Staining - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia PDF

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Staining
For other uses, see Staining (disambiguation).
Staining is an auxiliary technique used in microscopy to enhance contrast in the
microscopic image. Stains and dyes are frequently used in biology and medicine
to highlight structures in biological tissues for viewing, often with the aid of
different microscopes. Stains may be used to define and examine bulk tissues
(highlighting, for example, muscle fibers or connective tissue), cell populations
(classifying different blood cells, for instance), or organelles within individual
cells.
In biochemistry it involves adding a class-specific (DNA, proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates) dye to a substrate to qualify or quantify the presence of a specific
compound. Staining and fluorescent tagging can serve similar purposes.
Biological staining is also used to mark cells in flow cytometry, and to flag
proteins or nucleic acids in gel electrophoresis.
Staining is not limited to biological materials, it can also be used to study the
morphology of other materials for example the lamellar structures of semi-
crystalline polymers or the domain structures of block copolymers.
In vivo vs In vitro
In vivo staining ( Intra Vital Staining ) is the process of dyeing living tissuesin
vivo means "in life" (compare with in vitro staining). By causing certain cells or
structures to take on contrasting colour(s), their form (morphology) or position
within a cell or tissue can be readily seen and studied. The usual purpose is to
reveal cytological details that might otherwise not be apparent; however, staining
can also reveal where certain chemicals or specific chemical reactions are taking
place within cells or tissues.
In vitro staining involves colouring cells or structures that have been removed
from their biological context. Certain stains are often combined to reveal more
details and features than a single stain alone. Combined with specific protocols
for fixation and sample preparation, scientists and physicians can use these
standard techniques as consistent, repeatable diagnostic tools. A counterstain is
stain that makes cells or structures more visible, when not completely visible
with the principal stain.
For example, crystal violet stains only Gram-positive bacteria in Gram
staining. A safranin counterstain is applied that stains all cells, allowing
identification of Gram-negative bacteria.
While ex vivo, many cells continue to live and metabolize until they are "fixed".
Some staining methods are based on this property. Those stains excluded by the
living cells but taken up by the already dead cells are called vital stains (e.g.
trypan blue or propidium iodide for eukaryotic cells). Those that enter and stain
living cells are called supravital stains (e.g. New Methylene Blue and Brilliant
Cresyl Blue for reticulocyte staining). However, these stains are eventually toxic
to the organism, some more so than others. Partly due to their toxic interaction
inside a living cell, when supravital stains enter a living cell, they might produce a
characteristic pattern of staining different from the staining of an already fixed
cell (e.g. "reticulocyte" look versus diffuse "polychromasia"). To achieve desired
effects, the stains are used in very dilute solutions ranging from 1:5000 to
1:500000 (Howey, 2000). Note that many stains may be used in both living and
fixed cells.
In vitro methods
Preparation
The preparatory steps involved depend on the type of analysis planned; some or
all of the following procedures may be required.
Fixationwhich may itself consist of several stepsaims to preserve the shape of
the cells or tissue involved as much as possible. Sometimes heat fixation is used
to kill, adhere, and alter the specimen so it accepts stains. Most chemical fixatives
(chemicals causing fixation) generate chemical bonds between proteins and other
substances within the sample, increasing their rigidity. Common fixatives include
formaldehyde, ethanol, methanol, and/or picric acid. Pieces of tissue may be
embedded in paraffin wax to increase their mechanical strength and stability and
to make them easier to cut into thin slices.
Permeabilization involves treatment of cells with (usually) a mild surfactant.
This treatment dissolves cell membranes, and allows larger dye molecules into
the cell's interior.
Mounting usually involves attaching the samples to a glass microscope slide for
observation and analysis. In some cases, cells may be grown directly on a slide.
For samples of loose cells (as with a blood smear or a pap smear) the sample can
be directly applied to a slide. For larger pieces of tissue, thin sections (slices) are
made using a microtome; these slices can then be mounted and inspected.
Staining proper
At its simplest, the actual staining process may involve immersing the sample
(before or after fixation and mounting) in dye solution, followed by rinsing and
observation. Many dyes, however, require the use of a mordant: a chemical
compound that reacts with the stain to form an insoluble, coloured precipitate.
