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A PROJECT REPORT
ON
ALKYL ARYL SULFONATE

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
Degree of Bachelor of Technology

---------- Submitted-----------
By
Govind Kumar Patel (Roll No: U10CH002)
Kavaiya Ashish Rajeshkumar (Roll No: U10CH010)

B. TECH. IV (Chemical) 8
th
Semester

Guided by
Dr. Z.V.P. Murthy
Professor, ChED

(May - 2013)
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology
Surat-395007, Gujarat, INDIA



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Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology
Surat-395007, Gujarat, INDIA
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the B. Tech. IV (8
th
Semester) Project Report entitled
Alkyl Aryl Sulfonate submitted by Candidate GOVIND KUMAR PATEL (Roll
No:U10CH002) & KAVAIYA ASHISH RAJESHKUMAR (Roll No: U10CH010) & in
the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree B. Tech. in CHEMICAL
Engineering.
We have successfully and satisfactorily completed his Project Preliminary Exam in all
respect. We, certify that the work is comprehensive, complete and fit for evaluation.


Dr.Z.V.P. Murthy
(Professor)
ChED
Project Guide

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DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
S. V. National Institute of Technology, Surat

Govind Kumar Patel & Kavaiya Ashish Rajshkumar, registered in Chemical
Engineering Department of S.V.N.I.T. Surat having Roll No. U10CH002, U10CH010 has
successfully presented his Project Preliminary-VII on 11/12/13 at 3:00 P.M. The Project
Preliminary is presented before the following members of the Committee.
The Project entitled Alkyl Aryl Sulfonate is submitted to the Head (ChED) along with
this certificate.

(Dr.Z.V.P. Murthy)
Project Co-ordiantor
Sign Date
1) Examiner-1 _________ ___________ _________
2) Examiner-2 _________ ___________ _________
3) Examiner-3 _________ ___________ _________
4) Examiner-4 _________ ___________ _________

Place: Surat
Date: 11/4/14


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--------------------- Acknowledgement ----------------------

This project is done as a semester project, as a part of course titled Alkyl Aryl Sulfonate.
We are really thankful to our course instructor Dr .Z.V.P. Murthy, Professor, Department
of Chemical Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, for
his invaluable guidance and assistance, without which the accomplishment of the task
would have never been possible. We also thank him for giving this opportunity to explore
into the real world and realize the importance of Alkyl Aryl Sulfonate, without which a
society can never progress.


















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CONTENTS

I ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 4
II CONTENTS 5
INDEX PAGE
NO.
1. Introduction 7
1.1 Uses of Alkyl Aryl Sulfonate 8
1.2 Properties 9
2. Demand and Supply 10
3. Process Selection 12
3.1 Various Processes 12
3.2 Process Description 12
3.3 MSDS
4. Material Balance 14
4.1 Assumptions 14
4.2 Reactions 14
4.3 Sulfonator 15
4.4 Separator 16
4.5 Neutraliser 17
4.6 Dryer 18
5. Energy Balance 19
5.1 Assumption 19
5.2 Sulfonator 19
5.3 Dryer 20
6. Process Design 22
6.1 Reactor (Major Equipment) 22
6.2 Heat Exchanger (Minor Equipment) 25
6.3 Mechanical Design 31
6.3.1 Reactor 31
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6.3.2 Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger 40
7.Cost Estimation 49
7.1 Estimation of Total Capital Investment 49
7.2 Estimation of Total Product Cost 51
8.P&I Diagram 54
9. Plant Layout 56
10. Plan Location 60
11.Pollution Control and Safety 62
Reference 67















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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Alkyl aryl sulfonates were introduced in 1950s. Today, alkyl aryl sulfonates are the largest
class of synthetic detergents. Alkyl aryl sulfonate is used as surfactant material for the
detergents. These alkyl aryl sulfonates hold the first place in world markets on account of
their excellent properties and relatively low cost of production. Because of their low price
this group is extensively used in both the home and industry. Their stability and soil
suspending power is not as good as sulfated fatty alcohols. But by adding sodium
carboxymethyl cellulose the suspending power can be increased. Alkyl aryl sulfonates
come under the type anionic surfactants. These sulfonates ionize in water to give a
negatively charged organic ion.

The surfactants of synthetic detergents perform the primary cleaning and sundering of the
washing action.

The cleaning process consists of
thoroughly wetting the dirt and the surface of the article being washed with the soap
or detergent solution.
Removing the dirt from the surface &
Maintaining the dirt is a stable solution or suspension.

This alkyl aryl sulfonate accounts for some 40 percent of all detergents used throughout the
world. The main source of alkyl aryl sulfonate is the petroleum industry. As the name
implies there products are based on aromatic compounds combined with an aliphatic chain
bound to the aromatic nucleus.

The aromatic nucleus is usually benzene, but occasionally it is naphthalene, toluene, xylene
or even phenol. Carbon atom in R may vary from 12-16 for alkyl aryl sulfonates. Until the
mid 1960, this largest of synthetic surfactant class was most prominently represented by
Tetrapropylene Benzene Sulfonate(TPS). It was found that branched chain present in TPS
prevents the compound from undergoing efficient biodegradation.:thus ,means were
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developed to replace it by more biodegradable straight chain derivaties. Thus linear
alkylbenzene sulfonate was developed which showed the effective performance.

The manufacture of alkyl aryl sulfonates by sulfonizing and neutralizing the alkylates is
easily handled by soap makers who with to enter the field of synthetic detergents and to
make special mixtures for selected application.

1.1 Uses of Alkyl Aryl Sulfonates:

Alkyl aryl sulfonates are used in different fields because of their effective performance.
Apart from its effective performance it has very interesting foaming characteristics, which
are of great significance to its use in detergents. They are used for home laundering,
household and industrial washing operations, textile washing, bleaching and degreasing
treatments, home-dish washing and for cleaning, dairy apparatus and installations.

As a result of its high solubility it is employed in formulations for liquid detergents. They
are recommended in liquid form for cleaning painted surfaces to remove dirt without
affecting the luster , as well as for cleaning automobiles to restore brilliancy to surfaces
soiled by the weather.
They are also used for treating pigments in making water colors and for finishing paper, as
additives for cement, as well as wetting and spreading insecticides and herbicides and to
improve their penetration. They can also be used in mixtures with sodium bisulfate or with
alkaline builders in compounding industrial cleaning agents. In addition, the surface
activities of these compounds makes them suitable in the treatment of ores, as collectors
and forming agents and in the paper industry for making ground wood for mechanical pulp,
separation of fibres, bleaching and rinsing.




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1.2 Properties:
Chemical Name Alkyl Aryl Sulfonates
Synonyms Benzene Sulfonic Acid,
Sodium Alkyl Aryl Sulfonate,
sodium salts
Formula C
12
H
25
C
6
H
4
SO
3
Na
Molecular Weight (g/mol) 348
Viscosity, 25C (77F) 0.0045(Pa-sec)
PH 7-10.5
Apparent Density >0.18 g/ml
Surface tension of 0.1% Active material (N/m) 0.03
Ionic nature Anionic
Appearance of sol at 20
0
C Clear liquid
Ultraviolet absorption max (m) 225
Electrolytic dissociation yes
Chromatogram Emerald green (Turquoise)
Saybolt color of the alkyl aryl sulfonate +26
Primary biodegradation OECD confirmatory test
%MBAS/BiAS/DAS removal
90 - 95

Foam Height of 0.1% Active Material Solution
Initial Final (after 5 min)
(cm) (cm)
18 17

Formula of Alkyl Aryl Sulfonates :





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Chapter 2 Demand and Supply Data


The largest end use market for surfactants is as household cleaning detergents. These are
typically formulated cleaners based on linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) made from
petroleum feedstocks benezene, kerosene and n-paraffins. The largest producers are
Procter & Gamble, Unilever and Colgate Palmolive. These household cleaning products
are comprised of large volume, lower priced laundry and dishwashing detergent
commodity products that account for roughly one-half of the U.S. surfactant market. The
rest of the U.S. surfactant market involves Specialty Surfactants. The portion of these
that are higher-priced, low-volume products used in a broad range of industrial and
personal care market applications is estimated at 2 billion pounds, or 26% of the total US
surfactant market.


