscopy, seismic imaging, and radio astronomy.
3354
coordinates of the pixels and their DN values describe the image in terms of rows, called
lines, and columns, called samples. An 8---bit pixel provides up to 256 brightness levels
(level 0 is set to black, while level 255 is set to white); the brightness levels are also referred
to as grayscale levels. In false color image processing, those pixels which have the same
DNvalue are assignedanarbitrary color. This enhancement technique is used, for example,
todifferentiatebetweenvarious types of terrainor species of vegetation --- toreveal changes
which are otherwise not perceptible to the human eye.
Image correction. The adjustment of an image for errors: geometric, radiometric, etc.
Image correlation. The ability to locate or match a region of an image with a corresponding
region of another image which can be taken with a different sensor at a different viewing
angle.
Image degradation. Loss of resolution due to modulation transfer function defects includ-
ing motion blur, nonlinear amplitude response, shading and vignetting and channel noise.
Image enhancement. The improvement of images to facilitate better interpretation (false
color processing is an example), or further digital processing to develop a specific theme or
to highlight certain features in an image series.
Image motion compensation. Algorithms (hardware and/or software) counteracting image
motion during integration time, thereby reducing image blur. The blur effect increases
when relative velocities of the sensor platform are noticeable with respect to the image in-
tegration time. The sensor platform attitude parameters are also important inputs for mo-
tioncompensation. For low---flying aircraft motioncompensationis normally intheforward
direction. There are also algorithms in use for antenna motioncompensation. For instance,
the short---term scanning motion of the antenna is measured by IMU (Inertial Measure-
ment Unit). This data is usedas input tocompensate thepulse---to---pulse phaseof theradar
to maintain coherence during synthetic aperture.
Image quality. Refers to the apparent central core size of the observed image, often ex-
pressed as an angular image diameter that contains a given percentage of the available en-
ergy. Sometimes it is takentobethe full widthat half maximum(FWHM) valueof theinten-
sity versus the angular radius function. A complete definition of image quality would in-
clude measurements of all image distortions present, not just insizeor projection. But this is
frequently difficult to do, hence the approximations.
Image rectification. Aprocess by which the geometry of animage area is made planimetric.
Image rectification doesnt remove relief distortion or perspective distortion.
Image resampling. A technique for geometric correction in digital image processing.
Through a process of interpolation, the output pixel values are derived as functions of the
input values combined with the computed distortion. Nearest neighbor, bilinear interpola-
tion and cubic convolution are commonly used resampling techniques.
Image space. The mathematical space describing the position (coordinates) of pixels in the
image.
Imaging array. Asolid---state imaging array consists of a 1---Dor 2---Dset of photodetectors
onto which an image can be focused, together with an integral electronic readout scheme.
The devices are classified according to the particular readout scheme and detector type. A
linear array is an imaging array consisting of a single line of detectors. The introduction of
detector arrays has resulted in a new type of spectrometer --- the imaging spectrometer ---
capable of generating images in much narrower bands (hyperspectral imagers) than was
possible with conventional spectrometers.
Imaging sensors. Instruments that produce a 2---Dimage of the target area. Imaging sensor
systems may by subdivided into framing systems (such as camera or vidicon) andscanning
systems.
3355
Imaging spectrometry. The simultaneous acquisitionof images inmany contiguous spectral
bands.
Incidence angle (
i
). Angle formed between the instantaneous line of measurement of a
sensor toa target and the local vertical of the target (or object). Example: the backscatter of
a radar instrument is a function of the incidence angle. In general, low incidence angles
(perpendicular to the surface) will result in high backscatter; backscatter will decrease with
increasing incidence angles.
Figure 1458: Illustration of incidence angle
i
of a SAR instrument
Inclination. In general the angle between two planes or their poles; usually the angle be-
tween an orbital plane and a reference plane (i.e. the equator plane). Inclination is one of
the standard orbital elements specifying the orientation of the orbit plane (see also O.10 on
page 3245).
Information optics. Anewly coined word at the start of the 21st century, referring to infor-
mation technology ingeneral; it is associatedwith the optics of detection, transport, storage
and/or processing of information.
In---situ soundings. An observation method (using sensors on such platforms as aircraft,
balloons, ships, buoys, towers, spacecraft, onthe ground, etc.) withthe objective tomeasure
parameters in the immediate environment. From a historical point of view in---situ ob-
servation predated remote observation by ages. Thermometers, barometers, thermocou-
ples, hygrometers, air samplers, etc. are in---situ sensors, as are in fact most sensors in the
fields of meteorology, atmospheric chemistry, hydrology, etc. By far the largest percentage
of ground---truth observations are in---situ measurements (i.e., measurements of parame-
ters at a particular location and at a particular time). Remote sensing data of a particular
sensor and target area may be compared (calibrated) against in---situ data of that target
area. Spaceborne data collectionsystems, like ARGOSonpolar orbiting satellites, remote-
ly collect data from many thousands of in---situ measurement systems in the ground seg-
ment ona routine basis. Examples of spaceborne in---situ observations are: sensors measur-
ing magnetic or electric field parameters, solar wind particles, etc.
By their very nature, in---situ measurements are local measurements; hence, they offer a
very low observation efficiency with regard to coverage and timeliness (repeat periods). It
wouldtake afleet of spacecraft toobtainin---situdata withsufficient spatial andtimely reso-
lution on a global scale.
Instantaneous Field of View(IFOV). Atermdenoting the angular resolution of a single de-
tector element (it is a measure of the target area viewed by a single detector). The IFOV
may be expressedeither as a small solidangle (inmrador mrad, in this case the value is inde-
pendent of the orbital altitude of the sensor), or as a unit area (e. g. 6 mx 6 m), or simply as
the pixel size. Hence, the IFOV actually represents the spatial resolution of a sensor mea-
surement.
3356
Integrated Water Vapor (IWP). IWP refers to the amount of water (usually measured in
mm) that would result fromcondensing all of the water vapor in a column of air, extending
from the Earths surface to the top of the atmosphere.
Integrationtime. Refers tothe short timeperiodallocatedfor theradiative measurement of
the instantaneous area of observation by the detector of a sensor (see also dwell time). De-
pending onsensor type the integrationtime may be very short [as is the case withelectrome-
chanical scanning systems which measure each individual cell (IFOV) across the swath se-
quentially], while the entire swath width (FOV) is measured by a CCD detector array in a
single measurement.
Interference. Signals that arise fromsources extraneous tothe measurement systemandre-
sult in errors in the measured value.
Interference filter. A filter reflecting radiation selectively in a narrow spectral band.
Interferogram. Animage of interference phenomena suchas phase differences (as patterns
of interference fringes) measured by an interferometer, FTIRspectrometers, or generated
by SAR interferometry. Interference fringes form through the interaction of two beams.
Hence, for a givenwavelength, the signal onthe detector is either strong or weak. Twocases
are of interest:
Constructive interference. This occurs when the optical path difference (OPD) be-
tween the two light paths fromthe collectors to the detector is zero or a multiple of the ob-
serving wavelength
Destructive interference. It occurs when the OPD is a half---integer number of wave-
lengths. The destructive interference is also referred to as nulling mode.
Interferometer. An instrument class for dispersing spectra. The technique determines the
relative phase of two (or more) wave fronts of a coherent light wave as a function of spatial
location by observing interference fringes. Radiation is split into two or more beams which
traverse different path lengths. The beams are reflected by mirrors and recombined for in-
terference analysis. (see chapter O.9).
The interferometric method is based on the measurement of path length differences of the
light reflected by the optical system (telescope, or reflector only) under test and the refer-
ence wavefront. A light wave reflected interferes with this reference wave. A camera re-
cords the fringe pattern (interferogram) that after some computations give the surface er-
ror. The measurement accuracy is a fraction of the operational wavelength (/10 to /100
rms).
Interlaced scanning. Refers to a subsampling readout technique froma detector array of a
camera or fromsome other high data---rate instrument. The advantage of sucha measure is
to reduce the bandwidth for image transmission. However, the disadvantage is a delay in
total image recovery on the receiving side, resulting in distortions for fast moving objects in
successive frames. The interlaced scanning technique is used for NTSC (National Televi-
sion System Committee, a US TV display standard) television camera readout, in which
each frame is scanned in two successive fields, each consisting of all the odd or all the even
horizontal lines. The technique is also employed in other camera systems.
Intermediate frequency (IF). A common microwave frequency in an instrument (say, 80
MHz) for all channels at whichconsiderableamplificationtakes place, interconnections are
made, automatic gain adjustment is provided, and channels may be disabled upon com-
mand(squelch). The IFconcept of a relatively lowfrequency is usedtosimplify the designof
all functions compared to performing them at much higher frequencies in the GHz region.
International Polar Year (IPY): On three occasions over the past 125 years scientists from
around the world banded together to organize concentrated scientific and exploring pro-
3357
grams in the polar regions. In each major thrust, or year, scientific knowledge and geo-
graphical exploration were advanced, thereby extending understanding of many geophysic-
al phenomena that influence natures global systems. Each polar year was a hallmark of in-
ternational cooperation in science. The experience gained by scientists and governments in
international cooperation set the stage for other international scientific collaboration. In-
ternational scientific cooperation also paved the way for several political accords that
gained their momentum from the polar years.
6016)
First International Polar Year (1882---1883): The idea of International Polar Years was
the inspiration of the Austrian explorer and naval officer Lt. Karl Weyprecht who was a sci-
entist and co---commander of the Austro---Hungarian Polar Expedition of 1872---74.
From his experiences in the polar regions Weyprecht became aware that solutions to the
fundamental problems of meteorology andgeophysics were most likely tobefoundnear the
Earths poles. The key concept of the first IPY was that geophysical phenomena could not
be surveyed by one nation alone; rather, an undertaking of this magnitude would require a
coordinated international effort. 12 countries participated, and 15 expeditions to the poles
were completed (13 to the Arctic, and 2 to the Antarctic).
Second International Polar Year (1932---1933): The International Meteorological Or-
ganization proposed and promoted the Second IPY (19321933) as an effort to investigate
the global implications of the newly discovered Jet Stream. 40 nations participated in the
Second IPY, and it heralded advances in meteorology, magnetism, atmospheric science,
and in the mapping of ionospheric phenomena that advanced radioscience and techno-
logy. Forty permanent observation stations were established in the Arctic, creating a step---
function expansion in ongoing scientific Arctic research. In Antarctica, the U.S. contribu-
tionwas thesecondByrdAntarctic expedition, whichestablisheda winter---longmeteorolo-
gical station approximately 125 miles south of Little America Station on the Ross Ice Shelf
at the southern end of Roosevelt Island. This was the first research stationinland fromAnt-
arcticas coast.
The International Geophysical Year (1957---58): The International Geophysical Year
(IGY), 1 July 1957 to 31 December 1958, celebrated the 75th and 25th anniversaries of the
First and Second IPYs. The IGYwas conceivedby a number of post---WWII eminent physi-
cists, including Sydney Chapman, James VanAllen, andLloydBerkner, at aninformal gath-
ering in Washington, DCin 1950. These individuals realized the potential of the technology
developed during WWII (for example, rockets and radar), and they hoped to redirect the
technology and scientific momentum towards advances in research, particularly in the up-
per atmosphere. The IGYs research, discoveries, and vast array of synoptic observations
revised or rewrote many notions about the Earths geophysics. One long disputed theory,
continental drift, was confirmed. A U.S. satellite discovered the Van Allen Radiation Belt
encircling the Earth.
Third International Polar Year (2007---2008): The concept of the International Polar
Year 2007---2008 is of an international program of coordinated, interdisciplinary scientific
research and observations in the Earths polar regions:
--- to explore new scientific frontiers
--- to deepen our understanding of polar processes and their global linkages
--- to increase our ability to detect changes, to attract and develop the next generation of
polar scientists, engineers and logistics experts
--- to capture the interest of schoolchildren, the public and decision---makers.
_____________________
6016) A Short History of IPY, May 1, 2009, URL: http://classic.ipy.org/development/history.htm
3358
GIIPSY (Global Interagency IPY Polar Snapshot Year)
6017) 6018) 6019)
is a WMO/ICSU
(WorldMeteorological Organization/International Council of Scientific Unions) approved
IPY Project (Project #91) whose objective is to obtain high---definition satellite snapshots
of the polar regions during 2007---2008. The primary purpose is to use these snapshots as
benchmarks for gaging past and future environmental changes in the polar ice, ocean, and
land. In the spirit of IPY, the project also seeks to secure these data sets as our legacy to the
next generations of polar scientists.
Interplanetary magnetic field. Designates the magnetic fieldcarriedout fromthesunby the
solar wind, which permeates the entire heliosphere.
Intertropical conversion zone. A low pressure trough and minimum east wind, lying be-
tween the trade regions of the two hemispheres, that are nearly continuous around the
world on climatological charts.
Inversion (atmosphere). A positive temperature gradient or increase in temperature with
elevation, resulting in adverse conditions for the dispersion of pollutants.
Ionograms. Ionograms are recorded tracings of reflected high frequency radio pulses gen-
eratedby anionosonde. Unique relationships exist betweenthe soundingfrequency andthe
ionization densities which can reflect it. As the sounder sweeps from lower to higher fre-
quencies, the signal rises above the noise of commercial radio sources and records the re-
turn signal reflected fromthe different layers of the ionosphere. These echoes formcharac-
teristic patterns or traces that comprise the ionogram. Radio pulses travel more slowly
within the ionosphere than in free space, therefore, the apparent or virtual height is re-
corded instead of a true height. For frequencies approaching the level of maximumplasma
frequency ina layer, the virtual height tends toinfinity, because thepulse must travel afinite
distance at effectively zero speed. The frequencies at which this occurs are called critical
frequencies. Characteristic values of virtual heights (designatedhE, hF, andhF2, etc.) and
critical frequencies (designatedfoE, foF1, andfoF2, etc.) of eachlayer are scaled, manually
or by computer, from these ionograms.
Ionosphere. Layer of the Earths atmosphere, between approximately 60 and 1000 km in
altitude (a highly variable and complex physical system), that is partially ionized by solar
x---rays, ultraviolet radiation, and energetic particles fromspace. The process of ionization
is controlled by chemical composition and transport by diffusion and neutral wind. The re-
gion between about 160 to 1000 km, known as the F---region of the ionosphere; it contains
the greatest concentrationof electrons (the peak electronconcentrationis around250---300
km). The presence of the ionized zone disturbs the propagation of electromagnetic waves,
particularly at the lower wave frequencies. Below a certain frequency, the wave may be to-
tally reflected by the ionosphere. --- At times, the F---region of the ionosphere becomes dis-
turbed and small ---scale irregularities develop. When sufficiently intense, these irregulari-
ties scatter radio waves and generate rapid fluctuations (or scintillation) in the amplitude
and phase of radio signals.
The Earths ionosphere is important for a wide range of communication systems: including
high frequency radio, satellite control activities, search and rescue activities, cell phones
and pagers, and navigation systems. For instance, the ionosphere reflects radio waves, al-
lowing shortwave radiooperators tobounce transmissions over the horizon for long---range
communications. The ionosphere also bends and scatters signals from satellites transmit-
ting their datatothegroundor uplinking datatothespacecraft (includingGPSsatellites). ---
The ionosphere also plays host to the largest lightshow on Earth, the aurora.
_____________________
6017) Mark R. Drinkwater, Kenneth C. Jezek, Jeff Key, Coordinated Satellite Observations during the International
Polar Year: Towards Achieving a Polar Constellation, 2008, URL: http://bprc.osu.edu/rsl/GIIPSY/documents/
SRT_IPY--- Drinkwater_Jezek_Key.pdf
6018) Rod Franklin, GIIPSY: AFlagship Project of the IPYand Contributor to GEOSS, Imaging Notes, Spring 2008,
Vol. 23, No 1, URL: http://bprc.osu.edu/rsl/GIIPSY/documents/giipsy.pdf
6019) Polar scientists heraldimportance of satellite observations, ESA, June 15, 2010, URL: http://www.esa.int/esaCP/
SEMETLQVEAG_index_0.html
3359
The ionosphere was discovered in the early 1900s when radio waves were found to propa-
gate over the horizon. If radio waves have frequencies near or belowthe plasma frequen-
cy, they cannot propagate throughout the plasma of the ionosphere and thus do not escape
intospace; they are insteadeither reflectedor absorbed. At night the absorptionis lowsince
little plasma exists at the height of roughly 100 km where absorption is greatest. Thus, the
ionosphere acts as an effective mirror, as does the Earths surface, and waves can be re-
flected around the entire planet much as in a waveguide.
Figure 1459: Artists rendition of an auroral display (image credit: NASA)
Ionospheric disturbances. Refer to transient changes in ionospheric densities or currents,
or the appearance of electrondensity irregularities, usually inassociation withthe arrival of
x---rays or UV bursts from solar flares.
Ionospheric regions. The ionosphere is divided into four broad regions called D, E, F, and
topside. These regions may be further divided into several regularly occurring layers, such
as F1 or F2.
D Region: The region between about 75 and 95kmabove the Earth in which the (rela-
tively weak) ionizationis mainly responsible for absorptionof high---frequency radiowaves.
E Region: The region between about 95 and 150km above the Earth that marks the
height of the regular daytime Elayer. Other subdivisions isolating separate layers of irregu-
lar occurrencewithinthis regionare alsolabeledwithanEprefix, suchas thethick layer, E2,
and a highly variable thin layer, Sporadic E. Ions in this region are mainly O2+.
F---Region (or F---layer): The F---Layer constitutes the highest region, ranging from
about 160---500 km. Some sublayers within the F---region are: F1 (temperate---latitude
regular stratification layer), F1.5 (a semi ---regular stratification layer occurring at low lati-
tudes), and F2 (the reflection layer important for radio communications).
Within the F---Layer precipitating electrons fromthe magnetosphere cause ionizationcriti-
cal tolong---wave radiocommunication. This ionizationis typically causedby electrons with
a kinetic electron energy <1 keV. Ionization within the F---Layer may be characterized by
sensors designed to measure UVradiation. F---Layer electron density is usually two to four
orders of magnitude higher than that of the D--- and E---Layers.
3360
Layer Altitude Major Components Production Cause
D 70 --- 95 km NO
+
, O
2
+
Lyman Alpha, X---rays
E 95 --- 160 km O
2
+
, NO
+
Lyman Beta, Soft X---rays, UV continu-
um
F 160 --- 500 km O
+
, N
+
, NO
+
HE II, UV continuum
Topside > 500 km
Table 932: Ionospheric layers and physical causes of ionization
Irradiance. Refers to radiative energy per unit time (power) impinging on a surface,
normalized by the surface area, and is typically specified in watt per square meter (W/m
2
).
Isotropic radiator (antenna). A theoretical radiator of infinitesimal size in which it is as-
sumed that all energy is distributed evenly (point source). Such a concept serves as a refer-
ence for other antennas of finite dimensions.
Lambertian radiator. A target or an object having the radiative property of directional in-
dependence of its (emitted and reflected) energy. With respect to reflection the object or
target may be regarded to be a diffusely reflecting surface.
Langmuir probe. An instrument employed to measure the current---voltage characteristics
of a plasma (single and double probes are in use) in order to determine plasma density.
Laplacianfilter. Alinear windowoperation (digital filter) concerning second derivatives of
the pixel values within a window, either unidirectional or bidirectional (orthogonal).
Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation). A source of light that is
highly coherent (spatially andtemporarily) andemittedinone or more wavelengths. Atypi-
cal laser consists of two essential elements: gain and feedback. A beam of light passing
throughthe gain, or amplifying, mediumstimulates it torelease its storedenergy intheform
of additional light that adds to, or amplifies, the beam. Feedback is achieved by placing the
gain medium within the resonator (a set of mirrors that reflects the beam back and forth
through the gain medium). The light fromsuch a laser is composed of a number of discrete
wavelengths corresponding to different resonant frequencies, or modes, of the resonator.
There are two groups of lasers which operate either in a pulsed mode or in a continuous
mode. The spectral range of lasers extends from the UV to the TIR (90 nm to 12 mm).
Historically, the laser was an extension of the maser (microwave amplification by stimu-
lated emission of radiation), a microwave oscillator developed by N. G. Basov and A. M.
Prokhorov in the USSRand C. H. Townes in the USA(1954). In 1958, C. H. Townes and A.
L. Schawlow proposed extending the maser principle into the optical regime. They pointed
out that aninterferometer of thetype developedby Fabry andPerot in1900wouldalsofunc-
tion as an optical resonator.
6020)
The first working laser was demonstrated in May 1960 by Theodore H. Maiman,
6021)
a
physicist at Hughes Electric Corporation (Hughes Research Laboratories) in CA, USA.
Maiman developed a laser that was made out of ruby, which has a high chromiumcontent,
andabsorbs greenandblue light while emitting red light. By flashing white light into a cylin-
der of ruby, Maiman energized the electrons in the chromium. The energized green and
blue wavelengths were absorbed and then amplified the red wavelengths until the light
pulse of the ruby was amplified to high power, resulting in a laser. This event represented a
major breakthrough in the field of applied physics.
By 1961, the first commercial laser hit the market. Laser technology increased as rapidly as
the commercial laser industry. Fast on the heels of Maimans laser came the dye laser, the
_____________________
6020) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser
6021) Theodore Maiman and the Laser, URL: http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Theodore_Mai-
man_and_the_Laser
3361
helium---neon laser, the semi ---conductor laser, the carbon---dioxide laser, the ion laser, the
metal ---vapor laser, the excimer laser, and the free---electron laser.
Since then, the laser impact has rippled through numerous industries (medicine, industry,
electronic, data processing, communications and scientific research) in a myriad of ways
and has revolutionized life. It brings, sends and stores data in vast batches at light speed,
measures material and cuts it with sub---millimetric precision. Lasers drive the CD (Com-
pact Disk) andDVDplayer. The eraof modemspectroscopy beganwiththeinventionof the
laser.
Types of lasers:
6022)
Gas lasers: Usually receive their energy input via collisions of gas atoms withhigh---en-
ergy electrons. This energy is provided by applying a high voltage between electrodes lo-
cated within the gaseous medium. The most common types of gas lasers are:
--- He---Ne laser: Uses a gas dischargeof heliumandneonas thegainmedium(this was the
first laser to emit a continuous output beam).
--- Argon and krypton ion laser: Uses a gas discharge containing ions as a gas medium.
First lasers to operate in the blue and green regions of the spectrum.
--- CO
2
laser: One of the most powerful lasers, operating mostly in the spectral region of
about 10.5 mm. They range fromsmall versions with a fewmWof continuous power to large
pulsed versions.
--- TEA (Transverse Excitation---Atmospheric pressure):
6023)
These are generally pulsed
CO
2
lasers; boththe gas flow(about 1atmosphere) andthe electric discharge aretransverse
to the optical axis. Such conditions yield tremendous population inversions for short times.
Commercially available TEAlasers deliver 100 to 200 ns pulses of several Joules/pulse at a
repetition rate of 50 Hz; they are used for welding and cutting.
--- Rare---Gas---Halide excimer laser: Operate primarily in the UV region in mixtures of
rare gases, suchas argon, kryptonor xenon, withhalide molecules suchas chlorine andfluo-
rine.
--- Chemical lasers: In these lasers the molecules undergo a chemical reaction. The hy-
drogen---fluoride laser fits into this class.
Metal Vapor lasers: These lasers are actually a type of gaseous laser, since the laser ac-
tion occurs in the atomic or molecular vapor phase of the species. The two best---known
types are the helium---cadmium ion laser and the pulsed copper vapor laser.
Solid---State lasers: These laser generally consist of transparent crystals or glasses as
hosts within which ionic species of laser atoms are interspersed or doped. Typical host
materials include aluminum oxide (sapphires), garnets, and various forms of glasses, with
themost commonlasingspecies being neodymiumions andruby ions. --- Theenergy input in
these lasers is provided by a light source that is focused into the crystal to excite the upper
laser levels. The light source is typically a pulsed or continuously operating flash lamp.
--- Nd:YAG laser: A laser whose gain medium consists of a neodymium---doped yttrium
aluminum garnet crystal. The laser emits in the NIR region at 1.06 mm.
--- Ruby laser: This laser is produced by implanting chromiumions into an aluminumox-
ide crystal host and then irradiating the crystal with a flash lamp to excite the laser levels.
--- Color center laser: This laser uses a different form of impurity species implanted in a
host material (usually one part per tenthousand). Color lasers typically operate inthe 0.8 ---
_____________________
6022) Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, Academic Press, 1987, Vol. 7 pp. 153--- 160
6023) Courtesy of L. Zink of NIST, Boulder, CO
3362
4 mm region and are tunable by using different crystals having different emission wave-
lengths.
Semiconductor lasers: Semiconductor or diode lasers are the smallest lasers yet de-
vised (about the size of a grain of salt). They consist of a p---n junction formed in an elon-
gated gain region, typically in a gallium---arsenide crystal, with parallel faces at the ends to
serve as partially reflecting mirrors. The light output of semiconductor lasers canbe directly
modulated using bias current, they can be tuned in wavelength using both temperature and
bias current. Semiconductor diode lasers range in wavelength from 0.7 to 1.8 mm with typi-
cally continuous output power of up to 10 mW. Two types of semiconductor diode lasers are
in wide use:
6024)
--- EEL (Edge---Emitting Laser). A horizontal ---cavity laser with an optical output beam
emitting from the edge of the laser chip.
--- VCSEL (Vertical ---Cavity Surface---Emitting Laser). A VCSELs cavity is perpendicu-
lar to the wafer plane (the beamis guided in the vertical direction). The VCSELis used for
wavelength engineering, in optical fiber communications, etc.
Parameter Laser type Wavelength (nm) Energy range
CW
(Continuous Wave)
Argon Ion 488 and 514 1 mW to about 1 W
He---Ne 633 1 mW to about 20 mW
Diode 830 100 mW to about 20 mW
Nd:YAG 1064
1319
100 mW to about 450 W
100 mW to about 10 mW
HeNe 1523 100 mW to about 1 mW
CO
2
10600 (or 10.6 mm) 1 mW to about 1 kW
Pulsed KrF Excimer 248 10
---3
to about 200 mJ/pulse
50 mW --- 9W average pow-
er
ArF Excimer 193 10
---3
--- 3 mJ/pulse
50 mW --- 3 W average pow-
er
Nd:YAG 1064 1 --- 50 mJ/pulse
10 nW --- 100 mW
10
---3
--- 10 nJ/pulse
Table 933: Overview of some laser characteristics
6025)
--- Quantum cascade laser (QC laser).
6026)
Refers to a laser---based semiconductor sen-
sor that operates at roomtemperature and at high power to detect minute amounts of trace
gases (ppb) or pollutants by scanning for their optical ---absorption fingerprints. The la-
sers high peak power, of 50---60 mW at 300 K, allows the use of uncooled detectors and
enables LIDARapplications. They are particularly well suited for portable, robust sensors
in applications such as the point detection of trace gases and remote sensing applications.
The QClaser technology was invented by Jerome Capasso, Jerome, Faist, Sivco, Carlo Sir-
tori, HutchinsonandChoof Bell Labs (Murray Hill, NJ) in1994, who demonstratedcontin-
uously tunable, single---mode, QCdistributed---feedback lasers operating at mid---infrared
wavelengths (5 and 8.5 mm) in pulsed mode. The single---mode tuning range is typically 50
nm in wavelength, and the peak powers are 60 mW.
QClasers are made using the technique of MBE (Molecular BeamEpitaxy), featuring lay-
eredstructures of only a fewatoms thick. The QClasers emissionwavelengthis determined
initially by quantum---confinement effects: the fact that its layers are so thin that electrons
are squeezed and change their quantum---mechanical properties, allowing a range of pos-
_____________________
6024) C. J. Chang--- Hasnain, VCSELs Advances and Future Prospects, Optics & Photonics News, May 1998, pp.
34--- 39
6025) M. Dowell, Pulsed--- Laser Metrology at NIST, Optics&Photonic News, Feb. 2001, pp. 30--- 33
6026) http://www.bell--- labs.com/news/1997/may/21/4.html
3363
sible wavelengths. The distributed---feedback lasers incorporate agrating that makes it pos-
sible to further refine the lasers wavelength, making themcontinuously tunable. --- The op-
eration of a QClaser is unlike that of other laser types. They operate like an electronic wa-
terfall: whenanelectric current flows througha QClaser, electrons cascadedownanenergy
staircase; every time they hit astep, they emit aninfraredphoton. At eachstep, theelectrons
make a quantum jump between well ---defined energy levels. The emitted photons are re-
flected back and forth between built---in mirrors, stimulating other quantumjumps and the
emission of other photons. This amplification process enables high output power.
Bell Labs has built built QClasers operating throughout the mid---infrared region from4.5
to11.5 mminbothpulsedmode at roomtemperature and incontinuous wave (CW) mode at
temperatures up about 110 C.
Liquid (dye) lasers: Dye lasers are similar to solid---state lasers in that they use a host
material in which the laser (dye) molecules are dissolved. Different dyes have different
emission spectra or colors, thus allowing dye lasers to cover a broad wavelength range (320
--- 1500 nm). A unique property of dye lasers is the broad emission spectrum (typically
30---60 nm) over which gain occurs. The dye laser is tunable over a frequency range of 10
13
Hz.
--- Dye laser: Laser in which the gain mediumconsists of an organic dye dissolved in a liq-
uid solvent. Applications in areas where tunability of the laser frequency is required. Dye
lasers are also used for producing ultra---short pulses, a technique which is referred to as
mode---locking.
Free---Electron lasers: These lasers are significantly different from any other type of
laser in that the laser output does not result fromdiscrete transitions in atoms or molecules
of gases, liquids, or solids. Instead, a high---energy beam(inthe order of 1MeV) of electrons
is directed to pass through a spatially varying magnetic field that causes the electrons to os-
cillate in a direction transverse to their beam direction. This laser type can be used over a
wide range of wavelengths from the UV to FIR.
Laser cooling. The technology of laser cooling began with the development of a set of tools
using laser beams to slowatoms down, cooling themto within a millionth of a degree above
absolute zero (the atoms actually relinquish their heat energy to laser light and thus reach
lower and lower temperatures). At these cold temperatures, cesium atoms are left with a
residual velocity of only 1 cm/s. This slowing of atoms allows scientists a longer observation
time to study the atoms behavior. When a laser---cooled vapor (like cesium) is taken to mi-
crogravity, the observation time is increased considerably because the cold and slow atoms
will not fall out of the observers viewas quickly as they dounder the influence of theEarths
gravity. The small residual velocity makes for instance cesium atoms attractive candidates
for precision spectroscopy in atomic clocks.
Laser cooling techniques have alsobeenusedtocause a cloudof atoms tocondense intothe
Bose---Einstein
6027)
state, a new state of matter similar to superfluid helium. The BEC
(Bose---Einstein Condensate) occurs when atoms at a particular temperature andpressure,
on the removal of some energy, fall into lock---step with one another.
Background: Normally, light appears to heat things up (through absorption of light by the
material). However, it is possible, in some cases, to use light to cause materials to give up
more energy than they absorb, causing them to cool. Basic research with laser cooling of
atoms was first done in the 1980s by Steven Chu of Stanford University, Claude Cohen---
Tannoudji of College de France, and William D. Phillips of NIST (National Institute of
Standards and Technology), Gaithersburg, MD. For this work they were awarded the 1997
Nobel Prize in Physics.
_____________________
6027) Note: TheBose--- Einsteincondensateis apurely quantumformof matter, first predictedby EinsteinandtheIndian
physicist Satyendra Nath Bose in 1924, but for the first time created and observed in a laboratory by scientists in
the University of Colorado in 1995. This work led to the 1997 Nobel Prize in Physics.
3364
Layman---alpha radiation. The radiation emitted by hydrogen at 1,216 , first observed in
the solar spectrum by rocket---borne spectrographs.
Leads. Leads are transient areas of open water and/or very new ice, created in response to
convergence/divergence phenomena (deformation processes) in the polar ice pack (see
also nilas).
Limb/Occultation sounding. A horizon---looking (or edge---looking i.e. outer edge of the
apparent disk of a celestial body) observation technique that uses a distant object [(for oc-
cultation sounding) sun, star, or a sensor on another satellite in a different Earth orbit, (see
Figure 1382)] as a source to observe the signal on its path through the atmosphere that is
essentially tangential to the Earths surface. Two types of occultation techniques have been
used in the past to determine the composition and structure of the atmosphere:
1) Extinctive occultations: These occur because atmospheric constituents absorb or scat-
ter the incoming radiation. Since extinction cross sections are generally wavelength---de-
pendent, spectral measurements --- as the star (sun) sets deeper into the atmosphere --- are
diagnostic of the atmospheric composition. Hence constituent profiles may be determined
from the relative transmission (i.e., the ratio of occulted to un---occulted spectra0. As a re-
sult, extinctive occultation measurements are self---calibrating and ideal for long---term
trend monitoring. --- The technique provides measurements that are commonly referred to
as trace gas monitoring. Examples of spaceborne instruments employing extinctive occulta-
tions are: SAGE (AEM---2, ERBS, Meteor---3M, ISS), POAM (SPOT---3,4,5), HALOE
(ATLAS---1,2), ATMOS (ATLAS---1, Spacelab---3), ILAS (ADEOS, ADEOS---II), and
GOMOS (ENVISAT).
2) Refractive occultations: They occur because density gradients in the atmosphere lead
to refraction of the incoming radiation, causing it to follow curved paths through the atmo-
sphere. Relative measurements of the degree to which the path of the incoming radiation is
changed provide the bulk of atmospheric properties (density, pressure, temperature). Usu-
ally, this occultation technique employs dual ---frequency carrier---phase observations of re-
tarded signals (atmospheric propagation delays) from GPS or GLONASS satellites which
permit the derivation of atmospheric profiles of density, pressure, and temperature. The
GPS/MET instrument of Microlab---1 and TRSR (TurboRogue Space Receiver) of
CHAMP, SUNSAT, and other missions are examples of refractive radio occultation moni-
toring.
Very long atmospheric paths (up to 4000 km) with high sensitivities or dynamic ranges can
be obtained in this limb---sounding configuration. The refractive technique takes advan-
tage of the precise knowledge of GPS satellite positions and timing of GPS radio signals.
Instruments like GPS/MET and TRSR measure the extra time it takes for a GPS signal to
enter Earths atmosphere obliquely, pass through, andre---emerge tostrike the LEOS/C ---
compared to an otherwise un---refracted direct ray path. The time delays of the GPS signal
due to such atmospheric passage during the course of the occultation are used to derive the
corresponding bending angles of the ray path, which in turn are converted to the refractive
index profile of the atmosphere. Note: The time delay is proportional to the TEC (Total
Electron Content) in the ionosphere along the path of the GPS signal (the electron content
varies with location).
Some key advantages of limb sounding are:
It maximizes the receptionof the signal emittedby the atmospheric layer at the viewed
tangent height provided that the receiver antenna has a very narrow beam
The background temperature (that of the deep space) is much colder than that of the
atmosphere, which guarantees very low biasing of the measured atmospheric emissions
Vertical profiles with a high resolution can be obtained by limb scanning with a very
narrow antenna beam
3365
A global coverage is achieved with LEO polar orbiting satellites.
A major disadvantage of limb sounding is: Low horizontal resolution due to the measure-
ment geometry (long path---length) and high speed of the spacecraft (signal integration
along the moving tangent point).
Lithosphere. Earths outer rigidcrust (or outermost shell) composedof rocks rich insilicon,
aluminum, calcium, sodium, potassium, and some other elements, and hence less dense
thanthe underlying mantle. The lithosphere varies fromless than30 kmthickness under the
ocean to over 100 km under continents.
Local oscillator (LO). Areceiver oscillator that produces a reference sinusoid for compari-
son with the noisy received sinusoid.
Look angle. The direction in which an antenna is pointing when transmitting and receiving
froma particular cell (for an active instrument). Refers to the instrument pointing direction
fromnadir. --- In the current literature the terms look angle, illumination angle, pointing
angle, off---nadir angle, and viewing angle all have the same meaning.
Looks (in SAR imagery) see chapter O.8.5 on page 3233.
LORAN (Long---Range Navigation), see chapter 1.27.1.
Lorentz force (named after the Dutch pysicist Hendrik Lorentz, 1853---1928). Refers to the
force exerted on a charged particle in an electromagnetic field. The particle will experience
a force due to electric field of qE, and due to the magnetic field qv x B. Combined they give
the Lorentz force equation (or law): F= q (E+v x B), where:
F is the force (N)
E is the electric field (V/m)
B s the magnetic field (Weber/m
2
)
q is the electric charge of the particle (coulomb)
v is the instantaneous velocity of the particle (m/s)
Hence, a positively chargedparticle will be acceleratedin the same linear orientation as the
E field, but will curve perpendicularly to the B field according to the right---hand rule. ---
Example: An electrodynamic tether exploits the magnetic field of a planet via the Lorentz
forceactingonit whenthetether is transversedby a current. Inorder for theconcept towork
the current flow in the tether needs to be closed using the plasma surrounding the satellite.
LowNoise Amplifier (LNA). Apreamplifier between antenna and receiver. It is usually at-
tached directly to the antenna receive port. Its main function is to reduce the thermal noise
of the received signal.