When excess dye solution is washed away, the mordanted stain remains.
Most of the dyes commonly used in microscopy are available as certified
stains. This means that samples of the manufacturer's batch have been tested by
an independent body, the Biological Stain Commission, and found to meet or
exceed certain standards of purity, dye content and performance in staining
techniques. These standards are published in detail in the journal Biotechnic &
Histochemistry.
[1]
Many dyes are inconsistent in composition from one supplier
to another. The use of certified stains eliminates a source of unexpected results.
[2]
Negative staining
A simple staining method for bacteria that is usually successful, even when the
"positive staining" methods detailed below fail, is to use a negative stain. This can
be achieved by smearing the sample onto the slide and then applying nigrosin (a
black synthetic dye) or Indian ink (an aqueous suspension of carbon particles).
After drying, the microorganisms may be viewed in bright field microscopy as
lighter inclusions well-contrasted against the dark environment surrounding
them.
[3]
Note: negative staining is a mild technique that may not destroy the
microorganisms, and is therefore unsuitable for studying pathogens.
Specific techniques
Gram staining
Main article: Gram staining
Gram staining is used to determine gram status to classify bacteria broadly. It is
based on the composition of their cell wall. Gram staining uses crystal violet to
stain cell walls, iodine as a mordant, and a fuchsin or safranin counterstain to
mark all bacteria. Gram status is important in medicine; the presence or absence
of a cell wall changes the bacterium's susceptibility to some antibiotics.
Gram-positive bacteria stain dark blue or violet. Their cell wall is typically rich
with peptidoglycan and lacks the secondary membrane and lipopolysaccharide
layer found in Gram-negative bacteria.
On most Gram-stained preparations, Gram-negative organisms appear red or
pink because they are counterstained. Because of presence of higher lipid
content, after alcohol-treatment, the porosity of the cell wall increases, hence the
CVI complex (crystal violet iodine) can pass through. Thus, the primary stain is
not retained. Also, in contrast to most Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative
bacteria have only a few layers of peptidoglycan and a secondary cell membrane
made primarily of lipopolysaccharide.
Endospore staining
Main article: Endospore staining
Endospore staining is used to identify the presence or absence of endospores,
which make bacteria very difficult to kill. This is particularly useful for
identifying endospore-forming bacterial pathogens like Clostridium difficile.
Ziehl-Neelsen stain
Ziehl-Neelsen staining is used to stain species of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
that do not stain with the standard laboratory staining procedures like Gram
staining.
The stains used are the red coloured Carbol fuchsin that stains the bacteria and a
counter stain like Methylene blue
Haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining
Haematoxylin and eosin staining protocol is used frequently in histology to
examine thin sections of tissue. Haematoxylin stains cell nuclei blue, while eosin
stains cytoplasm, connective tissue and other extracellular substances pink or
red. Eosin is strongly absorbed by red blood cells, colouring them bright red. In a
skilfully made H & E preparation the red blood cells are almost orange, and
collagen and cytoplasm (especially muscle) acquire different shades of pink.
When the staining is done by a machine, the subtle differences in eosinophilia
are often lost. Hematoxylin stains the cell nucleus and other acidic structures
(such as RNA-rich portions of the cytoplasm and the matrix of hyaline cartilage)
blue. In contrast, eosin stains the cytoplasm and collagen pink.
Papanicolaou staining
Papanicolaou staining, or Pap staining, is a frequently used method for
examining cell samples from various bodily secretions. It is frequently used to
stain Pap smear specimens. It uses a combination of haematoxylin, Orange G,
eosin Y, Light Green SF yellowish, and sometimes Bismarck Brown Y.
PAS staining
Periodic acid-Schiff staining is used to mark
carbohydrates (glycogen, glycoprotein,
proteoglycans). It is used to distinguish different
types of glycogen storage diseases.
Masson's trichrome
Masson's trichrome is (as the name implies) a
three-colour staining protocol. The recipe has evolved from Masson's original
technique for different specific applications, but all are well-suited to distinguish
cells from surrounding connective tissue. Most recipes produce red keratin and
muscle fibers, blue or green staining of collagen and bone, light red or pink
staining of cytoplasm, and black cell nuclei.