U.S. SURFACTANT MARKE 2011
DEMAND
MARKET SEGMENT MILLION POUNDS
Key Markets
Household Detergents 3,500
Personal Care 800
Industrial & Institutional Cleaners 490
Food Processing 405
Oilfield Chemicals 385
Agricultural Chemicals 270
Textiles 200
Emulsion Polymerization (Plastics) 200
Paints & Coatings 200
Construction 100
6,550



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Other Markets
Lubricant and Fuel Additives 615
Metal Working 150
Mining Chemicals 100
Pulp & Paper 75
Leather Processing 30
Other 195
1165
Total 7,715



SURFACTANT DEMAND & MARKET GROWTH











SURFACTANT TYPE

MILLION POUNDS MARKET GROWTH
Anionics 135 2.0%
Nonionics 100 1.0%
Cationics & Amphoterics 150 4.0%
TOTAL 385 3.4%
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Chapter 3 Process Selection

3.1 Various processes:

In early Time alkyl benzene derived from propylene tetramer had been the work-horse of
the detergent industry. Detergents derived from PT benzene caused Considerable
difficulties in sewage systems. The bacterial flora normally present in sewage was unable
to cope with the steadily increasing amounts of detergents based on PT benzene present in
town effluent. Huge manses of foam formed on top of sewage plants. This detergents form
not only caused aesthetic problems in rivers and in town water, but also presented
biological degradation of other sewage components from causing health hazards. Later this
PT chain was replaced by a straight chain paraffinic or olefinic hydrocarbon which in
sewage was attacked and destroyed much more quickly by bacterial flora. In the process
linear alkyl benzene is taken as raw material. The detergents produced from these are
biologically soft. Sulfonation can be carried out using oleum, liquid sulphur trioxide,
sulphamic acid. Sulphamic acid is only suitable for detergent raw materials where an OH
group is present. Sulfonation using sulphur trioxide is high cost process. Also availability
and maintenance or handling of sulphur trioxide is difficult. In the process oleum is taken.
Oleum sulfonation is mainly used for the sulfonation of alkyl benzene. This process is
cheaper comparing to other and commonly used in detergent industry.

3.2 Process description:

In the process alkyl benzene [C12H25C6H5] which has straight chain hydrocarbons (straight
chain - olefine) is taken as the raw material. (LAB) The alkyl benzenes are mobile liquids
which can readily be transported to the detergent manufacturer, in drums or in bulk. 20%
oleum is used for the sulfonation. Oleum can be handled in mild steel. This process is
carried out as continuous operation. It is necessary to use a large excess of acid (1.1 times
AB) to maintain a sufficiently high acid concentration to carry the reaction near enough to
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completion, cooling is necessary to keep the temperature of the reaction mixture at 30C.
This is done using an heat exchanger.

Alkyl benzene is fed continuously to the sulfonator. Sulfonation product is recirculated
through the heat exchanger by a centrifugal pump. Sulfonation kettle is equipped with a
mixer or agitator. Oleum is charged at the pump inlet. The reaction product is continuously
bled off to the digestor. Digestor is used to ensure the completion of the reaction. At this
point the concentration of sulphuric acid has deceased. Approximately 98 percent of the
hydrocarbon charged in sulfonated. Both sulfonator and digestor are maintained at 30C.


Next acid mixture is diluted with water in the separator.In the separator it is usual to add
10% of water to the acid reaction mixture. Layer separation occurs. Care must be taken to
avoid the development of high a temperature as the water is added. A lower layer of black
H2SO4 and an upper layer of sulphonic acid, which contains at about 5-6% H2SO4 separate.
The spent acid whose concentration is around 78% is removed. It can be removed
continuously by means of centrifugal pump. Disposal of the spent acid may present
problems. Sometimes it is neutralized
with caustic soda, or sodium carbonate to produce a sodium sulphate which is useful in
some NSD powder slurries. Product loss by solution in the spent acid is negligible. The
sulfuric acid is neutralized with 20% caustic soda solution to a pH of 7.5-8 at a temperature
of about 55C.

Neutralization of acid reaction mixture gives slurry containing sodium sulphate and sodium
sulfonate.Since the reaction is exothermic neutralizer requires some form of jacketed
cooling.
The slurry from the neutraliser is passed into the spray drier. Droplets of liquid are brought
into contact with hot gas in some form of chamber, where they dry rapidly to produce a
powder. The powder from the drier contains 80-85% of active surfactant, the rest being
sodium sulphate and water. This material has then only to be diluted to obtain liquid
products etc. or be mixed with suitable builders to provide products ready to be marketed.
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3.3 Material Safety Data Sheet
1. CHEMICAL PRODUCT
- Product Name: Alkyl Aryl Sulfonate
- Chemical Family: Anionic surfactant
2. COMPOSITION/INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS

Chemical Name Amount CAS Number
SODIUM SULFATE < 1.0 % 7757-82-6
ALKYL ARYL SULFONATE 1.0 - 4.0 % N/A
HAZARDS DISCLOSURE
This product contains hazardous materials as defined by the OSHA Hazard Communication
Standard 29 CFR 1910.1200.
As defined under Sara 311 and 312, this product contains materials that are acute hazards.

3. HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION
POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS

- EYE:
Can cause severe eye irritation.
- SKIN:
May cause skin irritation.
- INHALATION:
Causes respiratory tract irritation.
- INGESTION:
Ingestion is not considered a potential route of exposure.
- SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF EXPOSURE:
Undue drowsiness.
- REPRODUCTIVE HAZARDS:
None.

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- CARCINOGENICITY INFORMATION:
Suspect cancer hazard (contains material which) may cause cancer.
- MEDICAL CONDITIONS AGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE:
Rated as a primary fatiguing agent and occular irritant.
4. FIRST AID MEASURES
- EYE CONTACT FIRST AID:
Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water.
- SKIN CONTACT FIRST AID:
Wash skin with soap and water.
If cool wax contacts skin, wash with warm soapy water.
- INHALATION FIRST AID:
Contact a physician.
- INGESTION FIRST AID:
Do not induce vomitting.
5. FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES
- FLAMMABLE PROPERTIES
COC Flash Point: N/A
Autoignition Temperature: N/A
- FLAMMABLE LIMITS IN AIR
LEL: N/A
UEL: N/A
- FLAMMABLE PROPERTIES:
Not Flammable under normal conditions.
- EXTINGUISHING MEDIA:
Non-flammable.

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- FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS:
None.
- FIRE FIGHTING INSTRUCTIONS:
None.
- COMBUSTION PRODUCTS:
None.
6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES
- LARGE SPILLS PROCEDURE:
Sweep up and rinse with water.
Wear respirator and protective clothing as appropriate. Shut off source of leak.
Dike & contain. Allow wax to cool and remove as solid.
- SMALL SPILLS PROCEDURE:
Same as large spill.
7. HANDLING AND STORAGE
- STORAGE PRECAUTIONS:
Store in a dry place.
8. EXPOSURE CONTROLS / PERSONAL PROTECTION
- EYE / FACE PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS:
Use safety glasses.
- SKIN PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS:
Not required.
- RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS:
Not required.
- MISCELLANEOUS:
Use local ventillation.
- EXPOSURE GUIDELINES:
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No Information Available.
10. STABILITY
- STABILITY:
Stable.
11. TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION
No information available.
12. ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION
No information available.
13. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS
- WASTE DISPOSAL:
Dispose of waste material in accordance with all local, state/provincial,
and national requirements. Material is biodegradable.

















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Chapter 4 MATERIAL BALANCE










Fig 4.1 Block Diagarm of Alkyl Aryl Sulfonate
( a=Pump, b=Heat Exchanger, c=Sulfonator (CSTR), d=Separator, e= Neutralizer, f=Spray
Dryer, AB = Alkyl benzene,Product= Alkyl Aryl Sulfonate )

4.1 Assumptions:

1. No sulfonic acid passes into the spent acid.
2. Sulphuric acid left in the sulfonic acid has the same strength as the spent acid.
3. Sodium sulfonate product is 85% active.
4. Ratio of oleum to alkylate is 1.1
5. Possible side reactions are neglected.