LOWTRAN. LOW---resolutionTRANsmittance --- a computer code (model of USAFGeo-
physics Laboratory, also referred to as AFGL, Hanscom AFB, MA) which predicts the at-
mospheric transmittance and thermal radiation emitted by the atmosphere and the Earth.
LOWTRAN programs are applicable for wave numbers ranging from 350 cm
---1
(28.5 mm)
inthe infraredto40,000 cm
---1
(0.25 mm) inthe UVregion. The LOWTRANcodecalculates
atmospheric transmittance and radiance, averaged over 20 cm
---1
intervals in steps of 5
cm
---1
. The succeeding models are more advanced, building on the capabilities and options
of the previous LOWTRAN models.
6028)
LOWTRAN---2 (1972)
_____________________
6028) F. X. Kneizys, et al., Atmospheric transmittance/radiance: computer code LOWTRAN--- 6, Report AFGL---
TR--- 83--- 0187, Bedford, MA, NTIS Report ADA137786
3366
LOWTRAN---3 (1975)
LOWTRAN---3B (1976)
LOWTRAN---4 (1978)
LOWTRAN---5 (1980)
LOWTRAN---6 (1983) includes solar/lunar scattering, new spherical refractive geom-
etry subroutines, and an improved water vapor continuum model. Other modifications in-
clude a wind---dependent maritime aerosol model, a vertical structure aerosol model, a cir-
rus cloud model, and a rain model.
LOWTRAN---7 (1988). This code has beenextendedtoincludethe microwavespectral
region.
MODTRAN(1989)
6029)
(MODerate---resolutionLOWTRAN). MODTRANis anex-
tended version of LOWTRAN---7 (six additional subroutines) to increase its spectral reso-
lution from 20 cm
---1
to 2 cm
---1
(FWHM). Further objectives were: a) to model molecular
absorptionof atmospheric molecules as a functionof temperatureandpressure; b) tocalcu-
late band model parameters for twelve LOWTRAN molecular species; c) to integrate
LOWTRAN---7 capabilities into the new algorithms, maintaining compatibility with the
multiple scattering option. For MODTRAN, molecular absorptionis calculatedinintervals
of 1 cm
---1
bins, the other parts of the calculation remain unchanged. The molecular species
affected are: water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide, meth-
ane, oxygen, nitric oxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, and nitric acid. The
MODTRANspectral regionis from0 --- 17,900 cm
---1
(with2 cm
---1
spectral resolution), cal-
culations at larger wave numbers, i.e. the VIS and UV regions, are performed at the lower
spectral resolution of 20 cm
---1
.
Magnetar. A magnetar is a type of neutron star which possesses an intense magnetic field,
often in the range of 10 GT(gigatesla) --- quadrillions of times more powerful than the mag-
netic fieldaroundthe Earthandmillions of times more powerful thanany man---mademag-
nets. As the magnetic field decays, it emits high intensity electromagnetic radiation in the
form of X---rays and gamma rays.
6030)
The first recorded bursts believed to come from a magnetar was observed in 1979. The
primary theory of magnetar operation was presented in 1992 by Robert Duncan and Chris-
topher Thompson to explain this and other observed phenomena.
In 2010, astronomers have probed a curious source, using the XMM---Newton and other
world---class X---ray telescopes. The sources emit flares and bursts just like a magnetar but
lacks the extremely high external magnetic field typical of these objects. The detection of
this source, which could be powered by a strong, internal magnetic field hidden to observa-
tions, may mean that many ordinary pulsars are dormant magnetars waiting to erupt.
6031)
Magnetometer. An instrument (magnetic compass) for measuring the direction and
strength of Earths magnetic field. There are several types magnetometers:
Mechanical magnetic compasses
Fluxgate compasses
Hall ---effect compasses
_____________________
6029) A. Berk, L. S. Bernstein, D. C. Robertson, MODTRAN: A moderate resolution model for LOWTRAN--- 7,
AFGL--- TR--- 89--- 0122, Air Force Geophysics Laboratory, Hanscom AFB, MA
6030) http://physics.about.com/od/glossary/g/magnetar.htm
6031) Are most pulsars really magnetars in disguise?, ESA, Oct. 14, 2010, URL: http://sci.esa.int/science--- e/www/ob-
ject/index.cfm?fobjectid=47844
3367
Magnetoresistive compasses
Magnetoelestic compasses
Magnetopause. The surface defining an interface between the magnetic field of a star and
matter in the disk; a surface where the average magnetic pressure of the magnetic field is in
pressure balance with the plasma pressure. Earths magnetopause is the region in the iono-
sphere where the magnetosphere meets the solar wind (see Figure 158).
Magnetosphere. The regionof space surroundinga rotating, magnetizedsphere. Specifical-
ly, the outer region of the Earths ionosphere, starting at about 1000 kmabove Earths sur-
face and extending to about 60,000 km (or considerably farther, such as 100 R
E
on the side
away from the Sun).
Marginal ice zone (MIZ). The critical region in which polar air masses, ice, and water
masses interact with the temperate ocean and climate systems (an important geophysical
boundary zone involving energy exchanges). The transition zone is characterized by large
horizontal gradients in the properties of the ice, ocean, and atmosphere.
Maser. An amplifier utilizing the principle of microwave amplificationby stimulatedemis-
sion of radiation.
Maunder Minimum (solar physics), named after the English astronomer Edward Walter
Maunder (1851---1928). Maunder is best rememberedfor his study of sunspots andthesolar
magnetic cycle that led to his identification of the period from 1645 to 1715 that is now
known as the Maunder Minimum. Maunder studied solar records of the period
(1645---1715) and discovered, that only a few sunspots during one 30 year period were ob-
served (about 50) as compared to a more typical number of 40,000---50,000 spots. The
Maunder Minimumcoincidedwiththe middle --- andcoldest part --- of the so---calledLittle
Ice Age, during which Europe and North America, and perhaps much of the rest of the
world, were subjected to bitterly cold winters.
Measurement mode --- duty cycle. The fractionof availabletime duringwhichaninstrument
is actively performing Earth measurements and producing meaningful data, including inci-
dental calibration and overhead (such as scan retrace). High data rate, high power con-
sumption, and steerable instruments may have small duty cycles. Daylight---only instru-
ments may have measurement mode duty cycles averaging 50 percent.
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO). Refers to all satellite orbits between LEO and GEO. MEO
orbits have larger and longer footprints than LEOorbits. Navigation systems, like GPS and
GLONASS, are examples of MEO orbits. MEO orbits are also attractive to a number of
communication satellite networks due to their relatively small transmission delay times (in
the order of 0.1 s). The shorter radial distance (comparedtoGEO) translates intoimproved
signal strength at the ground which means better reception and ultimately smaller termi-
nals.
Mesosphere. Region of the atmosphere between approximately 50 and 85 km in altitude.
Meteoroid. Asmall particle in space (sources are comets, detritus from asteroid collisions,
and interstellar dust). A meteoroid that survives the passage through the Earths atmo-
sphere and reaches the Earths surface is known as a meteorite.
Microprocessor (early history). The history of microprocessors beganin Nov. 1971 withthe
introduction of Intels 4---bit 4004 microprocessor, a chip containing 2,300 PMOS (p---type
Metal Oxide Semiconductor) transistors that is regarded the worlds first microprocessor.
The device contained all the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to performthe
functions of a computers central processing unit (CPU). Amicroprocessor is built entirely
of these logic circuits synchronized to each other --- and combining the circuitry for both in-
formation storage and information processing. The general ---purpose 4004 micropro-
3368
cessor, also referred to as MSC---4 (Microcomputer System 4---bit) computer, had a clock
rate of 108 kHz and 640 Bytes of addressable memory.
The Pioneer 10 spacecraft, an interplanetary probe of NASA/JPL (launch March 2,
1972), is considered to have introduced the first microprocessor into a spaceborne mission
in history, the Intel 4004 with a 4---bit instruction set.
In April 1972, Intel introduced the first 8---bit 8008 microprocessor. Its successor, the
8---bit 8080 CPUwas releasedinApril 1974 running at 2 MHz (at upto500,000 instructions/
s); it is generally considered to be the first truly usable microprocessor CPU design. It was
implemented in NMOS (n---type Metal Oxide Semiconductor) technology. The 8080 chip
contained 6,000 transistors, had a memory of 64 kByte, and supported up to 256 input/out-
put (I/O) ports, accessed from programs via dedicated I/O instructions --- each instruction
taking an I/Oport address as its operand. The 8080 represented Intels fourth entry intothe
market. The competing Motorola 6800 microprocessor was releasedin August 1974. --- The
new microprocessors on the market started in fact a revolution in the computing history of
the 1980s. The microprocessor technology has simply become the most prevalent imple-
mentation of the CPU, nearly completely replacing all other forms.
In 1978, the 8080 microprocessor turned out to be the first microprocessor flown on an
Earth observation spacecraft, namely the SEASAT mission of NASA/JPL (launch June 27,
1978).
A seminal microprocessor in the world of spaceflight was RCAs RCA 1802, also re-
ferred to as CDP 1802, or in RCAs terms the COSMAC(COmplementary Silicon Metal ---
oxide Conductor) microprocessor, introduced in 1976 which was used in NASAs Voyager
space probes with launches in 1977. The CDP1802 was used because it could be run at very
low power, and because its production process (silicon on sapphire) ensured much better
protection against cosmic radiation and electrostatic discharges than that of any other pro-
cessor of the era. Thus, the CDP1802 is said to be the first radiation---hardened micropro-
cessor. The Voyager---1 mission was launched Sept. 5, 1977 (Voyager---2 launch on Aug. 20,
1977).
Microwave radiation. This is electromagnetic radiation generally considered to be in the
wavelength range from approximately 1 mm to 1 m (three orders of magnitude). Ra-
diometry addresses the domain of passive measurement of the natural thermally caused
electromagnetic radiationof matter at a physical temperature above 0 K. In the case of MW
(Microwave) and MMW(Millimeter Wave) Earth observation, significant contrasts can be
observedbetweenreflectiveandabsorbingmaterials duetotheimpact of reflectedsky radi-
ation of cosmic origin. The incident radiation power measured by a radiometer system is
usually expressed in an apparent temperature, the so---called brightness temperature. For
Earth observation an approximate range from 3 K to more than 300 K can be observed. In
the MW and MMW region the spatial two---dimensional brightness temperature distribu-
tion can be used as a daytime and almost weather independent indicator for many different
physical phenomena.
In microwave radiometry polarization is often used as a discriminant parameter, because
microwave antennas are easily built with a single polarization direction. --- (On the other
hand, most optical sensors are relatively independent of polarization; a special effort must
be made to polarize the signal prior to detection). --- The largest portion of the microwave
region is also the radar region, hence both terms are used interchangeably (this also ap-
plies to the microwave instruments), see also O.8.2 and O.8.1.
Microwaves formthe only portion of the electromagnetic spectrumthat allows truly quanti-
tative estimates of soil moisture using physically based models. Moreover, microwave re-
mote sensing has the following important advantages over other portions of the spectrum:
Microwave radiation penetrates clouds and, therefore, forms the basis for an all ---
weather observation tool
3369
Low---frequency microwaves partially penetrate vegetation and, therefore, allows soil
moisture estimation from vegetated areas
Low---frequency microwaves partially penetrate the soil surface and, therefore,
emitted signatures contain information over the soil penetrated depth
High---frequency microwaves are partially absorbed by vegetation and, therefore,
emitted signatures contain information on vegetation properties
Microwave radiation is independent of solar radiation and can therefore be used dur-
ing both nighttime and daytime hours.
Microwave rainfall monitoring. Microwave radiationwithwavelengths inthe order of 1mm
to3 cmresults ina strong interactionbetweenthe raindrops andthe radiation(the dropsize
is comparable to the wavelength). Passive microwave data is helpful in locating the leading
and trailing edges of rain areas (extent), however, the actual measurement of rainfall and
rain rates provides unsatisfactory results. So far passive microwave systems function prom-
isingly over sea surfaces but not satisfactorily over land surfaces. The general consensus is
that a passive (multichannel and multipolarized radiometer)/active (radar) instrument
complement can provide a better characterization of rain systems.
Radar measurement of rainfall is based on Rayleigh scattering caused by the interaction of
rain and the radar signals. The PR (Precipitation Radar) instrument on TRMM with a
transmissionfrequency of 14 GHz (2.15cmwavelength) is expectedtoimproveontheprob-
lem of rainfall measurement.
Microwave signal penetration. Most natural terrain materials, with the exception of water,
are partially transparent to microwave frequencies. The energy of a (radar) wave incident
upon a terrain surface is partially scattered back into the atmosphere; the remainder is
transmitted across the boundary into the terrain medium. --- The most important parame-
ters governing the depth to which microwaves can penetrate natural materials such as soil,
snow, or vegetation are the wavelength, the moisture content of the material (soil), and the
shape and sizes of the scattering elements (such as the leaves in a vegetation canopy, or ice
crystals on a snowsurface). Radar observations in L---band (2---1 GHz) and P---band (1.0 ---
0.3 GHz) frequencies are providing first results in penetration measurements, in particular
with regard to soil moisture content and canopy penetration. --- Note: The microwave per-
mittivity of liquid water (dielectric constant of about 80) is an order of magnitude higher
than that of any natural dry material (dielectric constant of <4).
6032)
Millimeter---Wave(MMW) region. Refers tothespectral regionfrom1mm(300GHz) to10
mmwavelength (300 MHz). The MMWregion is part of the microwave region of the spec-
trum which extents conventionally from 1mm to 1 m wavelength. The MMW region is in
particular of interest to radiometry (passive sensing) applications. Millimeter waves are
able to penetrate many types of inclement weather, as well as opaque solids, andoffers a lot
of contrast. The emissivity of objects in this region is about 10 times higher that that in the
infrared region.
Submillimeter---wave (SMMW) region. Refers to the spectral region from 0.1 mm (3000
GHz or 3 THz) wavelength to 1 mm(300 GHz) wavelength. The SMMWis also being con-
sidered as part of the microwave region (as well as of the optical region). SMMWobserva-
tions are of particular interest to atmospheric science. Submillimeter---wave limb sounding
has some advantages compared with limb sounding in other frequency ranges. In the UV
and VIS region only daytime measurements are possible, while in the infrared region some
important species like ClO and HCl are not detectable.
_____________________
6032) The penetration depth of microwaves decreases with increasing frequency. The atmosphere produces frequency---
dependent distortions which set an upper frequency limit due to attenuation. This limit is about 90 GHz for air-
borne radars and about 15 GHz for spaceborne radars.
3370
Microwave total---power observation. An observation/calibration scheme referred to as
total ---power method which compares in the microwave region the atmospheric signal to
the cold and hot loads.
Modeling. An investigative technique that uses a mathematical or physical representation
of a systemor theory that accounts for all or some of its known properties. Models are often
used to test the effects of changes of systemcomponents on the overall performance of the
system.
Modulation. A process of manipulating the characteristics (usually frequency or ampli-
tude) of a carrier in relation to another wave or signal.
ModulationTransfer Function(MTF).
6033)
Afunctionmeasuring the reductionincontrast
fromobject to image (actually fromeach pixel), that is, the ratio of image---to---object mod-
ulation for sinusoids of varying spatial frequencies. The reason: any optical systemreduces
the contrast inthe image comparedtothe contrast of the objects imaged; this is expressedas
MTF. Thus, the MTFprovides the response of anoptical sensor as a functionof object scene
contrast andspatial frequency. MTFis alsoa measure of howaccurately the actual radiance
froma pixel (IFOV) is measured (a lower MTFindicates contributions fromother pixels to
the pixel of observation). The higher the MTF the greater the resolving power of that sys-
tem. A radiometrically accurate IFOV is one for which MTF >0.95. Note: The value of
MTF is not only reduced by the aberrations within the optical system, but also the Earths
atmosphere. Haze, turbulence and differential refraction will each contribute to a reduc-
tion in the total performance of the telescope.
Note: EIFOV (Effective Instantaneous Field of View) is defined as the resolution corre-
sponding to a spatial frequency (ground resolution) for which the system MTF is 50%.
Moire Interferometry. A method to determine 3---D profile information of an object or
scene, using interference patterns. Two identical gratings of known pitch are used. The first
create a shadowof parallel lines of light projected on the object. The second is placed inthe
imaging train, then superimposed on the shadow cast by the first grating, forming a moire
fringe pattern. Varying the gap between the lines changes the sensitivity.
Mosaic. An assemblage of overlapping airborne or spaceborne photographs or images
whose edges have been matched to forma continuous pictorial representation of a portion
of the Earths surface.
Multilook technique. Atechnique of averaging a number of independent samples per pixel.
applied to radar in order to reduce speckle.
Multiple access techniques. There are three basic multiplexing schemes that allow a num-
ber of simultaneous transmissions over a single circuit. See alsoCDMA, FDMA, andTDMA
in the glossary text.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA). Refers to an access scheme which employs
spread---spectrummodulations andorthogonal codes toshare acommunicationlinkamong
its users.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). Aprocess that shares a spectrumof fre-
quencies among many users by assigning toeacha subset of frequencies inwhichtotransmit
signals.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA). A process that shares the time domain of a
single carrier among many users by assigning to each time intervals in which to transmit sig-
nal bursts.
_____________________
6033) G. Joseph, How well do we understand Earth observation electro--- optical sensor parameters? ISPRS Journal
of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing, Vol. 55, 2000, pp. 9--- 12
3371
Multipath (GPS multipath).
6034)
The termmultipath is derived fromthe fact that a signal
transmitted from a GPS satellite can follow a multiple number of propagation paths to
the receiving antenna. This is possible because the signal canbe reflected back to the anten-
na off surrounding objects, including the Earths surface (land and/or ocean). Some charac-
teristics of the multipath signal are: a) a multipath signal arrives always at a later time than
the direct---pathsignal, b) a multipathsignal is normally weaker thanthe direct---pathsignal
due to the reflection loss, c) if the delay of the multipath is less than two PRN code chip
lengths, the internally generatedreceiver signal will partially correlate withit. If the delay is
> 2 chips, the correlation power will be negligible.
Multiplet. A spectrum line having several components.
Multispectral. Inremote sensing the termimplies twoor more (generally <10) broadspec-
tral bands in which a sensor detects radiation (see also Hyperspectral). The bands of multi-
spectral instruments are generally tailored to suit a specific application (the bands may be
less than optimal or even completely unsuitable for other applications). The multispectral
concept implies image analysis based on spectral characteristics. Note: The MSS (Multi-
spectral Scanner System) sensor on Landsat---1 was the first spaceborne multispectral in-
strument with four spectral bands in VNIR.
Nadir. Direction toward the center of the Earth. Opposite of zenith.
Nilas. Thin and elastic ice sheets of a rather dull surface and up to a thickness of about 10
cm. Nilas formin quiet sea water and bend easily in swells. Transverse pressure causes nilas
to pile up. Leads may be frozen over by nilas; but nilas are not bound to be present in leads;
they may also occur outside of leads.
Noctilucent (night---shining) Clouds: Refers to a cloud---like phenomenon of a pervasive
polar cloud layer called polar mesospheric clouds in the upper atmosphere, visible in a
deep twilight. They are most commonly observed in the late spring and summer months at
latitudes between50 and70 northandsouthof theequator. They are thin, wavy iceclouds
that format very high altitudes (76 to 85 km) above Earths surface andreflect sunlight long
after the sun has droppedbelowthe horizon. The noctilucent clouds formwhenthere is suf-
ficient water vapor at these high altitudes to freeze into ice crystals.
6035)
While the exact cause for the formation of polar mesospheric clouds is still debateddust
from meteors, global warming, and rocket exhaust have all been suggested as contribut-
orsrecent research suggests that changes in atmospheric gas composition or temperature
has caused the clouds to become brighter over time.
_____________________
6034) B. Townsend, J. Wiebe, A. Jakab, M. Clayton, T. Murfin, Analysis of the MultipathMeter Performance inEnviron-
ments With Multiple Interferers, ION GPS 2000, Salt Lake City, UT, Sept. 19--- 22, 2000, pp. 480--- 488
6035) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noctilucent_cloud
3372
Figure 1460: Astronaut photograph ISS031--- E--- 116058 of noctilucent clouds, acquired on June 13, 2012,
from the ISS with a Nikon D2Xs digital camera (image credit: NASA/JSC)
6036)
Noise. Any unwanted or contaminating signal competing with the desired signal. In a SAR
instrument, two common kinds of noise are additive, receiver noise and signal ---dependent
noise, usually additive or multiplicative. The relative amount of additive noise is described
by the signal ---to---noise ratio (SNR). Signal ---dependent noises, such as azimuth ambigui-
ties or quantization noise, arise from system imperfections, and are dependent on the
strength of the signal itself.
Noise---Equivalent---Equivalent---Width (NEEW) (sometimes shortened to noise---equi-
valent---width). A spectral resolution defining the smallest line area (in cm
---1
) that can be
measured, or the equivalent area of the average noise bump.
Noise---Equivalent Flux Density (NEFD), sometimes also referred to as noise---equivalent
irradiance. Definedas the in---bandentrance apertureirradiance onone pixel, fromapoint
source, that equals thesensor rms noise (units are W/cm
2
). NEFDis relatedtoa morefamil-
iar quantity, theNoise---Equivalent Radiance(NER), by the equation: NEFD=NERx pix-
el subtends (in steradians). NEFD can also be defined as the noise---equivalent power
(NEP) per unit aperture area: NEFD=NEP/A.
Noise---Equivalent Radiance (NER). Defined as the in---band entrance aperture radiance
(W/cm
2
/sr) equal to the sensor rms noise. NER is the preferred figure of merit for an ex-
tended (pixel ---filling) source. It is also defined as the noise---equivalent power (NEP) per
unit aperture area, per pixel subtense (NER=NEP/A/W).
Noise---Equivalent Spectral Radiance (NESR). Defined as the radiance (W cm
---2
sr
---1
cm
+1
) density that corresponds to the rms value of the spectral noise of a calibrated spec-
trum(or: the radiance change corresponding to SNR=1). NESR=NEP/ (m x t x Ex (t)
1/2
x
Ds), with NEP = Noise Equivalent Power of the detector, m = modulation efficiency, t =
optical efficiency, E = Etendue, t = scan time (1 instance), and Ds = spectral resolution.
_____________________
6036) http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=78346
3373
Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference (NETD) also referred to as NEDT (Noise Equiv-
alent Differential Temperature). The noise rating of an IR FPA detector specifies the
amount of radiation required to produce an output signal equal to the detectors own noise
(due to inner component heat). Thus, it specifies the minimumdetectable temperature dif-
ference. In general detector cooling is required to limit the detectors own noise and to im-
prove the NETD.
Noise figure. Ratio of total output noise power of a system to that part of the output noise
power due to the signal source.
Nonimaging sensors. Instruments which measure directly such quantities as radiant flux,
irradiance, and radiance, which describe the intensity of a radiation field or the optical
properties of a surface or a region of space. The sensors are nonimaging in the sense that
they do not produce an image (a picture), but rather, integrate over time, space, and wave-
lengthtoproduce aspectral curve, or aset of numbers that characterize theelectromagnetic
radiation. Typical measurement products are profiles, such as flux profiles, temperature
profiles, moisture profiles, etc. Typical nonimaging instruments are: radar altimeters,
sounders, scatterometers, spectroradiometers, radiometers, (note: there are also imaging
radiometers whichuse scanning techniques, andimaging spectroradiometers using discrete
filter---wheel systems), lidars, etc.
Nowcasting. The termis usedin meteorology and refers to the development of atmospheric
features on time scales between 0 and 3 hours over regional and local areas. Nowcasting is
closely linked to very short---range---forecasting which covers developments over the time
scale of 3 to 12 hours over regional areas.
6037)
A typical example of an application of now-
casting is severe weather incidents, where small ---scale features undergo rapid develop-
ment. Nowcasting requires the (almost) continuous monitoring of the area(s) of interest.
Furthermore, as many of the features tobe observedare fairly small, quite high spatial reso-
lutions are needed.
Nyquist sampling rate (Henry Nyquist, a US physicist and a pioneer in the field of commu-
nicationtheory, was borne in1889 inSweden).
6038)
--- Refers toa samplingrate abovewhich
a band---limited signal can be reconstructed from its sample value. If a signal s(t) contains
no frequency components at or above f
N
Hz [s(t) is then said to be band---limited to f
N
Hz],
then s(t) can be completely reconstructed fromits sample values, provided the samples are
taken at a rate equal to or in excess of f
S
= 2 f
N
samples/s. This condition is known as the
Nyquist or Shannon sampling theorem; f
S
is referred to as the Nyquist sample frequency,
and f
N
is sometimes called the Nyquist frequency. The Nyquist theorem essentially states
that the sampling rate must be twice that of the highest frequency to be represented. For
example, in a digital camera with 5 mm pixel spacing, f
s
=200 pixel/mm, and f
N
=100 line
pairs/mm.
Observational reference frames and models:
Lagrangian experiments (Joseph Louis Lagrange, 1736---1813, Frenchmathematician
and physicist). Refer to a physical systemthat changes as time goes on from one configura-
tion to another as it is progressing along a particular evolutionary path (pathwith the small-
est result). In this concept observer and observed object have zero velocity relative to each
other (Lagrangian coordinates are also referred to as material coordinates; they do not
vary with time). The strategy is to observe a reference volume (a cell of air) of interest as it
moves throughspace. All measuringdevices movealong withthe referenceobject. Thecon-
cept is generally very complex with respect to instrumentation. Drifting buoys in the ocean
or constant---pressure balloons inthe atmosphere are Lagrangian---type experiments of rel-
atively small complexity.
_____________________
6037) Meteosat Second Generation Programme Proposal, ESA/PB--- EO (92), 57, 9 November 1992, p. 14
6038) F. J. Taylor, Digital Signal Processing, Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology,Academic Press, 1987,
Vol. 12. p. 600
3374
Eulerianexperiments (LeonardEuler, 1707---1783). InEuleriancoordinates the prop-
erties of a fluidare assignedtopoints inspaceat agiventime, without attempt toidentify the
individual fluidcells fromone time tothe next. The observer moves relative to the observed
object. Example: observation of air masses. The vast majority of experiments, particularly
in meteorology, are of the Eulerian type; a sequence of synoptic charts is a Eulerian data
representation.
Transect experiments. The observer takes snapshot measurements by transecting a
large reference volume into different directions. Example: an aircraft or a ship observes
many different small ---scale air masses as it moves through them.
Occultation. Distortion or interruption of a direct observation path between the observer
(sensor) and a target by an intervening medium(suchas anatmosphere or a celestial body).
The occultation technique may for instance be used to study the Earths atmosphere (or
planetary atmospheres) by remote sensing (in a limb---viewing configuration). The atmo-
sphere causes signal propagation delay and bending [between a transmitter (a GPS satel-
lite) and a receiver (a GPS receiver on a LEOsatellite)] due to the variation in the index of
refraction in different shells of the atmosphere. --- In the conventional sense, occultation
refers tolight pathobstructionby anastronomical body, suchas a star, by another astronom-
ical body, as seen fromEarth. In this context, a solar eclipse is the occultation of the sun by
the moon.
Ocean Acoustic Tomography (OAT):
6039)
OAT is a technique permitting the study of aver-
age temperatures over large regions of the ocean. Principle: Sound travels faster in warm
water than in cold water. By measuring the travel time of sound over a known path, the
sound speed and thus temperature can be determined. Sound also travels faster with a cur-
rent than against. By measuring the reciprocal travel times in each direction along a path,
the absolute water velocity can be determined. In ocean acoustic tomography, data froma
multitude of such paths crossing at many different angles are used to reconstruct the sound
speed(temperature) andvelocity fields. --- Since the techniqueintegrates temperaturevari-
ations over a large region, the smaller scale turbulent and internal ---wave features that usu-
ally dominate point measurements are averaged out; this permits to determine the large---
scale dynamics.
Ocean color. A shorthand term for a specific set of measurements from airborne or space-
borne instruments used to determine the radiance backscattered fromwater and across the
air---sea interface at some or many spectral bands. A more formal name for ocean color is
ocean spectral reflectance (R) or water---leaving spectral radiance (Lw).
The color of the ocean reveals information on the presence and concentration of phyto-
plankton, sediments, and dissolved organic chemicals. By studying the color of the light
scattered fromthe oceans, optical sensors canquantify the amount of chlorophyll andother
constituents inthe various regions of the ocean. --- Oceancolor gives a quantitativemeasure
of thespectral radiance of light reflectedfrombeneaththe oceansurface. Sincephytoplank-
ton dominates the optical characteristics of most ocean waters, it permits the estimation of
marine plant biomass, ocean optical properties, and marine photosynthesis (primary pro-
duction), see also chlorophyll.
Ocean mixing. Processes that involve rates of advection, upwelling/downwelling, and eddy
diffusion and that determine, for example, how rapidly excess atmospheric carbon dioxide
can be taken up by the oceans.
Oceans of the world and climate. The oceans play a decisive role in the evolution of the cli-
mate. Through irradiation of the sun and exchanges with the atmosphere, they receive con-
siderable quantities of heat, in particular at the intertropical latitudes, which they store due
_____________________
6039) B. M. Howe, B. D. Dushaw, W. H. Munk, P. F. Worcester, Monitoring the OceanAcoustically: AReviewandStrat-
egy for the Future, 82nd Annual Meeting of AMS, Sixth Symposiumon Integrated Observing Systems, Orlando,
FLA, Jan. 13--- 17, 2002
3375
to their high thermal capacity, and which the ocean currents redistribute from the equato-
rial regions to the polar regions. --- Current estimates account for 30---50% of the meridian
transport which makes the climate of the middle latitudes more hospitable. Fluctuations in
the circulation and elevation of the average sea level, under the combined effect of thermal
expansion and the melting of the icepack, are indicators of climatic anomalies. --- Thus, the
worlds oceans represent a major regulating factor of the climatic system. Their circulation
and evolution must be understood (via satellite altimetry or other means of observation) to
account for the climate variability. Some figures of the oceans illustrate the importance of
the oceans to our environment.
About 70% of the Earths surface are covered with oceans, this amounts to a total area
of 360 x 10
6
(million) km
2
, the total ocean volume is estimatedto be 1.46 x 10
9
(billion) km
3
;
hence
,
the total mass is about 1.46 x 10
18
metric tons.
The average depth of the oceans is about 3800 m
The mass of the oceans is about 300 times larger than the mass of the atmosphere; the
heat storage capacity of the oceans is 1200 times the heat capacity of the atmosphere; the
oceans provide 70 times the carbonstoragecapacity of the atmosphere. See alsoaltimetry
and hydrosphere in the glossary.
In addition to the normal ocean---atmosphere heat exchanges, the winds blowing on the sea
surface, contribute to the productions of surface marine currents. These currents travel
much more slowly than the winds; however, these ocean currents can store a large quantity
of heat. This property enables theoceantostabilize theEarths temperature. Anexampleof
such an ocean current is the Gulf Streamwhich forms in the west Atlantic seaboard(mainly
in the Gulf of Mexico) and travels in the direction of northern Europe.
Ocean surface skin layer (also referred to as SSST (Skin Sea Surface Temperature --- see
also SST). A number of measurements have demonstrated the existence of a skin layer at
the ocean surface. This skin layer is the molecular boundary between a turbulent oceanand
a turbulent atmosphere. The molecular layer is necessary for the transfer of heat, momen-
tumand other properties, between the ocean and the atmosphere. The thermodynamics of
this layer also determines the flux of gases such as carbon dioxide between the sea and the
atmosphere.
6040)
Omega. Along---range, worldwide, all weather, day and night radionavigation systemoper-
ating in the VLF (Very Low Frequency) band of the radio spectrum. The Omega network
consists of eight atomic---clock---controlled transmitters transmitting sequentially on as-
signed frequencies between 10.2 and 13.6 kHz. The Omega network transmitters are lo-
cated in Argentina, Australia, Japan, Liberia, Norway, Reunion, and USA (Hawaii and
North Dakota). Users of Omega are commercial airlines, ships, land vehicles, meteorology
(tracking of balloons), etc. Omega, like LORAN, uses phase differences of continuous---
wave radio signals. The receiver of a user synchronizes to the transmitter frequency and
measures the phase relationship of the receivers location. Twoor more line---of---position
measurements define the receiver location. Omega (of World War II vintage, developed by
the USA) provides positioning within 2 to 4 nautical miles at a 95% confidence level with
95% availability. --- The USA terminated permanently its Omega operations on Sept. 30,
1997.
Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) of communications. In the OSI model, there are seven
distinct layers. The layers are:
1) Physical: raw bits, coding (wire, fiber, RF)
2) Link: Frames (HDLC, FDDI, ATM, ethernet)
_____________________
6040) W. J. Emery, C. J. Donlon, G. A. Wick, AComprehensive Programto Validate Infrared Satellite Sea Surface Tem-
perature Measurements, Proceedings of IGARSS/IEEE, Sydney, Australia, July 9--- 13, 2001
3376
3) Network: end---to---end addressed datagrams (IP)
4) Transport: multiplexed packets (TCP, UDP)
5) Session: login, authentication
6) Presentation: formatting, translation
7) Application: user data
Operational sensor. In Earth observation an instrument is said to be operational if the
followingservices are provided: continuity of observations, timeliness of datadelivery tothe
costumer, and several usable data products. A number of environmental/meteorological
missions, like NOAA/POES and GOES, the METEOSAT series, etc., with their major in-
struments (AVHRR, etc.) and services, are considered operational. Routine service pro-
vision and regular use of the data by a user community are key ingredients for operability.
Optical depth. Refers tothe negativelogarithmof the extinction[lnI/I
o
], where I is theradi-
ation intensity at the back plane of the absorbing medium, andI
o
the incident intensity. The
optical depth is the product of the extinction coefficient, the density of the medium, and the
length of the transmitted medium layer (Lambert Beer Law).
On---orbit electric propulsion systems. (see chapter O.12)
Optical spectrum. Refers to electromagnetic radiation of frequency (or wavelength) that
can be focused, dispersed, and detected using optical components such as lenses, mirrors,
and gratings. This includes more than the narrow visible region; in general terminology the
optical spectrum extends from 0.01 to 1000 mm (UV to FIR inclusive).
Optoelectronics.
6041)
The termis a contractionof optical electronics andrefers tothepho-
ton effects (interaction/conversion, transmission) with a mediumand vice versa. Optoelec-
tronics or photonics refers tothe fieldthat combines bothoptics andelectronics intoasingle
device, component, or subsystem. Optoelectronics is one of the foremost research fields af-
fecting many areas of solid---state computer technology [microprocessors, data storage,
communication (photon guidance between a source and a detector, optical fibers for signal
transmission in optical communication, lasers), visual display methods using LEDs (Light
Emitting Diode) and LCDs (Liquid Crystal Display)], energy detection and conversion
[photon conversion into electrical energy (photodetection, photovoltaics), etc.]. Optoelec-
tronics has also a wide filed of applications in imaging sensor design (e.g., vidicons, CCDs,
and diode arrays).
Note: Often the terms electro---optical, electrooptical, and electrooptics are used with the
identical meaning of optoelectronics. From a detection standpoint, the termoptoelectron-
ics seems to be more logical, because a detection sequence goes fromthe optics to the elec-
tronics.
Optoelectronic devices (also photonic devices). Refer to systems in which the photon, the
basic unit of light, is affected. There are four basic groups of optoelectronic devices:
Photodetectors and solar cells --- that convert photons into an electrical current
Light---emitting diodes (LEDs) and semiconductor lasers --- that convert an applied
voltage into emitted photons
Optical waveguides --- that guide light between a light source and a detector
Liquid---crystal displays --- that use an applied voltage to change the reflection of light.
Optoelectronic detection(pushbroomscanner). The scanner uses a line detector toscanthe
cross---track directionof a scene, the total fieldof viewis detected(imaged) simultaneously.
_____________________
6041) Special issue on Optoelectronics Technology, Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 85, No. 11, November 1997
3377
The number of pixels is equal tothe number of groundcells for a givenswath. The motionof
the platform (airborne or spaceborne) provides coverage in the along---track direction.
When a 2---D line detector is used (several lines of detectors in the cross---track direction),
then one dimension(cross---track) represents usually the spatial dimension, while the other
is used for different spectral bands (multispectral imaging). Examples of pushbroomscan-
ners are: HRVon SPOT series of CNES, LISS on the IRS satellite series of ISRO, AVNIR
on the ADEOS S/C of NASDA, MSU on the RESURS series of Russia, ALI of the EO---1
satellite of NASA.
Optomechanical detection (whiskbroom scanner). A form of radiation detection, employ-
ing an oscillating or rotating mirror to a line---scanning whiskbroomscanner. On---axis op-
tics or telescopes withscanmirrors sweepfromone edge of the swathtothe other. The FOV
of thescanner canbe detectedby asingle detector or analong---track line---detector. Typical
examples of optomechanical scanners are: TMand ETM+ of the Landsat series, AVHRR
on the NOAA/POES series, SeaWiFS on Orbview---2 (formerly named SeaStar), ASTER
and MODIS of the Terra satellite.
Laser scanners (i.e. active lidar systems) utilize also optomechanical scanner assemblies
just as many multispectral whiskbroom scanners. However, as active sensing systems, they
are using a laser beam as a sensing carrier. Two optical beams must be considered, namely
the emitted laser beam and the received portion of that beam.