Romanowsky stains
The Romanowsky stains are all based on a combination of eosinate (chemically
reduced eosin) and methylene blue (sometimes with its oxidation products azure
A and azure B). Common variants include Wright's stain, Jenner's stain, May-
Grunwald stain, Leishman stain and Giemsa stain.
All are used to examine blood or bone marrow samples. They are preferred over
H&E for inspection of blood cells because different types of leukocytes (white
blood cells) can be readily distinguished. All are also suited to examination of
blood to detect blood-borne parasites like malaria.
Silver staining
Silver staining is the use of silver to stain histologic sections. This kind of staining
is important especially to show proteins (for example type III collagen) and DNA.
It is used to show both substances inside and outside cells. Silver staining is also
used in temperature gradient gel electrophoresis.
Some cells are argentaffin. These reduce silver solution to metallic silver after
formalin fixation. This method was discovered by Italian Camillo Golgi, by using
a reaction between silver nitrate and potassium dichromate, thus precipitating
silver chromate in some cells (see Golgi's method). Other cells are argyrophilic.
These reduce silver solution to metallic silver after being exposed to the stain that
contains a reductant, for example hydroquinone or formalin.
Sudan staining
Sudan staining is the use of Sudan dyes to stain sudanophilic substances, usually
lipids. Sudan III, Sudan IV, Oil Red O, Osmium tetroxide, and Sudan Black B are
often used. Sudan staining is often used to determine the level of fecal fat to
diagnose steatorrhea.
Conklin's staining
Special technique designed for staining true endospores with the use of malachite
green dye, once stained, they do not decolourize.
Common biological stains
Different stains react or concentrate in different parts of a cell or tissue, and
these properties are used to advantage to reveal specific parts or areas. Some of
the most common biological stains are listed below. Unless otherwise marked, all
of these dyes may be used with fixed cells and tissues; vital dyes (suitable for use
with living organisms) are noted.
Acridine orange
Acridine orange (AO) is a nucleic acid selective fluorescent cationic dye useful for
cell cycle determination. It is cell-permeable, and interacts with DNA and RNA
by intercalation or electrostatic attractions. When bound to DNA, it is very
similar spectrally to fluorescein. Like fluorescein, it is also useful as a non-
specific stain for backlighting conventionally stained cells on the surface of a
solid sample of tissue (fluorescence backlighted staining
[4]
).
Bismarck brown
Bismarck brown (also Bismarck brown Y or Manchester brown) imparts a yellow
colour to acid mucins.
Carmine
Carmine is an intensely red dye used to stain glycogen, while Carmine alum is a
nuclear stain. Carmine stains require the use of a mordant, usually aluminum.
Coomassie blue
Coomassie blue (also brilliant blue) nonspecifically stains proteins a strong blue
colour. It is often used in gel electrophoresis.
Cresyl violet
Cresyl violet stains the acidic components of the neuronal cytoplasm a violet
colour, specifically nissl bodies. Often used in brain research.
Crystal violet
Crystal violet, when combined with a suitable mordant, stains cell walls purple.
Crystal violet is an important component in Gram staining.
DAPI
DAPI is a fluorescent nuclear stain, excited by ultraviolet light and showing
strong blue fluorescence when bound to DNA. DAPI binds with A=T rich repeats
of chromosomes. DAPI is also not visible with regular transmission microscopy.
It may be used in living or fixed cells. DAPI-stained cells are especially
appropriate for cell counting.
[5]
Eosin
Eosin is most often used as a counterstain to haematoxylin, imparting a pink or
red colour to cytoplasmic material, cell membranes, and some extracellular
structures. It also imparts a strong red colour to red blood cells. Eosin may also
be used as a counterstain in some variants of Gram staining, and in many other
protocols. There are actually two very closely related compounds commonly
referred to as eosin. Most often used is eosin Y (also known as eosin Y ws or eosin
yellowish); it has a very slightly yellowish cast. The other eosin compound is
eosin B (eosin bluish or imperial red); it has a very faint bluish cast. The two dyes
are interchangeable, and the use of one or the other is more a matter of
preference and tradition.