4.2 Reactions:

C12H25C6H5 + H2SO4.SO3 C12H25C6H4SO3 H + H2SO4 -------------- (1)
C12H25C6H4SO3H + NaOH C12H25C6H4SO3Na + H2O -----------------(2)
H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2H2O -----------------------------------------(3)

a
C
d
b
e f
20% Oleum
AB
H
2
0 NaOH
Product
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Product: 2, 50,000 kg/day.

With 85% active = 2, 12,500 kg/day
= 8854.2 kg/hr.

Amount of alkyl aryl sulfonic acid produced =8854.2(326/348)
=8294.4kg/hr.

4.3 Sulfonator:

Consider reaction
C12H25C6H5 + H2SO4.SO3 C12H25C6H4SO3H + H2SO4
Basis: 8294.4 kg/hr of sulfonic acid.

Amont of alkyl benzene = 8294.4(246/326)
= 6258.97 kg/hr
= 25.44 kmole/hr

Conversion is 98%
Alkyl benzene = 25.96 kmoles / hr
= 6386.7 kg/hr.

Oleum taken(in practice) = 1.1 x 6386.7
= 7025.38 kg/hr

SO3 required = 8294.42 (80/326)
= 2035.4 kg/hr

[1 kg of 20% oleum contains 0.2 kg of SO3 & 0.8 kg of H2SO4.
i.e. 0.8(80/98)+0.2=0.853 kg of SO3 , 0.8 (18/98) = 0.147 kg of H2O]

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Water associated = 366.56 kg
Total theoretical oleum required = 2402 kg/hr.
Oleum taken contains 5992.6 kg of SO3 and 1032.73 kg of H2O
Excess SO3 = 3957.2 kg

H2SO4 formed = 3957.2 ( 98/80)
= 4847.88 kg/hr

Additional water = 1032.7 - (3957.2 x 18/80)
= 142.36kg

Concentration of H2SO4 = 97.15%

Unreacted alkyl benzene = 6386.7 x 0.02
= 127.7kg/hr

4.4 Separator :

Total reaction mixture = 13412.1 kg/hr
10% of water = 1341.2 kg/hr
Total mixture = Total reaction mixture +10% of water
=14753.3 kg/hr

Concentration of H2SO4 = 76.6%
Sulfonic acid layer contains 5-6% of H2SO4.

Let us take 5.5%
i.e. 5.5/0.766 = 7.2% of 76.6% sulfuric acid

H2SO4 in sulfonic acid layer = 8294.4 x 7.2/92.8
= 643.5 kg/hr
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Total acid mixture = 8937.95 kg/hr
Amount of spent acid = 5815.35 kg/hr
H2SO4(76.6%) present in the sulfonic acid layer contains 492.9 kg H2SO4 & 150.6 kg
H2O

4.5 Neutraliser:
Consider reaction (1)
H
2
SO
4
+ 2NaOH Na
2
SO
4
+ 2H
2
O
20% NaOH is added into the neutraliser.
Na
2
SO
4
formed = 492.94 x 142/98
= 714.3 kg/hr.

NaOH required = 492.44 x 80/98
= 402.4 kg

H
2
O associated = 1609.6 kg
Total 20% NaOH = 2012 kg/hr
H
2
O produced=181.1kg/hr

Consider reaction (2)
H
2
SO
4
+ 2NaOH Na
2
SO
4
+ 2H
2
O

NaOH required = 1017.7 kg
H
2
O associated = 4070.88 kg
Total 20% NaOH = 5088.6 kg/hr
H
2
O produced = 457.97 kg/hr
Total amount of water = 4528.8 kg
Total amount of water present in the neutralizer = 6470.12 kg/hr
Product from the neutralizer contains 42% water .
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4.6 Dryer:
Product from the dryer contains 8854.2 kg of Alkyl Aryl Sulfonate, 714.258 kg of sodium
Sulfate and rest water (8%).
Total amount of water evaporated = 5621.9 kg/hr.





















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Chapter 5 ENERGY BALANCE

5.1 Assumption:
1. Heat of dilution of oleum is neglected

5.2 Sulfonator:
Temperature of the reactor = 30
0
C

General Heat balance:
Heat Input + Heat of reaction = Heat output + Q

Specific Heat:
1. Specific Heat of Alkyl benzene = 3.536KJ/KgK
2. Specific Heat of Oleum = 1.403 KJ/KgK
3. Specific Heat of alkyl benzene sulfonic acid = 3.057 KJ/kgK
4. Specific Heat of sulfuric acid (98%) = 1.415 KJ/kgK

Heat of Formation:
1. Heat of Formation of alkyl benzene = -13.508 Kcal/mole
2. Heat of Formation of sulfuric acid = -192 Kcal/mole
3. Heat of Formation of alkyl benzene sulfuric acid = - 8.908 Kcal/mole
4. Heat of Formation of oleum = -163.46 Kcal/mole
Taking reference temperature 0
0
C

Input :- Entering temp = 28
0
C
Mass flow rates:
1. Alkyl benzene =1.77 kg/sec
2. Oleum =1.95 kg/sec


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Output :- Leaving temp = 30
0
C
Mass flow rates:
1. ABS 2.304 Kg/sec
2. H
2
SO
4
1.34 kg/sec

Heat input = ( mC
p
t)
AB
+(mC
p
t)
oleum

= 175.64 + 76.6
= 250.95 KJ/sec

Heat of formation at 25C for the reaction(1) = 23.38 Kcal/mole
Heat generated in the reactor = 23.38 x 4.18 x 7.2
= 703.85 KJ/sec

Heat output = (mC
p
t)
ABS
+(mC
p
t)
H2SO4

= 210.9 + 87.16
= 270.75 KJ/sec

Q = 250.95+703.85 270
= 684.8 KJ/sec
[Heat transferred to the cooling medium]

5.3 Dryer:
Assume inlet gas temperature = 300
0
C
Standard m
3
of air per tonne of powder made from slurry containing 42% water for 300
0
C
is 12,500
Outlet gas temperature = 100
0
C

Properties:
The density of the gas at 100
0
C is 0.94 Kg/m
3

The specific heat of air is 0.24 Kg cal/Kg
0
C
Gas temperature after admixture with 10% cold air = 272
0
C
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Water evaporated to produce 1 tonne of powder = 540 Kg.
12500 m
3
gas/tonne powder, equivalent to 12,5000 x 0.94
= 11750 Kg gas / tonne powder.

Reference temperature = 20
0
C
Heat in = 11750 x ( 272 20) x 0.24
= 711000 Kg cal / tonne powder.

Heat out [ in Kcal / tonne powder]
Latent heat required = 540x550
= 297000
Radiation and convection losses, Say 5% of input
= 35000
In gas exhausted from the tower
=11750 x (100 20) x 0.24 = 226000

Errors ( by difference) = 1,74,500(24.5%)
Total=7,11,000











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Chapter 6 PROCESS DESIGN:

6.1 REACTOR (Major equipment):

Sulfonator is a continuous stirred tank reactor.

It is assumed that reaction takes place only in the reactor.
The reaction is given by

Alkyl benzene + oleum --> alkyl benzene sulfonic acid + sulfuric acid

Since oleum is used in large amount the reaction is pseudo first order.