Orbit types and terminology. See chapter O.10.
LEO (Low Earth Orbit)
MEO (Medium Earth Orbit)
GEO (Geostationary Orbit)
HEO (Highly Elliptical Orbit).
The Molniya orbit (invented by Russian engineers in the 1960s) is an example of HEOwith
extremely useful characteristics, specifically of long dwell times over fixedlocations andthe
ability to self---clean or deorbit the satellite at the end of its life to reduce space debris. In
particular, the Molniya orbit has a long dwell time inthe apogee phase. AMolniya orbit has
a period of half a day, which places the apogee over two locations on the Earth each for
about 8 hours a day.
Molniya orbits are inclinedat 63.4. This inclinationis calledthe critical or frozeninclina-
tionbecausethe extragravity pull causedby the Earths bulge at equator is balancedonboth
sides of the orbit. Therefore satellites at this critical inclinationdo not experience the effect
called the rotation of apsides caused by the oblateness of the Earth. The significance is
that the ground track of the satellite will not experience the drift that other elliptical orbits
experience, and the Molniya satellite will reach its apogee over the same two spots of the
Earth each day.
The Tundra orbit is anadaptationof the Molniya orbit, first usedby Sirius Satellite Radioto
provide continuous satellite coverage toNorthAmerica. Likethe Molniya, the Tundraorbit
is inclined at the critical angle of 63.4, but the Tundra orbit has a period equal to one sider-
eal day. Therefore a Tundra satellite has an apogee dwell of about 16 hours over the same
spot every day.
Orbital period. The orbital period is the time a satellite takes to make one complete trip
through its orbit around the Earth. Satellites in LEOrapidly orbit the Earth. Asatellite in a
circular orbit 800 kmabove theEarthhas a periodof just 101 minutes. At that rate, thesatel-
lite will orbit the Earth14 times ina day. --- By increasing the altitude of the orbit, the period
increases. At a distance of 35,786 km, a satellites period is equal to one sidereal day (23
hours, 56 minutes, 4.09 seconds), which is the altitude of GEO or GSO (Geosynchronous
Orbit).
3378
Orographic phenomena. Meteorological events (precipitation, special winds, clouds,
fronts, etc.) associated with the disposition and character of hills and mountain ranges (dis-
tribution effects the linked to the form of the terrestrial relief). Orographic precipitation
results from the lifting of moist air over an orographic barrier; however, it is not limited to
the ascending ground, but may extendfor some distancewindwardof the baseof thebarrier.
Orographic lifting refers to the deflection of an air current up and over mountains. Exam-
ples of orographic winds are: Fhn, Mistral, Bora, Santa Ana.
Orthographic projection. A projection in which the projecting lines are perpendicular to
the plane of projection (also referred to as orthogonal projection).
Orthophotography. A digital orthophoto is a raster image, which has been accurately
scanned and rectified with the aid of geodetic surveying and photogrammetry.
Orthorectification. (orthorectified imagery)
Ozone. A molecule made up of three atoms of oxygen (O
3
). Ozone strongly absorbs UV
radiation in the wavelength range of 290 --- 300 nm. In the stratosphere, it occurs naturally
and provides a protective layer (ozone layer between~12---30 km in which ozone is rela-
tively concentrated >10
12
molecules/cm
3
) shielding the Earth from ultraviolet radiation
andsubsequent harmful healtheffects onhumans andthe environment. Inthetroposphere,
it is a chemical oxidant andmajor component of photochemical smog. Ozone is aneffective
greenhouse gas especially in the middle and upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. ---
The depletion of ozone in polar latitudes is attributed to a sequence of chemical reactions
involving chlorine and bromine compounds. These sources are simple organic compounds
containing chlorine, e.g. chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and/or bromine (e.g. halogens).
Nearly all of the chlorine and about half of the bromine in the stratosphere originates from
human activities.
Paleoclimatology.
6042)
Science which deals with past climate periods of the Earth in very
large space---time scales. Long---termbaselines of past climate changes are studied and re-
constructed to understand climate processes and predict future climate change (climate
models). Paleoclimate data are derived from ice cores, tree rings, marine and lake sedi-
ments, fossil pollen, plant macrofossils, paleovegetation, past sea surface and lake level da-
ta, terrestrial ice sheet height and extent, land surface properties, etc.
Panchromatic band. Abandof a sensor---detector systemwhich covers the entire width of a
spectral range, in particular the visible range (VIS). Panchromatic imagery is grayscale.
Parallax. Apparent change in the position of an object due to an actual change in the point
of view of observation. Example application: In optical stereo observation the parallax be-
tween two images, viewed from different angles, is used to derive the third dimension of
altitude. This topographic information is used for map---making.
Particle precipitation. Refers to the release of charged particles, stored in the Earths mag-
netosphere, into the atmosphere. The particles follow magnetic field lines. They cause a
glow (creating an aurora) when they strike the atoms of the upper atmosphere.
Passive radar. In a passive radar system, there is no dedicated transmitter. Instead, the re-
ceiver uses third---party transmitters in the environment, and measures the time difference
of arrival betweenthe signal arriving directly fromthe transmitter andthesignal arrivingvia
reflection from the object. This allows the bistatic range of the object to be determined. In
addition to bistatic range, a passive radar will typically also measure the bistatic Doppler
shift of the echo and also its direction of arrival. These allow the location, heading and
speed of the object to be calculated. In some cases, multiple transmitters and/or receivers
_____________________
6042) D. M. Anderson, R. S. Webb, J. T. Overpeck, B. A. Bauer, The NOAAPaleoclimatology Program, NOAAEarth
System Monitor, Vol. 3, No. 3, March 1993, pp. 6--- 8
3379
can be employed to make several independent measurements of bistatic range, Doppler
and bearing and hence significantly improve the final track accuracy.
6043)
Passive sensor. A sensing system that detects and measures incoming radiation emitted by
the target. Such sensing systems do not emit any power to the target for purposes of mea-
surement. Hence, passive sensors are sensitive to radiation of natural origin, usually re-
flected sunlight or energy emitted by an object. Examples of passive sensors are: cameras,
multispectral scanners, and radiometers.
Peltier effect coolers. They work on the principle of the thermoelectric effect. Such coolers
are thermodynamically reversible low impedance devices, operating at a high current from
a DCpower supply. Asingle stage cooler cantypically achievea temperatureof ---40 C, and
lower temperatures can be achieved using several stages. A six stage device may achieve
---100 C and give a cooling power of around 1 mW at ---80 C. Peltier coolers are by their
very nature vibration---free.
Perigee. The point in an orbit at which the spacecraft is nearest to the Earth.
Permanent Scatterers (PS):
6044) 6045) 6046) 6047)
PS are radar targets exhibiting stable radar
returns: man---made objects, pipelines, poles, outcrops, rocky areas, acquifier systems, etc.
The PS technique utilizes the coherent radar phase InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic
Aperture Radar) data fromthousands of individual radar reflectors on the ground todevel-
op a displacement time series. The PS analysis technique is being usedto determine minute
surface deformation features caused by various tectonic, geomorphic, and hydrologic pro-
cesses. For instance, the PStechnique may be usedto measure the uplift of a region whichis
due mainly to to sub---mm/yr tectonic upheaval related to slip along and interaction of the
complex array of the San Andreas transform system faults, while seasonally recharging
aquifers account for tens---of---millimeter rise. Observed surface downward motions are
caused by seasonally depleting aquifers. InSAR data from Earth---orbiting spacecraft has
revolutionized the field of crustal deformation research since its first geophysical applica-
tion which started in the early 1990s.
Phase modulation (PM). Angle modulation in which the phase of a sine wave carrier is
causedtodepart fromthe carrier phase by anamount proportional tothe instantaneous val-
ue of the modulating wave.
Phased---array technology. Phased arrays are random---access devices (antennas)
employed for electronic beam---steering applications in the microwave and/or optical re-
gions of the spectrum. The technology of electronic beam---steering overcomes many limi-
tations of mechanical beam steering (in particular the motion of masses), offering such ca-
pabilities as very precise stabilization (<mrad), rapid random---access pointing over a wide
field of regard (inertialess steering of beams), programmable multiple simultaneous
beams, andother capabilities. In anactive phasedarray system(such as a microwave anten-
na) individual transmit elements form and direct a beam into a particular direction (2---D
steering). The field intensity across the aperture of an active microwave array is generally
tapered at the edges to achieve low sidelobe levels. In some radar (SAR) applications the
phasedarray concept is alsoreferredtoas ScanSARwiththecapability toextendtheregular
swath width (see also phased---array antenna under antenna).
_____________________
6043) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_radar
6044) D. Massonnet, M. Rossi, C. Carmona,F.Adragna, G.Peltzer, K.Feigl, T.Rabaute, The displacement field of the
Landers earthquake mapped by radar interferometry, Nature, Vol.364, 1993, pp. 138--- 142.
6045) D. Massonnet, K. L. Feigl, Radar interferometry and its application to changes in the Earths surface, Reviews
of .Geophysics, Vol. 36, No 4, 1998, pp. 441--- 500.
6046) C. Colesanti, A..Ferretti, F..Novali, C. Prati, F.Rocca, SARmonitoringof progressive andseasonal grounddeform-
ation using the permanent scatterers technique, IEEETransactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. 41,
No 7, July 2003, pp. 1685--- 1701.
6047) A. Ferretti, Key drivers for InSARapplications: the Italiancase study, EOBN2008 (Earth ObservationBusiness
Network), May 13--- 14, 2008, Richmond, BC, Canada
3380
Photodetector. Asemiconductor device that transforms radiation (photons) into an electri-
cal signal. There are two basic types of photodetectors: photodiodes and photoconductors.
Photodiode. Refers to a semiconductor diode which receives incident radiation thereby be-
coming a photodetector. Principle of operation: Photons (energy) incident on the photo-
diode (p---n junction) form electron---hole pairs in the detector material (silicon, for
instance) when they are absorbed. Manipulation of the electron---hole pairs produce an
output signal proportional to the amount of energy received. The time---varying signal rep-
resents the total amount of energy it receives. Animportant measure of howwell the device
converts photons to electrons is the quantum efficiency (QE). --- Silicon is virtually trans-
parent to radiation in the IR range. However, in the UV and VNIR range (0.2 --- 1.1 mm),
radiation has enough energy (i.e. photon absorption can take place) to create electron---
hole pairs. There areseveral kinds of semiconductor photodiodes; they all workonthesame
principle which is based on photoconductivity.
Photoelectric cell (or photocell). A detector (transducer) which converts electromagnetic
radiation fromthe UV, VNIRregions of the spectrumintoelectrical quantities such as volt-
age, current, or resistance.
Photogrammetry. Alarge field in remote sensing applications using image surveys (initially
photographs) fromairborne sensors and producing (topographic) maps from these images
(along with position data). Photogrammetry employs photographs (or digital imagery
today) to obtain projection measurements. In 1759, Johann Heinrich Lambert
(1728---1777), in a treatise Perspectiva Liber (the free perspective or treatise on perspec-
tive), developed the first mathematical principles of a perspective image using space resec-
tion to find a point in space from which a picture is made. The history of photogrammetry,
from around 1850, has experienced four distinct development cycles:
Planetablephotogrammetry, fromabout 1850 to1900. In1849, theFrencharmy officer
Aim Laussedat (1819---1907) was the first person to use terrestrial photographs for topo-
graphic map compilation. He is referred to as the father of photogrammetry. The process
Laussedat used was called iconometry [icon (Greek) meaning image, ---metry (Greek)
which is the art, process, or science of measuring].
Analog photogrammetry, from about 1900 to 1960. In Canada, Edouard Deville
(1849---1924) invented the first stereoscopic plotting instrument, the StereoPlanigraph, in
1896. In 1901, Carl Pulfrich (1858---1927) of Carl Zeiss, Jena, designed the first stereocom-
parator employing x andy coordinates, the first photogrammetric instrument manufactured
by Zeiss. Carl Pulfrich developed also the first photogrammetric balloon---borne camera in
1910. Later, aerial survey techniques became a standard procedure in mapping.
Analytical photogrammetry, from about 1960. This field is closely associated with the
development of the computer age and its computational capabilities (coordinate trans-
formations, mapping, etc.). An important development was the first analytical plotter with
servocontrol, designed in 1957 by U. V. Helava (1923---1994, born in Finland) at the NRC
(National Research Council) in Canada. The first operational photo triangulationprogram
became available in the late 1960s. The data processing capabilities permittedalso the gen-
eration of the first DEMs (Digital Elevation Models).
Digital photogrammetry, fromabout the 1990s onwards. The information technology,
in particular the fields of GIS (Geographic Information System) and CAD (Computer
Aided Design), have greatly contributed to the development of digital photogrammetry.
The main idea of this concept is to use digital images, scan the model area with a 3---D
floating mark with sub---pixel accuracy. Then use a digital workstation to compile the re-
quiredfeatures toformanintelligent descriptionfor aninformationsystemsuchas GISand
CADsystems. One of the very promising applications within such an integrated raster/vec-
tor environment, is the ability of using multi ---temporal change analysis to update raster/
3381
vector basedGISdata. --- First applications of this newtechniqueof digital photogrammetry
suchas digital orthophoto, monoscopic maprevision, autodigital elevationmodels (DEM),
and AAT (Automatic Aerial Triangulation) are already operational at the turn of the 21st
century, and the system development in other areas such as feature extraction is emerging.
6048)
Background: The term photogrammetry was first coined and published in 1893 by the
Germanarchitect Albrecht Meydenbauer (1834---1921). In1858, he had the idea toreplace
the conventional reconstruction survey of historical buildings and monuments (perspective
rectificationplots) by using photography geometry for cultural heritage preservation(the
measurement principle used ray---tracing in photographs to obtain metric images). In1885,
the Royal Prussian Archive of Monuments (Kniglich Preuische Mebildanstalt) was
founded in Berlin with Meydenbauer as its first director.
6049)
The ASPRS definition is: Photogrammetry is the art, science and technology of obtaining
reliable information about physical objects and the environment through processes of re-
cording, measuring, and interpreting photographic images and patterns of electromagnetic
radiant energy and other phenomena.
6050)
In the past, spaceborne imagery was not (or hardly) used for map making due toinsufficient
spatial resolution; this certainly changed with the availability of high---resolution imagery
(<3m) starting from about 1998. Spatial imagery resolutions from satellites are classified
as:
Very low: for pixel sizes greater than or equal to 300 m
Low: for pixel sizes between greater than or equal to 30 m and < 300 m
Medium: for pixel sizes between greater than or equal to 3 m and <30 m
High: for pixel sizes between greater than or equal to 0.5 m and <3 m
Very high: for pixel sizes <0.5 m
Photomultiplier. Aphotoemissive detector in whichamplification is obtained by secondary
emission.
Photon. Aparticle description of electromagnetic radiation, which canexhibit the behavior
of either waves or particles.
Photon---counting techniques. Ina detector witha gainof the order of 10
6
to10
8
andapulse
response width of the order of 1 ns, each detected photon yields an output current pulse of
some mApeak amplitude. The output signal for a low level signal is then a train of random
pulses the density of which represents the light intensity. Therefore, counting the detector
pulses within defined time intervals --- i.e. photon counting --- is the most efficient way to
record the light intensity with a high gain detector.
6051) 6052)
Several techniques of photon---counting are in use:
Steady state photon counting
Gated photon counting
Multichannel scalars
_____________________
6048) M. Madani, Importance of Digital Photogrammetry for a complete GIS, 5th Global Spatial Data Infrastructure
Conference, Cartagena, Columbia, May 21--- 25, 2001
6049) K. Schwidefsky, Albrecht Meydenbauer --- Initiator der Photogrammetrie in Deutschland. Bildmessung und
Luftbildwesen Vol. 39, No 5, pp. 183--- 189, 1971
6050) E. M. Mikhail, Is Photogrammetry still Relevant?, PE&RS, Vol. 65, No 7, July 1999, pp. 740--- 751
6051) Photomultiplier Tube, Hamamatsu Photonics, 1994
6052) W. Becker, A. Bergmann, Detectors for High--- SpeedPhoton Counting, http://www.becker--- hickl.de/pdf/spcde-
tect1.pdf
3382
TCSPC (Time---Correlated Single Photon Counting)
Multi ---detector TCSPC
Photon counting for fluorescence correlation spectroscopy
The most common detectors for low level detection of light are PMT (Photomultiplier
Tubes). A similar gain effect as in the conventional PMTs is achieved in the MCP (Micro-
channel Plate) detector. Infact, the MCPdevice is the fastest photoncounting detector cur-
rently available. Moreover, the MCP technique allows to build position---sensitive detec-
tors and image intensifiers.
Photonics is the science of generating and harnessing light as well as other forms of radiant
energy whose quantumunit is the photon. Light can transmit, distribute and process digital
information quickly and in high volumes. Moreover, it plays an important role for precise
measurement, fine processing and diagnosis by interacting with various materials or media.
Photonics is a field of intensive research by many institutions. At the start of the 21st centu-
ry, photonics has become an enabling technology in many fields such as in: metrology, re-
mote sensing, communications, networking, computer science, and medicine. --- Photonic
devices and components include: optocouplers, LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes), laser
diodes, optical fibers, modulators, detectors, fiber optic links and accompanying condition-
ing devices.
The optical fiber, being a physical medium, is subjected to perturbation of one kind or the
other at all times. It therefore experiences geometrical (size, shape) and optical (refractive
index, mode conversion) changes toa larger or lesser extent depending uponthe nature and
the magnitude of the perturbation. In communication applications one tries to minimize
such effects so that signal transmission and reception is reliable. On the other hand in fiber
optic sensing, the response to external influence is deliberately enhanced so that the result-
ing change in optical radiation can be used as a measure of the external perturbation.
Incommunication, the signal passing througha fiber is already modulated, while insensing,
the fiber acts as a modulator. It also serves as a transducer and converts measurands like
temperature, stress, strain, rotation or electric and magnetic currents into a corresponding
change in the optical radiation. Since light is characterized by amplitude (intensity), phase,
frequency and polarization, any one or more of these parameters may undergo a change.
The usefulness of the fiber optic sensor therefore depends upon the magnitude of this
change and our ability to measure and quantify the same reliably and accurately.
Photonic technologies in the form of fiber optics, integrated optics and micro---photonics
have some unique properties as shown in the following summary:
6053) 6054) 6055)
--- Practically limitless bandwidth(BW) as fiber optics offer anexploitablecapacity of sev-
eral THz at the band around 1550 nm
--- Practically lossless propagation in an optical fiber within a spacecraft
--- Transparency to any modulation/coding format
--- They are immune to EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) and do not induce EMI;
ideal for the microwave environment
--- Are light weight, low volume
_____________________
6053) Nikos Karafolas, Josep Maria Perdigues Armengol, Iain Mckenzie, Introducing Photonics in Spacecraft Engin-
eering: ESAs Strategic Approach, Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE Aerospace Conference, Big Sky, MT, USA,
March 7--- 14, 2009
6054) http://www.sensorland.com/HowPage072.html
6055) Fibre Optic Sensor for Measuringthe Distributionof Temperature, StrainandVibration, URL: http://www.tech-
nology--- forum.com/fileadmin/technologies/1201716316_1069.pdf
3383
--- Are mechanically flexible
--- An electrically passive sensor with ideal galvanic isolation (no arc---over).
These properties are especially desired in S/C engineering due to the special conditions in
technical and economic terms on building and operating a S/C. The importance of each of
these properties varies depending on the specifics of each mission.
Photonic communications: Satellite payloads either in the form of a telecommunica-
tion repeater or a scientific instrument, especially in Earth observation satellites, handle or
produce Gbit/s of data. --- The most advanced payload scenarios for future telecommunica-
tion satellites are used as a reference for the development of high speed photonic links. It is
anticipated that such satellites will handle up to200 spot beams, eachbeamwith0.5 GHz to
1 GHz BW. Sampling 1 GHz BWin the Nyquist rate with 10 bit/sample plus extra coding for
the transmission results in a raw data stream of 25 Gbps and a total throughput from the
ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) to the DSP (Digital Signal Processor) of 5 Tbit/s.
BFN (Beam Forming Network): BFNs are employed to create the desired antenna
beam pattern. As modern satellite designs call for intense frequency re---use through mul-
tiple spotbeams, BFNs acquire a significant role. The challenge for photonics is to provide
the BFN functionality by a very small form BFN fabric based on microphotonic technolo-
gies.
Photonic sensing: The newFOS(Fiber Optic Sensor) applications exhibit some unique
characteristics that make themvery suitable for spacecraft applications. These are primar-
ily their capability:
--- to multiplex a large number of sensors along a single optical fiber
--- to perform sensing of different physical/chemical parameters along the same fiber
--- to permit embedding and integration in structures during their manufacturing
--- tooperateinintenseEMI environments where other sensors wouldnot beable tooper-
ate with the required performance
--- To provide redundancy by being interrogated at either end of the fiber in the case of a
multiplexed line of FBG (Fiber Bragg Grating) sensors.
The first spaceborne demonstration of the FOS technology is being demonstrated on the
PROBE---2 minisatellite of ESA (launch planned for 2009).
Photosphere. Refers tothe layer surrounding the sunfromwhichvisible light is emittedinto
space.
Photosynthesis. The conversion of inorganic matter into organic matter by plants, using
light as the energy source. Light energy absorbedby chlorophyll is usedto manufacture car-
bohydrates (sugars) andoxygenfromcarbondioxide (CO
2
) andwater. Photosynthesis is de-
pendent upon favorable sunlight, temperatures, plant nutrients, and additionally, on soil
moisture and carbon dioxide concentration for terrestrial plants. Increased atmospheric
levels of carbon dioxide can increase photosynthesis in many land plants. Photosynthesis is
responsible for the generation of all atmospheric oxygen. The photosynthetic generation of
organic matter is also called primary production.
Photovoltaic effect, photoconductive effect. Refers to the direct conversion of solar radi-
ation into electrical energy. The photovoltaic effect is achieved when a photon---produced
electron---hole pair is separated by a space charge field (p---n junction diode) thus produc-
ing a photocurrent. Solar cells are photovoltaic devices. The photovoltaic effect was first
reported by the French scientist Alexandre Edmond Becquerel (1820---1891) in 1839. He
observed a voltage between two electrodes in a beaker of electrolyte when the beaker was
3384
exposed to sunlight. --- The photoconductive effect occurs when a bias voltage is applied
across a uniform piece of detector material. The photocurrent is then proportional to the
density of electrons excited into the conduction band by the incoming photons.
Phytoplankton. The assemblage of microscopic algae (diatoms, flagellates, etc.) in aquatic
ecosystems that drift passively with currents (plankton = wandering). The grass of the
sea, upon which virtually all marine life depends (see also chlorophyll). The phytoplankton
of the oceans plays a major role in pulling CO
2
out of the atmosphere. The phytoplankton
uses the energy of the sunlight to split water molecules into atoms of hydrogen and oxygen.
In the process, the oxygen is liberated as a waste product and makes possible all animal life
on Earth, including our own. The Earths cycle of carbon (and, to a large extent, its climate)
depends on photosynthetic organisms using the hydrogen to help convert the inorganic car-
bon in CO
2
into organic matter (the conversion of CO
2
into organic matter is also referred
toas primary production). Phytoplanktondrawnearly as much CO
2
out of the oceans and
atmosphere as all land plants do.
6056)
Piezoelectricity is the charge which accumulates in certain solid materials (notably crystals,
certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA and various proteins) in re-
sponse to applied mechanical strain. The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting
from pressure. It is derived from the Greek piezo or piezein, which means to squeeze or
press, andelectric or electron, whichstands for amber anancient sourceof electric charge.
Piezoelectricity is the direct result of the piezoelectric effect.
6057)
The piezoelectric effect is voltage generationas a result of externally input forces or materi-
al deformation. This effect is usually exploited in sensor applications. In contrast, the con-
verse piezoelectric effect generates forces anddeforms materials as a result of input electric
charges or voltages. This effect is often exploited in transducer applications.
6058)
Pitch. Withregardtodetector technology, pitch refers to the distance betweenthe center of
two adjacent pixels in an array.
Pixel (Picture Element). The smallest area unit of an image which is generated by a single
digital measurement (see also image). A pixel is a single cell in the grid of a bitmapped
image. A rectangular collection of pixels is said to be a raster image and is used to encode
digital video. Each pixel has a unique position within an image. Its numerical value is taken
artificially from complete or partial resolution cells, sometimes also referred to as image
point.
_____________________
6056) P. G. Falkowski, The Oceans Invisible Forest, Scientific American, Aug. 2002, pp. 38--- 45
6057) Piezoelectricity, URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectricity
6058) Kanjuro Makihara, Shinsuke Takeuchi, Shigeru Shimose, Junjiro Onoda, Kenji Minesugi, Digital Self--- powered
Semi--- active Unit for AdvancedEnergy--- recycling VibrationSuppression, Proceedings of the 61
st
IAC(Interna-
tional Astronautical Congress), Prague, Czech Republic, Sept. 27--- Oct. 1, 2010, IAC--- 10.C2.5.6
3385
Figure 1461: Illustration of a hybrid infrared detector architecture
Pixel size. Refers to the dimension of one detector pixel of an array. The pixel size is a tech-
nical parameter that relates to resolution, process feature dimensions and pixel architec-
ture. For a given die size, a high resolution requires a small pixel. Smaller pixels, however,
imply less detector areafor in---pixel processing elements (hence reducedSNRandreduced
sensitivity). In the case of infrared radiation it means also smaller Indium---bumps for con-
tact between the IR sensor and the CMOS read---out. Large pixels have in general good
SNR and sensitivity but suffer from aliasing.
Amatureinterconnect techniquefor aninfrareddetector array is showninFigures 1461and
1462.
Figure 1462: Cross--- section of a HgCdTe FPA (Focal Plane Assembly) with the substrate removed
Pixel value. The digital radiation value of a pixel, expressed as a digital number (DN) or
digital count (DC), radiance value, reflectance or other radiation value.
3386
Planetary albedo. The fraction of incident solar radiation that is reflected by a planet and
returned to space. The planetary albedo of the Earth---atmosphere systemis approximately
30%, most of which is due to backscatter from clouds in the atmosphere.
Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL). Defined as the atmosphere between the Earths surface
and the free atmosphere. It is directly affected by the properties of the Earths surface and
surface forcings, such as frictional drag, evapotranspiration, heat transfer, pollutant emis-
sion, and topography. See also Atmospheric Boundary Layer.
Planetshine. The phenomenon known as planetshine occurs when reflected sunlight
from a planet illuminates the night side of one of its moons. Typically, this results in the
moons night side being bathed in a soft, faint light. The best known example of planetshine
is Earthshine, which can be seen fromEarth when the Moon is a thin crescent. Planetshine
has been observed elsewhere in the solar system: in particular, it has recently been used by
the Cassini space probe to image portions of the moons of Saturn even when they are not lit
by the Sun.
Figure 1463: Schematic view of the Earthshine diagram (image credit: NASA)
Leonardo Da Vinci explained the phenomenon nearly 500 years ago. He realized that both
Earth and the Moon reflect sunlight. But when the Sun sets anywhere on the Earth---facing
side of the Moon(this happens every 29.5Earth---days) thelandscape remains lit illumin-
ated by sunlight reflected from our own planet. Astronomers call it Earthshine. Its also
known as the Moons ashen glow or the old Moon in the New Moons arms.
6059)
In more recent observations made with ESOs VLT (Very Large Telescope) in Chile, the
presence of oceans, clouds, atmospheric gases and even plants could be detected in the re-
flected Earthshine. --- The breakthrough method was the use of spectropolarimetry, which
measures polarized light reflected from Earth. Like polarized sunglasses are able to filter
out reflected glare to allow you to see clearer, spectropolarimetry can focus on light reflec-
ted off a planet, allowing scientists to more clearly identify important biological signatures.
6060)
By observing the Moon using ESOs VLT, astronomers have found evidence of life in the
Universe on Earth. Finding life on our home planet may sound like a trivial observation,
but the novel approach of an international team may lead to future discoveries of life else-
where in the Universe.
6061) 6062)
_____________________
6059) Earthshine, NASA, April 12, 2002, URL: http://science.nasa.gov/science--- news/science--- at--- nasa/2002/
12apr_earthshine/
6060) VLT Rediscovers Life on Earth, ESO, Feb. 29, 2012, URL: http://www.eso.org/public/news/eso1210/
6061) Michael F. Sterzik, Stefano Bagnulo, Enric Palle, The Earth as a benchmark: spectropolarimetry unveils strong
biosignatures, URL: http://www.eso.org/public/archives/releases/sciencepapers/eso1210/eso1210.pdf
6062) Michael F. Sterzik, StefanoBagnulo, Enric Palle, Biosignatures as revealedby spectropolarimetry of Earthshine,
Nature, Vol. 483, pp. 64--- 66, March 1, 2012, doi:10.1038/nature10778
3387
Figure 1464: Earthshine scenario: Spectropolarimetry unveils strong biosignatures (image credit: ESO)
Plasma. Acompletely ionized gas (a low---density gas), the so---called fourthstate of matter
(besides solid, liquid, andgas) inwhichthe temperatureis toohighfor atoms as suchtoexist.
Aplasma is anelectrically neutral gas consisting of chargedparticles suchas ions, electrons,
and neutrals. While the temperature of a plasma is very high, its density is very low.
Plasmoid. Bubble of plasma. Refers to the merging of magnetic lines in the magnetotail
which is thought to produce a bubble of plasma, called a plasmoid that flows down the tail
during active solar periods.
Pod systemAfixture (a foot---like part, a socket, a brace) to fasten something to. Example:
an antenna may be mounted in a pod attachedunder the fuselage of an aircraft Apodstruc-
ture may alsoprovide the functions of aservice provider. Podservices may includeelectrical
power, cooling, and control systems which differ in concept and detail from pod to pod.
In this context: Ahexapod is a six---legged structure or a platformsupported by six struts. At
the start of the 21st century, such structural concepts are gaining increasing attention in the
field of inflatable structures in space (deployable telescopes, large antenna reflectors,
etc.). The goal is to obtain large effective apertures for high---resolution observation func-
tions.
Polarimetry.
6063)
Polarimetry deals with the vector nature of polarized electromagnetic
radiation throughout the frequency spectrum. The electromagnetic field is a traveling wave
(at the velocity of light) withelectric andmagnetic vector fields perpendicular to eachother
andtothe directionof wave travel. Achange inthe index of refraction(or permittivity, mag-
netic permeability, and conductivity) causes the polarization state of a single frequency
wave to be transformed, i.e. to be repolarized. Hence, a reflected (scattered) polarized
wave froman object such as a radar target must contain some innate information about the
object. The interpretation of the behavior of these complex signatures (in particular the di-
rection of the electric field vector of the reflected polarized radiation) is in effect a major
_____________________
6063) W--- M. Boerner, H. Mott, E. Lneburg, et al., Polarimetry in Remote Sensing: Basic and Applied Concepts,
Chapter 5 (94 p) inR. A. Reyerson, ed., The Manual of Remote Sensing, 3rdedition, ASPRSPublishing, Bethesda,
MD, 1997
3388
objective in polarimetry. In remote sensing polarization measurements are mostly per-
formed in the microwave region of the spectrum. The incorporation of coherent polarimet-
ric phase and amplitude into radar signal and image processing is indeed very promising.
Polarization. Defines the spatial orientation or alignment of the electric (and magnetic)
fields of an electromagnetic wave (radiated by an antenna). Horizontal (H) / vertical (V)
polarization refers to the electric field (magnetic field) vectors being parallel / normal to
the surface of the medium that the wave is incident upon.
Like polarization: HH or VV(one component for the transmit and one for the receive
signal, as is the case for active sensors)
Cross polarization: HV or VH. Cross polarization requires multiple scattering by the
target and therefore results in weaker backscatter than like polarization.
Alternating dual polarization: alternate transmit and/or receive polarization so that
two polarization combinations are measured --- e.g. HH and HV or HH and VV.
Polarizationis establishedby the antenna, whichmay be adjustedtobedifferent ontransmit
and on receive. Reflectivity of microwaves from an object depends on the relationship be-
tween the polarization state and the geometric structure of the object. Possible states of po-
larizationinadditiontovertical andhorizontal include all angular orientations of the Evec-
tor, and time varying orientations leading to elliptical and circular polarizations.
Polarization knowledge offers an additional capability in detecting object characteristics
and in discriminating between them, especially in the microwave region of the electromag-
netic spectrum (for passive and active sensors). See also Radar polarimeter.
Although VV, HH, VH, HV are common terms in polarimetric radar, the generally ac-
cepted terms differ in polarimetric radiometry. Here, the four scalar brightness tempera-
tures are usedthat make upthe complete (modified) Stokes vector: T
v
=|E
v
|
2
, T
h
=|E
h
|
2
,
T
U
=2Re (T
v
T
h
*}, and T
V
=2Im(T
v
T
h
*}.
6064)
The modified Stokes vector is related tothe
(unmodified) Stokes vector as follows: T
1
=(T
v
+T
h
)/2, T
2
=(T
v
---T
h
)/2. Some authors use
T
3
and T
4
in place of T
U
and T
V
to eliminate confusion between the vertical (v) and fourth
Stokes parameter (V) indices.
Polar vortex. Refers tothe swirling mass of air that appears eachyear over the Earths poles.
Polynya. Polynyas (like leads) are openings in polar region sea ice, they range in size froma
few hundred meters to hundreds of kilometers. Polynyas may be formed by two mecha-
nisms: a) forming ice may be continually removed by winds or currents (an example is a
shore polynya with offshore winds), b) oceanic heat may enter the regionin sufficient quan-
tity to prevent local ice formation.
Precision. The precision of a measurement is a measure of the reproducibility or consisten-
cy of measurements made with the same sensor. (The effect of random errors can be re-
duced by repeated measurement or by averaging, which increases the precision of a mea-
surement).
Preprocessing. Commonly used to describe the correction and processing of sensor data
prior to information extraction. For imaging data preprocessing includes geometric and ra-
diometric correction, mosaicking, resampling, reformatting, etc.
Primary productivity. Therate of carbonfixationby marinephotosynthetic organisms (phy-
toplankton). Primary productivity results in the reduction of dissolved inorganic carbon to
form organic carbon, with concomitant release of oxygen.
_____________________
6064) Courtesy of Al Gasiewski of NOAA/ETL in Boulder, CO
3389
Pseudolites. Refer to auxiliary ground---based transmitters that broadcast GPS---like sig-
nals to supplement those generated by the satellites.
6065) 6066)
The transmitters were ini-
tially called pseudo---satellites, which was abbreviated to pseudolites. Systemdevelop-
ers used pseudolites as direct replacement for satellites that had not yet been launched, to
facilitate system tests. A pseudolite transmits a signal with code---phase, carrier---phase,
and data components with the same timing as the satellite signals. AGPS receiver acquires
this signal and derives its measurements to be used in a navigation algorithm. Applications
are particularly useful for equipment (receiver) tests for such functions as fault detection
and isolation, for pseudorange correction (identical to DGPS), and many other practical
solutions.
Pseudorandom Noise (PRN). Refers to deterministic binary sequences which are used in
spread spectrum communication systems and in ranging systems such as GPS and GLO-
NASS. Two PRNcodes are continuously broadcast by GPS satellites: the C/Acode and the
P---code, both codes modulate the navigation signals. The modulation appears to be ran-
dombut is, infact, predictable; hence the termpseudorandom. The PRNtechnique allows
the use of a single frequency by all GPS satellites and also permits a broadcast of a low---
power signal. [Note: The PRNtechnology was first employed in the 1950s by radio astrono-
mers. With themresearchers were able to measure the time delay in the weak radar reflec-
tions fromthe surface of a distant planet --- by finding the instant, when the received signals
and the transmitted PRN sequences seemed to match most closely.]
6067)
Pseudorange. Refers to the range between the antenna phase centers of a GPS satellite and
a receiver, measured by the receivers delay---lock loop using the C/A---code or P---code.
The range is biased by the offset of the clock in the receiver fromthat in the satellite and by
atmospheric propagation delays.
Pulsar. Pulsars are (rotating) neutron stars which emit regular short bursts of detectable
electromagnetic radiation in the formof radio waves. These short bursts of radio waves are
so regular, that they were originally thought to be signals fromlittle green men! --- Neutron
stars are the remnants of massive stars that have reached the end of their lives. As they ro-
tate they pulse andsendout a signal inthe X---ray bandat a regular rate: 30times asecond
is typical. The potential of these stable and periodic signals from pulsars was recognized
very early by several researchers to provide a high quality celestial clock. In fact, they are
considered a celestial time standard.
The first pulsar (or pulsating star) was discovered in 1967, by Susan Jocelyn Bell (a post-
graduate student) and Antony Hewish (thesis supervisor) of the University of Cambridge,
UK. While using a radio array to study the scintillation of quasars, they found a very regular
signal, consisting of pulses of radiation at a rate of one in every few seconds.
6068)
The 1974 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Antony Hewish and Martin Ryle, without
the inclusion of S. J. Bell as a co---recipient.