Ethidium bromide
Ethidium bromide intercalates and stains DNA, providing a fluorescent red-
orange stain. Although it will not stain healthy cells, it can be used to identify
cells that are in the final stages of apoptosis such cells have much more
permeable membranes. Consequently, ethidium bromide is often used as a
marker for apoptosis in cells populations and to locate bands of DNA in gel
electrophoresis. The stain may also be used in conjunction with acridine orange
(AO) in viable cell counting. This EB/AO combined stain causes live cells to
fluoresce green whilst apoptotic cells retain the distinctive red-orange
fluorescence.
Acid fuchsine
Acid fuchsine may be used to stain collagen, smooth muscle, or mitochondria.
Acid fuchsine is used as the nuclear and cytoplasmic stain in Mallory's trichrome
method. Acid fuchsine stains cytoplasm in some variants of Masson's trichrome.
In Van Gieson's picro-fuchsine, acid fuchsine imparts its red colour to collagen
fibres. Acid fuchsine is also a traditional stain for mitochondria (Altmann's
method).
Haematoxylin
Haematoxylin (hematoxylin in North America) is a nuclear stain. Used with a
mordant, haematoxylin stains nuclei blue-violet or brown. It is most often used
with eosin in H&E (haematoxylin and eosin) stainingone of the most common
procedures in histology.
Hoechst stains
Hoechst is a bis-benzimidazole derivative compound that binds to the minor
groove of DNA. Often used in fluorescence microscopy for DNA staining,
Hoechst stains appear yellow when dissolved in aqueous solutions and emit blue
light under UV excitation. There are two major types of Hoechst: Hoechst 33258
and Hoechst 33342. The two compounds are functionally similar, but with a little
difference in structure. Hoechst 33258 contains a terminal hydroxyl group and is
thus more soluble in aqueous solution, however this characteristics reduces its
ability to penetrate the plasma membrane. Hoechst 33342 contains an ethyl
substitution on the terminal hydroxyl group (i.e. an ethylether group) making it
more hydrophobic for easier plasma membrane passage
Iodine
Iodine is used in chemistry as an indicator for starch. When starch is mixed with
iodine in solution, an intensely dark blue colour develops, representing a
starch/iodine complex. Starch is a substance common to most plant cells and so
a weak iodine solution will stain starch present in the cells. Iodine is one
component in the staining technique known as Gram staining, used in
microbiology. Lugol's solution or Lugol's iodine (IKI) is a brown solution that
turns black in the presence of starches and can be used as a cell stain, making the
cell nuclei more visible. Iodine is also used as a mordant in Gram's staining, it
enhances dye to enter through the pore present in the cell wall/membrane.
Malachite green
Malachite green (also known as diamond green B or victoria green B) can be used
as a blue-green counterstain to safranin in the Gimenez staining technique for
bacteria. It also can be used to directly stain spores.
Methyl green
Methyl green is used commonly with bright-field microscopes to dye the
chromatin of cells so that they are more easily viewed.
Methylene blue
Methylene blue is used to stain animal cells, such as human cheek cells, to make
their nuclei more observable. Also used to stain the blood film and used in
cytology.
Neutral red
Neutral red (or toluylene red) stains Nissl substance red. It is usually used as a
counterstain in combination with other dyes.
Nile blue
Nile blue (or Nile blue A) stains nuclei blue. It may be used with living cells.
Nile red
Nile red (also known as Nile blue oxazone) is formed by boiling Nile blue with
sulfuric acid. This produces a mix of Nile red and Nile blue. Nile red is a
lipophilic stain; it will accumulate in lipid globules inside cells, staining them red.
Nile red can be used with living cells. It fluoresces strongly when partitioned into
lipids, but practically not at all in aqueous solution.
Osmium tetroxide (formal name: osmium tetraoxide)
Osmium tetraoxide is used in optical microscopy to stain lipids. It dissolves in
fats, and is reduced by organic materials to elemental osmium, an easily visible
black substance.
Rhodamine
Rhodamine is a protein specific fluorescent stain commonly used in fluorescence
microscopy.
Safranin
Safranin (or Safranin O) is a nuclear stain. It produces red nuclei, and is used
primarily as a counterstain. Safranin may also be used to give a yellow colour to
collagen.
Stainability of tissues
Tissues which take up stains are called chromatic. Chromosomes were so
named because of their ability to absorb a violet stain.