The rate of the reaction is given by
(-r
A
)=C
A
[2667(X
A
- X
w
+ X
S
) -9.329 +5349/T ]

Where
X
A
- mole fraction of H
2
SO
4

X
w
- mole fraction of water
Xs - mole fraction of alkyl aryl sulfonic acid
T - abs temp
C
A
concentration of alkyl aryl sulfonic acid (moles / lit)
(-r
A
) - rate (moles /hr/lit)
X
A
- 0.598
X
S
- 0.307
X
W
- 0.095
T - 303 K

Density of oleum = 1830 kg/m
3

Density of alkyl benzene = 840 kg/m
3

Flowrate of oleum=7029.4kg/hr
Flowrate of alkyl benzene=6386.7kg/hr

Total volumetric feed rate = (6386.7 / 840) + (7029.4 / 1830)
v
0
= 11.44 m
3
/hr

Initial concentration of alkyl benzene =C
A0
= F/v
F = molar flow rate (input)
=25960 moles / hr


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v =volumetric flow rate
= 7.60 m
3
/hr
C
Ao
= 25960 / 7.6
= 3451.1 moles /m3
= 3.4 mole /lit


Assuming constant density system,
C
A
= C
Ao
(1-X
A
)
C
A
Final concentration
Conversion, X
A
= 98%
C
A
= 3.4(1-0.98)
=0.068 moles / lit.

For different concentration, rate is found & Graph of (-1/r
A
) vs C
A
is plotted.
Table:
C
A
(moles/lit) (-r
A
)(moles/hr/lit) (-1/r
A
)(* 10
-2
)
3.4 303.3 0.33
3.07 270 0.37
2.75 243.3 0.411
2.44 212.8 0.47
2.07 181.8 0.55
1.74 153.8 0.65
1.4 123.5 0.81
0.70 66.7 1.0
0.402 35.7 2.8
0.068 5.99 16.7



From the graph of (-1/r
A
) vs C
A


Area under the curve = 0.7

Residence time,t = 0.7 hr

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Volume of the reactor, V = v
0
* t

= 11.44 * 0.7

= 8 m
3


(Hd
2

/ 4) * l = V Where
d-Dia of the reactor

l- Height of the reactor



By taking (l/d) =2

V=(td
2
/4)*2d

Dia of the reactor, d = 1.72 m

Height of the reactor, l = 3.44 m




SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 29

6.2 HEAT EXCHANGER:(Minor equipment)

Total amount of heat to be removed, Q = 684.8 KJ/sec

Hot fluid - Mixture of reaction product & oleum

Cold fluid water

Q = m*C
p
*At

Mass flow rate of liquid mixture, m = 3.72 Kg/sec

Specific heat of liquid mixture, C
p
=2.092 KJ/KgK Outlet temp = 30
0
C
At=88
0
C

Inlet temp = 118
0
C

Let inlet temperature of water = 20
0
C & Outlet temperature = 40
0
C
Specific heat of water = 4.18 KJ/KgK

Mass flow rate of water = 684.8 /( 4.18 * 20)

= 8.2 kg/hr



Routing of fluids:

Water which has the high flow rate is taken in tube side.

Liquid mixture which has viscosity higher than water is taken in shell side.



LMTD:

Liquid mixture Water At

118
0
C 40
0
C 78
0
C
30
0
C 20
0
C 10
0
C
SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 30


LMTD = (78-10)/ln(78/10) = 33.10
For R = 4.4 and S = 0.19

F
T
= 0.76 (LMTD)cor=0.76*33.10 = 25.16


Heat transfer area:


U = 750 W/m
2
K.

Area = Q / (LMTD * U)

= (684.8 * 10
3
)

/ (750 * 25.16)
= 36.29 m
2


Length = 10ft = 3.054 m


Let us take
O.D. tubes , 12 BWG gauge

D
o
= 19.05 mm

D
i
= 13.25 mm

External surface per m length = 0.05948 m
Heat transfer area = 0.05948 (3.054 - 50 * 10
-3
) [ 50mm allowance]

= 0.179 m
2

per tube

Number of tubes = 36.29 / 0.179 = 202

Choosing TEMA L or M type:

208 tubes (N
t
) , 4 passes (N
p
) , one shell pass.
Shell ID= 438mm, pitch = 1 inch (triangular)
Corrected area = 0.179 * 208
= 37.23 m
2



Corrected U = (684.8 * 10
3
)/ (37.23 * 25.16)
= 731 W/m
2
K

Fluid velocities:

Tube side - water

Properties: Specific heat = 4.18 kJ/kg k

Density = 996 kg/m
3

SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 31

Viscosity = 0.85 cP
Thermal conductivity = 0.61 W/mK

Flow area, a
t
=((H * (D
i
)
2
)/4) * (N
t
/N
p
)

=(H(13.25 * 10-3)
2
/4)* (208/4)
= 7.35 * 10
-3
m
2

Velocity ,V
t
= mass flow rate / (density * area)
= 8.2 / (996 * 7.35 * 10
-3
)

= 1.23 m/sec



Shell side Liquid mixture
Properties - Density - 1238 kg/m
3


Specific heat - 2.093 KJ/kg K Viscosity - 1.5 cP
Thermal conductivity - 0.176 W/mK



Cross flow area at center of the shell, S
m
= ((P
t
- D
o
) L
s
) (D
s
/ P
t
) D
o

= 19.02 mm
P
t

= 1 inch
D
s
=Shell ID
L
s
= Baffle pitch=0.2 D
s
= 0.2 * 0.438 = 0.0876 m


Number of baffles = (L/L
s
)-1

= (3.054/ (0.2 * 0.438)) -1
= 30

S
m
= ((25.4-19.02) * 0.438 * 0.2 * 0.438) / 25.4
=9.6 * 10
-3
m
2


Velocity , Vs= 3.72 / (1238 * 9.6 * 10
-3
)
=0.31m/sec







SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 32

Heat transfer coefficients:

Tube side:

Re = (V
t *
D
i
*)/
= (13.25 * 10
-3
* 1.23 * 996) / (0.85 * 10
-3
)
= 20,184

Pr = Cp* /K
= (0.85 * 4.18) / 0.61
= 5.82.

Nu = 0.023(Re)
0.8
(Pr)
0.4

= 129.33

hi = (129.33 * 0.61)/(13.25 * 10
-3
)
=5954 W/m
2
K Shell side:
Re = (Vs
*
D
o
-) /
= (0.31 * 19.05 * 10
-3
* 1238) / (1.5 * 10
-3
)
=4968.3

Pr = -Cp /K
= (1.5 * 2.093) / 0.176
= 15.07
j
H
= 10
-2

Nu = 10
-2
* 4968.3 * (15.07)
1/3

= 122.76

ho =(0.176 * 122.76)/ 0.01905
= 1134.19 W/m
2
K

Overall heat transfer coefficient:
(1/U
od
) = (1/ho) + (D
o
/D
i
)*(1/hi) + (D
o
*ln(D
o
/D
i
))/2Kw (clean) Kw = 50
1/U
od
=1.16 * 10
-3


1/U
od
= 1.16 * 10
-3
+ 2 * 10
-4
(dirt)
U
od
= 735 W/m
2
K
Pressure drop:

Tube side:
SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 33

3

Re = 20184

f = 0.079 (20.184)
-0.25

= 6.63*10
-3


AP
L
= (4f*L*V
t
2
--g) / (2*g*D
i
)

= (2 * 6.63 * 0.001 * 3.054 * 1.2 *1.2 *996)/0.01325
=4192 N/m
2


AP
E
=2.5(-V
t
2
/2)
=1798.8 N/m
2



(AP)
t ot al
= N
p
(AP
L
+AP
E
)
= 4(4192 +1792.8)
=23.93 KPa

Shell side:

Cross flow zones:

APc= (f
k
*b*W
2
*N
c
/ -S
m
2
) * (
w
/
b
)
0. 14


b=2*10
-3

f
k
=0.08
W=3.72kg/sec
S
m
=9.6 * 10
-3



N
c
:- No. of tube rows crossed in each cross flow region.
P
p
:- Pitch parallel to flow
= 22
l
c
= Baffle cut =25% of D
s



Ds[1 2
lc
]
Nc =
Ds
P
p
= 438(1-2(0.25 * 0.438)/0.438))/22
= 9.95 = 10


APc =
2 *10

* 3.72
2
*0.08*10
1238 * ( 9. 6 *10
3
)
2

[Type text] Page 34

= 0.194 Kpa



End Zones:

APe = APc * 1+
N
aw


N
c

N
aw
= No. of effective cross flow rows in each window

=0.8 * l
c
/P
p

=0.8 * 0.25 * 438 /22
=3.98 = 4

APe=0.194(1+4/10)