6069) 6070)
The clocks in question are actually millisecond pulsars sun---massed stars of ultra---
dense matter that spinhundreds of times per second. Due totheir powerful magnetic fields,
_____________________
6065) S. Cobb, M. OConnor, Pseudolites: Enhancing GPS with Ground--- based Transmitters, GPS World, March
1998, pp. 55--- 60
6066) J. M. Stone, et al., GPS Pseudolite Transceivers and their Applications, Proceedings of ION National Technical
Meeting, San Diego, CA, Jan. 25--- 27, 1999
6067) T. A. Herring, The Global Positioning System, Scientific American, Feb. 1996, pp. 32--- 38
6068) A. Hewish, S. J. Bell, J. D. Pilkington, P. F. Scott, R. A. Collins, Observation of a Rapidly Pulsating RadioSource,
Nature, Vol. 217, Feb. 1968 p. 709
6069) S. I. Sheikh, The Use of Variable Celestial X--- Ray Sources for Spacecraft Navigation, 2005 (Ph.D. dissertation
at the University of Maryland), URL: https://drum.umd.edu/dspace/bitstream/1903/2856/1/umi--- umd--- 2856.pdf
6070) J. Sala, A. Urruela, X. Villares, R. Estalella, J. Paredes Feasibility study for a spacecraft navigation systemrelying
on pulsar timing information, ESA ACT (Advanced Concepts Team) Ariadna Study, 03/4202, June 23, 2004,
URL: http://www.esa.int/gsp/ACT/doc/ARI/ARI%20Study%20Report/ACT--- RPT--- MAD---
ARI--- 03--- 4202--- Pulsar%20Navigation--- UPC.pdf
3390
pulsars emit most of their radiation in tightly focused beams, much like a lighthouse. Each
spin of the pulsar corresponds to a pulse of radiation detectable from Earth. The rate at
which millisecond pulsars pulse is extremely stable, so they serve as some of the most reli-
able clocks in the universe.
6071) 6072) 6073) 6074)
Observational data fromnine pulsars, including the Crab pulsar, suggest these rapidly spin-
ning neutron stars emit the electromagnetic equivalent of a sonic boom, and a model cre-
atedtounderstand this phenomenon shows that the source of the emissions could be travel-
ingfaster thanthespeedof light. Pulsars emit amazingly regular, short bursts of radiowaves.
Within the emissions fromthe pulses, the circulating polarization currents move in a circu-
lar orbit, andits emittedradiationis analogous tothat of electronsynchrotronfacilities used
to produce radiation fromthe far---infrared to X---ray for experiments in biology and other
subjects. In other words, the pulsar is a very broadband source of radiation.
6075)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM). Any modulation that involves a code made up of pulses to
represent binary information. This is a generic term; additional specificationis requiredfor
describing particular cases.
Quasar (Quasi---stellar object). Refers to the brightest known objects (similar to galaxies)
in the universe which emit massive amounts of electromagnetic energy, including light,
which shows a very high redshift (a high redshift implies distance). In an optical telescope,
quasars appear point---like, similar to stars, from which they derive their name (quasar =
quasi ---stellar radio source) since this type of object was first identified as a kind of radio
source. Although they were a mystery for many years, astronomers nowbelieve they are the
bright radiation from matter clogging up around an actively feeding supermassive black
hole.
The discovery of quasars goes back to the late 1950s when several radio sources were
matched with very dim optical objects that looked like stars, but had strange spectra with a
lot of ultraviolet radiation. One of them, 3C273 (catalog name), had its position very accu-
rately measured by Cyril Hazard and co---workers, using lunar occultations. In 1962, Maar-
ten Schmidt obtained a spectrum of this star, which showed a redshift of 0.158. The dis-
covery showedthat 3C273 was recedingat arate of 47,000 km/s. This was whenQSO(Quasi
Stellar Object) was coined, becausethis was a very distant object that was masquerading as a
star, a quasi ---stellar object.
6076)
In the early 21st century, more than 100,000 quasars are known. All observed spectra have
shown considerable redshifts, ranging from0.06 to the recent maximumof 6.4 (correspond-
ing to distances of 780 million to 13 billion light years, respectively). Quasars can be ob-
served in many parts of the electromagnetic spectrumincluding radio, infrared, optical, ul-
traviolet, X---ray, and even in the gamma---ray spectrum. Most quasars are brightest in the
UV spectrum, near the 121.6 nm Lyman---alpha emission line of hydrogen.
Quasars are thought to be the result of a supermassive black hole at the center of a galaxy
attempting to swallowup all of the matter that surrounds it. As the matter bunches upwhen
it gets closer to the black hole, it heats up due to friction and begins to emit light across the
electromagnetic spectrum. The light from a quasar can outshine an entire galaxy of stars,
_____________________
6071) J. Sala, A. Urruela, X. Villares, J. Romeu, S. Blanch, R. Estalella, J. M. Paredes, Pulsar Navigation, Jan. 14, 2008,
URL: http://www.am.ub.es/~robert/preprints/pulsar_navigation_ACTw_def.pdf
6072) J. Hanson, S. Sheikh, P. Graven, Noise Analysis for X--- ray Navigation Systems, IEE/ION PLANS (Position
LocationandNavigationSymposium), Monterey, CA, USA, May 5--- 8, 2008, URL: http://www.asterlabs.com/pub-
lications/2008/Hanson_et_al,_IEEE--- ION_PLANS_May_2008.pdf
6073) New Pulsar Clocks Will Aid Gravitational Wave Detection, Universe Today, January 5, 2010, URL: ht-
tp://www.universetoday.com/2010/01/05/new--- pulsar--- clocks--- will--- aid--- gravitational--- wave--- detection/
6074) Faster--- Than--- Light PolarizationCurrents,Space Daily, Jan. 6, 2010, URL: http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/
Faster_Than_Light_Polarization_Currents_999.html
6075) Faster--- Than--- Light Pulsar Phenomena, Universe Today, Jan. 6, 2010, URL: http://www.universetoday.-
com/2010/01/06/faster--- than--- light--- pulsar--- phenomena/
6076) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar#History_of_quasar_observation
3391
making it difficult to separate the light from a background galaxy from the overwhelming
glare of the quasar itself.
In 2010, a quasar (quasi ---stellar object) has been shown to gravitationally lens a galaxy be-
hindit. About a hundredinstances of gravitational lenses that consist of a foregroundgalaxy
and a background quasar have been found, but this is the very first time where the opposite
is thecase; that is, aquasar bendingthe light fromabackground galaxyaround it to createa
multiple image of that galaxy. The discovery was made by astronomers fromEPFLs Labor-
atory of Astrophysics incooperationwithCaltechusing data fromthe SloanDigital Sky Sur-
vey (SDSS). The Quasar is referred to as QSO: SDSS J0013+1523 at z = 0.120. SDSS
J0013+1523 lies about 1.6 billion light years away, and is lensing a galaxy that is about 7.5
billion light years away from Earth.
6077)
Quasi---optics (QO). QOrefers toinstruments collecting imagery inthe MMW(Millimeter
Wave, 10 mmto 1 mm, equivalent to 30---300 GHz) andthe sub---mmw( 1mmto 0.1 mm,
equivalent to300---3000 GHz) range of thespectrum. Althoughwe thinkof optical systems
as being relevant only at visible and near---visible wavelengths, it turns out that the optical
and free space beammethods can be used over a much wider range namely frombelow
mmw to the sub---mmw region. As a result, signals over most of the mmw to FIR (Far In-
frared region can be processed using instruments which employ optical beams in the same
way as we might use metal wires or waveguides at lower frequencies.
In general we wish practical systems to be as compact as possible without compromising the
performance.
6078) 6079)
The beams used therefore cant have an enormous cross---sectional
width compared with the wavelength. This means that techniques basedon GaussianBeam
Mode analysis are often the most appropriate to take diffraction effects into account. Com-
pact systems of this type are often calledquasi---optical toindicate that their basic elements
are optical, but a beammode approach is used to take the effects of finite wavelength into
account.
Quantization. The process of converting continuous values of information to a finite num-
ber of discrete values. A 10 bit quantization means that the measured signal can be repre-
sented by a total of 1024 digital values, say from 0 to 1023.
Quantum Dot (QD). QDs are nanoscale semiconductors that have unique fluorescent
properties that allow improved efficiency to be approached from spectrum conversion ---
they can be used to convert the solar spectrum into spectral content that more closely
matches the most efficient wavelengths for photovoltaic conversion of a given device.
6080)
A quantum dot has a discrete quantized energy spectrum. The corresponding wave func-
tions are spatially localized within the quantum dot, but extend over many periods of the
crystal lattice. A quantum dot contains a small integer number (of the order of 1---100) of
conduction band electrons, valence band holes, or excitons, i.e., an integer number of ele-
mentary electric charges.
Quantumefficiency (QE). Ameasure of the efficiency with which incident photons are de-
tected(suchas aphotodiode). Someincident photons may not be absorbeddue toreflection
or may be absorbedwherethe electrons cannot becollected. TheQEis the ratioof thenum-
ber of detectedelectrons dividedby theproduct of the number of incident photons times the
number of electrons each photon can be expected to generate. Visible wavelength photons
_____________________
6077) First Quasar Gravitational Lens Discovered, Univers Today, July 21, 2010, URL:http://www.universetoday.-
com/2010/07/21/first--- quasar--- gravitational--- lens--- discovered--- wvideo/
6078) Jim Lesurf, Beam/Waveguide Coupling, URL: http://www.st--- andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/
RadCom/part11/page1.html
6079) Irina A Tishchenko, Alexander I. Nosich, Early Quasioptics of Near--- Millimeter and Submillimeter Waves in
IRE--- Kharkov, Ukraine: From Ideas to the Microwave Pioneer Award, IEEE Microwave Magazine, Dec. 2003,
URL: http://www.ire.kharkov.ua/mwm2003--- kuleshov.pdf
6080) T. G. Stern, QuantumDot Technology for Low--- Cost Space Power Generationfor Smallsats, Proceedings of the
20th Annual AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites, Logan, UT, Aug. 14--- 17, 2006, paper: SSC06--- VI--- 1
3392
generate one electron---hole pair. More energetic photons generate one electron---hole
pair per each 3.65 eV of energy.
Radiation detection --- incoherent and coherent detection.
6081)
For the detection of ther-
mal emissions in the atmosphere two techniques are in use: the heterodyne technique with
coherent detection (in the range UVto about 10 mm) and the detection scheme of the opti-
cal range (0.1---1000 mm) with incoherent detection.
The main characteristics of coherent detection are:
Detection of a single mode of the source radiation; this implies a limited throughput of
the instrument
A very selective frequency separation that allows a very high spectral resolution
The detection noise is proportional the the square root of the width of the resolved
spectral element, that favors the use of high spectral resolution
The spectral bandwidth and the number of independent spectral elements (bands) si-
multaneously observed with an instrument are limited by technical constraints
The main characteristics of incoherent detection are:
Capability of simultaneous detection of serval modes, permitting the exploitation of a
large throughput
Possibility of attaining a high spectral resolution
The measurement noise is proportional to the square root of the width of the instanta-
neous spectral band --- this is applicable inthe case of cooled photon---noise---limiteddetec-
tors
Possibility of observing a very broad spectral interval with a single instrument.
The cooling of detectors is an option for improved performances.
Radiation hardness (rad). The space radiation environment causes degradation of elec-
tronic spacecraft components over time which may eventually result in failure of the elec-
tronic and electrical systems. Even high altitude commercial airliners flying polar routes
have showndocumentedcases of avionics malfunctions due toradiationevents. Experience
with many spacecraft since the Sputnik era shows that higher electron concentrations are
observedbetween45 and85 latitude inboththenorthernandsouthernhemispheres, indi-
cating that the belts descend to a lower altitude in these regions.
6082)
For low inclination
orbits, less than30, the electronconcentrations are relatively low. Due tothe Earths asym-
metric magnetic field, a region in the Atlantic near Argentina and Brazil, known as SAA
(South Atlantic Anomaly), has relatively high concentrations of electrons. The SAA is
known to cause problems such as: single event upsets (SEU) in altimeter electronics gate
arrays, and hard SEUs in the Space Shuttle Orbiters Star Trackers ADC(Analog---to---
Digital Converter). The March 1991 solar storms significantly increased the charged par-
ticle distributions in the Van Allen belts, also creating a third belt.
To ensure dependable and reliable electronic circuit designs, the radiation environment for
TID(Total Ionizing Dose) and SEE (Single Event Effects) encountered at a specific height
and orbital orientation during the spacecraft mission must be determined. All electronic
devices/components experience two radiation---related effects in space. The first, the TID
_____________________
6081) B. Carli, U. Cortesi, L. Palchetti, Infrared Emission Spectroscopy, J. Demaison et al. (editors), Spectroscopy
from Space, NATO Science Series, II Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry, Vol. 20, Kluver Academic Publishers,
2001, pp. 171--- 186
6082) Space Radiation Effects on Electronic Components in Low--- Earth Orbit, Practice No. PD--- ED--- 1258, pp.1 ---
7, April 1996, NASA/MSFC, www.hq.nasa.gov/office/codeq/relpract/1258jsc.pdf
3393
effect is time dependent, andthe second, SEE, depends onmany factors and is independent
of time. Note: SEUs are transient faults caused by the passage of a single charged particle
and typically manifest themselves as a bit---flip --- --- an undesired change of state in the con-
tent of a storage element. Radiation induced SEUs are not restricted to the space environ-
ment, but also have been observed at ground level.
For satellites in sun---synchronous LEO (i.e. polar orbiting S/C), typical dose rates due
to the increased number of trapped electrons are 1---10 krad (Si)/year.
For satellites in equatorial LEO (orbits < 30 inclination), typical dose rates due to
trapped Van Allen electrons and protons are in the order of 0.1---1 krad (Si)/year.
Standard COTS (Commercial ---off---the Shelf) components have a reasonable chance of
performing well in this environmet.
Satellites in MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) are drastically more challenging (i.e., 100
krad (Si)/year of TID). They require the use of radiation tolerant or radiation hardened
electronic devices to ensure reliability and prevent the electronics from destructive latch---
up conditions due to radiation.
The TID of a component may be enhanced by use of intrinsically radiation hard processes
such as bulk CMOS, or by the SOI technique, or by shielding more susceptible devices with
a highZmaterial suchas tungsten. Radiationhardening for SEUtolerance can involve sub-
stantial changes to the device topology to mitigate charged particle effects. The process of
radiation hardening is time---consuming and expensive. It is not uncommon for the radi-
ation hardened version of an electronic part to be released five years after the initial com-
mercial part, producing obsolescence on arrival (no state---of---the art performance).
Component
Category
Radiation hardness doses (typical) Description
Commercial Total ionization dose: 2---10 krad
SEU threshold LET: 5 MeV/ (mg cm
2
)
SEU error rate: 10
---5
errors/bit---day
Process/design limit the radiation hardness
No lot radiation controls
Customer evaluation and risk
Radiation
tolerant
Total ionization dose: 20---50 krad
SEU threshold LET: 20 MeV/(mg cm
2
)
SEU error rate: 10
---7
errors/bit---day
Design assures rad hardness to a level
No lot radiation controls
Usually tested for functional fail only, risky
Customer evaluation and risk
Radiation
hardened
Total ionization dose: >200 krad to 1 Mrad
SEU threshold LET: 80---150 MeV/ (mg
cm
2
)
SEU error rate: 10
---7
--- 10
---8
errors/bit---
day
Designed for a hardness particular level
Wafer lot radiation tested
Latch---up: None present in SOI/SOS (Sil-
icon---on---Insulator/Silicon on Sapphire)
CMOS technology. Exhibit low SEU sensi-
tivity for SEE (Single Event Effect)
Table 934: Overview of general radiation hardness categories
Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging). Amethod, a system, or a technique for using beam,
reflected, and timed electromagnetic radiation to detect, locate, and track objects, to mea-
sure distance (range), andtoacquire terrainimagery. Conventional radar systems comprise
a collocated transmitter and receiver, which usually share a common antenna to transmit
and receive. A pulsed signal is transmitted and the time taken for the pulse to travel to the
object and back allows the range of the object to be determined.
The term radar in remote sensing terminology refers to active microwave systems (from
about 1 GHz --- 100 GHz; most current instruments operate below 10 GHz). The terms
Doppler delay (range), Doppler gradient (range rate), and Doppler frequency analysis
are important parameters in the formulation of the range---Doppler radar imaging prin-
ciples. Themotionof the sensor---bearingvehicle provides the relativemotionbetweensen-
sor and target required to perform imaging.
3394
Radar systems may be classified by the signal measurement technique employed --- there is
the pulsed radar class and the FMCW (Frequency ModulationContinuous---Wave) radar
class. The pulsed radar is the most widely used type of radar systems. It is so called because
the transmitter sends out pulses of microwave energy with relatively long intervals between
pulses. The receiver picks up the echoes of the returned signals; the elapsed time (or run
time) is a measure of the distance travelled.
FMCWradar transmits continuous microwave energy --- the resultant continuous echocan-
not be associated with a specific part of the transmitted signal (hence, range information
cannot be obtained). However, the systemcandetermine the speedof atarget by measuring
the Doppler shift (change in frequency). A more sophisticated continuous---wave instru-
ment, known as frequency---modulated radar, is also able to measure range. This is done
by tagging each part of the transmitted microwave signal (by continuously changing the fre-
quency), rendering it recognizable upon reception. With the rate of frequency change
known, the difference in frequency can be interpreted as a range measurement.
Radar instruments consist of the following major elements: RF electronics, antenna,digital
electronics, and recorder. Radar instruments are built for a specific transmission frequency
in the microwave spectrum, such as P---band, L---band, S---band, C---band, X---band, Ka---
band, etc.; some very advanced instruments offer observation in multiple frequencies.
RAR(Real ---Aperture Radar). The termRARis used because the along---track resolu-
tion of a surface image is determined by the actual length of the antenna aperture. Ingener-
al, the larger the aperture of the antenna (in terms of wavelengths), the narrower will be the
beam(along---track resolutionis givenby the widthof the antennasweep; across---trackres-
olution is determined by the range---resolving capability of the instrument). RAR systems
are usually much simpler than SAR systems in design and data processing. RAR---pulsed
signals, based on the range---Doppler principle, are not required to be coherent (only the
signal amplitude information is recovered and processed), representing and displaying
backscatter characteristics fromthe surface sweep that are recordedon filmor onmagnetic
tape. Microwave energy reflected fromthe surface terrain (target) is convertedby the RAR
instrument into electrical signals and recorded as a function of distance (along---track and
across---track direction). The radar returns fromthe different positions in the sweep (andat
the different ranges) are separated in time by the radar receiver (the across---track range
measurement is a function of signal return time). After reception and recording of the pre-
vious pulse, a new pulse is transmitted for a new radar sweep. --- The density of the image
varies with the surface properties (roughness, moisture content, etc.). The image can be in-
terpreted in terms of the topographical features of the terrain.
SAR(Synthetic Aperture Radar), see also O.8.2. This radar type permits high---resolu-
tion imagery at long ranges (a SLARdevice froma satellite orbit is of limited use due to the
poor resolution obtained by the angular geometry constraints of the radar beam). A SAR
instrument is also referred to as a coherent SLAR. --- SARis a concept for complex signal
processing techniques torecover animage by the coherent processing of all returnsignals of
all targets (cells) in a single sweep. The cross---track Doppler range of all targets is deter-
mined by the signal return time. The pulse bandwidth determines the cross---track or range
resolution. Coherence
6083)
in this SARcontext refers to the fact that the phase and ampli-
tude information of the radar cross section is measured for all recovered signals. The SAR
technique provides resolutions that would normally be associated with an antenna with an
aperture far wider than that actually used. --- A disadvantage of the SAR observation/pro-
cessing technique is the generation of very high data rates (between 20 and 100 Mbit/s and
more); this implies high communication rates and large storage volumes. On---board re-
corders are strained to their very limits to handle SAR data. First attempts are being made
_____________________
6083) Note: As coherent pulses transmitted fromthe radar source reflect fromthe ground(target) tothe advancing SAR
instrument (on an aircraft or a spacecraft), the target acts as though in apparent (relative) motion. This motion re-
sults in changing frequencies which give rise tovariations inphase andamplitude inthe returnedsignals. --- Offline
processing of these data involves the analysis of the moderated pulses.
3395
at real ---time onboard preprocessing for the purpose of data reduction. The main elements
of a SAR instrument are:
--- RF electronics. The RF portion of a SAR system consists of signal generators, high
power transmitters (single or combined), lownoise receivers, and the associated signal con-
ditioning elements: amplification, filtering, and frequency conversion. Important RFchar-
acteristics to a SAR instrument are: large dynamic range with good linearity and low noise
floor, good amplitude and phase stability over time and temperature, and high power effi-
ciency.
--- SARantenna. For an Earth observation SAR, the preferred antenna beamcasts an el-
liptical footprint on the ground with an effective rectangular aperture of typical size 10 me-
ters (along---track) and3 meters (cross---track). Multi ---polarizationrequires dual polariza-
tion antennas with good cross---pol isolation. Practically all SAR antenna designs feature a
solidflat aperture (antenna andsupport structure area dominant mass andvolume factor of
a SAR instrument).
--- Digital electronics. The main functions provided by the digital electronics in SARare:
radar configuration and timing control, radar signal digitization and formatting, radar
housekeeping telemetry generation. Sometimes digital processing is performed to reduce
the data, and the often coded radar illumination pulse is generated digitally.
Imaging radars (SARinstruments) operate at a specific wavelength or frequency in the mi-
crowave region. [This is different from optical instruments which observe radiation in a
spectral band (a region of frequencies) or in many spectral bands]. A radar systemrecords
the signal response from the ground target at a single specific wavelength (e.g. 15 cm).
Background: The microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum is generally consid-
ered from1 mmto 1mwavelengths. In analogy to the optical band designations (red, green
blue), the microwave spectrum was also given band designations in form of letter refer-
ences. The military introduced these letter designations in the early days of radar research
(mostly for reasons of security during World War II). The remote sensing community seems
to adhere to these old standards as a means of ball park reference designation. Hence,
the microwave region includes today such band designations as P, L, S, C, X, K, Ka, etc., for
radar (SAR) instruments.
Naturally, the rule of specific wavelength (for frequency) operation of a SAR instrument is
not affected by this scheme of letter band designations. Newer SAR instruments operating
at multiple frequencies are actually an agglomeration of single---frequency instruments.
IFSAR (Interferometric SAR) --- see Interferometric measurements
SLAR (Side---Looking Airborne Radar) --- an active sensor with RAR technology.
Radar altimeter. An active device observing the vertical distance between the instru-
ment and the ground by measuring the elapsed time between the emitted and returned sig-
nals of electromagnetic pulses. Determination (mapping) of the height profile of the sur-
face (topographic applications, in particular of ocean height surfaces).
Note: At the start of the 21st century, satellite radar altimetry data has been used for more
than a decade to map the height of the sea surface, which is not actually as flat as one might
think. Although invisible to the eye, the sea surface has ridges and valleys that echo (or mi-
mick) the topography of the ocean floor combined with mass anomalies of the Earths inte-
rior, in several places of the order of tens of meters. For example, the effect of the slight
increase in gravity caused by the mass of an undersea mountain attracts extra water over it,
causing a bulge in the sea surface. Similarly, the reduced gravity over trenches in the sea
floor means there is less water held over these regions, so the height of the sea surface is
depressed.
Scatterometer. Ascatterometer is a nonimaging radar, distinguishedfromother radars
by its ability tomeasure radiationamplitude. Aradar scatterometer is anactive devicemea-
3396
suring the backscattering coefficient of the illuminated cell (area or volume under observa-
tion) at a specified configuration of incidence angles, wavelengths, and wave polarization
orientations. The backscattering (or scattering) coefficient s describes the target backscat-
tering characteristics (it is defined as the intensity of the power scattered by a 1 m
2
area of a
target back towardthe radar, relative tothe incident power density) and varies as a function
of surface roughness, moisture content, and dielectric properties. A rough ocean surface
returns a weak pulse because sea surface waves scatter the energy of the microwave pulse in
different directions. The scattering reduces the amount of energy which is received back at
the satellite. On the other hand, a smooth ocean surface returns a strong pulse because
there is very little wave effect. The surface roughness is relatedtothe windspeed. Highwind
speeds disturbthesmoothoceansurface andproduce many waves of several cminsizewhile
lowwindspeeds donot disturb the ocean surface as muchand produce much smaller waves.
In addition to windspeed, scatterometers (and SARs) measure the direction that waves are
moving in relation to the satellite. The direction that the waves are oriented with respect to
the radar pulse has an effect on the polarization of the returned signal. --- Application: the
surface backscattering coefficient may be used toderive the surface windvector (inparticu-
lar over oceans). See also sigma naught.
Lidar (Light Detectionand Ranging) an active sensor system, see O.8.6. Alidar instru-
ment is also referred to as an optical radar [or a laser radar --- it also goes by the name of
ladar (laser detection and ranging)] since it utilizes the optical (and TIR) portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum (0.3 --- 10 mm wavelength range, or a frequency range of about
1000 --- 30 THz). The term Ladar is mostly used in the military context. --- A very narrow
beam(pulse) of laser light is emitted, the echo is analyzed. Lidar beamdivergence is two to
three orders of magnitude smaller compared to conventional 5 to 10 cm wavelength radars.
This characteristic permits unambiguous velocity measurements near clouds and surface
features.
Radar polarimeter.
6084)
This radar instrument type measures the complex (amplitude
and phase) scattering matrix (i.e. the full polarization signature: VV, HH, VH and HV for
transmit andreceive signals) for every resolutionelement inan image. Radar polarimetry is
therefore an extension of scatterometry, in which the received power of an echo is typically
measuredfor one or more fixedpolarization states and a single, or two orthogonal, transmit
states. --- Knowing the full scattering matrix permits calculation of the receive power for any
possible combination of transmit and receive antennas; this process is called polarization
synthesis. Hence, the information content derived from a polarimetric radar instrument is
far superior to the information yielded by nonpolarimetric devices. Typical airborne polari-
metric radar instruments are: ARMAR, CAS---SAR, C/X---SAR, DO---SAR, EMISAR,
HUTSCAT, MMW---SAR, NUSCAT, P---3/SAR, IMARC, RAMSES, PHARUS, etc. (see
Table 20); a typical spaceborne polarimetric radar instrument is the L/C--- Band SAR(JPL)
of the SIR---C payload.
Note: Conventional imaging radars operate with a single, fixed---polarization antenna for
both transmission and reception of radio frequency signals. In this way a single scattering
coefficient is measured for a specific transmit and receive polarization combination for
many thousands of points in a scene. A result is that only one component of the scattered
wave, itself a vector quantity, is measured, resulting in a scalar characterizationof the wave,
and any additional information about the surface or volume contained in the polarization
properties of the reflected signal is lost.
Radar albedo. Ratio of a targets radar cross---section in a specified polarization to its proj-
ected area; hence, a measure of the targets reflectivity.
_____________________
6084) H. A. Zebker, J. J. vanZyl, Imaging Radar Polarimetry: AReview, Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 79, Nr. 11, No-
vember 1991, pp. 1583--- 1606
3397
Radar backscatter. Refers tothe radar echo; ascattering process of microwaveenergy by an
object/target in the direction of the radar antenna, after actively being irradiated by the ra-
dar source.
Radar cross section.
6085)
Ahypothetical area of anobject of suchanextent that if thepower
intercepted by this area were distributed isotropically over the space, it would render the
same power density at the receiving antenna as thepower density brought about inreality by
the presence of the object or target. Usually, the radar cross---sectionconcerningcompound
objects (distributed targets) is normalized: either as a radar cross section per unit area (dif-
ferential scattering cross section or backscatter coefficient s), or as a radar cross section
per unit of area projected in the direction of transmission (gamma or scattering cross sec-
tion).
Radar meteorology. A discipline that uses backscattered electromagnetic radiation within
the microwave band to gain information about the state of the atmosphere, especially with
respect to clouds and precipitation. The return signal allows the interpretation of four fun-
damental properties of the spectrum: amplitude, phase, frequency, and polarization.
R R
A B
Radian. The size of angles in classical mechanics is expressed in ra-
dians. The concept of radians permits a simple mathematical rela-
tionship between the length L of the arc of a circle (i.e. a segment of
the circumference) and the angle subtended(enclosed) at the axis by
the arc. The arc length L is given by: L=R . This means that when
the lengthof the arc is equal totheradius (L=R), thenis oneradian
(or the angle at the center of the circle subtended by an arc equal to
the radius is one radian). In one revolution the arc length is equal to
the circumference, so that L=2R, or =2 radians, or 1 radian =
2/360 57.28. Example: for R=1000 m and =0.2 radians
(FOV), then L=200 m (in case of a sensor, the swath width).
L=R
Angular size with no distance information is usually the only information available in ob-
servational astronomy. Some sample angular sizes are:
The full moon subtends 30 arcminutes
The Andromeda galaxy subtends about five degrees
Radiance. Energy per unit area and solidangle. Measure of energy radiated by an object. In
general, radiance is a function of viewing angle and spectral wavelength.
Radiation laws.
Plancks law(Max Planck, 1858---1947). E
bl
=2 h c
2
l
---5
/ [e
(hc/lkT)
--- 1], where E
bl
=
monochromatic emissive power (or spectral radiance, or brightness) per unit wavelength
interval, l =wavelength, T=absolute temperature, h=Plancks constant, k =Boltzmanns
constant, and c = speed of light.
In words, Plancks law states that the temperature of a blackbody is related to the emitted
radiance as a function of the wavelength (or of the frequency). Plancks equation is plotted
in Figure 1465 for several temperatures.
Note: The termspectral radiance is commonly used for remote sensing instruments oper-
ating at optical wavelengths, while the term brightness is mainly used for the microwave
region of the spectrum. Then Plancks law is expressed in units of power density per fre-
quency bandwidth (Hz
---1
) rather than per unit wavelength interval (m
---1
). Spectral bright-
ness B
f
is related to spectral radiance E
bl
by: B
f
= E
bl
|dl/df|, which results in: B
f
= 2 h f
3
c
---2
/ [e
(hf/kT)
--- 1].
_____________________
6085) H. J. Buiten, J. Clevers, Land Observation By Remote Sensing, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, ISBN
2--- 88124--- 936--- 6, 1993, p. 608
3398
Inthe microwave region(f<300 GHz), the termhf/kT%1 for the rangeof physical temper-
atures commonly encountered in the Earths surface and atmosphere. Consequently, the
spectral brightness equationabove reduces to a simpler form: B
f
=2kT/l
2
whichis knownas
the Rayleigh---Jeans law, a special case of Plancks blackbody radiationlaw(see alsobright-
ness temperature).
Wiens displacement law(WilhelmWien, 1864---1928). Alawindicating that the wave-
lengthat whichthe emittedamount of energy by a blackbody is maximal is inversely propor-
tional to the absolute temperature of that body.
Kirchhoffs law (Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, 1824---1887). A law stating that under
conditions of thermal equilibrium, the absorption spectrum of an arbitrary body must be
equal to its emission spectrum. Kirchhoffs identity: (emissivity)=a (absorptivity).
Lamberts law(Johann Heinrich Lambert, 1728---1777). Alaw stating that the radiant
intensity (flux per unit solid angle) emitted in any direction from a unit radiating surface
varies as the cosine of the angle between the normal tothe surface and the direction of radi-
ation. The radiance of a radiating surface is therefore independent of direction. This law is
also satisfied (by definition) by the distribution of radiation from a perfectly diffuse radia-
tor.
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100
10
---6
10
---5
10
---4
10
---3
10
---2
10
---1
1
10
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
Wavelength (mm)
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
S
p
e
c
t
r
a
l
R
a
d
i
a
n
c
e
UV VIS NIR SWIR MWIR TIR FIR
Arctic Ice
(220
K)
Sun
(600
0 K)
Molten Lava
(1400 K)
Forest Fire
(1000
K)
Hot Spring
(380
K)
Ambient
(29
0
K)
Figure 1465: Hemispherical radiation emitted by objects at typical temperatures
Radiation hardening. Exposed satellite and instrument components, such as detectors, are
constantly subjected to space irradiation effects. In particular, long---term exposure may
cause radiation damage to electronic components by altering the properties of a material
arising fromexposure toionizing radiation(penetratingradiation), suchas X---rays, gamma
rays. neutrons, or heavy---particle radiation. With proper hardening processes applied, the
components may be turned into radiation---tolerant products.
3399
Radioactivity. Discovered by Antoine---Henri Becquerel (1852---1908), a French physicist,
in 1896. Radioactivity is an effect/property exhibited by certain types of matter of emitting
energy andsubatomic particles spontaneously. The emissions of the most common forms of
spontaneous radioactive decay are the alpha (a) particle, the beta (b) particle, the gamma
(g) ray, and the neutrino.
Radio astronomy. The first identified astronomical radio source was one discovered
serendipitously intheearly 1930s whenKarl Guthe Jansky, anengineer withBell Telephone
Laboratories (Murray Hill, NJ, USA), was investigating static that interfered with short
wave transatlantic voice transmissions. Using a large directional antenna at a frequency of
20.5 MHz, Jansky noticedthat his analogpen---and---paper recordingsystemkept recording
a repeating signal of unknown origin. This was the discovery of extra---terrestrial radio sig-
nals and in fact the start of radio astronomy science. Jansky published his findings in 1933.
His pioneering efforts inthefieldof radioastronomy have beenrecognizedby the namingof
the fundamental unit of radio flux density, the Jansky (Jy), after him.
Radio beacon. A type of radio transmitter with wide---angle coverage. It may emit signals
continuously or, like the transponder, may respond to input energy before operating. Bea-
cons are use primarily in navigation and radio---detection finding. In meteorology a beacon
is used in rawinsonde observations.
Radiodetermination. Refers to the determination of position, velocity and/or other charac-
teristics of an object, or to obtaining information relating to these parameters, by means of
the propagation properties of radio waves. The radiodetermination service has two parts to
it: the radionavigation service and the radiolocation service.
1) RadionavigationSystems. Radionavigationis usedfor the purpose of navigation(aero-
nautical, maritime, land, and space), including obstruction warning.
--- LORAN---C(Long Range Navigation) operates on 100 kHz; it is used in maritime and
aeronautical applications (see LORAN)
--- Omega is a worldwide CWsystem; it is used for maritime and aeronautical navigation.
Systemoperationinthe VLFband(9---14 kHz) onfour discrete frequencies. (see OMEGA)
--- VOR/DME (VHF Omnidirectional Range/Distance Measuring Equipment). VOR
operates in the 108---118 MHz band, providing azimuth readings to aircraft. DME is collo-
cated with VOR providing distance; it operates in the 960---1215 MHz band.
--- TACAN(Tactical Air Navigation) is the US military version of DME. It operates inthe
960---1215 MHz band.
--- ILS (Instrument Landing System) for precision navigation. ILS consists of a localizer
operating in the 108---112 MHz band and a glidescope operating in the 328.6---335.4 MHz
band.
--- MLS(Microwave Landing System), operating in the 5000---5150 MHz range withasso-
ciated DME in the 960---1215 MHz range. MLS was initially considered a successor to ILS.
It probably may be succeeded by GPS systems.
--- GPS (Global Positioning System), a US satellite---based system operating in the
1215---1240 MHz and 1559---1610 MHz bands. GPS was officially integrated into the US
National Airspace System on February 17, 1994. In the future, GPS is expected to replace
such systems as Omega, LORAN---C, and perhaps VOR/DME.
--- GLONASS (Global Orbiting and Navigation Satellite System), a Russian satellite---
based system operating in the 1215---1260 and 1559---1626.5 MHz bands. By the year 2005
the second bandwidth of GLONASS is expected to be the same as that of GPS. There is a
major trend towards increased use of the GPS and GLONASS satellite---based system for
many navigation applications.
3400
--- etc.
2) Radiolocation Systems: The service is used by pulsedand CWradar systems for a num-
ber of applications, such as determining precise location, search or surveillance, target
tracking, weapons control, ground mapping and target identification, or combinations of
these applications. The military is by far the largest user of this service, but there are also a
number civil users (NASA, NOAA, CNES, CRC, Russia, etc.
--- S&RSAT(Search &Rescue Satellite, CNES/CRC) flownon NOAA---POESsatellites.
The S&R instruments consist of a 3---band (121.5, 243, and 406.05 MHz) repeater S&RR
and a 406.025 MHz processor. The systemmay receive three types of radiobeacons, namely
aviation ELTs (Emergency Locator Transmitter), maritime EPIRBs (Emergency Position
Indicating Radio Beacon), and PLBs (Personal Locator Beacon). S&RSAT was declared
operational in 1985. The COSPAS---SARSAT agreement was signed in 1988.
--- COSPAS (Space System for Search of Vessels in Distress, Russian system).
6086)
The
system is flown on Cospas series satellites (named Nadezda) and administered by Russia,
US, France, and Canada. Distress alert and location data to RCCs (Rescue Coordination
Centers) for 121.5 MHz beacons within the area of COSPAS---S&RSAT ground stations
(Local User Terminals --- LUTs), andfor 406MHz beacons activatedanywhereintheworld.
--- IVHS (Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems) or ITS (Intelligent Transport Systems)
--- etc.