Positive affinity for a specific stain may be designated by the suffix -philic. For
example, tissues that stain with an azure stain may be referred to as azurophilic.
This may also be used for more generalized staining properties, such as
acidophilic for tissues that stain by acidic stains (most notably eosin), basophilic
when staining in basic dyes, and amphophilic
[6]
when staining with either acid or
basic dyes. In contrast, Chromophobic tissues do not take up coloured dye
readily.
Electron microscopy
As in light microscopy, stains can be used to enhance contrast in transmission
electron microscopy. Electron-dense compounds of heavy metals are typically
used.
Phosphotungstic acid
Phosphotungstic acid is a common negative stain for viruses, nerves,
polysaccharides, and other biological tissue materials.
Osmium tetroxide
Osmium tetroxide is used in optical microscopy to stain lipids. It dissolves in fats,
and is reduced by organic materials to elemental osmium, an easily visible black
substance. Because it is a heavy metal that absorbs electrons, it is perhaps the
most common stain used for morphology in biological electron microscopy. It is
also used for the staining of various polymers for the study of their morphology
by TEM. OsO
4 is very volatile and extremely toxic. It is a strong oxidizing agent as the osmium
has an oxidation number of +8. It aggressively oxidizes many materials, leaving
behind a deposit of non-volatile osmium in a lower oxidation state.
Ruthenium tetroxide
Ruthenium tetroxide is equally volatile and even more aggressive than osmium
tetraoxide and able to stain even materials that resist the osmium stain, e.g.
polyethylene.
Other chemicals used in electron microscopy staining include: ammonium
molybdate, cadmium iodide, carbohydrazide, ferric chloride, hexamine, indium
trichloride, lanthanum nitrate, lead acetate, lead citrate, lead(II) nitrate, periodic
acid, phosphomolybdic acid, potassium ferricyanide, potassium ferrocyanide,
ruthenium red, silver nitrate, silver proteinate, sodium chloroaurate, thallium
nitrate, thiosemicarbazide, uranyl acetate, uranyl nitrate, and vanadyl sulfate. [1]
See also
Cytology: the study of cells
Histology: the study of tissues
Immunohistochemistry: the use of antisera to label specific antigens
Ruthenium(II) tris(bathophenanthroline disulfonate), a protein dye.
Vital stain: stains that do not kill cells
PAGE: separation of protein molecules
References
1. ^ Penney DP, Powers JM, Frank M, Churukian C (2002). Biotech
Histochem 77 (56): 237275. PMID 12564600.
2. ^ Horobin RW, Kiernan JA (2002) Conn's Biological Stains. A Handbook of
Dyes Stains and Fluorochromes for Use in Biology and Medicine. 10th ed.
Oxford: BIOS. ISBN 1-85996-099-5
3. ^ Clark G (1981) Staining Procedures, 4th ed., Baltimore: Williams &
Wilkins, p. 412, ISBN 0683017071.
4. ^ Wells J. (1988) A Technique for Staining the Superficial Cells of Plucked
Hair Follicles and Other Solid Tissues, Stain Technology, Vol 63, No3.
5. ^ Levenfus, I.: An efficient method for counting DAPI-stained cells using
Fiji. Grin: Munich. ISBN 978-3-640-86284-9
6. ^ thefreedictionary.com > amphophilic Citing: Saunders Comprehensive
Veterinary Dictionary, 3 ed. 2007 Elsevier, Inc
Further reading
Bancroft JD, Gamble M eds (2002) Theory and Practice of Histological
Techniques. 5th ed. London: Churchill-Livingstone. ISBN 0443064350.
Kiernan JA (2008) Histological and Histochemical Methods. Theory and
Practice. Bloxham, UK: Scion. ISBN 9781904842422.
Presnell JK, Schreibman MP (1997) Humason's Animal tissue Techniques.
5th ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Ruzin SE (1999) Plant Microtechnique and Microscopy. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0195089561
External links
StainsFile reference for dyes and staining techniques
Vital Staining for Protozoa and Related Temporary Mounting Techniques ~
Howey, 2000
Speaking of Fixation: Part 1 and Part 2 by M. Halit Umar
Photomicrographs of Histology Stains
Frequently asked questions in staining exercises at Sridhar Rao P.N's home
page

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