=0.27KPa


Window zones: APw= (b* W
2
*(2+0.6*Naw))/(S
m
*S
w
-) b
=5 * 10
-4

S
w
:-area for flow through window

S
w
= S
wg
- S
wt


S
wg
= Cross window area

S
wt
= area occupied by the tubes

S
wt
= N
t
/8*(1-F
c
)* t- D
o
2


=208/8[(1-0.7)* t -(19.05*10
-3
)
2

=8.89*10
-3


S
wg
= 38 in
2
= 0.0245 m
2


S
w
=0.0156m
2



APw = (5*E

*3.72
2
*[2+0.6*4])/ (0.0156*1238*9.96*E
-3
)
=0.1675 KPa

(AP)
t ot al
= 2 * APe + (N
b
-1)*APc + N
b
*(APw)
= 2*0.27 + (34-1)*0.194 + 34 * 0.16
= 12.86 KPa






[Type text] Page 35
6.3 MECHANICAL DESIGN

6.3.1 Reactor

Vessel shell internal diameter 1.72m
Internal pressure 2.04 Kg/cm
2


Design pressure 2.44 Kg/ cm
2
(20% more than Internal Pressure)
Material openhearth steel (IS-2002) Allowable stress 980 Kg/cm
2


Shell thickness:

t
s
= P * Di/(2*f*J P)

J = Joint efficiency factor
= 0.85

t
s
= (2.44 * 1720)/(2 * 0.85 * 980 2.44)

= 2.52 mm

Use 4 mm thickness including corrosion allowance



Agitator:

Diameter of agitator 525 mm (D
a
) Speed (maximum) 200 rpm
Overhang of agitator shaft between bearing and agitator 1300 mm (l) Agitator blades 6
(n)
Width of the blade 75 mm (w) Thickness of blade 8 mm (t)
Shaft material commercial cold rolled steel

Permissible shear stress in shaft 550 Kg/cm
2


Elastic limit in tension 2460 Kg/cm
2


Modulus of elasticity 19.5 * 10
5
Kg/cm
2
(E)

Permissible stress for key (carbon steel) Shear 630 Kg/cm
2

Crushing 1300 Kg/cm
2


Stuffing box (carbon steel) - 950 Kg/cm
2

Studs and bolts (hot rolled carbon stee l) Permissible stress 587 Kg/cm
2

It is assumed that vessel geometry conforms to the standard tank configuration

Re = -N- da2 / = 1.4 * 103 * 200/60 * (500/1000)2/1.7 * 10-2
= 683.52 * 10
2
> 10,000

[Type text] Page 36

From power curve, N
p
= 6

Power, P = N
P *
- N
3
*Da
5
/(g
c
* 75)

= (6 * 1.4 * 10
3
*(200/60)
3)
* (500/1000)
5
) / (9.81 * 75)

= 13.22 hp

Gland losses (10%) 1.322 hp

Power input = 13.22 + 1.3 = 14.52 hp

Transmission system losses (20%) = 14.52 * 0.2

= 2.904 hp

Total hp = 14.52 + 2.904 = 17.42



This will be taken as 18.5 hp to allow for fitt ing losses


Shaft design

Continuous average rated torque on the agitator shaft, Tc= (hp * 75 * 60)/ (2 t N)
= (18.5 * 75 * 60)/ (2 t * 200)

= 66.25 Kg m


Polar modulus of the shaft, Z
p
= T
m
/f
s

T
m
= 1.5 Tc
f
s
shear stress 550 kg/cm
2


Z
p
= (1.5 * 66.25 * 100) /550
= 18.07 cm
3


td
3
/16 = 18.07

d = 4.5 cm

Diameter of shaft = 5 cm

Force, Fm = Tm /0.75Rb

R
b
Radius of blade

F
m
= (1.5 * 66.25 * 100) / (0.75 * 25)

= 530 Kg




[Type text] Page 37
Maximum bending momentum

M = F
m
* l

= 530 * 1.3

= 689 Kg-m

=692.5 Kg .m

The stress due to equivalent bending

f = M
c
/Z

Z = t - (5)
3
/32 (Modulus of reaction of the shaft cross
section)
=12.27


f = (692.5 * 100)/12.27
= 5642.9 kg/cm
2


Stress f is higher than the permissible elastic limit (2460 Kg/Cm
2
). Therefore use a 7 cm
diameter shaft for which the stress will be
f = 2056 Kg/cm
2




Deflection of shaft, o = (W * l
3)
/ (3*E*I) [W = F
m
]

= (130)
3
x 530/3 x 19.5 x 10
5
x t x 7
4
/64

= 1.69cm

Critical speed , Nc = (4.987 x 60) / (o)
0.5
= 230.16rpm

Since actual shaft speed is 200 rpm which is 87% of the crit ical speed it is necessary to
increase the value of critical speed by decreasing the deflection.
Choose therefore a 8cm dia shaft.

Then,
o = 1.00 cm

N
c
= 60 x 4.987/ 1.00 = 300 rpm
[Type text] Page 38

Actual speed is 66.6 % of the critical speed



Blade design:
F = (maximum torque)/ (t * w
2
/ n)

= 99.375 / (0.8 x 7.5
2
/6)

= 132.5 Kg/cm
2


Stress is well within the limit



Hub and key design:
Hub diameter of agitator = 2 x shaft diameter
= 16 cm
Length of the hub = 2.5 x 8 = 20 cm
Length of key = 1.5 x shaft dia = 12 cm

T
max
/ (d/2 )= l*b*f
s
= (l*t/2)*f
c
= 99.25 x 100/(8/2)

f
s
- shear stress in key
f
c
stress in crushing of key

12 x b x 650 = 12 x t/2 x 1300 = 2481.25

b = 3.18 mm
t = 3.18 mm

Use 4mm x 4mm x 12 cm key

Stuffing box and gland:

b = d +\d

= 8 + \8 = 10.28 cm

Permissible stress in the material of stuffing box, t = P
b
/(2*f) + C
t = (2.44 x 10.28 x 10 /2 x 950) + 6

= 6.13mm
a = b + 2t
= 10.28 + 2 x 0.613

= 11.51 cm

[Type text] Page 39


Load on gland,

F = (t/4) * p *(b
2
d
2
)

= (t/4)(10.28
2
8
2
)2.44
= 79.87 Kg



Size of the stud:

F = (td
0
2
/4)* n*f
n no of stud = 4
f Permissible stress for stud

=587 Kg/cm
2
d
0
2
= 0.043 cm
d
0
= 0.658mm
Minimum stud diameter 15 mm

Flange thickness = 1.75 x 15

= 27.25=30mm

Coupling: -

A clamp coupling of cast iron is used

Force per bolt = 2 * T
max
/(t x n/2)
No of bolts ,n= 8

- coffecient of friction = 0.25

Force = (2 x 99.25 x 100) / (t x 0.25 x 8 x (8/2))

= 789.7 kg

Area of bolt = 789.7/587
= 1.35cm
2


Diameter of bolt = (1.35 x 4)/H

= 1.65mm

Overall diameter of coupling= 2 x shaft dia

= 16cm




[Type text] Page 40
Support Design:

Bracket or lug support is designed. Diameter of reactor = 1.72 m Height of Reactor = 3.44
m
Clearance from vessel bottom to foundation 1.0m

Wind pressure 128.5 kg/m
2


Number of brackets 4

Diameter of anchor bolt circle 1.9 m (D
b
) Height of bracket from foundation = 1.8 m
Permissible stresses for structural steel (IS-800)
Tension 1400 Kg/cm
2

Compression 1233 kg/cm
2

Binding 1575 Kg/cm
2

Permissible bearing pressure for concrete 35 Kg/cm
2

Weight of the vessel with contents = 10000 Kg.

Maximum compressive load:
Wind pressure, Pw = k*p*h.D
o


k- Coefficient depending on the shape factor

= 0.7

Pw = 0.7 x 128.5 x 3.44 x 1.72

= 532.2 Kg.