Radiometer. An instrument for the quantitative measurement of the intensity of electro-
magnetic radiation in some band of wavelengths in the spectrum. Usually a radiometer is
characterizedwitha prefix, suchas IR---radiometer, or microwave---radiometer, toindicate
the spectrum to be measured.
Radiometer (absolute cavity radiometer). An instrument based on the measurement of a
heat flux by an electrically calibrated transducer. Optical radiation absorbed in a black cav-
ity is substituted by electrical heating during a shaded reference phase. For practical use of
the instrument, an electronic circuit keeps the heat flux constant by controlling the power
fedto a cavity heater [this is also referredto as ESR(Electrical Substitution Radiometry) ---
directly relating theoptical watt totheelectrical watt]. Absolute cavity radiometers areused
to measure the Solar Constant or TSI (Total Solar Irradiance).
6087) 6088)
The basic theory of ESRdetectors is based on the measurement of heat flux. Two identical
sensors, oneactiveandoneusedas a thermal reference, areconnectedsothat they are inthe
same environment and at the same temperature. Joule heat is supplied to eachsensor by an
actively controlled resistive heater circuit. The sensors have very high absorptance in or-
der to efficiently collect radiation, so that nearly all photon energy incident on the detector
is converted into heat. As radiation falls on the active sensor, a corresponding amount of
Joule heat to that sensor must be reduced in order to maintain the heat flux balance. This
change in Joule heat to the active sensor is equivalent to the amount of radiation incident
upon it.
Note: electrical substitutionradiometry at cryogenic temperatures is also the basis of detec-
tor calibrations in which a detectors response to optical flux is measured as a function of
wavelength.
Radiometric resolution. See resolution.
Radiation dose: The rad is a unit used to measure a quantity called absorbed radiation
dose. This relates to the amount of energy actually absorbed in some material, and is used
_____________________
6086) COSPAS--- S&RSAT homepage, http://www.cospas--- sarsat.org/
6087) http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/TN1421/electrical.html
6088) http://lasp.colorado.edu/sorce/
3401
for any type of radiationandany material. The unit of a radis definedinGy =Gray. Louis
Harold Gray (1905---1965) was a British physicist and president of BIR(British Institute of
Radiology). The gray was defined in 1975.
6089)
The gray is a SI unit used to measure a quantity called absorbed dose. This relates to the
amount of energy actually absorbed in some material, and is used for any type of radiation
and any material. One gray is equal to one joule of energy deposited in one kg of a material
(1 Gray (or (gray) = 1 J/kg = 1 m
2 S---2
). Note: In the SI system, the rad is replaced by the
gray; 1 krad =10 gray.
In the the context of radiation shielding, the term rad (or Rad) is also used for energy
accumulatedinmatter (dosimetry for the energy absorbedper unit mass of material, usually
by ionization processes). Arad is the amount of particle radiationthat deposits 10
---2
J/kg of
target material. Besides the rad is the Gray. 1 rad = 1/100 Gray.
The space radiation dose to which spacecraft in LEO (Low Earth Orbit) altitudes (400 km
to 1000 km) are subjected, is dominated by contributions from geomagnetically trapped
protons (typical energy range of 0.1 MeV to > 100 MeV) and electrons (typical energy
range of 0.1 MeV to 6.0 MeV).
Radiosonde. A balloon---borne instrument which measures (by means of transducers) and
transmits meteorological data (temperature, pressure, humidity). Various types of trans-
mission schemes exist.
Rawinsonde (Radio---Wind---Sonde). A balloon---borne instrument tracked by radar
or radiodirection---finder andoperating onthe same principle as a radiosonde, but withthe
additional capability to measure wind speed and direction.
Dropsonde. A radiosonde or a rawinsonde dropped by parachute from an aircraft for
the purpose of obtaining soundings of the atmosphere below. The radio signals of the drop-
sonde/rawinsonde are tracked for data evaluation.
Radio occultation principle. Fundamentally, the technique relies on the simple fact that a
planets atmosphere acts much like a spherical lens, bending and slowing propagation of
microwave signals passing through it tangent to the surface. The lens effect results fromde-
creasing atmospheric density withaltitude. If the positions of transmittingandreceivingsat-
ellites are precisely known, then the atmospheric delay can be measured precisely, the time
derivative of which (Doppler) can be inverted to give atmospheric density versus altitude.
Advanced GPS receivers also enable determination of line---integrated electron density
between the spacecraft and a particular GPS satellite. This is the basis for GPS radio occul-
tation tomography; as a GPS satellite sets behind a LEOsatellite, line---integratedelectron
data are recorded at different times, which results in density data along different paths
through the ionosphere. Tomographic reconstruction can provide density vs. altitude data
for a vertical slice through the atmosphere. It requires a moderate gain GPS antenna, and
3---axis stabilization to point that antenna in the anti ---flight direction.
See also Limb/Occultation sounding and Occultation. --- Note: The radio occultation tech-
nique was first developed(inthe 1970s) at StanfordUniversity Center for Radar Astronomy
and at NASA/JPL for the study of solar system planetary atmospheres (Venus, Mars, Jupi-
ter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune).
Raman spectroscopy.
6090)
Atechnique to investigate molecular properties using scattered
light resultingfromphoton---molecule collisions. Whenamonochromatic light beamis inci-
dent onsystems suchas transparent gases, liquids, or solids, most of it is transmittedwithout
change. However, a very small portion of the incident light is scattered. Although most of
_____________________
6089) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray_%28unit%29
6090) Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, Academic Press, 1987
3402
the scattered light has the same wavelength as the incident radiation, a small part of it has
different wavelengths. The scattering of light at different wavelengths is called Ramanscat-
tering (Indian scientist Sir C. V. Raman, who, with K. S. Krishnan, first reported the phe-
nomenon in 1928). The physical origin of Raman scattering lies in inelastic collisions bet-
ween the molecules composing the system (e.g. the liquid) and photons, the particles com-
posing the light beam. Inelastic collision means that there is an exchange of energy bet-
ween the photon molecule with a consequent change in energy, and hence wavelength, of
the photon.
Range. Thedistancebetweentwoobjects, usually betweenanobservationpoint andatarget
(object under observation). Slant range: same as range --- the line---of---sight distance bet-
ween two objects.
Ranging is the process of accurately determining the distance between a spacecraft and a
ground antenna as a function of time, by measuring the delay for an electromagnetic signal
traveling toandreturning fromthe spacecraft. Doppler is due tothe rate of change of range,
or velocity, and special care must given in the design of a ranging system to account for the
timing effects of forward and return Doppler shifts. On the other hand, Doppler is typically
relatively constant over a ranging track, and hence the ranging problem can be reduced
from the estimation of one time---varying range parameter to the estimation of two time---
invariant parameters, namely, range and Doppler at a specific time.
Range direction. Observation of an instrument in the cross---track direction (normal to the
subsatellite track). See also azimuth direction.
Range error. The (small) error in radar range measurement caused by the propagation of
radio energy through a nonhomogeneous atmosphere. This error is due to the fact that the
velocity of radio---wave propagationvaries withthe index of refraction, and that ray travel is
not in straight lines through actual atmospheres (see also Atmospheric refraction).
Range resolution. Resolution characteristic of the range dimension, usually applied to the
image domain, either in the slant range plane or in the ground range plane. Range resolu-
tion is fundamentally defined by the systembandwidth in the range channel. See also SAR.
Raster image. Refers to a matrix of row and column data points. Each data point is a pixel.
Rayleigh criterion. The Rayleigh criterion is the generally accepted criterion for the mini-
mumresolvable detail --- the imaging process is saidtobe diffraction---limitedwhenthefirst
diffraction minimum of the image of one source point coincides with the maximum of an-
other.
The diffraction limit is the ultimate angular resolution limit imposed by the laws of optics and is
equal to the ratio of the observing wavelength to the telescope diameter.
Theangular resolvingpower of any optical systemis diffractionlimitedby its finiteaperture.
The image of a point source created by a systemwith a circular aperture shows this diffrac-
tionas a circular Airy pattern. The Rayleighcriterionfor the resolutionof twoadjacent Airy
patterns is that the maximum of one pattern falls on the first minimum of the other. The
angular resolving power thus increases withthe diameter of the aperture. The ultimatelimit
to resolution is set by the relationship between the size of the entrance aperture D and the
wavelength l of the radiation used by:
Angular resolving power (or resolution) a = 1.22 l/D where the angle a is given in radians
(note: 1 arcsec = 4.848137 x 10
---6
radians). In the above equation, Dis the diameter of the
aperture andl is the wavelengthof the radiationunder consideration. The 1.22 factor arises
from the circular aperture. An inspection of the equation shows that:
1) For optical imagery (say, of 0.4 mm wavelength) with a resolution (or beamwidth) of 1
arcsecond, it is possible of using a 10 cm (diameter) perfect telescope.
3403
2) For microwave imagery (say, of 10 cm wavelength), a resolution of 1 arcsecond would
require a telescope (or antenna) aperture diameter of 250 m.
Hence, a practicable solution can only be obtained with the introduction of phased ar-
rays. Phased arrays get around the beamwidth limit (i.e., Rayleigh criterion) by using sev-
eral small apertures (linked together) to achieve the same result as one large aperture.
Phased arrays synthesize larger apertures from an array of elements.
Resolving power in astronomy applications: The spectral resolution or resolving power (R)
of a spectrograph is a measure of its power to resolve features in the electromagnetic spec-
trum. It is usually defined by: R =/, where is the smallest difference in wavelengths
that canbedistinguished, at awavelengthof . For example: R=3000means that for awave-
lengthof 1000 nm(or 1 m), features of 0.33 nm() apart canbe distinguishedin the spec-
trograph.
The Rayleigh spatial resolution criteria is the distance at which two targets being measured
simultaneously can be resolved at their half---power points.
Rayleighscattering. Scattering by particles small insize compared withthe wavelengths be-
ing scattered by the blue light (UV) of the atmosphere (e.g., the blue color of the sky and
ocean is caused by Rayleigh scattering of the air and water molecules respectively). Ray-
leigh scattering is also caused by density fluctuations in atmospheric gases (it increases to-
ward the shorter wavelengths proportional to l
---4
where l is the wavelength). In a sensor
energy balance, Rayleigh scattering adds to the radiation received by a sensor; this is most
pronounced at shorter wavelengths.
Reaction/momentumwheels. These are actuators (flywheels) whichmay beusedfor three---
axis reaction control or momentum bias applications. By adding or removing energy from
the flywheel, torque is applied to a single axis of the S/C, causing it to rotate (reaction). By
maintaining flywheel rotation (momentum), a single axis of the spacecraft is stabilized.
Such an assembly provides a reliable source of reaction torque and angular momentum
storage for attitude control of medium to large spacecraft. Accelerating or decelerating a
flywheel with an integral motor provides a means of controlled momentum exchange with
the spacecraft platforms, which is advantageous for a variety of attitude control schemes.
Real---Time Kinematic (RTK). Refers to a DGPS process where carrier---phase corrections
are transmitted in real ---time froma reference receiver at a known location to one or more
remote rover receivers. RTK has become a preferred method for surveying applications
since it provides real ---time positions with high accuracy.
Rectenna (Rectifying antenna). Arectenna is a combined termof a rectifier and antenna ---
converting RFpower toDCpower, a useful feature in terms of energy recycling. Arectenna
absorbs the microwave beam and simultaneously converts it to DC power. The converted
power may be used as a battery---free application and an efficient power management
scheme. An example of a rectenna application might be the receiving antenna in a WPT
(Wireless Power Transmission) system. Arectenna comprises a mesh of dipoles and diodes
for absorbing microwave energy from a transmitter and converting it into electric power.
6091) 6092)
Reflectance. Refers to the fraction of the total radiant flux incident upon a surface that is
reflected (a unit---less number between 0 and 1); it varies according to the wavelength dis-
tribution of the incident radiation as well as with the angle incidence and reflection.
Reflection. The scattering of electromagnetic radiation by an object. Diffuse reflection
causes the radiance of the reflected radiation to be equal in all directions (e.g. reflection
_____________________
6091) S.--- J. Lim, T. Itoh, A 60 GHz Rectenna and Power Combing Technique, Proceedings of the 4th ESA Workshop
on Millimeter--- Wave Technology and Applications, WPP--- 258, Feb. 15--- 17, 2006, Espoo, Finland
6092) Y.--- H. Suh, K. Chang, Ahigh--- efficiency dual--- frequency rectenna for 2.45 and5.8 GHz wireless power transmis-
sion, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 50, No 7, July 2002, pp. 1784--- 1789
3404
froma rough surface). Specular reflection has a direction of preference (e.g. the reflection
of a smooth surface). The use of the terms smooth and rough is independent of wave-
length.
Reflectivity. Aproperty of illuminated objects to reradiate a portion of the incident energy.
For SARs, backscatter is theobservable portionof theenergy reflected. Backscatter, ingen-
eral, is increased by greater surface roughness.
Refraction. A process by which the direction of energy propagation is changed due to a
change in density within the propagating medium(smooth bending), or due to a discontinu-
ity between two media (abrupt bending). --- Atmospheric optical phenomena are produced
by continuous and discontinuous refraction: scintillation, mirages, astronomical refraction,
anomalous propagation of radio waves and the bending of sound waves are examples of re-
fraction within a single medium.
Refractive index (in a medium). The inverse ratioof the wavelength (or velocity) of electro-
magnetic radiationinthe mediumto that in vacuum. Ameasure of the amount of refraction
(a property of the dielectric constant). See also Atmospheric refraction and Occultation.
Registration. Geometric rearrangement of the pixels inan image for image matching by su-
perposition --- often to the reference geometry of a map (geocoding). Image registration is
the process of matching (overlaying) two or more images so that corresponding coordinate
points in the images correspond to the same physical region of the scene being imaged. The
technique is used for a number of applications:
6093)
Integration of information taken from different sensors (sensor or image fusion)
Analysis of changes in images taken at different times (temporal registration and
change detection).
In a wider sense image registration tries to combine image data with different spatial, spec-
tral and radiometric characteristics to improve the information extraction process from
available imagery. Typical registration processing steps are: feature identification, feature
matching, spatial transformation, and interpolation.
Relative aperture. For a photographic or telescopic lens system, the ratio of the equivalent
focal length to the diameter of the entrance slit. It is expressed as f/45 or f/5.6, and is also
called the f---number, speed of lens, or the focal ratio.
Renewable energy. Refers toenergy technologies that generate electricity, fuels, and/or heat
through the use of resources which are continually replenished, such as sunlight (photovol-
taic), heat from the sun (solar thermal), wind, naturally occurring underground steam and
heat (geothermal), plant and animal waste (biomass), and water (hydropower).
Repeat period (or cycle). Time interval between successive satellite observations of the
same area of the Earths surface.
Resampling. The rearrangement of the resolution cells of each scanned line of an image
into geometrically equal terrain elements (geometric rearrangement) by creating artificial
pixels whose spectral radiation data are computed fromthe original values proportional to
the area coverage by the new pixels with respect to the resolution cells. In general a resam-
pling process follows after a geometric rearrangement (registration) of thepixels becauseof
the matching of two different images of the same region by means of a mathematical trans-
formation. The resampling theninvolves the assignment of artificial pixel values tothenew-
ly formed pixels according to the selected sampling algorithm.
Resolution. Atermdefining the smallest discernable physical unit of anobservedsignal by a
sensor (measurement). It can be divided into four types: spatial, spectral, radiometric, and
temporal resolution.
_____________________
6093) L. M. G. Fonseca, B. S. Manjunath, RegistrationTechniques for Multisensor Remotely SensedImagery,PE&RS,
Vol. LXII, No. 9, Sept. 1996, pp. 1049--- 1056
3405
Spatial or geometric resolution defines the minimum(spatial) separation between two
measurements inorder for a sensor tobe able todiscriminate betweenthem. Spatial resolu-
tion defines the size of an image resolution cell in the target area, or the size of pixels. The
spatial resolving power is determinedby the aperture dimensions of a lens or the antenna of
a sensor. --- Some spatial connotations are: GSD, IFOV, FOV, look angle of the sensor,
shape and size of the object, position, site, distribution, texture.
Spectral resolution refers to the resolving power of a systemin terms of wavelength (or
wavenumber) or frequency. Spectral resolution is achieved by decomposing the radiance
receivedineachspatial pixel intoa number of wavebands. The wavebands may vary inreso-
lution, and may be overlapping, contiguous, or disparate, depending upon the design of the
sensor. A color image, consisting of red, green, and blue bands, is a familiar example of a
spectral sampling in which the wavebands (spectral channels) are non---overlapping and
relatively broad.
Radiometric resolution refers to the resolving power of a systemin terms of the signal
energy [detection of energy differences (reflection and emission) in terms of temperature,
intensity and power]. The radiometric resolution is the Noise Equivalent Delta Radiance
(NEDR), or the Noise Equivalent Delta Temperature (NEDT), depending on the spectral
measurement range. This canbe defined as the minimumchange inreflectance (or temper-
ature) that canbe detectedby a sensor. The value depends ona number of parameters, such
as SNR, the saturationradiance setting, andthe number of quantizationbits. Theimportant
parameter of an instrument is the SNR. The resolution capability of an instrument in terms
of quantization does not necessarily give an idea of its precision or accuracy with which it
can measure. Nevertheless, a higher number of bits increases the dynamic range of the in-
strument, permitting the measurement of very variable targets, without a gain change. See
also Full Width Half Maximum.
Temporal resolution concerns the time lapse between two successive images of the
same target area (at the same viewing angle and by the same spaceborne LEOsensor, at the
next revisit time; in GEOthe next image of the same target represents the temporal resolu-
tion). Various phenomena, whichmay be observed fromspace, have different temporal and
spatial scale requirements. For example, severe storms evolve quickly, and observations ev-
ery 15 minutes or less may be required. On the other hand, ice sheets evolve slowly andthus
may be observed less continuously. Similar arguments can be made for spatial require-
ments. Obviously, a sensor in GEOis capable providing far better temporal data of a target
area than a sensor on a LEOspacecraft. However, the sensor on the LEOS/C has the edge
inoffering afar better spatial resolutionthanits counterpart inGEO. This is simply dictated
by the orbital geometry with a distance ratio of 1:45 (LEO/GEO --- or 800:36,000 km) in
favor of LEO. Hence, a LEO constellation of S/C represents a fairly good compromise to
achieve a fairly high temporal resolution combined with a high spatial resolution.
Retrograde motion: Refers tomotions of a celestial body relative toa gravitationally central
object. Retrograde motion is in the direction opposite to the movement of something else,
and is the contrary of direct or prograde motion. The idea of retrograde or prograde mo-
tion is useful in three contexts:
--- for describing the orbits of celestial bodies
--- for describing the rotations of celestial bodies (spin motion)
--- for explaining the backtracking by planets which is visible to observers on Earth.
Aretrograde Earth orbit of a spacecraft is an orbit, where the satellite travels in an East to
West direction instead of the common (prograde) West to East orbit. All sun---synchronous
orbits of LEOspacecraft are of thetype retrograde. --- Inretrograde orbits, the projectionof
the satellites position onto the equatorial plane revolves in the direction opposite to
Earths rotation(i.e. a retrograde orbit has a westwardmotion or precession onconsecutive
orbits).
3406
In our Solar system, mostly everything rotates in the same sense (as the central body): all
major planets orbit the Sun counterclockwise as seen from the pole star (Polaris). Most
planets spin in the same sense, including Earth. The same happens with the orbital motions
of the Moon, Mars moons, and the biggest moons of Jupiter and Saturn around their plan-
ets. All these motions are called prograde. However, the spin motion of Venus and Ur-
anus is clockwise, so they have a retrograde rotation.
So far, all exoplanets (extrasolar planets) discovered (on the order of 400 in the spring of
2010) are also orbiting their central star in a prograde fashion. However, at the annual RAS
NAM 2010 (Royal Astronomical Society National Astronomy Meeting) in Glasgow, UK
(April 12---16, 2010), it was announcedthat several extrasolar planets have beendiscovered
to have retrograde orbits --- i.e. they are orbiting their host star in the opposite direction as
their host star rotates.
6094)
This new discovery challenges accepted ideas of how planets form. Planets are thought to
formin the disc of gas and dust encircling a young star. This proto---planetary disc rotates in
the same direction as the star itself, and up to now it was expected that planets that form
fromthe disc wouldall orbit in more or less the same plane, andthat they would move along
their orbits in the same direction as the stars rotation. This is the case for the planets in the
Solar System. --- The new findings suggest that astronomers have to revise some aspects of
planet formation.
6095)
Rheology. A science dealing with the deformation and flow of matter.
Revisit period. Refers to the length of time it takes for a satellite to complete one entire
orbit cycle. The revisit period of a satellite sensor is usually several days. Therefore the ab-
solute temporal resolution of a remote sensing system to image the exact same area at the
same viewing angle a second time is equal to this period.
S/A (Signal ---to---Ambiguity ratio). In SAR instruments the ratio of the receiving power of
the signal scattered and reflected fromthe observed (target) area to the power leaking into
the observation area from the non---observed area.
Sampling. In general, any process of converting an image into a discrete set of numbers.
Normally, thenumbers represent theimage values at agridof points (or average values over
a small neighborhoodof points). According tothe sampling theorem, if the gridspacing is d,
an exact reconstruction of all periodic (sinusoidal) components of the image can be made
that have period2dor greater (or, equivalently, spatial frequency 1/2 dor fewer cycles per
unit length).
SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar), see SAR under Radar.
SAR imaging modes: In airborne and spaceborne SAR observations there are generally
three common imaging modes for data collection based on active phased array technology
of the antenna; the modes are referred to as: stripmap, spotlight, and ScanSAR
Stripmap: The antenna pointing is fixedrelative tothe flight line (usually normal tothe
flight line). The result is a moving antenna footprint that sweeps along a stripof terrainpar-
allel tothe pathmotion. The stripmap mode is normally used for the mapping of large areas
(usually with coarse---resolution data). Stripmap imaging employs the same incidence
angles. --- In wide---swath stripmap mode imaging, the physical length of the antenna re-
quired increases linearly with the corresponding azimuth resolution cell size.
Spotlight ( alsoreferredtoas spotSAR): Thesensor steers its antennabeamtocontinu-
ously illuminate a specific (predetermined) spot or terrain patch being imaged while the
_____________________
6094) Turning Planetary Theory Upside Down: Nine New Exoplanets Found, Some With Retrograde Orbits, Science
Daily, April 13, 2010, URL: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/04/100413071749.htm
6095) Retrograde Planets Test Formation Views, Space News, April 19, 2010, p. 11
3407
aircraft/spacecraft flies by in a straight line. The spotlight mode is a practical choice when
the mission objective is to collect fine---resolution data fromone or more localized areas. ---
The following attributes distinguishspotlight andstripmapmodes. First, the spotlight mode
offers finer azimuthresolution thanthat achievable in stripmapmode using the same physi-
cal antenna. Second, spotlight imagery provides the possibility of imaging a scene at multi-
ple viewing angles during a single pass.
Note: While the operation in spotlight mode allows for improved azimuth resolution by de-
creasing artificially the ground---track velocity. This has to be payed for with along---track
gaps between consecutive scenes.
Spotlight Stripmap ScanSAR
Figure 1466: Illustration of common SAR imaging modes
ScanSAR: The sensor steers the antenna beam in cross---track to illuminate a strip of
terrain at any angle to the path of aircraft/spacecraft motion (the stripmap and spotlight
modes are becoming special cases of the ScanSARmode). The interpretation of ScanSAR
signatures is generally more complicated than data obtained in stripmap mode, due to
strongly varying incidence angles. ScanSAR modes allow to increase the total swath width
without the need of extending the antenna length. Multi phase center systems allow to gen-
erate a number of differently shaped radar beams --- e.g. for wide swath ScanSAR modes.
However, the wider swath in ScanSARcan only be obtained at the cost of a coarser spatial
resolution.
SARrange ambiguity reduction. The technique involves encoding of the transmitted radar
pulses (the pulses are modulated with different signal structures). The coding (tagging) of
the transmit pulses allows the range ambiguities to be filtered out.
Satellite surface charging. All bodies which are placed in a plasma in thermal equilibrium
acquire a negative electrostatic charge. The negative potential depends on the plasma tem-
perature. At altitudes of 300 to 500 km, the average kinetic energy of the plasma is low (<1
eV), hence, satellites become only weakly charged. At high altitudes (geostationary orbit
and further out) the kinetic energy of the plasma is considerably larger (the plasma is re-
ferred to as hot), hence, satellites acquire a highpotential withrespect toit (inthe order of
several keV). The electrostatic charge on satellite surfaces can pose a hazard, in particular
when differential charging is leading to potential gradients. In some cases this potential
build---up causes discharge arcing. Electrostatic charging by the natural space radiation en-
vironment is an accepted source of many anomalies of S/C electronics.
Satellite classes. Satellites may be categorizedby anumber of different criteriasuchas mass
(large, small, mini, micro), or functions and services (EO, communication, space science,
3408
data collection, navigation, orbit, etc.), or by other criteria. Withinthe last years advances in
digital microelectronics resulted in achieving sophisticated functions within ever smaller
constraints of mass, volume, and power. This in turn brought about a miniaturization trend
inplatforms andinstruments, anda demandfor low---cost projects. The followingclassifica-
tion has become widely accepted:
6096)
Satellite Class Mass
Large satellite (observatory, etc.) >1000 kg
Minisatellite Small Satellite Class
(or LightSats)
100 --- 1000 kg
Microsatellite 10 --- 100 kg
Nanosatellite 1 --- 10 kg
Picosatellite 0.1 --- 1 kg
Femtosatellite Satellite---on---a---
chip
(SpaceChip,
PCBSat)
1 --- 100 g
Table 935: Satellite classification by mass criterion
Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR). Very precise range measurements from ground reference
stations to geodynamic satellites (like Lageos, Starlette, Stella, Geo---IK, Etalon, EGS,
etc.). The SLR technique employs short pulse lasers from the ground to retroreflectors on
satellites. While the above listed geodynamic satellites are dense reflector---covered
spheres (dedicated to laser ranging), there may also be configurations where a satellite flies
a retroreflector arrangement as an experiment. The quantity of interest is time---of---light
(round trip) corrected for ranging system internal delay (calibration), atmospheric refrac-
tion (delay), retroreflector offset to the S/Ccenter---of---mass, and network epoch synchro-
nization. The short wavelengths of visible light result in a single---shot precision of about 2
cm. SLR techniques are a strong contributor to advances in precision orbit determination.
The applications of SLRdata fromgeodetic satellites includes detection and monitoring of
tectonic plate motion, crustal deformation, earth rotation, and polar motion; modeling of
the spatial and temporal variations of the earths gravitation field; determination of basin---
scale ocean tides; monitoring of millimeter---level variations in the location of the center of
mass of the total earthsystem(solidearth---atmosphere---oceans); establishment andmain-
tenance of the International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS); detection and monitor-
ing of post---glacial rebound and subsidence; monitoring the response of the atmosphere to
seasonal variations in solar heating.
Satellite structure: Basic Elements. Satellite structures must survive launch, meet outgas-
sing and other mission---specific requirements, provide stiffness, dimensional stability and
thermal control, and allow equipment mounting and containment. Remote sensing satel-
lites are comprised of a number of subsystems. The actual number of subsystems depends
on the complexity of the mission and the overall design of the spacecraft. The trend is in the
direction of standardized modular subsystems with high functional autonomy.
Satellite structure. Refers to the basic platformor bus (design, body, shape, etc.) and
subsystem accommodation.
Thermal control subsystem (passive and/or active). Orbital temperatures may vary
considerably due to varying solar irradiation. The subsystem provides the proper thermal
environment for a number of subsystems (in particular electronic or optical equipment).
Thermal balance may be maintained by using an exterior finish that absorbs or emits radi-
ation; this is referred to as a passive system. An active systemmay use louvers to achieve a
required environment
_____________________
6096) D. J. Barnhart, T. Vladimirova, M. Baker, M. N. Sweeting, A Low--- Cost Femtosatellite to enable Distributed
Space Missions, Proceedings of the 57th IAC/IAF/IAA (International Astronautical Congress), Valencia, Spain,
Oct. 2--- 6, 2006, IAC--- 06--- B5.6.06
3409
G&C (Guidance and Control) subsystem. G&C is responsible for all functionality as-
sociated with spacecraft attitude (sensing and control), a basis for proper S/C pointing.
G&C is sometimes simply referred to as attitude control. See also Spacecraft stabiliza-
tion.
Power subsystem. The subsystem is responsible for providing continuous power for all
subsystems throughout the mission. The two most common power sources are solar cells
and high performance batteries. The solar energy may vary depending on satellite orbit
(due to sun eclipses or varying sun elevation angles). Batteries (such as NiCd or NiH
2
) are
used as a supplemental onboard energy source.
Power distribution. Refers to the spacecraft cabling system to all subsystems. Some-
times this electrical distribution function is integrated into the spacecraft bus.
Antenna subsystem. The subsystem is responsible for receiving and transmitting tele-
communication signals between ground and spacecraft (maybe in several bands).
C&DH (Command and Data Handling) subsystem. The subsystem is responsible for
command processing, data management, health and status management, telecommunica-
tions management, and power management.
Spacecraft bus. Asharedcommunications mediumfor all subsystems (like serial busses
or parallel backplane busses). This requires a commoninterface definition. Some S/Cseries
of agencies or companies offer standardizedsystems capable of accommodating a variety of
payloads and subsystems. Newer designs consider the S/C bus as the physical structure for
distribution of all onboard services (data, electricity, etc.) to the payload along with the in-
tegration of all service subsystems (attitude and control, timing, thermal control, etc.).
Spacecraft computer. Depending onspacecraft complexity there may be a S/Ccomput-
er and/or subsystem computers.
Data recorder. Responsible for recording data streams during non---contact periods of
the S/C. This may be an independent device (high volume and high data rate) or solid state
memory storage in a S/C computer.
Payload instruments. Asuite of sensors performing assignedobservations. Suchinstru-
ments may be imagers, sounders, radiometers, etc.
Timing subsystem. Responsible for giving a uniform time stamp to all required inter-
faces.
GPS receiver. Ever more satellites are carrying such a systemfor orbit determination.
Scales (macro---, meso---, and microscales). See observational scales in modeling chapter
O.11 on page 3262.
Scanning. The sweepof amirror, prism, antenna, or other element across atrack (normal to
the direction of flight); the footprint may be a straight line, a circle or any other shape. In
general, theprocess of scanningis aprogrammedmotionthat canbe usedeither for measur-
ing angular location of a target, or it can be used to extend the angular range of an antenna
beam. There are two basic ways of classifying scanning methods:
Fromthe viewpoint of the type of beammotion introduced to scan a volume, the meth-
ods are described as: raster scan, helical scan, etc.
From the viewpoint of beam steering, the methods are described as mechanical, elec-
tromechanical, or as electronic.
Parameter Object plane scanning technique Image plane scanning technique
Scanning mechanism Mirror for rotating and/or tilting No mechanism
Width of scanning Wide Narrow
3410
Parameter Image plane scanning technique Object plane scanning technique
IFOV (Instantaneous Field of
View)
Narrow Wide
Aperture optics Large Small
Optical system Catoptic system Dioptic/catoptic system
Spectral range VIS --- TIR VIS --- VNIR
Number of optical detectors Few Many (area array)
SNR (Signal---to---Noise---Ratio) Low High
Size and mass Large and heavy Small and light
Table 936: Comparison of scanning techniques for imaging spectrometers
Scanner. An instrument that scans and by this means produces an image. A two---dimen-
sional image is generated by the forward motion of the satellite platform. The addition of
single pixels in combination with cross---track scanning (whiskbroom) or of a cross---track
line of pixels (CCD line array) are the basic elements of such an image. Common scanner
types are: a) whiskbroom (cross---track multispectral imaging with discrete detectors), b)
pushbroom (cross---track multispectral scanner with CCD line arrays), c) hyperspectral
scanning with area arrays (see chapter O.3).
Figure 1467: Overview of scanning techniques (image credit: ISS, University of Stuttgrat)
3411
ScanSAR. A SAR imaging technique permitting acquisition of a larger observation swath
than what would normally be possible due to range---Doppler ambiguity limitations, but at
the expenseof reducedresolution. Thetechnique, basedonphasedarray antennatechnolo-
gy with a rapid electronic steering capability of the elevation beam pattern, permits a high
degreeof flexibility ingroundobservationcoverage. The principleof this mode of operation
is to illuminate an area on the ground long enough to acquire imagery (synthetic aperture)
for the desiredresolutionandthenmove the illuminatedbeamtoa different area across the
swath to increase coverage. Hence, the operational time of the SARbeampattern is shared
betweentwoor more subswaths insucha way as toobtainfull image coverageof each. How-
ever, a contiguous subswath coverage implies shorter integration times for each footprint,
resulting in shorter integration times --- consequently, the resolution of the resulting image
is degraded.
The ScanSAR technique may also serve to cover an event of interest, positioned close---by
but still outside the normal coverage of the current orbit. The required beam pointing for
such an event can be done on command with the phased array antenna.
Scattering. Light absorbed and subsequently re---emitted by particles suspended in a me-
dium in all directions at about the same frequency. In scattering no energy transformation
results, there is only a change in the spatial distribution of the radiation. --- Scattering varies
as a function of the ratio of the particle diameter to the wavelength of the radiation. When
this ratio is less than about one---tenth, Rayleigh scattering occurs in which the scattering
coefficient varies inversely as the fourth power of the wavelength. At larger values of the
ratio of particle diameter towavelength, scattering varies ina complex fashion describedby
theMie theory (particle sizeis comparablewiththewavelengthdimension). At aratioof the
order of ten, the laws of geometric optics begin to apply and this serves to mark the some-
what diffuse upper boundary of the realm of scattering (where diffraction begins). Primary
scattering of the Rayleigh type, largely by air molecules, is responsible for the blue sky and
the polarization of the skys light. On the other hand, Mie scattering occurs by the interac-
tion of radiation (light) with aerosols or cloud particles.
Scattering matrix. An array of complex numbers that describes the transformation of the
polarization of a wave incident upon a reflective medium to the polarization of the back-
scattered wave. See also radar polarimeter under radar.
Scatterometer types. There are two basic designs of scatterometers: the traditional fan---
beamDoppler scatterometer (examples: NSCAT, AMI---SCAT), and the scanning pencil ---
beamscatterometer. The fan---beamDoppler scatterometer requires multiple antennas to
achieve the target illumination pattern (sticklike antennas are used to broadcast long, nar-
row radar footprints). The FOV requirements of the antennas are very strict making fan---
beamscatterometers very difficult toaccommodateonS/C. --- Thedesignof the newer scan-
ning pencil ---beam instrument is more compact; they offer long dwell times which result in
better SNRs. SeaWinds on ADEOS---II will be a scanning pencil ---beam scatterome-
ter.
6097)
Schottky diode (namedafter Walter H. Schottky). Adiode that has ametal ---semiconductor
contact (e.g., anAl layer inintimate contact withann---type siliconsubstrate). The Schottky
diode is electrically similar to a p---n junction, though the current flow in the diode is due
primarily tocarriers having aninherently fast response. It is usedfor high---frequency, low---
noise mixer and switching circuits.
Scintillation. Variations in the brightness of starlight (i.e. twinkling) caused by turbulent
strata very high in the Earths atmosphere (ionosphere). Also, the emission of sparks or
flashes. In general, scintillation refers to the fluctuation of amplitude and/or phase of a sig-
nal caused by the irregular structure of the propagating medium.
_____________________
6097) D. G. Long, M. W. Spencer, Radar Backscatter Measurement Accuracy for a Spaceborne Pencil--- Beam Wind
Scatterometer with Transmit Modulation, IEEE Transaction on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. 35, No. 1,
Jan. 1997, pp. 102--- 114
3412
Scintillation counter. A device that uses a photomultiplier tube to detect or count charged
particles (which produce scintillations of radiation when they impact upon phosphor) or
g---rays.
Sea Surface Salinity (SSS).
6098)
SSS is an important variable in ocean and climate dynam-
ics. In polar oceans, SSS intrusions with a low salinity influence the deep thermohaline cir-
culation and the meridional heat transport. Variations in salinity also influence the oceans
near surface dynamics inthe tropics where rainfall modifies the buoyancy of the surface lay-
er and the tropical ocean---atmosphere heat fluxes (warm surface pool dynamics). --- The
physical basis for SSS remote sensing is the microwave brightness temperature (low fre-
quency range in L---band around 1.4 GHz) which is directly linked to the dielectric
constant---of the target area (i.e., moisture or salinity); hence, proportional to moisture or
salinity. SSS retrieval requires knowledge of sea surface temperature and sea roughness
and, additionally, it also requires a very high sensitivity from the sensor.
Sea Surface Temperature (SST). The SST at the very surface, within the top few micro-
metres, is termed SSST (Skin SST), and the SST immediately below is called the bulk
SST. The skinSSTmay be significantly cooler, by as muchas 1 K, than the bulk SSTimmedi-
ately below it. This temperature difference is due to the fact that heat transfer is usually
fromthe ocean to the atmosphere, and therefore the ocean is losing heat to the atmosphere
by molecular conductance. Beneath the skin layer, the temperature may be relatively
constant to a depth of a fewmetres if the ocean is well mixed, or there may be a pronounced
temperature gradient known as the diurnal thermocline.
There are several factors that determine the skin---bulk temperature difference and the
magnitude of the thermocline, but the principal ones are wind speed and the amount of in-
coming solar radiation. Both effects usually exhibit a diurnal cycle. The most favoured con-
ditions for both the establishment of a skin---bulk difference and a thermocline are calm
winds in strong sunlight.
Satellite instruments can only measure the skin SST, although the retrieval algorithms are
formulated to attempt to give a pseudo---bulk SST.
Semiconductor junctions. Semiconductors whose principal charge carriers are electrons
are calledn---type (negative). If the charge carriers are mainly holes (avacancy withpositive
charge), the material is p---type (positive).
Sensor. An instrument (generic term), usually consisting of optics, detectors, and electron-
ics that collects radiation and converts it to some other form. The form may be a certain
pattern (an image, a profile, etc.), a warning, a control signal, or some other signal. --- The
photographic camera is one of the best knownexamples of a remote sensor whichhas been
around since the first half of the nineteenth century.
Sensor characteristics. The ability of a sensor to detect and to resolve incoming radiation.
For imaging sensors a very prominent characteristic is ground resolution, its ability to dis-
tinguish objects on the Earths surface. Other sensor characteristics are: scene size, spectral
range, spectral resolution, radiometric resolution, pointing accuracy (location knowledge),
andtimeliness (inwhichimages are returnedtothe user, the frequency at withwhichagiven
target can be revisited, the fraction of time that the sensor requires for taking an image).
Shielding. Refers toa techniqueof enclosinganobject or adevice withina container specifi-
cally designed to attenuate or otherwise exclude electromagnetic radiation.
Sidelobes. See antenna sidelobes.
Sigma (s). The conventional measure of the strength of a radar signal reflected froma geo-
metric object (the target area). Sigma designates the strength of reflection in terms of the
_____________________
6098) G. Lagerloef, C. Swift, D. LeVine, Sea Surface Salinity: The next remote sensing challenge, Oceanography, 8,
1995, pp. 44--- 50
3413
geometric cross section of a conducting sphere that would give rise to the same level of re-
flectivity. See also radar cross section.
Sigmanaught (s). Scatteringcoefficient, theconventional measureof thestrengthof radar
signals reflected by a distributed scatterer, usually expressed in dB. It is a normalized di-
mensionless number, comparing the strengthobserved tothat expectedfromanarea of one
m
2
. Sigma naught is defined with respect to the nominally horizontal plane, and in general
has a significant variationwithincidence angle, wavelength, polarization, as well as withthe
properties of the scattering surface itself.
Signal---To---Noise Ratio (SNR). The ratio of the level of information---bearing signal pow-
er to the level of noise power. The maximumSNRof a device is called the dynamic range.
Ingeneral, the higher the value of aninstruments SNR, the better the signal quality for rec-
ognition (detection) and interpretation.
Signature. The response of electromagnetic radiation to particular objects in the target
area. Signatures may be usedfor patternrecognitionwhichmay inturn leadto target identi-
fication.
The radar signature is the radar response (differential radar cross---section or the scat-
tering cross section) of a particular material or object as a function of frequency, angle, po-
larization, or time.
The spectral signature is the radiation response of an object as a function of wave-
length.
Silicon Carbide (SiC). Silicon carbide occurs in many different crystal structures (called
polytypes) with each crystal structure having its own unique electrical and optical proper-
ties. In the 1990s and at the turn of the 21st century, SiCis becoming an important material
in semiconductor electronics technology. This is due to the excellent performance charac-
teristics of the material in: structure, optical properties, electrical characteristics, and me-
chanical properties. For instance, SiC---basedelectronics andsensors canoperate inhostile
environments such as in high---temperature applications up to 600C (conventional Si ---
based electronics are limited to 350C ). SiC has also the ability to function under high---
power (high---voltage switching, microwave electronics incommunications, etc.) andhigh---
radiationconditions. Significant performance enhancements are expectedtoafar---ranging
variety of applications and systems. However, improvements in crystal growth and device
fabrication processes are needed before SiC---based devices and circuits can be scaled---up
and incorporated into electronic systems. --- In addition, the SiC material offers some fea-
tures very important to space instruments, like: low mass, high specific strength, and high
optical quality for reflector surfaces. SiC---type ceramic mirrors and structures are becom-
ing state---of---the---art technology components in lightweight optomechanical systems
(telescopes).
Soil moisture. Soil moisture is an important variable controlling biogeochemical cycles,
heat exchange and infiltration rates at the land/atmosphere boundary. Soil moisture con-
tent partitions rainfall into infiltration and runoff, and determines radiative sensible and
latent heat.
6099)
The microwave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum causes a large
contrast betweenwater anddry soil, offering the greatest potential for monitoring soil mois-
ture.
Solar absorptiontechnique. Amethodfor measuring atmospheric constituents. As sunlight
passes through the Earths atmosphere, certain wavelengths are selectively absorbed by
gaseous constituents. In the infrared region, nearly all gases have characteristic, discrete
absorptions, whose positions and relative strengths are known from laboratory measure-
_____________________
6099) J. Li, S. Islam, On the estimation of soil moisture profile and surface fluxes partitioning from sequential assimila-
tion of surface layer soil moisture, Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 220, pp. 86--- 103, 1999.
3414
ments of pure gas samples. This permits gaseous atmospheric constituents between the sun
and an observer to be identified and quantified from high resolution solar spectra.
Solar cell. A solar cell or photovoltaic (PV) cell is an optoelectronic device (invented in
1954) that converts the radiant energy of sunlight directly into electrical power, based on
photovoltaic principles. The solar cell is a large---area photodiode that detects the solar
emission spectrum rather than a specific wavelength, as do photodiodes. The solar cell is
unbiased, the load is connected directly across the two terminals of the p---n junction. Con-
version efficiency, radiation hardness, and EOL (End Of Life) power are very important
properties of solar cells. They are usually arranged in arrays or panels for spacecraft power-
ing. During the 40 years of space technology, three generations of solar cells have been
introduced:
Silicon (Si) solar cells dominated the field until the early 1990s
Gallium arsenide (GaAs) solar cells arrived in about 1990. They have better conver-
sion efficiencies and radiation resistance in comparison with Si cells. GaAS cells can be
manufactured on lightweight germanium substrates.
The third generation of solar cells is the multifunction cell, or cascade cell. Current
multijunctioncells are basedonGaInP(GalliumIndiumPhosphide) material andGaAs on
Ge substrate.
Note: EOL efficiency. This is the efficiency of the solar cell after many years of high energy
particle irradiation in orbit. The EOLefficiency has to meet the power requirements of the
satellite. The degradationof the cell characteristics under the high energy electron andpro-
ton irradiation depends on the semiconductor material and the specific solar cell structure.
Solar cycle. The solar cycle is the periodic change in the suns activity (including changes in
the levels of solar radiation and ejection of solar material) and appearance (visible in
changes in the number of sunspots, flares, and other visible manifestations). Solar cycles
have a durationof about 11 years. They have beenobserved(by changes inthe suns appear-
ance and by changes seen on Earth, such as auroras) for hundreds of years. Solar cycles are
numberedstarting withthe solar cycle of 1755---1766 (Solar Cycle 1). Solar cycle 24, the cur-
rent solar cycle, started on January 8, 2008. NASA predicts that the solar cycle 24 will peak
in early or mid 2013 with about 59 sunspots.
6100)
The 11 year period betweenmaxima (or minima) of solar activity is usually measured by the
number of sunspots on the solar surface. About every 11 years the magnetic field of the sun
reverses polarity; hence, the more basic periodmay be 22 years. It is generally acceptedthat
the solar cycle is maintained by a dynamo driven by the differential rotation of the suns en-
velope. --- Emperical evidence fromextensive climate data sets suggests the presense of an
11 year solar signal of the order 0.1 K in Earth surface, atmospheric and ocean tempera-
tures.
Whenthe sunis at themaximumof its activity cycle, it is about 0.1%brighter overall, withan
order of magnitude greater increase at UVwavelengths. Intheearly 21
st
century, it is estab-
lished that climate forcing is well correlated with total solar irradiance and UV irradiance
measurements obtained from high---precision spaceborne solar measurements spanning
more then two decades of observations.
The best known consequence of high solar activity is an increase in the density of the ther-
mosphere, which, in turn, increases drag on the vast majority of objects in LEO (LowEarth
Orbit). The most prominent evidence of this is seen in a dramatic increase in space object
reentries.
On 3 November 1960, the U.S. deployed the Explorer 8 spacecraft into an elliptical orbit of
420 km x 2290 kmwith an inclination of 50. Although the spacecraft completed its mission
_____________________
6100) Solar cycle, URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cycle
3415
after only two months, Explorer 8, with its relatively lowperigee and high apogee, was in an
ideal orbit to monitor changes in the density of the thermosphere under varying levels of
solar activity.Figure 1468 illustrates theeffect of the periodic solar maximafromthelaunch
of Explorer 8 to its reentry in March 2012. Clearly, the rate of orbital decay increased in
synchronization with high levels of solar activity.
6101)
Figure 1468: The orbital decay of the Explorer 8 satellite was directly influenced by periodic increases in
solar activity (image credit: NASA)
Solar flares. A solar flare is a large explosion in the suns atmosphere that can release as
much as 6 x 10
25
joules of energy (equivalent to millions of atomic bombs exploding simul-
taneously). During the occurrence of a solar flare, plasma is heated to tens of millions de-
grees Kelvin, while electrons, protons and heavier ions are accelerated to near the speed of
light.
Solar flares affect all layers of the solar atmosphere (photosphere, corona, and chromo-
sphere), heating plasma to tens of millions of kelvins and accelerating electrons, protons,
and heavier ions to near the speed of light. They produce radiation across the electromag-
netic spectrumat all wavelengths, fromradiowaves togamma rays. Most flares occur inact-
ive regions around sunspots, where intense magnetic fields penetrate the photosphere to
link the corona to the solar interior. Flares are powered by the sudden (timescales of
_____________________
6101) Nicholas L. Johnson, Theeffects of solar maximumontheEarths satellitepopulationandspace situational aware-
ness, Proceedings of the 63
rd
IAC (International Astronautical Congress), Naples, Italy, Oct. 1--- 5, 2012, paper:
IAC--- 12.A6.2.9, URL: http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20120002784_2012002209.pdf
3416
minutes to hours) release of magnetic energy stored in the corona. If a solar flare is excep-
tionally powerful, it can cause CMEs (Coronal Mass Ejections).
6102)
X---rays and UVradiation emitted by solar flares can affect Earths ionosphere and disrupt
long---range radio communications of satellites. Direct radio emission at decimetric
wavelengths may disturb operation of radars and other devices operating at these frequen-
cies.
Solar flare activity can vary from several per day to only a few a month, depending mostly
upon the overall activity of the sun as a whole. The prediction of solar flare occurrences has
been problematic so far.
In2009/2010, progress has been made in the prediction accuracy by Alysha Reinard andher
team at NOAAs Space Weather Prediction Center in Boulder, CO. The long---sought clue
to prediction lies in changes in twisting magnetic fields beneath the surface of the sun in the
days leading up to a flare. The newtechnique permits advance predictions of solar flares up
to 2---3 days. The NOAAteamfound that sound waves recorded frommore than 1,000 sun-
spot regions reveal disruptions in the suns interior magnetic loops that predict a solar flare.
They found the same pattern in region after region: magnetic twisting that tightened to the
breaking point, burst into a large flare, and vanished. They established that the pattern
could be used as a reliable tool for predicting a solar flare.
6103) 6104)
Solar radiation --- fromSun to Earth.
6105)
The enormous amounts of energy, continuously
emitted by the sun, is dispersed into outer space in all directions. Only a tiny fraction of this
energy is being intercepted by the Earth and other solar planets. The solar energy reaching
the periphery of the Earths atmosphere was considered to be constant for all practical pur-
poses (it actually varies slightly), and is known as the solar constant. The accepted mean
value is 1,353 W/m
2
.
Outer space: In passing through outer space, which is characterized by vacuum, the differ-
ent types of solar energy remain intact and are not modified until the radiation reaches the
top of the earths atmosphere. In outer space, therefore, one would expect to encounter the
following types of radiation: gamma ray, X---ray, ultraviolet, and infrared radiations.
Spectral band Wave range (nm) Atmospheric effects
Gamma rays < 0.003 nm Radiation is completely absorbed by upper atmosphere
X---rays 0.003 --- 6 Radiation is completely absorbed by upper atmosphere
Ultraviolet UV (B)
(EUV, FUV, some
UV)
6 --- 300 Radiation is completely absorbed by oxygen, nitrogen,
and ozone in the upper atmosphere
Ultraviolet UV (A)
(NUV)
300 --- 400 Radiation transmitted through the atmosphere, but atmo-
spheric scattering is severe
Visible light (VIS) 400 --- 700 Radiation is transmitted with moderate scattering for
shorter wavelengths
Infrared reflected
(NIR, SWIR)
700 --- 3000 Mostly reflection radiation
Thermal infrared
(MWIR, TIR)
3000 --- 14,000 Absorption at specific wavelengths by carbon dioxide,
ozone , and water vapor, with major atmospheric windows
Table 937: Spectral regions of incoming solar radiation and atmospheric effects
Atmospheric effects: Not all of the solar radiation received at the periphery of the atmo-
sphere reaches the surfaces of the Earth. This is because the Earths atmosphere plays an
_____________________
6102) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_flare
6103) NOAAScientist Finds Clue to Predicting Solar Flares, January 19, 2010, URL: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/
stories2010/20100119_solarflare.html
6104) Alysha Reinard, Justin Henthorn, Rudi Komm, Frank Hill, Evidence that temporal changes in solar subsurface
helicity precede active region flaring, The Astrophysical Journal Letters, Vol. 709, No 2, Feb. 2010
6105) http://almashriq.hiof.no/lebanon/600/610/614/solar--- water/unesco/21--- 23.html
3417
important role in selectively controlling the passage towards the Earths surface of the vari-
ous components of solar radiation.
Aconsiderable portionof solar radiationis reflectedback intoouter spaceuponstrikingthe
uppermost layers of the atmosphere, andalsofromthe tops of clouds. In the course of pene-
tration through the atmosphere, some of the incoming radiation is either absorbed or scat-
teredin all directions by atmospheric gases, vapors, anddust particles. In fact, there are two
processes known to be involved in atmospheric scattering of solar radiation. These are
termed selective scattering and non---selective scattering. These two processes are deter-
mined by the different sizes of particles in the atmosphere.
Selective atmospheric scattering is, broadly speaking, inversely proportional to the
wavelength of radiation and, therefore, decreases in the following order of magnitude:
EUV>near UV>violet >blue >green >yellow>orange >red>infrared. According-
ly, the most severely scattered radiation is that which falls in the ultraviolet, violet, and blue
bands of the spectrum. The scattering effect on radiation in these three bands is roughly ten
times as great as on the red rays of sunlight. --- It is interesting tonote that the selective scat-
tering of violet and blue light by the atmosphere causes the blue color of the sky.
Non---selective scattering occurring in the lower atmosphere is caused by dust, fog, and
clouds with particle sizes more than ten times the wavelength of the components of solar
radiation. Since the amount of scattering is equal for all wavelengths, clouds and fog appear
white although their water particles are colorless. Atmospheric gases also absorb solar en-
ergy at certain wavelength intervals, called absorption bands, in contrast to the wavelength
regions characterizedby hightransmittance of solar radiation, calledatmospheric transmis-
sion bands, or atmospheric windows.
Ground level: As a result of the atmospheric phenomena involving reflection, scattering,
and absorption of radiation, the quantity of solar energy that ultimately reaches the Earths
surfaceis muchreducedinintensity as it traverses theatmosphere. Theamount of reduction
varies with the radiation wavelength, and depends on the length of the atmospheric path
through which the solar radiation traverses. The intensity of the direct beams of sunlight
thus depends on the altitude of the sun, and also varies with such factors as latitude, season,
cloud coverage, and atmospheric pollutants.
The total solar radiationreceivedat groundlevel includes bothdirect radiationandindirect
(or diffuse) radiation. Diffuse radiationis the component of total radiationcaused by atmo-
spheric scattering and reflection of the incident radiation on the ground. Reflection from
the ground is primarily visible light with a maximum radiation peak at a wavelength of 555
nm(green light). The relatively small amount of energy radiated fromthe Earth at an aver-
age ambient temperature of 17 C at its surface consists of infrared radiation with a peak
concentration at 970 nm. This invisible radiation is dominant at night.
Solar radiation pressure (SRP). Refers to a force on the surface of a body (normally a
spacecraft) due to a) the impact of solar photons, b) the related effects of anisotropic ther-
mal re---radiation of the body, and c) the albedo force. In the long term, these three interre-
lated tiny (non---conservative) forces can have a strong perturbing effect on the orbit of a
satellite. With the increased accuracy requirements for many geodetic/altimeter satellites,
it has become necessary to have more accurate methods for modeling these forces. While
the net incident radiation reaching the satellite is well known, the characteristics of the sat-
ellites surfaces (i.e. specular and diffuse reflectivity) and their time---dependent behavior
requires some analysis.
6106)
Solar sail. Alow---thrust propulsion technology (in the experimental/demonstration phase
at the start of the 21st century) whose concept relies on the momentumtransfer of photons
(solar radiation pressure) on large, highly reflecting sails in space for passive propulsion
_____________________
6106) M. Ziebart, P. Cross, S. Adhya, Modeling Photon Pressure --- The Key to High--- Precision GPS Satellite Orbits,
GPS World, Jan. 2002, pp. 43--- 50, part of the Innovation Column, coordinated by R. B. Langley
3418
such as orbit transfer functions. The concept involves the deployment and control (orienta-
tion) of a large sail in orbit on lightweight structures. The technology of such solarcraft is of
interest for interplanetary missions.
At Earthdistance fromthe sun, the solar flux, S
s
is about 1.4 kWm
---2
. If one assumes perfect
reflectivity from the mirror (perfect reflection of sail), the force due to this flux is given as:
F=ma =2 (S
s
x A)/c [where Ais a unit area of sail surface (1 m
2
) andc is the speed of light
(c= 3 x 10
10
m/s)]
F = 9.3 x 10
---6
N (the force or solar radiation pressure on 1 m
2
of sail surface normal to the
sun). This force is indeed very small. Hence, large sail surface areas are needed to come up
with a noticeable force for a lightweight spacecraft.
Solar wind. A radial outflow of plasma from the solar corona, carrying mass and angular
momentum away from the sun (see chapter O.17). The solar wind consists of a flux of par-
ticles, chiefly protons and electrons together with nuclei of heavier elements in smaller
numbers, that are accelerated by the high temperatures of the solar corona, or outer region
of the Sun, to velocities large enough to allow them to escape from the suns gravitational
field. At 1 au (astronomical unit) the solar wind contains approximately 1---10 protons/cm
3
moving outward from the sun at velocities of 350 to 700 km/s (or about 1.26 ---2.52 million
km/h); this creates a positive ion flux of 108 to 109 ions/(cm
2
s), each ion having an energy
equal to at least 15 eV(electron volts). During solar flares, the proton velocity, flux, plasma
temperature, and associatedturbulence increase substantially. The solar windrepresents a
mass loss from the sun of ~10
15
kg per year.
Solid Earthdynamics: The solidEarth processes are thoseaffecting thesurface andinteri-
or of the planet. This topic refers to the characteristics of crustal deformation in regions of
active tectonic activity and the processes driving the solidEarths dynamics. This study field
includes atmosphere angular momentum variations, ocean tides and currents, and core
flow dynamics and angular momentumtransfer between the various interfaces of this com-
plex system.
Tectonic processes driven by mantle convection and associated deformation at the surface,
leading to earthquakes and volcanic activity, are affecting daily life for millions of people.
The global distribution of gravity is indicative of such processes in the interior, a driver for
ocean currents, and sensitive to mass redistribution, for example, due to melting land ice.
Anomalies in the magnetic field tell us more about Earths geological history and mass mo-
tion in its fluid core.
Sounder. A remote sensing instrument that measures incoming radiation spectrum (trace
gases, temperature, pressure, moisture, trace gases,) of theatmosphere ina particular plane
of observation obtaining profiles along a path. The various profile heights of the measure-
ments can be determined by the state parameters. A sounder may be a passive device by
measuring the incoming radiation, it can alsobe anactive device, transmitting signals (echo
sounding) and receiving the echo information. Two basic configurations are in use:
In the nadir---viewing configuration the observation plane is the orbit plane of the plat-
form (series of footprints along the suborbital track). The scan technique provides good
horizontal resolution of the measurements, but usually poor vertical resolutions.
Limb sounders look at the horizon (the limb) andscan vertically, producing goodverti-
cal resolution but poor horizontal resolution.
Sounding. To sound (to find bottom) originally referred to the measurement of water
depths by sounding methods (sounding line, echo sounding, etc.) in shallow coastal waters
and in rivers. The technique was much later extended to measure also the conditions of
another medium, namely the atmosphere, at various heights. The first devices used were
balloons withself---registering instruments (referredtoas sondes) to recordmeteorological
3419
data. As newtechnologies became available, radiosondes, dropsondes fromaircraft, rawin-
sondes, sounding rockets, ground---based, airborne and spaceborne instruments of a great
variety appeared.
Spacecraft/platform attitude sensing and control devices.
A S/C attitude or pointing direction is determined by comparing information from various
onboard sensors with the positions of known references. Attitude knowledge may be de-
rived from the following orientation instruments:
Magnetometers (measuring the known magnetic field components)
Sun and/or star sensors or trackers (measuring of known celestial body directions)
Earthhorizonsensors (various types, mostly inthe IRregion; ahorizoncrossingindica-
tor may determine the attitude of a spin---stabilized S/C with respect to the Earth; another
horizon sensor may measure one component of the attitude of a three---axis stabilized S/C
with respect to the Earth; there are scanning IR Earth horizon sensors, etc.).
Gyroscopes (measuring inertial reference)
GPSreceiver (capable of measuring attitude). These GPSattitude instruments provide
attitude and attitude rate data to actuators for real ---time, autonomous attitude determina-
tion.
Telescope (instrument guide telescope)
etc.
The following instruments (or combinations thereof), referred to as actuators, provide atti-
tude control:
Momentum gyros
Reaction/momentum wheels
Thrusters (cold gas thrusters, solid thrusters, ion thrusters, mono--- or bi ---propellant
engine, etc.)
Magnetic torque coil/rods (magnetorquers)
Permanent magnets
Gravity gradient boom
Nutation damper
etc.
The simplest attitude control system is passive stabilization, either magnetically (a mag-
netometer as sensor in combination with a magnetic torque rod as actuator) or by gravity
gradient methods. Passive stabilization can also be combined with active components, e.g.
gravity gradient systems with magnetic torquers are quite common.
6107)
Simple spinners,
and momentum biased satellites represent the next advanced level of attitude control sys-
tem, requiring at least for the momentumbiased systemsome active stabilization about the
angular momentum axis (typically the pitch axis). Zero---momentum systems with either
reaction wheels or thrusters are the most complex systems, they require constant stabiliza-
tion and become unstable if control is lost only for a short period of time. Simple and pas-
sively stable systems have a low pointing performance, and complex systems using reaction
wheels are highly accurate pointing systems.
_____________________
6107) H. J. Koenigsmann, G. Gurevich, AttSim, Attitude Simulation with Control Software in the Loop, Proceedings
of the AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites, Aug. 23--- 26, 1999, Logan UT, SSC--- IIa--- 5
3420
Spacecraft/platformdisturbance torques. The following list is a summary of typical distur-
bance torques on a platform:
Aerodynamic drag force (in LEO applications). A torque is created between the CM
(Center of Mass) and the CP (Center of Pressure) of the drag force. Atmospheric drag due
to the low perigee creates an acceleration on the spacecraft which tends to decrease its or-
bital energy, and thus, the orbit decays
Earths geopotential, namely the J
2
term of the Earths oblateness. The perturbation
due to the Earths J
2
term has the tendency to precess both the Line of Apsides (the line
connecting perigee and apogee) and the Line of Nodes (the line connecting the ascending
and descending nodes).
Gravity gradient: Agravitational field variation is created by long and extended space-
craft structures (this applies in particular to booms, tethers, etc.)
Internal torques: May be generated by onboard equipment (wheels, cryocoolers,
pumps, etc. )
Magnetic torques are induced by the residual magnetic moment
Mass expulsion: these are torques created by thrusters (including electric propulsion)
Solar radiation: A torque is induced by the CM and CP offset.
Spacecraft/platformand instrument pointing. Good location knowledge of a target (of the
ground surface, of a celestial body, etc.) by instrument pointing is an ever---present require-
ment of many missions (in particular for astronomy instrument pointing, also whenimagery
of the Earths surface is used for cartographic applications). Precision pointing capability is
the result of spacecraft stability through suitable attitude sensing and control mechanisms
(some systems may include vibration control, elimination of alignment errors due to ther-
mal distortions, etc.). In general structural stiffness of the platform is an important prereq-
uisite for a stable pointing environment. There are several classes of instruments with re-
gard to pointing capability:
Rigid---body instrument pointing or simply body pointing. This refers to a no---instru-
ment---pointing capability relative to the platform. Most observation instruments on a
spacecraft platform are fixed, they point into a constant direction (nadir, off---nadir, limb,
zenith, etc.), their FOV(Field of View) provides a sufficient scan capability (for instance in
the cross---track direction, and/or in the height direction) to measure all resolutioncells ina
swath.
Some S/C with body---pointed (fixed) instruments are able to employ maneuvers to
turn the entire S/C into a desired direction (example: IKONOS---1) thereby extending the
field of regard considerably for observations outside of the normal swath width. S/C with
relatively small masses (microsatellites) are most suited for this choice of pointing imple-
mentation.
Instrument pointing relative to the platform. This class of sensors performs inertial
pointing/tracking of a star or simply pointing/tracking of the sun or the moon. Some ob-
servation instruments need to be kept pointed for relatively long periods of time with ex-
traordinary precision at faint celestial bodies. However, most instruments in this class are
attitude sensors (such as: gyroscopes, magnetometers, horizon sensors, star or sun sensors,
star trackers, accelerometers), their measurements serve as input for the onboard attitude
control subsystem. The pointing knowledge bounds of a platform are always smaller than
the actual pointing control bounds.
Instrument pointing capability relative to the platform. These are observation instru-
ments (imager, etc) performing fairly quick slew maneuvers, for instance in the along---
track direction, to obtain stereo imaging.
3421
SARs capability to form good imagery relies significantly on the stability of the platform
and, if the stability is not satisfactory, the precise knowledge of attitude information can be
used to correct for orbital effects. On---board accurate and precise attitude/position deter-
mination is required, and in case of interferometry, most demanding. The baseline knowl-
edge required is in the order of millimeter and the attitude of the baseline in the order of
several arcseconds.
In an effort to achieve very precise aiming, ESAbuilt a Spacelab systemby the name of IPS
(Instrument Pointing System --- first flown on STS---51---F as Spacelab---2 in July/Aug.
1985). This three---axis gimbal pointing systemprovides precision pointing and tracking ca-
pabilities by establishing an inertially stable base from which stellar, solar, and Earth ob-
servations can be made (maintenance of pointing stability is within 1.2 arcseconds).
6108)
6109)
--- Inthe same context, MACE(MiddeckActive Control Experiment) is a NASApreci-
sion pointing system(built by MIT, LaRC, LMSC, et al.) flown on Shuttle flight STS---67 in
March 1995, with the objective to explore high precision pointing and vibration control of
future spacecraft andsatellites. MACEextends conventional rigid---body instrument point-
ing to include flexible modes. Tests were conducted on the free---floating MACE platform
to measure how disturbances caused by a payload impacts the performance of another
nearby payload which is attached to the same supporting structure. MACE accomplish-
ments: a) About 50 LaRC control systems were experimentally evaluated on---orbit, b) a
reduction of at least 19 dB was achieved in the vibration levels, and c) MACE was able to
synthesize and evaluate new control designs during the STS---67 flight.
Spacecraft/platformstabilization. Techniques that control the orientation (attitude) of the
spacecraft in orbit with respect to certain known references. Several of the methods in use
are:
Single---spinstabilization. The whole spacecraft body rotates about the axis of the prin-
cipal moment of inertia (acting like a gyroscope). These satellites cannot have oriented an-
tennas, a severe drawback for certain applications.
Dual ---spin stabilization. Aconfiguration in which the spacecraft consists of two parts:
the platform, which is oriented toward the Earth, and the rotor, which rotates about the
principal axis of the S/C thereby providing gyroscopic stiffness (example: Meteosat).
Three---axis stabilization. A configuration in which the entire spacecraft is oriented
toward a particular direction (usually toward the Earth in one dimension and aligned to the
flight path in the other dimension). The control torques for attitude control are providedby
a combination of reaction/momentum wheels, magnetotorquers, torque rods, gimbal sys-
tem, and/or thrusters. Inthis concept, the rotating reaction wheels are able to absorb torque
and momentum, while magnetic torquers or thrusters are used of allowing the wheels to
slowtheir rotationrate. The same attitude control functionmay alsobe providedby anall ---
thruster system.
Gravity gradient stabilization(passive stabilizationmethod). Aspacecraft consistingof
two masses (main mass and small mass) that are connected by a rod or a boom. This two---
mass arrangement produces a gravity gradient along the boomaxis and an associated small
torque which is employed for spacecraft orientation. This technique is normally used along
with magnetic torquing (yet another passive stabilization method) for better attitude con-
trol of small satellites (mini, micro, or nanosatellites).
Platform or Instrument Pointing Knowledge Pointing Accuracy (Control)
TIROS---N 0.1
Spot---1 to ---3 0.1
_____________________
6108) K. K. Denoyer, R. S. Erwin, R. R. Ninneman, Advanced SMART Structures Flight Experiments for Precision
Spacecraft, Acta Astronautica, Vol. 47, No 2--- 9, 2000, pp. 389--- 397
6109) J. A. Woods--- Vedeler, L. G. Horta, On--- Orbit Applicationof H--- Infinity tothe MiddeckActive Controls Experi-
ment: Overview of Results, AAS,1996--- 189
3422
Platform or Instrument Pointing Accuracy (Control) Pointing Knowledge
ENVISAT <0.03 < 0.1 (3 sigma)
GP---B (relativity mis-
sion)
< 20 milliarcseconds (rms)
UoSAT 2---3 (rms) gravity---gradient boom system
DMSP (Block 5D---3) 0.01 (three orthogonal gyros)
SOHO 1 arcsecond (sun pointing over a period of 1.5 min)
TRACE 20 arcseconds (correction for pointing jitter)
Landsat---7 45 arcseconds 180 arcseconds
MSX <0.1 (post---processing knowledge of 9 mrad)
GFO---1 0.25 (3 sigma)
Microlab---1 2 gravity gradient boom system
IPS (Shuttle) 1.2 arcseconds
CERES (on EOS) 180 arcseconds
MISR (on EOS) 90 arcseconds
SeaWinds 500 arcseconds
OSA (on CRSS, also re-
ferred to as Ikonos---1)
Rms ground location accuracy:
2 m relative (with ground control points)
12 m absolute (without the use of control points)
Table 938: Typical pointing parameters of a few satellites/instruments
Spacecraft/platform types (bus definitions):
In the 21 century, many terms are being used in the space industry to describe satellite bus
architectures (standard bus, modular bus, plug---and---play bus, etc.). Definitions are
provided according to the following reference:
6110)
Standard Bus: A bus with a standard launch vehicle and payload interface that can be
purchased unaltered. The expectation is that the bus can be purchased by the government
and delivered to a systems integrator for integration with the payload and subsequent test-
ing.
Customizable Bus: Abus froma standard product line that is modifiedto meet specific
mission needs. This category includes most of what industry today calls a standard bus.
Modular Bus: A bus that is assembled from modular components with standard inter-
faces and minimal interdependencies between modules. In the early developmental states,
extensive system integration and testing is required.
Plug---and---Play Bus: Amodular bus withopenstandards andinterfaces, self---describ-
ing components, and an auto---configuring system. Systemintegration is simple and testing
tasks are automated. There are twokey differences betweena Plug---and---Play satellite bus
and spacecraft that have been previously developed. That is: 1.) the use of auto---configur-
ing hardware and software interfaces between the modules, and 2.) these interface stand-
ards are described by Open--- System Standards.
Space surveillance: Refers tothe detection, tracking, propagation, cataloguing andanalysis
of active and inactive Earth orbiting objects. Satellite orbits evolve in very complex ways
requiring persistent surveillance by making repeat observations on them using ground---
based sensors. Currently (2007), the number of tracked objects in Earthorbit numbers over
9000 with only a few hundred of these being active, operating spacecraft and payloads. The
remainder of tracked objects are uncontrolled rocket bodies and debris posing collision
threats to manned and high---value unmanned spacecraft. Space surveillance provides cur-
rent and predictive information on these objects.
_____________________
6110) Peter M. Wegner, Phil Blower, Jason Wilkenfeld, Standard Buses, Modular Buses, and Plug--- and--- Play Buses;
what is the difference andwhy does it matter?, Proceedings of the IAASymposiumon Small Satellite Systems and
Services (4S), Rhodes, Greece, May 26--- 30, 2008, ESA SP--- 660, August 2008
3423
Space---Time Adaptive Processing (STAP).
6111)
STAPrefers to a class of 2---Dor 3---Dsig-
nal processing techniques (space---time, space---frequency, direction---frequency) for sen-
sor arrays. The spatial dimension is given by the geometry of the sensor array, the temporal
dimension by the sequence of received echo pulses (slow time), or by range samples (fast
time). Aprerequisite for STAPoperations is a coherent radar with a digitized multi ---chan-
nel array antenna. The mainapplicationof STAPtechniques is the detectionof lowDoppler
targets buried in a strong clutter background by a moving (airborne, spaceborne) radar sys-
tem. STAPcancompensate the inducedDoppler spreading effect of the moving platformso
that targets with low radial velocity can be detected.
Space weather. This termrefers to the conditions in space that affect the Earthand its space
environment. Space weather is a consequence of sun behavior, the nature of Earths mag-
netic field and atmosphere (in particular the ionosphere and magnetosphere), and Earths
location in the solar system. The solar wind, propagating against the Earths magnetic field
and interacting with it, shapes the near---Earth space environment. The response of the
Earths space environment to the solar wind is termed space weather. Space weather can
influence the performance andreliability of spaceborne/airborne electronic systems as well
as of groundbased systems (power and communication systems) and can endanger human
life andhealth(spacewalks of astronauts). Other effects are: aurora andchanges of climate.
Spatial frequency. Representation of an object or an image as a superposition of sinusoids
(Fourier components).
Specific impulse. The specific impulse (Isp) of athruster is the impulse(a forceappliedfor a
certain time) exerted with 1 kg of propellant. Therefore the units for specific impulse are
Newton---seconds per kilogram(Ns/kg). By inserting the units of a Newton(1N=1kgm/s
2
),
thenumerical valueof thespecific impulsealsocorresponds totheeffective exhaust velocity
(m/s) of the gas exiting the thruster in a vacuum (see also O.12.1.1).
Speckle. Refers tothe phenomenonof a strongvariationof echosignals fromoneresolution
cell to another occurring in radar imaging (it is sort of a granular noise that affects the SAR
images). Speckle occurs because the echo received consists of the sum of contributions of
point targets in a each resolution cell, in continuously changing combinations (see also
chapter O.8.5). Speckle is caused by the random interference of wavelets scattered by the
microscopic fluctuations of the object surface within a resolution cell. The presence of
speckle in an image decreases the radiometric resolution, and thus reduces interpretability
of the image (reduction in detail). Usually, filters are used to reduce the effects of speckle.
Spectra (of dispersion).Common methods are: (see also Table 1197)
Refraction: prisms are used to break up or disperse electromagnetic radiation into its
component colors. The path of the radiation bends (refracts) when it passes from one me-
dium into another.
Diffraction: a lightwave breaks up into waves travelling in all directions as it strikes a
surface. Diffraction gratings are composed of closely spaced transmitting slits on a flat sur-
face(transmissiongratings), or alternately reflecting andnonreflecting grooves onasurface
(reflecting gratings).
Interference: see Interferometer.
Filter (electronically tunable filters)
Filter (mechanical)
Filter (mask)
Spectral and spatial purity. An evaluation of the quality of radiometric measurements in
the spectral and spatial domains.
_____________________
6111) http://www.fhr.fgan.de/fhr/el/el_rsrch_stap00_e.html
3424
Spectral band. An interval in the electromagnetic spectrum defined by two wavelengths,
two frequencies, or two wavenumbers.
Spectral region. See chapter 1.31 in the history part of the documentation.
Spectral resolving power. Ratio of l/Dl (see also an example under Wavenumber).
Spectral signature. Quantitative measurement of the spectral properties of anobject at one
or several wavelength intervals.