Maximum total compressive load in the support is

P=
4*Pw*(H F)
+
cw

N*D*b n

H Height of the vessel above the foundation

F Vessel clearance from foundation to vessel bottom.
W Maximum weight of the vessel
n = number of brackets



P =
4 x 532.2(4.440 1)
+
10000

4 x1.9 4
= 3463.5 Kg.

[Type text] Page 41


Bracket:

(a)Base plate:

Suitable base plate size, a = 140 mm

B = 150 mm

Average pressure on the plate, P
av
= P/(aB)
P
av
= (3463)/(14x15) = 16.5 Kg/cm
2



Maximum stress in a rectangular plate subjected to a pressure P
av
and fixed at the edges is
given by

f = 1575Kg / cm
2

(Given)

T
1
= 8.7 mm

Use a 9 mm thick plate.



(b) Web plate.

Bending moment of each plate =

P ( D
im
D )
x 100

2 2
=
(3463 )(1.9 1.72 )

4
= 15583 .5 Kg .cm

Stress at the edge , f = (15583.5 *1) / (T2 *14 * 14*0.707)
=112.5/T
2


For f = 1575, T
2
= 7 mm


[Type text] Page 42
Column support for bracket:

It is proposed to use a channel section as column. The size chosen is ISMC 150.
Size 150 x 75

Area of cross section 20 .88 cm
2


Modulus of section 19.4 cm
3


Radius of gyration, r 2.21 cm

Weight 16.4 Kg/m

Height from foundation, l=1.8m

Equivalent length for fixed ends l
e
=1/2
= 0.9 m


Slenderness ratio= l
e
/r
=
0.9x100
2.21

= 40
For the load acting accentric on a short column, the maximum combined bending and
direct stress is given by,

f =
W
+
WxL

Axn nx2
SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 43


w = Load on column

A Area of cross section

E Eccentricity

Z Modulus of section of cross section

N Number of columns

f=[3463/(20.88*1)] + [3463*4.5/(1*19.4)]

= 969Kg / cm,
2


Channel selected is satisfactory.

Base plate for column:

Size of the column 150 x 75

It is assumed that the base plate extends 25 mm on either side of channel

Side B 0.8 x 75 + 2 x 20=100mm

Side C 0.95 x 150 + 2 x 20 = 182.5 mm

Bearing pressure, Pb = (3463/4) x (1/10x18.25)

= 4.74 Kg/cm
2


This is less than the permissible bearing pressure for concrete.


Stress is the plate,

For f = 1575 Kg/cm
2


t = 2.33 mm

It is usual to select a plate 4 to 6 mm thick.




SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 44

6.3.2 Shell & Tube heat exchanger:
Shell side:
Material carbon steel
Working pressure 0.1N/mm
2

Design pressure 0.11N/mm
2

Permissible stress for carbon steel 95 N/mm
2

Dia of shell=438mm
Tube side:
Working pressure=0.5N/mm
2

Design pressure=0.55N/mm
2

Shell thickness:
ts = PD/2fJ+P =

=0.33mm
Minimum thickness of shell must be 6.3 mm
Including corrosion allowance, ts = 8mm.
Head thickness:Shallow dished & torispherical head
t
h
=

Rc crown radius
W stress intensification factor
W=

Rc = 6%R
k
W=

J=1
t
h
=

=0.45 mm
SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 45

Use thickness as same for shell i.e. 8 mm
Transeverse baffles:
Baffle spacing = 0.2 x 438 = 87.6 mm
Thickness of baffles = 6 mm
Tie rods and spaces:
Diameter of tie rod = 10 mm
Number of tie rods = 6
Flanges:
Shell thickness = go = 8 mm
Flange material IS: 2004 1962 class 2
Gasket material asbestos composition
Bolting steel = 5% Cr Mo steel
Allowable stress of flange material 100 MN / m
2

Allowable stress of bolting material,Sg 138 MN/m
2

Outside dia = B=438+(2x8)
= 454 mm
Gasket width:

m gasket factor 2.75
y min design seating stress 25.5 MN/m
2

Gasket thickness = 1.6 mm

=1.002
Let di of the gasket equal 464 mm [ 10 mm greater than shell dia]
do = 0.464 x 1.002
= 0.4649m
SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 46

Mean gasket width= (0.4649 0.464)/2
= 5 x 10
-4

Taking gasket width of 12 mm,
do = 0.488 m
Basic gasket seating width, bo= 5mm
Diameter of location of gasket load reaction is,
G = di+N
= 0.464+0.012
= 0.476m
Estimation of bolt loads:
Load due to design pressure:

=0.0196MN
Load to keep joint tight under operation
Hp = G(26)mp
=x 0.476 x 2 x 5 x 10
-3
x 2.75 x 0.11
= 4.52 x10
-3
MN
Total operating load, Wo = H+Hp
= 0.024MN
Load to seat gasket under bolting up condition
Wg = Gby
= x 0.476 x 0.005 x 25.5
= 0.1906 MN
Controlling load = 0.1906 MN
Minimum bolting area=Am=Wg/Sg
=0.1906/138
= 1.38 x 10-3m
2

SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 47

Take Bolt size M 18 x 2
Actual number of bolts 44
R = 0.027m
g1= go/0.707 = 1.415 go for weld leg
go = 8mm
Bolt circle diameter,C = B +2(g1+R)
=0.454+2(1.415x0.008+0.027)
=0.5306 m
Using 66 mm bolt spacing,
C=44 x 0.066 /
= 0.9243 m
Bolt circle diameter, C = 0.93 m
Flange outside diameter
A = C+ bolt diameter + 0.02 m (minimum)
= 0.93 + 0.018 + 0.02
= 0.968 = 0.97m
Check of gasket width

=50.43< 2y
It is satisfied
Flange moment computation:
For operating condition:
Wo=W1+W2+W3
W1= (B
2
/4)P
=/4(0.454)
2
0.11
=0.0178
W2= H-W1
SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 48

= 0.0196 0.0178
= 1.79 x 10
-3

W3= Wo-H = Hp (gasket load)
= 4.52 x 10
-3
MN
Total flange moment, Mo=W
1
a
1
+W
2
a
2
+W
3
a
3

Mo = 5.68 x 10
-3

For bolting up condition
Mg = W. a3
W = (Am +Ab)/(2). Sg
Ab =area of bolt
= 44 x 1.56 x 10
-4

= 6.76 x 10
-3
m
2
Am = Minimum bolt area
=1.38 x 10
-3
m
2
Sg=138N/mm
2

W = 0.562 MN
a
3
=0.23
Mg = 0.1275 MN-m
Mg is controlling momen

Flange thickness:
t
2
=(MCfY)/(BSt)=(MCfY/BSfo)
SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 49

K=(A/B)
=(0.97/0.454)
=2.13
Assume Cf=1
From the graph ,Y=3
M=0.1275MN-m
St=Allowable stress
=100MN/m
2

t
2
=(0.1275 x 3)/(0.454 x 100)
=0.0008
t=0.029m
Tube sheet thickness:

=18.07mm
t
t s
= 21 mm including corrosion allowance
Channel and channel cover:

=19mm
th= 22mm including corrosion allowance.
Nozzle:
Thickness of nozzle = PD/2fJ-P
Inlet & outlet dia 100 mm
Vent 50 mm
SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 50

Drain 50 mm
Opening for relief value 75 mm

=0.293mm
Corrosion allowance 3 mm
t
n
= 4 mm
Considering the size of the nozzle & the pressure rating, it is necessary to provide for a
reinforcing pad on the channel cover.
Area required to be compensated for each nozzle
A = d x th= 100 x 22 = 2200 mm
2

Saddle Support:
Material- low carbon steel
Diameter = 454 mm
Length of the shell, L = 3.054 m
Knuckle radius = 6% of diameter
= 27.24 mm
Total depth of head
=

H=78.63mm
Weight of vessel & contents, W = 11943 kg.
Distance of saddle center line from shell end,
A = 0.5 x R = 113.5 mm
Longitudianl bending moments:
SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 51

Q = Load carried by each symmetrical support
=

=18843.1Kg

M
1
=12.778Kg.m
M
2
= 10218Kg.m
Stresses in shell at the saddle
1.At the topmost fibre of the cross section.
f
1
=

k
1
=1
t= thickness of the shell
f
1=

=0.9865Kg/cm
2
2.At the bottom most fibre of the cross section
f
2 =

f
2
=0.9865Kg/cm
2
Stresses are well within the permissible values.
Stresses in the shell at mid span:
The stress at the span is ,
f
3
=

SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 52

=789.46 Kg/cm
2

Axial stress is the shell due to internal pressure :
f
p
=

=15.34Kg/cm
2

f3+fp= 804.80kg/cm
2

Stresses are well within the permissible values.




















SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 53

Chapter 7 Cost Estimation
Fixed capital investment = $ 3228500 (year 1979)
Capacity at that year, Q
1
= 6.795 x 10
3
tons / yr.
C
2
=C
1
(Q
2
/Q
1
)
n


n=0.6

Considering 300 days,

Given capacity, Q2=75000 tons/yr

C
2
= 3228500(75000/6795)
0.6

= 13.64 x 10
6
$

= 654.6 x 10
6
Rs


Cost index in the year 1979 = 230

Cost index is the year 2002 = 402 n fixed capital investment
n
2
= n
1
(C
2
/C
1
)
=654.6 x 10
6
(402/230)

= 1144x10
6
Rs.


Fixed capital investment for 75000 tons / yr capacity

= 1144 x 10
6
Rs



7.1 Estimation of total capital investment:
I. Direct cost:

A. Equipment, installation, piping etc.

1. Purchased equipment (30% of fixed capital investment)
= 0.3 x 1144 x 10
6


= 343.2 x 10
6
Rs.

2. Installation, including insulation and paint ing

(30% of purchased equipment)

= 0.3 x 343.2 x 10
6

= 102.96 x 10
6
Rs.

SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 54



3. Instrumentation and controls, installed (10% of purchased equipment)

= 0.1 x 343.2 x 10
6


= 34.32 x 10
6
Rs.



4. Piping, installed (20% of purchased equipment)

= 0.2 x 343.2 x 10
6


= 68.64 x 10
6
Rs.


5. Electrical, installed (15% of purchased equipment)

= 0.15 x 4343.2 x 10
6


= 51.48 x 10
6
Rs.


B. Buildings (20% of purchased equipment cost )

= 0.2 x 343.2 x 10
6


= 68.64 x 10
6
Rs.



C. Service facilit ies and yard improvements: (60% of purchased equipment)
= 0.6 x 343.2 x 10
6


= 205.92 x 10
6
Rs.



D. Land (5% of purchased equipment)
= 17.1 x 10
6
Rs.


Direct cost = 893.32 x 10
6
Rs.

II. Indirect cost:-

1. Engineering and supervision ( 10% of direct cost)

=89.23 x 10
6
Rs.

2. Construction expense and contractors fee

(11% of direct cost)

= 93.85 x 10
6
Rs.


3. Contingency (6% of fixed capital investment)
SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 55


= 0.06 x 1144 x 10
6


= 68.64 x 10
6
Rs


Indirect cost = 251.7 x 10
6
Rs.





Total capital investment = fixed capital investment + working capital

Let working capital = 15% of total capital investment

Fixed capital investment = 1144 x 10
6
Rs. Total capital investment = 1345 x 10
6
Rs.


7.2 Estimation of total product cost:
I. Manufacturing cost
A. Fixed charges:

1. Depreciation (10% of fixed capital investment + 2% of building)
= 114.4 x 10
6
+ 1.37 x 10
6


= 116 x 10
6
Rs.


2. Local taxes (3% of fixed capital investment)
= 34.32x 10
6
Rs.


3. Insurance ( 0.8% of fixed capital investment )
= 9.15 x 10
6
Rs.


Fixed charges = 159.5 x 10
6
Rs.


Let fixed charge be 15% of total product cost

Total product cost
= 159.5 x 10
6
/0.15
= 1063.14 x 10
6
Rs



B. Direct production cost:

1. Raw materials (15% of total product cost)

= 159.45 x 10
6
Rs.

SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 56


2. Operating labor (11% of total product cost)
= 116.93 x 10
6
Rs.


3. Direct supervisory and clericallabor (15% of operating labor)

=17.53 x 10
6
Rs.

4. Utilities (15% of total product cost)
= 159.45 x 10
6
Rs.


5 .Maintenance and repairs (5% of fixed capital investment)
= 57.2 x 10
6
Rs.



6. Operating supplies [15% of maintenance and repairs)
= 8.58 x 10
6
Rs


7. Laboratory charges (15% of operating labor)

= 17.53 x 10
6
Rs.


8. Patents and royalt ies (3% of total product cost)
= 31.89 x 10
6
Rs.


C. Plant overhead costs (5% of total product cost)
= 53.16 x 10
6
Rs.

I. Manufacturing cost = Fixed charges + direct production cost + plant overhead cost
= 780.3 x 10
6
Rs.



II. General Expenses:



A. Administrative costs (5% of total product cost)

= 53.15 x 10
6
Rs.

B. Distribution and selling costs (14% of total product cost )
=148.82 x 10
6
.Rs

C. Research and development costs (5% of total product cost)

= 53.15 x 10
6
Rs.

SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 57

D. Financing (2% of total capital investment)
=26.9 x 10
6
Rs.

General expenses = 282.7 x 10
6
Rs.


Total product cost = manufacturing cost + general expenses
= 1063 x 10
6
Rs.


Cost of the product = (1063 x 10
6
)/ (75000 x10
6
)

= 14 Rs/Kg

With a profit margin of 20% = 1.2 x 14

= 17 Rs/Kg






Gross annual earning = 17x75000 x 10
3


(GAE) = 225 x 10
6
Rs.

Net annual earnings = GAE Income tax
Income tax = 40% of GAE
Net annual earnings = 135 x 10
6
Rs


Payback period = (total capital investment) / (net annual earnings)
= 1345 x 10
6

135 x 10
6


= 10 years

Rate of return = (net annual earnings) / (fixed capital investment)


135 x 210
6
x 100

=
1144x10
6


= 11.8%




SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 58

Chapter 8 P&I Diagram
Fig 8.1 Qualitative Flow Diagram for the Manufacture of Alkyl Aryl Sulfonate


SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 59



Fig 8.2 P&I Flow Diagram for the Manufacture of Alkyl Aryl Sulfonate




SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 60

Chapter 9 Plant Layout
A chemical plant should essentially contain the following units.


- Storage area for raw materials and products.
- Maintenance workshop
- Stores for maintenance and operating supplie
- Laboratories
- Fire Station and Security
- Utilities (Distillation column, boiler, reactor, etc)
- Effluent Disposal plant
- Offices for general administration
- Canteens, medical center, etc.
- Parking Lot


The economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit will depend on how well
the plant and equipment specified on the process sheet is laid out.

The principle factors that have to be considered are:


- Economic Considerations
- The Process Requirements
- Convenience of operation
- Convenience of maintenance
- Safety
- Future Expansion


Costs:


The Cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest run of
connecting pipe between equipment and the least amount of structural steel work.

Process Requirements:


The height and the distance between the equipments are sometimes dictated by the process
taking place. For example it is necessary to elevate the base of columns to provide the
necessary net positive suction head to the pump. Gravity can be used in some cases. By
elevating a component the service of a pump can be avoided.



SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 61

Operation:


Equipment that needs to have frequent operator attention should be located convenient to the
control room. Valves, sample points and instruments should be located at convenient
positions and heights.

Maintenance:


Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundle can be easily withdrawn for cleaning
and tube replacement. Vessels that require replacement of catalyst or packing should be
located on the outside the building. Equipments that require constant dismantling should be
under cover.

Safety:


Cooling towers should be situated so that under the prevailing wind conditions the plume of
condensate spray drifts away from the plant area and adjacent properties. The hazardous
chemicals should be handled away from the place where relatively large number of people
work.
Plant expansion:
Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future expansion
of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs and service pipes
oversized to allow future requirements.
SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 62

Fig 9.1 Master Plot




SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 63















Fig 9.2 Chemical Processing Area








SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 64

Chapter 10 Plant location
The geographical location of the final plant can have strong influence on the success of an
industrial venture. Considerable care must be exercised in selecting the plant site, and many
different factors must be considered. Primarily, the plant should be located where the minimum
cost of production and distribution can be obtained, but other factors, such as room for expansion
and safe living conditions for plant operation as well as the surrounding community, are also
important.
A general consensus as to the plant location should be obtained before a design project reaches
the detailed estimate stage, and a firm location should be established upon completion of the
detailed-estimate design. The choice of the final site should first be based on a complete survey
of the advantages and disadvantages of various geographical areas and, ultimately, on the
advantages and disadvantages of available real estate.
The following factors should be considered in selecting a plant site:
1. Raw materials availability
2. Markets
3. Energy availability
4. Climate
5. Transportation facilities
6. Water supply
7. Waste disposal
8. Labor supply
9. Taxation and legal restrictions
10. Site characteristics
11. Flood and fire protection
12. Community factors

Raw materials availability: The source of raw materials is one of the most important factors
influencing the selection of a plant site. This is particularly true if large volumes of raw
materials are consumed, because location near the raw- materials source permits considerable
reduction in transportation and storage charges. Attention should be given to the purchased
price of the raw materials, distance from the source of supply, freight or transportation
SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 65

expenses, availability and reliability of supply, purity of the raw materials, and storage
requirements.
Markets: The location of markets or intermediate distribution centers affects the cost of
product distribution and the time required for shipping. Proximity to the major markets is an
important consideration in the selection of a plant site, because the buyer usually finds it
advantageous to purchase from nearby sources. It should be noted that markets are needed
for by-products as well as for major final products.
Energy availability: Power and steam requirements are high in most industrial plants, and
fuel is ordinarily required to supply these utilities. Consequently, power and fuel can be
combined as one major factor in the choice of a plant site. Electrolytic processes require a
cheap source of electricity, and plants using electrolytic processes are often located near large
hydroelectric installations. If the plant requires large quantities of coal or oil, location near a
source of fuel supply may be essential for economic operation. The local cost of power can
help determine whether power should be purchased or self- generated.
Climate: If the plant is located in a cold climate, costs may be increased by the necessity for
construction of protective shelters around the process equipment, and special cooling towers
or air-conditioning equipment may be required if the prevailing temperatures are high.
Excessive humidity or extremes of hot or cold weather can have a serious effect on the
economic operation of a plant, and these factors should be examined when selecting a plant
site.
Transportation facilities: Water, railroads, and highways are the common means of
transportation used by major industrial concerns. The kind and amount of products and raw
materials determine the most suitable type of transportation facilities. In any case, careful
attention should be given to local freight rates and existing railroad lines. The proximity to
railroad centers and the possibility of canal, river, lake, or ocean transport must be
considered: Motor trucking facilities are widely used and can serve as a useful supplement to
rail and water facilities. If possible, the plant site should have access to all three types of
transportation, and, certainly, at least two types should be available.
There is usually need for convenient air and rail transportation facilities between the plant
and the main company headquarters, and effective transportation facilities for the plant
personnel are necessary.
Water supply: The process industries use large quantities of water for cooling, washing,
steam generation, and as a raw material. The plant, therefore, must be located where a
dependable supply of water is available. A large river or lake is preferable, although deep
wells or artesian wells may be satisfactory if the amount of water required is not too great.
SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 66

The level of the existing water table can be checked by consulting the state geological
survey, and information on the constancy of the water table and the year-round capacity
of local rivers or lakes should be obtained.
If the water supply shows seasonal fluctuations, it may be desirable to construct a
reservoir or to drill several standby wells.
The temperature, mineral content, silt or sand content, bacteriological content, and cost
for supply and purification treatment must also be considered when choosing a water
supply.
Waste disposal: In recent years, many legal restrictions have been placed on the methods
for disposing of waste materials from the process industries. The site selected for a plant
should have adequate capacity and facilities for correct waste disposal. Even though a
given area has minimal restrictions on pollution, it should not be assumed that this
condition will continue to exist. In choosing a plant site, the permissible tolerance levels
for various methods of waste disposal should be considered carefully, and attention
should be given to potential requirements for additional waste-treatment facilities.
Labor supply: The type and supply of labor available in the vicinity of a proposed plant
site must be examined. Consideration should be given to prevailing pay scales,
restrictions on number of hours worked per week, competing industries that can cause
dissatisfaction or high turnover rates among the workers, and variations in the skill and
productivity of the workers.
Taxation and legal restrictions: State and local tax rates on property income,
unemployment insurance, and similar items vary from one location to another. Similarly,
local regulations on zoning, building codes, nuisance aspects, and transportation facilities
can have a major influence on the final choice of a plant site. In fact, zoning difficulties
and obtaining the many required permits can often be much more important in terms of
cost and time delays than many of the factors discussed in the preceding sections.

Site characteristics: The characteristics of the land at a proposed plant site should be
examined carefully. The topography of the tract of land and the soil structure must be
considered, since either or both may have a pronounced effect on construction costs. The
cost of the land is important, as well as local building costs and living conditions. Future
changes may make it desirable or necessary to expand the plant facilities. Therefore, even
though no immediate expansion is planned, a new plant should be constructed at a
location where additional space is available.
Flood and fire protection: Many industrial plants are located along rivers or near large
bodies of water, and there are risks of flood or hurricane damage. Before selecting a plant
SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 67

site, the regional history of natural events of this type should be examined and the
consequences of such occurrences considered. Protection from losses by fire is another
important factor in selecting a plant location. In case of a major fire, assistance from
outside fire departments should be available. Fire hazards in the immediate area
surrounding the plant site must not be overlooked.




















SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 68

Chapter 11 POLLUTION CONTROL AND SAFETY

Linear alkyl benzene sulfonates are accepted as adequately biodegradable. These are bio
soft surfactants. But they are not broken down as readily and completely as soaps and other
surfactants derived from fats or synthesized to contain a completely unbranched chain with an
even number of carbon atoms and no benzene ring. Years of systematic monitoring of sewage
treatment plants and rivers has shown that in general the residual concentration of surfactants in
streams is extremely small Biodegradation in sewage treatment plant models show
Primary biodegradation.
OECD confirmatory test 90-95
% MBAS/BiAS/DAS removal
Ultimate biodegreadation
Coupled units test, 736 (C)
% C/COD/ removal
Highly biodegradable anionic surfactants allowed by the law are of only
marginal toxicity to fish. It is shown that toxicity is inversely proportionate to biodegradability.
Toxicity data of alkyl benzene sulfonate.

(mg/l)
LC50(fishes) 3-10
LC50 (daphniae) 8-50
NOEC (algae, growth inhibition) 30-300
For anionic surfactants the length of the alkyl chain has been found to be closely related to skin
irritability. Straight chain or linear alkyl benzene sulfonate show weak effects to skin since they
are bio soft.
In general design work, the magnitudes of safety factors are dictated by economic or
market considerations, the accuracy of the design data and calculations, potential changes
in the operating performance, background information available on the overall process,
SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 69

and the amount of conservatism used in developing the individual components of the
design.
Each safety factor must be chosen on basis of the existing conditions, and the chemical
engineer should not hesitate to use a safety factor of zero if the situation warrants it.






















SVNIT PROJECT ChED Page 70

Reference


1. E. Woollatt, The manufacture of soaps, other industrial detergents and glycerine, Ellis
Horwood limited.

2. G. T. Austin, Shreves chemical process industries, fifth edition, International student edition.

3. A. Davidsohn & B.M. Miluidsky, Synthetic detergency, sixth edition, Book center limited.

4. P.H. Groggins, Unit processes in organic synthesis, fifth edition, McGraw Hill book
Company.

5. J.P. Sisley and P.J. Wood, Encydopedia of surface active agents; Vol. I & II; Chemical
publishing company.

6. R. H. Perry, Perrys Chemical Engineering hand book, sixth edition.
7. Ullman, Encyclopedia of industrial chemistry; fifth edition; Volume A8.