Spectrometer. An instrument connected to a telescope that separates the light signals into
different wavelengths or frequencies, producing a spectrum(thus permitting an analysis of
the spectral content of the incident electromagnetic radiation). Usually, only a relatively
small portion of the spectrumis measured by an instrument. Some spectrometer types are:
1) Dispersive systems: Aclass of spectrometers using the dispersive principle to separate
radiation into its narrow---band components (spectral discrimination). A dispersive imag-
ing spectrometer can only support one dimension of imaging (along the slit); the other di-
mensionis usedfor spectral dispersion. Images are built upby making successiveexposures;
hence, images are stacked side by side. This is done either by using the motion of an aircraft
or spacecraft (pushbroom imaging) or by the use of a sideways---scanning mirror (whisk-
broom imaging). See also O.6.
--- Prism spectrometer. From a historical point of view, glass prisms were first used to
break up or disperse light into its component colors. The path of a light beam bends (re-
fracts) as it passes fromone transparent mediumtoanother, e.g., fromair toglass. Aprismis
used, along with collimating and re---imaging optical and mechanical components, to dis-
perse light for spectral discrimination.
--- Grating (diffraction) spectrometer. A grating is used (along with collimating and re---
imaging optical and mechanical components) to disperse light by diffraction for spectral
discrimination. The spectral dispersion is stated, for example 2---4 nm/mm at 300 nm, and
the resolution is 0.5 nm.
--- In a wedge spectrometer spectral discrimination occurs in a focused beam
2) Filter Spectrometers (nondispersive systems). Filters are used to control the spectral
bandwidth of the radiation that is allowed to reach the detector system. Narrowband filters
are in the order of 1---2 cm
---1
.
--- Filter---wheel technique. Allows the selection of up to n discrete spectral bands.
--- Bandpass filter technique. Allows the transmission of only a narrow band of frequen-
cies (the other frequencies are blockedout). The spectral widthof this filter is characterized
by its bandwidth. A typical bandpass filter instrument is TM on Landsat
--- Filter mask technique in which the spectral separation filters are mated to the detector
array to achieve two---dimensional sampling of the combined spatial/spectral information
passed by the filter. Atypical instrument of this type is WIS(Wedge Imaging Spectrometer)
--- Dichroic systems. A filter method allowing selective absorption in crystals of electro-
magnetic radiation vibrating in different planes (usually filtering is based on wavelength).
The dichroic principle is applied to beam splitters and filters.
--- Interference filter. A filter reflecting radiation selectively in a narrow spectral band
3) Fourier Transform Spectrometers (FTS, nondispersive systems). An FTS systempro-
vides a conventional spectrum, but with greater speed, resolution and sensitivity. This class
of spectrometers separates the incoming broadband spectrum into narrow---band compo-
nents with the use of an interferometer. An incoming wavefront into the interferometer is
3425
divided by a beam splitter (semitransparent surfaces). Beams produced in this way travel
two different paths, then recombine (superposition principle), creating an interferogram.
This interferogram(a function of signal intensity versus time) is normally digitized andcon-
verted to an absorption spectrum by means of a Fourier transform. Instruments with high
resolving power often use interferometers in series with grating instruments. FTS can be
designed to cover all spectral regions from the radio frequency to the UV.
4) Correlation Spectrometers, also referred to as NDIR (Non---Dispersive Infrared)
spectrometers. A correlation spectrometer, or an autocorrelation spectrometer (ACS) is a
device for a gas---specific investigation that correlates the spectral signatures of the species
tobe analyzedwithreference spectra. Ina digital autocorrelationspecrometer core, thesig-
nal is first translated and conditioned in a few analog processing steps before the digitizing
and correlation.
5) AOS (Acousto---Optical Spectrometer). The principle of an AOS is based on the dif-
fraction of light at ultrasonic waves. A piezoelectric transducer, driven by the RF---signal
(fromthe receiver), generates an acoustic wave in a crystal (the so called Bragg---cell). This
acoustic wave modulates the refractive index and induces a phase grating. The Bragg---cell
is illuminatedby a collimatedlaser beam. The angular dispersionof the diffracted light rep-
resents a true image of the RF---spectrum according to the amplitude and wavelengths of
the acoustic waves in the crystal. The spectrum is detected by using a single linear diode
array (CCD), which is placed in the focal plane of an imaging optics.
6) Heterodyne Spectrometers (nondispersive systems). See Heterodyning.
7) Lidar Spectrometers.
Spectrometry. In remote sensing, spectrometry refers to the detection and measurement of
radiation spectra of a target (area or volume). Each spectra has a characteristic pattern of
absorption and emissionbands. Comparisonof these spectra against reference spectra pro-
vide information on the targets material composition. Imaging spectrometry refers to the
simultaneous acquisition of images in many contiguous spectral bands.
System Technology Spectral
Resolving
Power l/Dl
Wavelength
Range
Moving Parts Simultaneous
Acquisition of all
spectral bands
Through-
put
Grating
(CCD detectors)
10
2
--- 10
5
Narrow
(optics---limited)
no yes low
Prism 10
2
--- 10
3
Narrow
(optics---limited)
no yes low
Fourier Transform
Spectrometer (FTS)
10
6
Broad
(detector---lim-
ited)
yes (no, depend-
ing on type)
yes very high
Filter (electronically
tunable)
10
2
Narrow
(optics---limited)
no no very high
Filter (mechanical) 10
3
Broad
(detector---lim-
ited)
yes no very high
Filter (mask) 10
2
Narrow
(optics---limited)
no yes very high
Filter (mask)
WIS
10
2
Broad
(detector---lim-
ited)
no no very high
Table 939: Overview of some spectrometer technology characteristics
Spectroradiometer. A combination of spectrometer and radiometer for measuring the en-
ergy distribution of emitted radiation.
Spectroscopy --- differential absorption spectroscopy. A technique that uses two frequen-
cies emitted by the same laser or by different lasers to perform measurements of the con-
3426
centration of a gas along a given line of sight. The frequency of one laser signal is tuned to
the frequency of the center line of the absorption feature; the frequency of the other laser
signal is tuned aside from this feature. The difference in the amount of transmitted light at
these two frequencies is the quantity that is being sought.
Spectroscopy --- imaging.
6112)
Imaging spectroscopy is the simultaneous acquisition of spa-
tially coregistered images, in many, spectrally contiguous bands, measured in calibratedra-
diance units, froma remotely operated platform. Note: In the literature, the terms imaging
spectroscopy, imaging spectrometry and hyperspectral imaging are often usedinterchange-
ably.
Background: Three centuries ago Sir Isaac Newton published in his Treatise of Light the
concept of dispersion of light. The corpuscular theory by Newton was gradually succeeded
over time by the wave theory, resulting in Maxwells equations of electromagnetic waves.
But it was only in the early 19th century that quantitative measurement of dispersed light
was recognized and standardized by Joseph von Fraunhofers discovery of the dark lines in
the solar spectrum(1817) and their interpretation as absorption lines on the basis of experi-
ments by Bunsen and Kirchhoff. Further pioneers in this field were Angstrom and Thalen.
The term spectroscopy was first used in the late 19th century and provides the empirical
foundations for atomic and molecular physics. In the 1860s, the phenomenon of emission
lines fromthe Suns corona was discovered. Following this, astronomers began to use spec-
troscopy for determining radial velocities of stars, clusters, and galaxies and stellar com-
positions. Advances intechnology andincreased awareness of the potential of spectroscopy
in the 1960s to 1980s lead to the first analytical methods and the inclusion of additional
bands in multispectral imagers.
At thestart of the21st century, technological advances inthedomainof focal planedevelop-
ment, readout electronics, storage devices and optical designs, are leading to a significantly
better sensing of the Earths surface. Improvements in signal ---to---noise, finer bandwidths
andspectral sampling combinedwith the goal of better understanding the modeledinterac-
tion of photons with matter will allow for more quantitative, direct and indirect identifica-
tion of surface materials based on spectral properties from ground, air, and space.
Spectrum. Refers generally to the intensity distribution of electromagnetic radiation as a
function of wavelength, wavenumber, or frequency.
Spread---spectrum technology. A transmission technique that allows multiple senders and
receivers to share the same portion of the spectrum(bandwidth) by having each sender en-
code its transmission in a unique way decipherable by only its intended receiver. By spread-
ing the RF energy across a range of frequencies, spread spectrum techniques improve a
communication systems noise rejection capabilities. Two basic techniques exist: a) FHSS
(Frequency Hopping SpreadSpectrum), and b) DSSS (Direct Sequence SpreadSpectrum).
The FHSS technique breaks the spectrum into many narrow channels; but instead of
transmitting and receiving on just one of these the channels, the entire system hops from
channel to channel in a predetermined order. This provides a resilient communication link
whereby any communication that is blocked by interference on one channel will be retrans-
mittedonadifferent channel. The FHSStechnique is for instanceadvantageous for constel-
lation support, providing the ability to communicate with and between multiple nearby sat-
ellites of the constellation. Also, the selectionof hopping patterns makes it possible toavoid
narrowband interference from RF devices near the ground station.
DSSS achieves communication robustness in a different manner, namely by spreading
the RF energy continuously over a wide bandwidth. The original data signal is mixed with a
_____________________
6112) M. E. Schaepman, R. O. Green, S. G. Ungar, B. Curtiss, J. Boardman, A. J. Plaza, Bo--- Cai Gao, S. Ustin, R. Kokaly,
J. R. Miller, S. Jacquemoud, E. Ben--- Dor, R. Clark, C. Davis, J. Dozier, D. G. Goodenough, D. Roberts, G. Swayze,
E. J. Milton, A. F.H. Goetz, The Future of Imaging Spectroscopy --- Prospective Technologies and Applications,
Proceedings of IGARSS2006and27thCanadianSymposiumonRemote Sensing, Denver CO, USA, July 31--- Aug.
4, 2006
3427
second signal that is much wider in frequency. The pattern of this second signal is called a
chipping sequence and it is made up of a pseudorandom code (PRC). The PRC appears as
noise to systems that dont know the code. The resulting signal is as wide as the chipping
sequence, but still carries the data that was contained in the original signal. By mixing the
two signals together, the resulting transmission still looks like noise to any system that
doesnt know the chipping sequence. --- The DSSS technique is for instance extensively be-
ing used for precise ranging, as is the case for GPS and the GLONASS ranging messages.
Spreadspectrumtechnology is alsousedfor wireless LANs that conformtothe IEEE802.11
and802.11b standards as well as to PCS(Personal CommunicationServices) via satelliteon
such systems as Iridium and Globalstar. The 802.11 standard allows both FHSS and
DSSS implementations to meet the standards requirements at speeds of up to2 Mbit/s. The
spread---spectrum technology allows communication satellites to capture and transmit sig-
nals that normally wouldbe lost because the original signals were tooweak or had toomuch
interference. The wide bandwidthof the technology (about three orders of magnitude high-
er than normal radio frequencies) make it difficult to intercept the signal by an unautho-
rized party. The feature of low interception probability is attractive for many communica-
tion applications.
Squint. The termis usedto describe an oblique pointing geometry of a sensor. For instance,
a typical SAR pointing geometry is in the cross---track direction, normal to the flight path.
Squinting occurs whenthe antenna beamis pointedforwardor backwardfromthis orthogo-
nal direction.
Standing wave. A wave that is stationary with respect to the medium in which it is em-
bedded, e.g., two equal gravity waves moving in opposite directions.
Station keeping. Refers to the maintenance of a geostationary satellite in its assigned orbit-
al slot with regard to position and orientation (attitude). Orbital drifts are due to small gra-
vitational effects of the sun and the moon as well as to an inhomogeneous Earth. The physi-
cal mechanism for station keeping is the controlled ejection of hydrazine (N
2
H
4
) gas by
command from a control center.
Steradian(sr). Aunit of solidangle measure inthe International System, definedas the sol-
id angle of a sphere subtended by a portion of the surface, whose area is equal to the square
of the spheres radius. The total solid angle about a point is 4 steradians. The term stera-
dian is derived from the Greek for solid and radian --- a steradian is, in effect, a solid ra-
dian.
Stereoscopy. The spatial three---dimensional or stereo observation of related 2---D
images, showing the same object under different viewing angles. Stereo images are very ap-
propriate for map---making and for many other applications (flight simulators, etc.). The
image combination of a target area may either result from, say, three cameras of an instru-
ment pointing intothe forward, nadir andaft directions, respectively, of a subsatellite track,
or from a single gimbaled camera, performing along---track imaging by pointing into the
forward, nadir andaft directions successively. Stereoimages offer better surface relief map-
ping capabilities than do regular 2---D images.
Store---and Forward (S&F). Anon---real ---time communication technique between a LEO
satellite and its ground segment (often used for Data Collection Systems, e---mail systems,
etc.). In this setup the originating ground station (or terminal) sends a digitized message to
the LEO satellite; the satellite intermittently stores the message in an onboard storage sys-
tem, and the destination ground station later receives the message when the satellite foot-
print is inits view. Multiple small satellites inpolar LEOincrease the message traffic capac-
ity and reduce delivery delays.
Stratopause. Stratosphere---mesosphere boundary (at about 50---55 kminaltitude) wherea
relative temperature maxima is found (see Figure 1442).
3428
Stratosphere. Region of the atmosphere between the troposphere and mesosphere, having
a lower boundary of approximately 8 kmat the poles and18 kmat the equator, and anupper
boundary of approximately 50 km. Depending uponlatitude andseason, the temperature in
the lower stratosphere can increase, be isothermal, or even decrease with altitude, but the
temperature in the upper stratosphere generally increases with height due to absorption of
solar radiation by ozone. --- The importance of the stratosphere stems from the absorption
of the bulk of the solar UV radiation, in particular in the wavelength regions of 290---320
nm. Penetrationof this UVradiationtothe Earths surfacemay beharmful tolife. Thecom-
ponent in the stratosphere absorbing the bulk of the UV radiation is ozone (O
3
).
Stray light. Refers to radiation not coming from the object of investigation (an unwanted
radiation contribution detected by an instrument whose source is outsite of the target vol-
ume or area). Stray light is oftenthemajor sourceof measurement uncertainty for common-
ly used spectrometers. It can cause unexpectedly large systematic errors, even as much as
100%depending uponthe application, whenaninstrument tries tomeasure a very lowlevel
of radiation at some wavelength while there are relatively high levels in other wavelength
regions.
As of 2005, NIST(National Institue of Standards and Technology, USA) researchers imple-
mented and validated the method using a commercial CCD---array spectrograph, which
measures light inthe visible regioninstantly. They characterizedtheresponse tomonochro-
matic emissions from tunable lasers that covered the instruments full spectral range. Cal-
culations were made using the measured data to produce a matrix that quantified the mag-
nitude of the stray---light signal for every element (or pixel) of the detector array for every
wavelength of light. The matrix then was used to correct the instruments output signals for
stray light. The method is simple and fast enough to be incorporated into an instruments
software to perform real ---time stray---light corrections without much reduction in the in-
struments speed.
6113)
Strehl ratio: The Strehl ratio was introduced by the German physicist, mathematician and
astronomer Karl Strehl at the end of 19th century (1864---1940). By definition, the Strehl
ratio is the ratio of peak diffraction intensities of an aberrated vs. a perfect wavefront. ---
The ratioindicates the level of image quality inthepresence of wavefront aberrations; often
times, it is usedtodefine the maximumacceptable level of wavefront aberration for general
observations --- the so---called diffraction---limited level is conventionally set to 0.80 Strehl.
6114)
The modern definition of the Strehl ratio is the ratio of the observed peak intensity at the
detectionplane of a telescope or other imaging systemfroma point source compared tothe
theoretical maximum peak intensity of a perfect imaging system working at the diffraction
limit. This is closely related tothe sharpness criteria for optics definedby Karl Strehl. --- For
example: AStrehl ratio of 0.95 means that 95%of the theoretical maximumamount of light
is going where it should go --- and5%of the light are lost to the surroundings, andcontribut-
ing toa reductionincontrast. AStrehl ratioof 1 is equivalent toanabsolutely perfect image.
6115)
The Strehl ratio is commonly used to assess the quality of seeing in the presence of atmo-
spheric turbulence and assess the performance of any adaptive optical correction system. It
is alsousedfor the selection of short exposure images inthe lucky imaging method. Without
adaptive optics, the ratio for ground---based telescopes is less than 1%. The adaptive optics
systems on other major telescopes today improve image quality up to about 30% to 50% in
the near---infrared wavelengths.
_____________________
6113) New NIST Method Improves Accuracy of Spectrometers, June 16, 2005, URL: http://www.nist.gov/public_af-
fairs/techbeat/tb2005_0616.htm
6114) http://www.telescope--- optics.net/Strehl.htm
6115) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strehl_ratio
3429
Until relatively recently, ground---based telescopes had to live with wavefront distortion
caused by the Earths atmosphere that significantly blurred the images of distant objects.
6116)
The LBT (Large Binocular Telescope), a ground---based telescope (consisting of two
mirrors eachwithanaperture of 8.4 m) at the University of Arizonas StewardObservatory,
with next generation adaptive optics, is providing astronomers with a new level of image
sharpness never before seen. In the initial testing phase (May 2010), the LBTs adaptive
optics system has been able to achieve unprecedented Strehl ratios of 60 to 80%, a nearly
two---thirds improvement in image sharpness over other existing systems.
Subcarrier. Refers to a second signal piggybacked onto the main signal (carrier) to carry
an information channel.
Sunspot. Atemporary disturbed area in the solar photosphere that appears dark because it
is cooler than surrounding areas. Sunspots are concentrations of strong magnetic flux (2000
--- 3000 gauss), with diameters less than about 50,000 km and lifetimes of a few weeks.
Sun---synchronous orbit. On orbit is said to be sun---synchronous when the precessing rate
of the orbital plane of a satellite, caused mostly by Earth flattening at the poles, is the same
as the apparent motionof the suninthe celestial sphere, namely 0.9856/ day. Suchanorbit-
al configuration results in a (nearly) constant local time of ascending node (resulting in ob-
servations of a given area on the Earths surface that are always made at the same local time
of the day and the same solar incidence angle). --- A sun---synchronous orbit is typically in-
clined by several degrees off the pole such that Earths equatorial bulge acts to rotate the
plane of the orbit around Earth, at a rate that matches the motion of the sun across the sky.
See also chapter O.10.1.
Superconducting Tunnel Junctions (STJs). Initially under development as efficient detec-
tors of x---rays, they are now being used as single photon detectors in the visible spectrum.
STJ (developed at ESA/ESTEC) operates in the range 200 --- 1000 nmwith a spectral reso-
lutionof 45 nm. Unlike a silicon---basedCCD, the niobium---based STJ generates a number
of electrons (inthe thousands) that depends ontheincoming photons energy. This property
eliminates the need for filters or diffraction gratings that lower the overall efficiency.
Superconductivity is the ability of a material to carry electricity with no resistance. Super-
conductivity was discovered in 1911 by Gilles Holst and Heike Kammerlingh---Onnes in
their laboratory in Leiden, The Netherlands, just three years after they had succeeded in
liquifying helium. Holst/Onnes discovered the abrupt and complete disappearance of re-
sistance in certain metals when they were cooled below the critical temperature Tc of 4.2 K
using liquid helium. [Note: instrumentation at liquid heliumtemperatures is referred to as
LTS (Low Temperature Superconductivity) devices].
Superconductivity can be characterized by two physical properties: 1) zero direct current
(DC) electrical resistivity; and 2) perfect diamagnetism (shielding of external, static mag-
netic fields).
The value of Tc has changed ever since. The search for a higher Tc began in particular inthe
1980s to save the enormous cooling costs at cryogenic temperatures leading eventually to
HTS (High Temperature Superconductivity).
6117) 6118)
Tc = 35 K (April 1986). Karl Alexander Mller and Johannes Georg Bednorz (IBM
Research Laboratory, Switzerland) discovered superconductivity in (La---Ba)
2
CuO
4
. In
1987, the Nobel Prize in physics was awarded to both researchers.
Tc = 77 K (end of 1986). P. C. W. Chu (University of Texas at Houston) discovered su-
perconductivity in the liquid---nitrogen temperature range.
_____________________
6116) Telescope Achieves Major Breakthrough Using Adaptive Optics, Space Daily, June 17, 2010, URL: ht-
tp://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Telescope_Achieves_Major_Breakthrough_Using_Adaptive_Optics_999.html
6117) Special issue: Superconductivity, Physics Today, March 1986
6118) A. P. Malozemoff, J. Mannhart, D. Scalapino, High--- Temperature CuprateSuperconductors Get toWork,PHys-
ics Today, April 2005, pp. 41--- 47
3430
Tc above 90 K (January 1987). M. K. Wu, Chus former student, achieved stable and
reproducible superconductivity above 90 K in YBa
2
Cu
3
O
7
(YBCO), with Tc close to 93 K.
Tc =110 Kand125 K(1988) for bismuthandthalliumsuperconducting systems respec-
tively
Tc =164 K(1993) for mercury---basedcompounds under pressure(University of Texas,
Houston).
etc.
The first SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device) instrumentation ap-
peared in 1964 and was widely used in the field of cryogenics. In the late 1980s, the discov-
ery of high---temperature superconductor materials opened the possibility of introducing
the technology insuperconducting instruments. Commercial applications of HTStechnolo-
gy infields suchas electric power, transportation, electronics andmedicine are appearingin
the 1990s. Current applications of HTS include thin---filmtechnology, magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI), wireless communication filters, and ultra---fast computer chips. Modern
discoveries in superconductivity go far beyond piece---meal improvements in electric de-
vices. They have openedthe door ona totally newtechnology and stretchthe imaginationto
the discovery of new applications. The greatest commercial opportunity for HTS technolo-
gy introduction is seen in electric power applications that require long lenghts of wire. Also,
HTSwires cansupport a rms current density of better than100 A/mm
2
, a factor of 100great-
er than the rms current density typically carried in the copper wires used in transmission
cables.
Superresolution (or super---resolution) relates to image interpolation and reconstruction.
Superresolution is the process of obtaining an image at a resolution higher than that af-
forded by the sensor used in the imaging. Superresolution deals with this issue by incorpo-
rating a priori information into the process of establishing an appropriate set of projections
for reconstruction.
There are several complementary techniques to increase the apparent resolution of an
image: a) sharpening, b) aggregation from multiple frames, and c) single---frame superre-
solution (not further discussed).
Sharpening amplifies details that are present in the image.
6119)
In particular, it refers
to the removal of blur caused by the imaging system (out of focus blur, motion blur, non---
ideal sampling, etc.) as well as recovery of spatial frequency informationbeyondthe diffrac-
tion limit of the optical system.
Aggregation from multiple frames. The objective in this approach is to obtain a single
highresolutionimage fromseveral lowresolutionimages (merging lowresolutiondataonto
a finer grid). Naturally, these images must be of the same object (target region) and must be
taken from slightly different angles. Obviously, if successive frames are exact duplicates of
one another, no new information is available, and no new information can be obtained.
Successive images must be taken fromslightly different perspectives, but not so much as to
change the overall appearance of the object(s) in the image. Hence, the availability of mul-
tistatic observation imagery (examples: spotlight mode of observation, stereo imagery, in-
terferometric SAR imagery) is definitely a promising approach to achieve superresolution
by aggregation.
Since images are based on units of pixels, there are discrete steps in features such as object
boundaries which will not be at the same pixel locations in successive frames. This, howev-
er, is the underlying feature permitting toextract more informationthan what is available in
_____________________
6119) S. Borman, R. Stevenson, Spatial Resolution Enhancement of Low--- Resolution Image Sequences --- ACompre-
hensive Review with Directions for Future Research, July 8, 1998, http://www.nd.edu/~sborman/publications/
SRreview.pdf
3431
a single LR(Low---Resolution) image. The overlay of frames fromdifferent angles ontoa
reference frame requires a transformation from the LR to SR (Super---Resolution) frame.
There are several superresolution methods in use:
6120)
--- Frequency domain reconstruction.
--- Iterative methods
--- Bayesian methods
Some background:
6121)
All imaging systems have an upper limit on resolution. These limi-
tations can arise in several ways:
Diffraction of light limits resolution to the wavelength of the illuminating light
Lenses in optical imaging systems may truncate the image spectrum in the frequency
domain
Sampling of images limits the maximumspatial frequency to a fraction of the sampling
rate.
The diffraction of electromagnetic waves causes an optical systemto behave as a low---pass
filter in the formation of an image. Fourier optics demonstrates that there exists a cut---off
spatial frequency, which is directly determined by the shape and size of the limiting pupil in
the optical system. Beyond the diffraction limit cut---off frequency no spatial frequency in-
formation about the object is passed into the image. Within the passband of the optical sys-
tem, i.e., fromDCto the optical cut---off spatial frequency, this alteration of the spatial fre-
quency components of the object is governed by the optical transfer function (OTF). This
description of the Fourier nature of the image formationprocess is valid for imaging inboth
coherent and incoherent light. --- --- Since the formation of an image alters the recorded in-
formation content from that of the original object, there has been much interest and effort
directed to processing the image so as to more closely match the original object. In recent
years it has become clear that there are credible methods for the reconstruction of spatial
frequencies of the object that are greater thanthe diffractionlimit spatial frequencies inthe
image. Processes that achieve the recreation of frequencies beyond the image passbandare
usually referred to as superresolution algorithms. The ability to achieve superresolution of
an image is controversial, with prominent literature proclaiming it as not possible. Howev-
er, the existence of algorithms that have demonstrated superresolution in a number of dif-
ferent contexts has made it inescapable toconclude that superresolutionis possible. Under-
standing the basis of superresolution also leads to understanding how the various algo-
rithms for superresolution function.
6122)
Surface charge. A satellite immersed in an ambient plasma will come to equilibrium with
that plasma by developing surface charges of the proper sign and magnitude to reduce the
net current betweenthe satellite andthe ambient plasmatozero. The net current consists of
a) currents fromthe environmental flux, b) secondary backscatteredelectrons andions, and
c) by photoelectrons fromany illuminated areas on the spacecraft. As a result of these three
processes contributing to the charged particle fluxes, a potential distribution exists about
the spacecraft sothat the net current tothe satellite is zero. The potential distributionabout
a satellite may be rather asymmetric; this depends very much on the satellite geometry, it is
also due to the anisotropic distribution of the particle fluxes.
6123)
_____________________
6120) R. Y. Tsai, T. S. Huang, Multiframe Image Restoration and Registration, Chapter 7, in Advances in Computer
Vision and Image Processing (T. S. Huang, ed.), JAI Press Inc., 1984
6121) B. R. Hunt, Super--- Resolutionof Imagery: Understanding the Basis for Recovery of Spatial Frequencies Beyond
the Diffraction Limit, http://www.eleceng.adelaide.edu.au/ieee/idc99/papers/hunt_bobby_2.pdf
6122) H. C. Andrews, B. R. Hunt, Digital Image Restoration, Prentice--- Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1976.
6123) E. A. Bering, III, R. Kabadi, B. McIntyre, HighVoltage Spacecraft Charging: Theory and Measurement, Procee-
dings of the AIAA 2000 Space Conference and Exposition, Long Beach, CA, Sept. 19--- 21, 2000
3432
Surface roughness. Variation in surface height within an imaged resolution cell. A surface
appears rough to microwave radiation when the height variations become larger than a
fraction of the radar wavelength.
Synchronization (sync). Refers to the process of orienting the transmitter and receiver cir-
cuits in the proper manner in order that they can be synchronized. Usually a data format is
preceded by a sync pattern which is recognized by the receiver.
Synoptic view. A large (inclusive) scene of the Earths surface, or of an object/target under
investigation, allowing a large---scale overview of features or phenomena or relations of a
scene in a wider context.
Swath. Width of the imaged scene in the range direction.
Technology Readiness Level (TRL). TRLis a measure usedby NASA, by DoD(as well as by
other space agencies in slightly varied form) to assess the maturity of evolving technologies
(materials, components, devices, etc.) prior to incorporating that technology into a system
or subsystem. Generally speaking, when a new technology is first invented or conceptual-
ized, it is not suitable for immediate application. Instead, newtechnologies are usually sub-
jected to experimentation, refinement, and increasingly realistic testing. Once the techno-
logy is sufficiently proven, it can be incorporated into a system/subsystem.
Some background: The TRLmethodology originated at NASAHQin 1974. Then the scale
progresseduntil 1995 withthe definitionof nine levels (Figure 1469). The principle of a ma-
turity scale has been adopted by many companies and government agencies around the
world. However, although they are somewhat similar, different definitions are used by dif-
ferent agencies.
6124)
In2001, the AmericanDeputy Under Secretary of Defense for Science andTechnology
issueda memorandumthat endorsedthe use of TRLs innewmajor U.Sprograms. U.S. gov-
ernment acquisition programs are now required to certify that Critical Technology Ele-
ments have been demonstrated in a relevant environment (TRL 6) at program initiation.
In July 2005 at the 1st Symposium on Potentially Disruptive Technologies and their
Impact in Space Programs in Marseille (France), following a CNES initiative, ESA,
NASA, JAXAand CNES decided to start coordination of the scale. At that time, JAXAwas
wishing to merge several level in one to simplify the process, ESA scale was with 8 levels,
CNES and NASA/DODwere using 9 levels. The first step was to decide altogether to use 9
levels as presented in the JC Mankins 1995 scale.
In order to avoid ambiguity and different interpretation and to guarantee a maximum
accuracy when using this reference scale in international partnerships, The ECSS
(European Cooperation for Space Standardization), decided, in 2009, to propose a New
Work Item (NWI) to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
_____________________
6124) Franck Durand--- Carrier, Geilson Loureiro, Standardization of the Technical Readiness Levels (TRL), Procee-
dings of IAC2011 (62nd International Astronautical Congress), Cape Town, South Africa, Oct. 3--- 7, 2011, paper:
IAC--- 11--- D1.3.12
3433
Figure 1469: Overview of NASA TRLs (Technology Readiness Levels), image credit: NASA
ECSS interpretation of levels 5 and 6: For ECSS, level 5 is reached when the critical func-
tions of the element are validated in the relevant environment. For that purpose, a flight
representative model(s) in terms of form, fit and function is used for unambiguously
demonstrating the element performance. The test performance is in agreement with ana-
lytical predictions. The model(s) demonstrate(s) theperformance of the element as awhole
with its different components functioning in an integrated manner.
Then, level 6 requires the verification of the element performance through qualification
testing to demonstrate performance in the operational environment. For that purpose, a
qualification model or prototype of the element is built, reflecting all aspects of the opera-
tional system design. Qualification tests are defined properly covering the performance
verification needs, including margins. This level is generally reached in the framework of a
specific program.
US interpretation of levels 5 and 6: For US agencies, level 5 is reached when the critical
functions of the element are demonstrated in the relevant environment using appropriate
breadboards, which are generally not full scale or full function. The test performance is in
agreement withanalytical predictions however scaling factors have still tobedemonstrated.
Level 6 is similar to the one identified as level 5 by ECSS. Then qualification testing, based
on a qualification model or prototype, generally done also in the framework of a specific
program, is included in the level 8 recognized by everyone as reaching the flight qualified
status (final system ready to be flown).
Agreement on level definitions: For the US side it was very important to keep its inter-
pretation of level 6 as it is considered as the gateway to a program. For the ECSS side it
was very important to clearly identify an intermediate level for qualification testing be-
fore level 8.
The consensus was reachedby keeping level 6as interpretedby theUS, andby introducinga
new level 7 (replacing the old one) defined as ECSS was interpreting the level 6. This con-
sensus was the way to have a chance to internationally standardize the TRL.
3434
Figure 1470: Proposed consensus for TRL scale (image credit: CNES, INPE)
Telemetry. Aspace---to---grounddatastreamof measuredvalues (normally includinginstru-
ment science data, instrument engineering data, andspacecraft engineering data) that does
not include commands, tracking, computer memory transfer, audio, or video signals.
Telemetry, Tracking and Command (TT&C). Refers to the function of spacecraft opera-
tions (monitoring and control of all vital system parameters and tracking of the orbit) by a
control center. These TT&C functions are normally completely separate from the space-
crafts user signal (communication satellite) or the measured source (or instrument) data
(in case of an Earth observation satellite). Hence, they are also transmitted in a separate
band. --- The TT&C link is the umbilical cord of a mission: the success of a mission heavily
depends on its reliability and performance. Every single mission (science, earth observa-
tion, telecom, ..) has a TT&C link, although with quite different requirements.
Telescience. A technique referring to the control of scientific and/or engineering experi-
ments/instruments from a remote location. Applications include various configurations
such as Earth---Earth connections as well as Earth---spaceborne support.
Telescopes (types). Optical telescopes areof twobasic types, refractors or reflectors that use
lenses or mirrors, respectively, for their light collecting elements. The Galilean
(1564---1642) and Keplerian (1571---1630) telescopes are of the refractive type. The Casse-
grain and Gregory telescopes are of the reflective type. Reflectors are used in the UV, VIS
and IRregions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The name of this type of instrument is de-
rived from the fact that the primary mirror reflects the light back to a focus instead of re-
fracting it. The following list mentions only a few telescope designs (employed in EO).
Cassegrain telescope (design was proposedin 1672 by Guillaume Cassegrain, a French
scientist). A reflective telescope in which a small hyperboloidal secondary mirror reflects
the convergent beam from the paraboloidal primary mirror through a hole in the primary
mirror toaneyepiece inback of the primary mirror (see also Cassegrainantenna). The Cas-
segrain telescope design is the most frequently used two---mirror system.
Dall---Kirkham telescope. Invented by the master optician Horace E. Dall in 1928 of
Luton, England. A Cassegrain---type instrument where the primary mirror geometry is an
3435
ellipse, while the secondary mirror is a sphere. The advantage of the Dall ---Kirkhamdesign
lies in that the spherical secondary is fundamentally easier to construct. However, the de-
sign does not correct for comatic off axis images.
4
4
1
1
1
4
3
3
3
Type of
Telescope
Primary
Optic
Secondary
Optic
Configuration
1 --- Primary Optic
2 --- Secondary Optic
3 --- Eyepieces/Correctors
4 --- Focus (usually also the image
plane)
Newtonian
Examples:
ALF,
UV--- DIAL
Parabola Diagonal Flat
Gregorian
Example:
UVSP
Parabola Ellipse
Cassegrain
Ex: ALISSA,
GOMOS,
ALEX
Parabola Hyperbola
Ritchey--- Chrtien
Ex: SEVIRI,
EIT,
LEANDRE
Modified
Para
bola
Modified
Hyper
bola
Dall--- Kirkham
Ex: CAR,
CAMS, LASE,
MCR
Ellipse
Sphere
R
4
3
1 2
Schmidt
Ex: LFS,
OLS,
HYDICE
SPOT
Aspherical
Refrac
tor
Sphere
2
2
2 optical
a
xi
s
optical
a
xi
s
Figure 1471: Basic optical configurations for common types of reflective telescopes
Ritchey---Chrtien telescope. Designed in Paris by the American astronomer George
W. Ritchey (1864---1945) and the French physicist (optics) Henri Chrtien (1879---1956), in
1927. The Ritchey---Chrtientelescope is a Cassegrain---type instrument. The telescopede-
sign reduces the coma (image aberrations) by modifying the primary and secondary sur-
faces of a Cassegrain telescope. The Ritchey---Chrtien telescope employs a hyperboloidal
figure for both the primary and secondary mirror thereby providing excellent resolution
over a large FOV. Simply stated, the Ritchey---Chretien telescope design has the largest,
aberration---free field of view, of any reflecting telescope.
Gregorian telescope. In 1663, James Gregory (a 17
th
century Scottish mathematician)
inventedthe first reflecting telescope using an arrangement of twoconcave mirrors. Grego-
ry placed a concave secondary mirror outside the prime focus to reflect the light back
through a hole in the primary mirror. The spacecraft of the SMM (Solar Maximum Mis-
sion), launched in 1980, flies a Gregorian telescope.
Newtonian telescope. Invented by Isaac Newton (1642---1727), English physicist and
mathematician, in 1668. The primary mirror is of parabolic geometry; the secondary mirror
3436
may be a flat plat or a refractive prism. The light beam is diverted to one side for observa-
tion.
Schmidt---Cassegrain telescope. Bernhard V. Schmidt (1879---1935), an astronomer of
Estonia. In 1930, Bernhard V. Schmidt of the Hamburg Observatory in Bergedorf, Germa-
ny, designed a catadioptric telescope with a large FOVto eliminate image distortions (a ca-
tadioptric telescope design incorporates the best features of both the refractor and reflec-
tor, i.e., it has bothreflective andrefractive optics). This designcompensates for most of the
spherical aberration by means of an aspherical refractor at the center of curvature. ---
Schmidt addedineffect acorrecting plate(a lens) totheconventional Cassegraintelescope,
thereby creating the Schmidt---Cassegrain telescope which minimizedthe spherical aberra-
tion of the Cassegrain telescope.
Type of Image Defect Description
Spherical aberration Light focuses at different places along the optical axis as a function of radial
position
Coma Image size (magnification) varies with radial position in the focal region.
Field curvature Off---axis images are not focused on the ideal surface, usually a plane
Astigmatism Light focuses at different places along the optical axis as a function of angular
position in the aperture
Distortion Focused off---axis image is closer or further from the optical axis then intended
Chromatic aberration Shift in the focused image position as a function of wavelength
Table 940: Definition of some basic image aberrations occurring in telescopes
Figure 1472: Diagramof the Schmidt telescope as flown on the SPOTseries satellites (image credit: CNES)
In the case of the original SPOT satellite series, a fairly simple formof the classical type of
Schmidt telescope has been used (Figure 1472). This comprises a single spherical mirror
with a focal length (f) of 1.08 m; a corrector plate mounted at the entrance aperture of the
telescope; a flat plate mirror to allow folding of the path between the aperture and the
spherical mirror; and a field correction lens and dispersive optics located in front of the fo-
cal plane with its CCD detectors.
6125)
_____________________
6125) GordonPetrie, WilliamE. Stoney, The Current Status andFuture Directionof Spaceborne Remote Sensing Plat-
forms and Imaging Systems, ASPRS Manual of Remote Sensing, Chapter 9, pp. 279--- 339, 2009
3437
Figure 1473: Diagram of the Korsch TMA telescope for the Pleiades series satellites (image credit: CNES)
By contrast, the Pleiades series telescope of CNES employs a much more sophisticated
design (Figure 1473). This takes the form of a highly folded Korsch---type three---mirror
anastigmatic (TMA) telescope that produces excellent correction of geometric aberrations
without the need for additional correction optics. This TMA telescope comprises three
curved mirrors: a) a large concave primary mirror with an aperture of 650 mm; b) a convex
secondary mirror; and c) a concave tertiary mirror combined with a flat plane extraction
mirror to allow a further folding of the optical path to be implemented. The launch of the
first Pleiades spacecraft is scheduled for 2010.
Terrestrial Gamma---ray Flash (TGF): TGFs are transient events (on the order of milli-
seconds) in Earths atmosphere above thunderstorms, first recorded from the Compton
Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO) satellite of NASA in 1994. BATSE (Burst And Transi-
ent Source Experiment), an instrument on CGRO, studied the phenomenon of gamma---
ray bursts, although the detectors also recorded data from pulsars, TGFs, soft gamma re-
peaters, black holes, and other exotic astrophysical objects. TGFs have been recorded to
last 0.2---3.5 ms and have energies of up to 20 MeV.
6126) 6127)
The newer RHESSI satellite of NASA (launch on Feb. 5, 2002) has observed TGFs with
much higher energies than those recorded by BATSE. In addition, the new observations
show that approximately 50 TGFs occur each day, larger than previously thought but still
only representing a very small fractionof the total lightning on Earth(3---4 millionlightning
events per day on average). However, the number may be much higher than that due to the
possibility of flashes in the form of narrow beams that would be difficult to detect, or the
possibility that a large number of TGFs may be generated at altitudes too low for the
gamma---rays to escape the atmosphere.
6128)
The most frequently discussed mechanismof TGFs assumes gamma---ray production by gi-
gantic upward atmospheric discharges (UADs) originating from the electrical breakdown
_____________________
6126) http://www.batse.msfc.nasa.gov/batse/tgf/
6127) http://www.answers.com/topic/terrestrial--- gamma--- ray--- flash
6128) David M. Smith, Liliana I. Lopez, R. P. Lin, Christopher P. Barrington--- Leigh, Terrestrial Gamma--- Ray Flashes
Observed up to 20 MeV, Science 18 February 2005:, Vol. 307. No. 5712, pp. 1085 --- 1088
3438
driven by relativistic runaway electrons. NASAs Fermi Gamma---ray Space Telescope
(launch June 11, 2008) carries the GBM (Gamma---ray Burst Monitor). The GBM con-
stantly monitors the entire celestial sky above and the Earth below. In early 2011, the GBM
team has detected beams of antimatter produced above thunderstorms on Earth, a phe-
nomenon never seen before.
6129)
In 2012, improved data analysis techniques and a newoperating mode inthe GBMresulted
in a much better (10 times) catching the brief outbursts of high---energy light mysteriously
produced above thunderstorms.
6130)
Theodolite. A surveying instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angles.
Thermal control system. Anonboardsystemwhichmaintains all satellite components with-
in allowable temperature limits for all operating modes of the satellite when exposed to the
varying thermal environments throughout its lifetime. Typical thermal loads (forms of envi-
ronmental heating) are: a) direct solar radiation, b) reflected radiation fromthe Earths al-
bedo, c) emissionof long---wave IRradiationfromthe Earth, d) freemolecular heating, and
e) charged particle heating.
Thermal Infrared (TIR). Electromagnetic radiation in the spectral range of 6---20 mm.
Many remote sensing applications utilize the 6---14 mmrange (atmospheric window). TIRis
emitted energy, whereas NIR (Near Infrared) is reflected energy.
Thermal noise. The noisy detector signal of aninfrared sensor caused by the thermal heat-
ing of the detector itself. Thermal noise occurs when the system is not sufficiently cooled.
Thermistor. A semiconductor device (sensor) whose electrical resistance varies with tem-
perature. Its temperature coefficient of resistance is high, nonlinear, and usually negative.
Thermoluminescence. Aproperty of certain minerals which causes themto emit light when
moderately heated, after electrons are excited into traps by ionizing radiation.
Thermosphere. Outermost layer of the atmosphere, above the mesosphere.
Thin---filmtechnology. Thin films are an important ingredient in all surface technology ap-
plications. Surfaces play an important role in nature as well as in technology where small ---
scale exchange processes take place. Nanotechnology offers a new realm for surface
technology in which to operate, providing also new analytical methods for much clearer
windows onto nanoscale surface structures. In solar cell applications, thin---filmtechnology
refers to dielectric layers for optical anti ---reflective coatings, electrical passivation and dif-
fusion barriers. Applications of thin---filmtechnology abound in such fields as: lithography,
deposition, etching, epitaxy, diffusion, optics, sensor technology, etc.
Thunderstorm activity: About 2000 thunderstorms are permanently active throughout the
world, producing 50---100 lightning bolts per second.
6131)
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA). Aprocess that shares the time domain of a single
carrier among many users by assigning to each time intervals in which to transmit signal
bursts. In this scheme, all users transmit on the same frequency, each is assigned the total
available bandwidth for a limited amount of time. TDMA systems segment time into
frames, each frame is further partitioned into assignable time slots.
Timekeeping. Precision timekeeping is one of the bedrock technologies of modern science
and technology. It underpins precise navigation on Earth and in deep space, synchroniza-
_____________________
6129) Tony Phillips, Thunderstorms make antimatter, NASA, January 11. 2010, URL: http://science.nasa.gov/sci-
ence--- news/science--- at--- nasa/2010/11jan_antimatter/
6130) Francis Reddy, Fermi Improves its Visionfor ThunderstormGamma--- Ray Flashes, NASA, Dec. 06.2012, URL:
http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/GLAST/news/vision--- improve.html
6131) V. Pilipenko, New physical phenomena in the atmospheric lightning discharges: observations frommicrosatellites
and ground, URL: http://www.kpk.gov.pl/pliki/10346/Pilipenko_New_physical_phenomena_in_the_atmospher-
ic_
lightning_discharges.pdf
3439
tion of broadband data streams, precision measurements of motion, forces and fields, and
tests of the constancy of the laws of nature over time.
6132) 6133)
Tomography (optical tomography).
6134)
Adiagnostic technique permitting the mathemati-
cal reconstruction of 3---D images from a set of 2---D measurements. Typical applications
are the medical CAT (Computer Aided Tomography) scans which yield the structure of a
human body from a set of X---rays. The tomography technique is also finding its way into
high---speed applications (high temporal resolution), such as in aero---optical measure-
ments of dynamic turbulent media (simultaneous measurements of the flow field and the
optical field provide information of the flow structure in space and time). An application of
this technique is the study of phenomena causing degradations in laser beam propagation
through atmospheric boundary layer turbulence. In laser transmissions through turbulent
media, adaptive optics systems are being used to correct for phase distortion. Adaptive op-
tics systems rely on accurate measurements of the turbulent media and on its ability to dis-
tort the beam.
Naturally, the microwave region of the spectrummay also be used for tomographic studies/
observations. For instance, the basic concept in CIT(Computerized Ionospheric Tomogra-
phy) research is to use LEOsatellites as moving transmitters and an array of ground receiv-
ers to measure TEC(Total Electron Content) in the ionosphere. Of course, TECmeasure-
ments can also be obtained fromdual ---frequency GPS observations (L1 and L2) taking ad-
vantage of the dispersive nature of the ionospheric medium (the equivalent vertical TEC
value can be evaluated from the slant path GPS observations).
Total Electron Content (TEC). Refers to a count of the number of electrons in a vertical
column stretching through the ionosphere with a cross---sectional area of 1 m
2
measured in
TECU (Total Electron Content Unit). 1 TECU = 10
16
electrons m
---2
and corresponds to
16.3 cm of ionospheric delay at the L1 frequency of GPS.
Total Solar Irradiance (TSI).
6135)
The total solar irradiance along withEarths global aver-
age albedo determines Earths global average equilibrium temperature. Because of selec-
tive absorption and scattering processes in the Earths atmosphere, different regions of the
solar spectrum affect Earths climate in distinct ways. To place the 11---year sun cycle into
perspective, the suns TSI is about 1367 Wm
---2
in space (i.e. in low Earth orbits of space-
craft). Since the intercepted radiation is distributed over the surface of the Earth, the aver-
age solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere is 1/4 of this, or about 340 Wm
---2
; hence, a
variation of 0.1% corresponds to 0.34 Wm
---2
. Planetary albedo scattering reduces this fur-
ther to about 0.24 Wm
---2
(approximately 20---25 % of the TSI is absorbed by atmospheric
water vapor, clouds, and ozone, by processes that are strongly wavelength dependent. Ul-
traviolet radiation at wavelengths below 300 nm is completely absorbed by the Earths at-
mosphere and contributes the dominant energy source in the stratosphere and thermo-
sphere, establishing the upper atmospheres temperature, structure, composition, and dy-
namics). Even small variations in the suns radiation at these short wavelengths lead to cor-
responding changes in atmospheric chemistry. Radiation at the longer visible and infrared
wavelengths penetrates into the lower atmosphere, where the portion not reflected is parti-
tioned between the troposphere and the Earths surface, and becomes a dominant term in
the global energy balance andanessential determinant of atmospheric stability andconvec-
_____________________
6132) Blackbody energy set the stage for clocks with unprecedented accuracy, Space Daily, May, 16, 2011, URL: ht-
tp://www.spacedaily.com/reports/New_calculations_on_blackbody_energy_set_the_stage_for_clocks_with_un-
precedented_accuracy_999.html
6133) M. Safronova, M. Kozlov, C.W. Clark, Precision Calculation of Blackbody Radiation Shifts for Metrology at the
18th Decimal Place, CLEO(Conference on Lasers and Electro--- Optics) 2011, Baltimore, MD, USA, May 1--- 6,
2011, paper CFC 3
6134) Note: Tomographicmethods werefirst formulatedinthe1970s as a means of remotely mapping inaccessibleregions
of the human body.
6135) G. C. Reid, Solar Variability and the Earths Climate: Introduction and Overview, pp. 1--- 11 in Solar Variability
andClimate, Editors: E. Friis--- Christensen, C. Frhlich, J. D. Haigh, M. Schssler andR. vonSteiger, Kluwer Aca-
demic Publishers, ISBN 0--- 7923--- 6741--- 3, 2000
3440
tion. Thus it is important to accurately monitor both the TSI and its spectral dependence.
6136)
Trace gas. Aminor constituent of the atmosphere. The most important trace gases contrib-
uting to the greenhouse effect are water vapor, carbondioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous ox-
ide, and chlorofluorocarbons. Other trace gases include ammonia, nitric oxide, ethylene,
sulfur dioxide, methyl chloride, carbon monoxide, and carbon tetrachloride.
Tracking system. Tracking is the process of following a moving object. Tracking system is a
general name for an apparatus, such as a tracking radar, used to follow and record the posi-
tion of objects (airborne or spaceborne). A theodolite and an observer form, for instance,
an optical tracking system which is used in pilot balloon runs.
Transceiver. A term made up of the words transmitter and receiver of a signal transmis-
sionsystem. Since eachside of a two---way systemrequires bothfunctions, they areprovided
in one unit.
Transient Luminous Events (TLEs): TLEs are high---altitude luminous flashes (large---
scale transient phenomena) that take place above thunderstorms in a part of the atmo-
sphere calledthe mesosphere. Typically the upper parts of clouds are chargedpositively and
the lower parts negatively. These brief optical emissions (TLEs) are generally referred toas
sprites.
Figure 1474: Artists rendition of various TLE types in the upper atmosphere (image credit: AGU, S. Niel-
son, et al.)
Although cloud---to---ground lightning is a familiar disruption in the modern electronic
world, lightning formed above the clouds is also an important factor in what is known as the
_____________________
6136) http://lasp.colorado.edu/sorce/
3441
global circuit of atmospheric electricity. Radio atmospherics are natural electromagnetic
emissions fromlightning discharges andcanpropagate thousands of kilometers throughthe
waveguide formed by the Earths surface and the ionized region of the upper atmosphere,
known as the ionosphere.
6137)
Sprites constitute a wide range of optical and electromagnetic phenomena, which occur
abovethetops of active thunderclouds uptoheights of 50---90 km. Althoughrather common
and visible to the naked eye under the right viewing conditions, TLEs were not observed or
accountedfor, except, perhaps, inreports of highflying pilots. Sprites have beennicknamed
by their appearance as redsprites, elves, blue jets, gigantic jets, halos, TGFs, etc. The scien-
tific evidence of sprites was accidentally recorded using a low---light level camera by R. C.
Franz et al. (reported in 1990) on the night of Sept. 22 1989.
6138) 6139) 6140)
Since the discovery of TLEs, they were photographed fromground stations, aircraft, in bal-
loon campaigns, the Space Shuttle, and other spacecraft. Some early examples are:
--- The Sprites 1999 balloon campaign, funded by NASA, included the collaboration of
three institutions: the University of Houston, the University of Alaska, Fairbanks, andFMA
Research, Inc., Fort Collins, CO.
6141) 6142) 6143)
The campaign involved simultaneous ob-
servations of the sprites by instruments on the balloon and by observers at three groundsta-
tions. Three ground observing stations were located at Yucca Ridge Field Station, Ft.
Collins, Colorado; Wyoming Infrared Observatory on Jelm Mt., Wyoming and Bear Mt.
Fire Lookout in South Dakota. Three high---altitude balloon flights took place, one from
Palestine (June 7, 1999), Texas, and two fromOttumwa, Iowa, USA(Aug. 15 and 21, 1999).
--- The MEIDEX (Mediterranean Israeli Dust Experiment), a radiometric camera with
six narrowbandfilters andboresighted witha wide---FOVcolor videocamera, was onboard
the Shuttle mission STS---107 (Jan. 16---Feb. 1, 2003). During the nightside phase of the or-
bit, dedicated observations toward the Earths limb above areas of active thunderstorms
were made in an effort to image transient luminous events (TLEs) from space. This is the
first time such calibratedmeasurements have been obtainedfromspace. Atotal of 14 TLEs
were observed during the 16---day mission.
6144) 6145)
MEIDEX was part of the FREESTAR (Fast Reaction Experiments Enabling Science,
Technology, Applications & Research) project, a complex payload flown as a Hitchhiker
payload within SSPP (Shuttle Small Payloads Project) of NASA/GSFC (Goddard Space
Flight Center).
--- The ISUAL (Imager of Sprites: Upper Atmospheric Lightning) instrument is a joint
project of NSPO (Taiwan), UCB (University of California at Berkeley), National Cheng
_____________________
6137) Victor. P. Pasko, Electric Jets, Nature, Vol. 423, No 26, June 2003, pp. 927--- 929, doi:10.1038/423927a
6138) R. C. Franz, R. J. Nemzek, J. R. Winckler, Television Image of a Large Upward Electrical Discharge Above a
Thunderstorm System, Science, Vol. 249, pp. 48--- 50, 1990.
6139) W. A. Lyons, T. E. Nelson, A. Faires, Electrical Discharges intotheStratosphere fromthe Tops of IntenseThunder-
storms, AGU Fall Meeting, San Francisco, 2001, paper. AE22A--- 002.
6140) H. T. Su, R. R. Hsu, A. B. Chen, Y. C. Wang, W. S. Hsiao, W. C. Lai, L. C. Lee, M. Sato, H. Fukunishi, Gigantic
jets between a thundercloud and the ionosphere, Nature, Vol. 423, No 26, June 2003, pp. 974--- 976
6141) http://www.uh.edu/research/spg/Sprites99.html
6142) E. A. Bering III, L. Bhusal, J. R. Benbrook, J. A. Garrett, A. M. Paredes, E. M. Wescott, D. R. Moudry, D. D. Sent-
man, H. C. Stenbaek--- Nielsen, W. A. Lyons, Transient Luminous Events Statistics, Source Strength Energetics
during the 1999 Sprites Balloon Campaign, URL: http://www.ursi.org/Proceedings/ProcGA02/papers/p0721.pdf
6143) E. A. Bering III, L. Bhusal, J. R. Benbrook, J. A. Garrett, A. M. Paredes, E. M. Wescott, D. R. Moudry, D. D. Sent-
man, H. C. Stenbaek--- Nielsen, W. A. Lyons, The results from the 1999 sprites balloon campaign, Advances in
Space Research, Vol. 34, Issue 8, 2004, Pages 1782--- 1791
6144) Y. Yair, C. Price, Z. Levin, J. Jospeh, A. Devir, B. Ziv, M. Moalem, P. Israelevich, S. Clodman, Coordinatedobser-
vations of sprites andother TLEs fromtheSpace Shuttleduring theMEIDEX, URL: http://luna.tau.ac.il/~peter/
MEIDEX/Publications/Paper6/icae2003.pdf
6145) Yoav Yair, Colin Price, Baruch Ziv, Peter L. Israelevich, Davis D. Sentman, Fernanda T. Sao--- Sabbas, Adam D.
Devir, Mitsuteru Sato, Craig J. Rodger, Meir Moalem, Eran Greenberg, Ofer Yaron, Space shuttle observation
of an unusual transient atmospheric emission, Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 32, 2005, L02801,
doi:10.1029/2004GL021551, URL: http://wwlln.net/publications/yair.grl.2005.pdf
3442
Kung University of Taiwan, and Tohoku University, Japan.
6146)
It is flown on the Formo-
Sat---2 (former ROCSat---2) mission with a launch of May 20, 2004. On 4 July 2004, ISUAL
successfully observedthe first images of sprites, sprite halo, andelves. --- --- Based on the first
4 years of ISUAL observations, Elves are found to be the most abundant type (~80%) of
TLEs, whereas sprites and halos only combine to account for ~20%.
--- The SpriteSat microsatellite mission of Tohoku University of Sendai (Miyagi Prefec-
ture), Japan is dedicated to monitor sprites in the upper atmosphere (launch on Jan. 23,
2009).
Transducer. A device chancing one form of signal energy into another, such as a micro-
phone, a thermocouple, a photocell, etc.
Transmittance (transmissivity). The ratioof power transmittedthrougha layer of amedium
to the power incident upon it.
Transmitter. An electronic device consisting of an oscillator, modulator and other circuits
which produce a wave signal for radiation by an antenna.
Transponder. A combined receiver and transmitter system (usually part of a communica-
tions system of a satellite) whose function is to transmit signals automatically when trig-
gered by an interrogating signal. In general there are two types of transponders:
Bent---pipe transponder. This is a simple repeater: it receives an uplink signal at a par-
ticular frequency, changes the frequency to one suitable for the downlink, amplifies it to
provide it with the required power, and rebroadcasts it to the ground.
Regenerative repeater.
6147)
A regenerative repeater yields improved performance
over a quasilinear repeater. It performs the receiving and transmitting function in the same
manner as the quasilinear repeater but the regenerative repeater .. contains in each trans-
mission link a demodulator that demodulates the uplink signal to the digital baseband sig-
nal and a modulator that remodulates that signal on a downlink carrier. The demodulated
signal is retimed and restored to standard form. This approach effectively isolates the
uplink performance fromthe downlink performance, preventing the accumulation of noise
and distortion over the two links.
Travelingwavetube. Amicrowave power generating tubethat accelerates electrons by vary-
ing a magnetic field between cathode and anode to set up waves of electron density.
Tropical year. The interval of time between two successive vernal equinoxes. It is equal to
365.242 mean solar days.
Tropopause. Boundary between the upper troposphere and the lower stratosphere that va-
ries in altitude between approximately 8 kmat the poles and18 kmat the equator. The tem-
perature gradient of the tropopause goes to zero (a relative temperature minima exists).
Troposphere. Lowest atmospheric layer, between the surface and the tropopause (lowest
8---15 km of the atmosphere, depending on latitude). The troposphere is characterized by
decreasing temperature with height, large vertical motion, and large water vapor content.
This is the region where most of the weather occurs.
Uncooled thermal imaging detector. Refers to a class of detector arrays that operate at or
near ambient (room) temperature. The termuncooled is used to distinguish this technol-
ogy from the historical norm, which is to use detectors that only operate at cryogenic tem-
_____________________
6146) Rue--- RonHsu, AlfredB. Chen, Cheng--- Ling Kuo, Han--- Tzong Su, HaraldFrey, StephenMende, YukihiroTaka-
hashi, Lou--- Chung Lee, On the Global Occurrence and Impacts of Transient Luminous Events (TLEs), AIP
(American Institute of Physics) Proceedings of the Workshop: Coupling of Thunderstorms and Lightning Dis-
charges to Near--- Earth Space, April 17, 2009, Vol. 1118, pp. 99--- 107
6147) W. L. Pritchard, J. A. Sciulli, Satellite Communications Systems Engineering, Prentice--- Hall Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, 1986, p. 285
3443
peratures, e.g. the temperature of liquid nitrogen (77 K) or lower. Two basic uncooled de-
tector types have emerged, ferroelectric detectors and microbolometers. Ferroelectrics
have beendeveloped by Texas Instruments and GECMarconi; microbolometer technology
has been developed by Honeywell. Ferroelectric detector technology takes advantage of a
ferroelectric phase transition in certain dielectric materials. At and near this phase transi-
tion, theelectric polarizationof thedielectric is a strongfunctionof temperature; small fluc-
tuations of temperature in the material cause large changes in polarization.
If the sensor is maintainedat atemperature near the ferroelectric phase transitionandif the
optical signal is modulated (with a synchronous chopper), then, an infrared image can be
readout that reflects the scene temperatures. Microbolometer arrays, on the other hand,
consist of detectors made frommaterials whose electrical resistivity changes with tempera-
ture. Eachdetector is part of a readout circuit that measures theresistance of the element as
a signal.
The advantage of uncooled systems is systemlifetime and cost (cooled sensor systems need
to be chilled, often to cryogenic temperatures, which requires the use of an expensive and
highly intricate mechanical cryogenic system). See also O.5 and O.4.3.
Uplink. Refers tothecommunicationpathdirectionfroma groundstationtoa satellite. The
information in this uplink is usually used for commanding of a subsystem (in general there
are also uplinks in tracking systems, etc). In very elaborate communication systems with in-
termediate geostationary transmission satellites, the term uplink is usually replaced by
forward link to avoid confusion.
Upwelling. The vertical motion of water in the ocean by which subsurface water of lower
temperature and greater density moves toward the surface of the ocean. Upwelling occurs
most commonly along the western coastlines of continents, but may occur anywhere in the
ocean. Upwelling results when winds blowing nearly parallel to a continental coastline
transport the light surface water away from the coast. Subsurface water of greater density
and lower temperature replaces the surface water, and exerts a considerable influence on
the weather of coastal regions. Carbondioxide is transferredtothe atmosphereinregions of
upwelling. This is especially important in the Pacific equatorial regions, where 1 to 2 giga-
tons of carbon per year may be released to the atmosphere. Upwelling also results in in-
creased ocean productivity by transporting nutrient---rich waters to the surface layer of the
ocean. --- Thetermupwelling is alsousedinthe context of upwellingradiation. This refers
toradiation(fromthe Earths surface andfromthe atmosphere) observedfromanairborne
or spaceborne sensor.
UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator Projection). A widely used map projection which
employes a series of identical projections around the world in the mid---latitude areas, each
spanning six degrees of longitude and oriented to a meridian. The UTM projection pre-
serves angular relationships andscale, it easily allows a rectangular gridtobesuperimposed
on it.
UWB(Ultra Wideband) is aradar technology designation. It has beenwidely employedpre-
viously for radar applications such as target identification, SAR for imaging through---fo-
liage, GPR (Ground Penetrating Radar), and others. By definition, any transmission in
which the occupied bandwidth is 25%of the carrier frequency, or withbandwidths inexcess
of 500 MHz, is termedas UWB(Ultra Wideband). UWBhas alsobeenreferredtoas acar-
rier free or baseband technology as the pulses can be radiated without a carrier, and
transmitteddirectly tothe antenna without any frequency conversion. Among others, UWB
has some unique advantages compared to the traditional narrowband systems, i.e. large
instantaneous bandwidth enables fine time resolution for network time distribution, preci-
sion location capability, or use as radar, it is relatively immune to the multipath effects that
3444
narrowband systems suffer because of the short duration of transmitted pulses.
6148)
UWBradar works quite differently fromthe continuous scan radars. Instead of continuous-
ly emittingenergy andalways decoding thereturnedsignal, UWBradars emit extremely fast
pulsed signals, or short duration radio signals bursts. UWB radar calculates the returned
signal power based on sampling the detector over time. This is called discrete time radio
technology. --- TheUWBradars canprovide animage of the target andcanidentify it, unlike
the conventional radars that can only detect and provide coordinates. Enhancing these fea-
tures for radar requires an essential increase in the radar frequency band and, as a result,
newapproaches both in radar methods, signal processing algorithms and technologies. The
increment of the frequency bandwidth is directly due to the narrower pulse duration, and
increase the radar space resolution.
Van Allen Belt. Regions or belts in the Earths magnetosphere (at about 1.4---1.5 R
E
and
4.5---6 R
E
) where many energetically charged particles from the solar wind are trapped in
the Earths magnetic field.
Vegetation index. Amathematical algorithmof reflection values (reflectances, digital pixel
values) in different spectral bands, used to estimate vegetation characteristics. Such an al-
gorithmalsoserves tocorrect undesirable influences, suchas differences of soil reflectance,
atmospheric influences, etc. --- In physical terms vegetation indices are radiometric mea-
sures of vegetation usually involving a ratio and/or linear combination of the red and NIR
regions. Vegetation indices serve as indicators of relative growth and/or vigor of green ve-
getation, and are used as intermediaries in the assessment of various plant biophysical pa-
rameters, such as leaf area index, percent green cover, green biomass, and fractional ab-
sorbed photosynthetically active radiation (FPAR).
The spectral vegetation index concept and its universal generality has its roots in Landsat
data interpretation.
6149)
As a consequence there are now a multitude of defined spectral
vegetation and soil indices in existence. They are all derived, at least in part, by considering
the contrast betweenvisible (VIS) and near---infrared(NIR) spectral reflectance fromland
surfaces. For typical broadband VIS/NIR measurements, green vegetation foliage pro-
duces stepped reflectance, with low VIS and high NIR reflectance, a result of pigment ab-
sorption in the VIS region and strong light scatter from cell walls in NIR.
Vernal equinox. The point of intersection between the ecliptic and the celestial equator,
where the suncrosses fromthe southtothe north(it is infact the ascending node of the suns
orbit). The vernal equinox marks the beginning of spring for the northern hemisphere.
Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) see O.9.2. In radio astronomy, the use of a sys-
tem of two or more antennas placed several hundred or even several thousand kilometers
apart, which are operated together as an interferometer. The VLBI measurement tech-
nique of enlarged aperture size is used to improve angular resolution of the system. The
technique allows determination of angular position for distant radio sources by measuring
the geometric time delay between received radio signals at two geographically separated
stations. The observed time delay is a function of the known baseline vector joining the two
radio antennas and the direction to the radio source.
VLBI techniques are also employed in the field of Solid Earth Physics (geodynamics) for
determining plate motions with accuracies of better than 1 cm/year. VLBI systems offer a
superb tie to an inertial celestial reference frame based on extragalactic radio sources,
which in turn is used to maintain the terrestrial reference frame.
Another important application of the VLBI technique is in spacecraft navigation of deep
space missions where the measurements at two widely separated ground stations of the
_____________________
6148) A. Alvarez, J.--- L. Garcia, M. Lobeira, UWB techniques in Radar, Proceedings of IRSI (International Radar
Symposium India), Bangalore, India, Dec. 20--- 22, 2005
6149) S. N. Goward, D. L. Williams, Landsat and Earth Systems Science: Development of Terrestrial Monitoring,
PE&RS, July 1997, pp. 887--- 900
3445
phases of tones emitted from a spacecraft are differenced and compared against similarly
differenced phase measurements of angularly nearby quasar radio signals. This application
of VLBI is known as Delta Differential One---Way Ranging (delta---DOR or simply as
DOR).
The interferometric DOR technique uses a quasar of known celestial coordinates to syn-
chronize clocks at two ground antennas and a phase delay measurement of the spacecraft
signal to infer its angular position in the plane containing the baseline vector. By combining
observations from multiple baselines (at least three ground antennas), one could measure
the spacecraft celestial coordinates to an accuracy of 10 nano radians or less . Being almost
independent fromthe dynamic model anda time---localizedmeasurement, DORis avalu-
able observable quantity for spacecraft navigation inthe interplanetary cruise phase, where
gravity gradients are small and single dish Doppler and range measurements are less effec-
tive in providing a good determination of the state vector.
6150) 6151)
The advantages of using DOR measurements in favor of the conventional long arcs of
line---of---sight Doppler and ranging data technique include:
DOR provides improved angular accuracy by direct geometric measurement of the
plane---of---sky position of a spacecraft in the inertial reference frame defined by the qua-
sars
Orbit solutions based on line---of---sight and DORdata showless sensitivity tosystem
errors, as compared to orbit solutions based on only line---of---sight measurements, due to
the cancellation of errors by differencing
Solutions whichincorporate DORdonot have singularities at lowgeocentric declina-
tions or other adverse geometries
DOR data may be acquired in a listen---only mode; an uplink is not required.
Video. In general used to mean television, or a system used to communicate the television
image. Specifically, pertains to the bandwidth and spectrumposition of the signal which re-
sults fromtelevisionscanning andwhichis usedtoreproduce a picture. Videoimages donot
have the detailed resolution of film, but offer the advantage of immediate processing capa-
bility. This is particularly important in time---sensitive applications.
Vidicon. A generic name for a camera tube of normal light sensitivity. It outputs an analog
voltage stream corresponding to the intensity of the incoming light.
Viewing angle. See look angle.
Water---Based Propulsion (WBP). The technology employs electric power from the solar
array to electrolyze water, converting it into hydrogen and oxygen propellant and electro-
chemically pumping it to a high storage pressure (140 bar).
6152)
This propellant can either
be used to produce thrust (Isp of about 4000 m/s), or can be recombined as a fuel cell (2.5
times the energy density of the best batteries) to generate electrical power. Cold gas from
the pressurized tanks can also be used for attitude control thrusters. The electrolysis and
fuel cell functions can be performed either by separate dedicated cell stacks, or can be com-
bined in a new technology known as URFC (Unitized Regenerative Fuel Cell). Since the
pressurized gasses are produced on---orbit, WBP is totally inert and non---hazardous at
launch.
Water vapor. A very important constituent of the atmosphere. Its amount varies widely in
space (vertical and horizontal) and time. The troposphere is the domain of water vapor,
_____________________
6150) D. S. Berry, J. S. Border, CCSDS Concept Paper: Delta--- DOR, August 4, 2005, URL: http://public.ccsds.org/
publications/archive/CP--- 5060W0--- 1.1.pdf
6151) E. Vasallo, G. Boscagli, D. Lee, W. L. Martin, Delta--- DORandRegenerative Systems: The NewCCSDSFrontier
in Spacecraft Ranging, SpaceOps 2006 Conference, Rome Italy, June 19--- 23, 2006, paper: AIAA 2006--- 5705
6152) S. R. Wassom, Revolutionary Propulsion Concepts for Small Satellites, AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satel-
lites, Logan UT, Aug. 13--- 14, 2001, SSC01--- IX--- 4
3446
with about half of all the atmospheric water vapor ina layer below2 km(only a minute frac-
tionis above the tropopause). Water vapor is the major vehicle of atmospheric energy trans-
port, a regulator of planetary temperatures and of rainfall. --- The amount of water vapor in
agivenair sample may be determinedinanumber of different ways, involving suchconcepts
as absolute humidity, mixing ratio, dew point, relative humidity, specific humidity, and va-
por pressure.
Water vapor plays a crucial role in the dynamics and thermodynamics of many atmospheric
processes over a wide range of temporal and spatial scales, covering the global hydrologic
and energy cycles that effectively define the local and global climate change.
Water---vapor absorption bands. Wavelength bands where water vapor --- free or bound ---
absorbs radiation to a high degree. Absorption bands in the IR region are near 1.4 mm, 1.8
mm, 2.7 mm, 6.3 mm (strong), 11 mm, and 30 mm.
Wavefront. Athree---dimensional surface inspace for which the field radiatedby the anten-
na has the same phase at all points. At a large distance Rfromthe antenna, the wavefront is
a spherical surface with radius R over the angular window established by the antenna pat-
tern. For most geometries encountered in remote sensing, the wavefront may be approxi-
mated by a plane tangent to the spherical surface.
Wavenumber (n). The number of waves per cm(the reciprocal of the wavelength). n=1/l. A
wavenumber of 10,000 corresponds toa wavelength(l) of 10
---4
cm
---1
, or toa wavelength(l)
of 1 mm. Conversion of a wavenumber resolution Dn into a wavelength resolution Dl:
n = 1/lDn=Dl @l
2
Dl=Dn l
2
Example: convert the wavenumber resolution Dn=20 cm
---1
into a wavelength resolution
for the spectral range of 400---800 nm.
Dl=Dn l
2
=20 cm
---1
x (400 nm)
2
=2 x 10
---6
nm
---1
x 160000 nm
2
= 0.32 nmfor l=400
nm. Dl=Dn l
2
= 20 cm
---1
x (800 nm)
2
=2 x 10
---6
nm
---1
x 640000 nm
2
= 1.28 nm for
l=800 nm.
In this context belongs also the spectral resolving power, which is defined as the following
ratio: l/Dl. Example: find the spectral bandwidth for a spectral range from 1.0 --- 2.5 mm
when the spectral resolving power (l/Dl) of the instrument is given as 250.
Dl = l/250 = 1 mm/250 = 0.004 mm or 4 nm at the lower bound of the spectral range
Dl = l/250 = 2.5 mm/250 = 0.010 mm or 10 nm at the upper bound of the spectral range.
Wiener spectrum (after Norbert Wiener, American mathematician, 1894---1964), also re-
ferred to as noise power spectrum. A measure of how the quantum noise in an imaging
system is recorded in the presence of grain noise in the film emulsion. All imaging systems
have a modulationtransfer functionMTFcurvethat is the result of thesystems properties of
imaging different spatial frequencies. The MTF curve gradually decreases with higher spa-
tial frequency. As a result, the higher spatial frequency part of the quantum noise is sup-
pressed accordingly. The noise power density (noise in a certain frequency interval) is also
called the Wiener spectrum of the image.
Wind shear. The rate of change of the wind velocity components with distance.
Window (electromagnetic). Wavelength or frequency region in which the atmosphere is
largely transparent to electromagnetic radiation (e.g. optical window, microwave window,
etc.).
Window operation. Processing of the (radiation) values of pixels within a predefined win-
dow, mostly limited to one spectral band --- also called a filter. Examples are convolution
filters, variance filters, etc. . The filter output is assigned to the central pixel of the window.
Whiskbroom scanner. A line---scanning optomechanical sensor system.
3447
World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS---84). Refers to a set of parameters established by the
US Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) for determining geometric and physical geodetic
relationships ona global scale. The systemincludes a geocentric reference ellipsoid, a coor-
dinate system, anda gravity fieldmodel. The ellipsoid is essentially that of the International
Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) Geodetic Reference System 1980. The coor-
dinate system is a realization of the conventional terrestrial system, as established by the
International Earth Rotation Service.
WSN (Wireless Sensor Network). Refers to a network technology, where all nodes (either
moving or stationary) can both provide and relay data. All nodes are attached to sensor and
control devices to enable these devices to wirelessly interconnect to each other. Typically, a
WSNconsists of many tiny sensor nodes (low---power, andminiature embeddedprocessors,
radios, sensors, and actuators, often integrated onto a single chip) that communicate over
wireless channels and perform distributed sensing and collaborative data processing. The
applications anddevelopments of WSNtechnology simply abound. The primary functionof
a WSN is data acquisition or monitoring of some medium or environment.
Inthe early 21st century, WSNis also a newandpromising technology for space exploration
that has yet to prove the numerous advantages one can expect: lowcost, accurate measure-
ments over a large surface or volume, short setup time of a mission, high reliability through
redundancy.
Zenith angle. The angular distance of any celestial object from a given observers zenith,
measured along the great circle of the celestial sphere from zenith to object.
Zodiacal light. A faint glow that extends away from the sun in the ecliptic plane of the sky,
visible to the naked eye in the western sky shortly after sunset or in the eastern sky shortly
before sunrise. Its spectrumindicates it to be sunlight scattered by interplanetary dust. The
zodiacal light contributes about a third of the total light in the sky on a moonless night.

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Appendix A Glossary

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