Martin Hawkswood 1

Marine Pile Repairs by Concrete Encasement

Martin Hawkswood, Proserve Limited, Kenilworth, UK


Introduction
Piled jetty and pier structures form a vital part of port infrastructure for worldwide trade and
travel, yet their life span is often threatened by pile deterioration in the corrosive marine
enviroment. Many steel piles suffer from Accelerated Low Water Corrosion (ALWC) with
significant section loss well before the design life of the structure expires (Fig. 1). Port
Owners and Engineers should respond by monitoring corrosion and steel thickness loss and
provide appropriate protection or repair.

The protection and repair of marine piles is usually much more sustainable than jetty
replacement, yet little published guidance is available.
The process of concrete encasement repair using a fabric pile jacket system will be described
with reference to case histories of its application, to both steel and R.C. piles (Figs 2 and 3).
Case Histories:-
Ireland: Dublin, Cork, Dun Laoghaire
Scotland: Lerwick, Hunterston
Canada: Lunenburg
Ukraine: Odessa
Kenya: Mombasa
Other concrete encasement repair methods are outlined along with their relative merits. The
advantages of inspection monitoring and early protection are outlined and promoted.
Fig. 1 ALWC Damage
Fig. 3 R.C Pile
Repair
Fig. 2 Steel Pile
Protection
Martin Hawkswood 2

Concrete Encasement Protection and Repair

Concrete is commonly used in conjunction with steel and has naturally been used to protect
and repair steel or reinforced concrete marine piles. Concrete encasement repair or protection
can be readily designed by engineers to appropriate codes and guideance
.

Historically, concrete encasement using fabric pile jackets has been a common repair method
for some 45 years, with more than 50,000 piles repaired worldwide. For underwater use the
fabric pile jacket system has many practical and technical advantages over rigid shuttering
systems such as steel, timber or fibreglass etc, as outlined in Table 1:-
Table 1. Relative Merits of Encasement Formwork
Pile Jacket System Rigid Shutter System
Concrete Quality Enhanced quality by free water
bleed
16
through porous jacket
7

Strength
Durability
Abrasion resistance
Higher water: cement ratio
needed, lower quality concrete

Honeycombing risk at joints
Segregation Risk Avoided by observation
(fill level readily seen underwater)
More difficult to control
Diver Application Lightweight system of fabric
formwork regularly used for marine
works, easy to seal
Heavy to handle under jetties and
more difficult to seal
Health & Safety Good record Greater risk of injuries to divers
and surface crew

The repair options for marine piles to jetties are quite distinct from sheet piles, as encasement
options are readily available.
For damaged reinforced concrete piles, the pile jacket system of concrete encasement is a
natural repair option. It replicates the repair process usually adopted to RC structures on land
5
in a method that is suitable underwater. Dewatering access to marine piles has been attempted
using a pair of semi circular limpet dams in a similar fashion to adapted sheet piles. The
system is difficult to handle and operate safely under jetties and is understood to have a poor
safety record from operation in Eastern Europe.
More repair options exist for steel piles with cathodic protection and short term wrap systems
becoming more common. The benefits and limitations of cathodic protection are well
summarised in the Port Designers Handbook by Carl. A. Thoresen. However concrete
encasement can achieve longer term repair lifespans with provision for repaired or
strengthened pile sections.
Protection and Repair Engineering
Typical Process
Condition and steel thickness surveys
Structural appraisal of piles & jetties
Design of repairs
Micro concrete mix development
Supervision of repairs
Piled jetty and pier design is currently covered by the British Standard for Maritime
Structures BS6349 Part 2. Rigid jetties are tied or braced horizontally, whilst flexible ones
Martin Hawkswood 3

support horizontal loads with piles acting in bending. Pile protection and repair should be
designed for its range of load cases and environmental conditions for an appropriate future
lifespan. The effect of additional encasement load on piles may need to be checked along
with wave loading to increased pile sections to more exposed jetties
4, 13
.
Eurocode 2 and BS EN 206 now offer a more rational approach to Reinforced Concrete
durability then BS8110 taking into account a wider range of influences for the design of
concrete and its durability. Eurocode 2 also appropriately calls for increased durability
specification for marine concrete to tidal, splash and spray zones. For pile jacket encasement
to a 50 year design life, a total surface tolerance of 20 mm is recommended in conjunction
with a further 10 mm allowance for marine durability robustness. For increased durability,
cement replacement with GGBS has been used.
Steel Piles
Corrosion Risk
Steel piles are now acknowledged to be prone to
significantly advanced corrosion rates in contrast to
previous understanding and design allowance. High
corrosion rates due to ALWC (Fig. 4) are well
described in the I.C.E Maritime Board Briefing on
Accelerated Low Water Corrosion. As the
understanding of ALWC increases, the Briefing Sheet
states
Although unclassified, varying rates of corrosion by ALWC up to 4 mm/ side/
year have been recently reported and cases in the order of around 1mm/ side/
year appear to be common.
Table 25 in BS6349-1:2000 Code of Practice for Maritime Structures classifies notional
average and upper limit values of corrosion for exposed, unprotected structural steels in
temperate climates in mm/ side/ year, given as a guide as to what could be expected.
These are summarized in Table 2 below:-
Table 2. Marine Corrosion Rates for Steel
Avg. U.L.
Atmospheric zone (in the dry) 0.04 0.10
Splash zone (above MHWS) 0.08 0.17
Tidal zone (MLWS and MHWS) 0.04 0.10
Intertidal low water zone (0.5 m below LAT to MLWS) 0.08 0.17
Continuous immersion zone 0.04 0.13
Embedded zone (below seabed) 0.015 (max)

The concentrated corrosion risk from ALWC is acknowledged to be much higher although
quite variable. The Briefing Sheet

and the Port Designers Handbook outline the expected
causes of ALWC. It typically displays a bright orange corrosion product and typically peak
corrosion occurs at and just above the low water zone (LAT). Occasionally the section loss is
significant throughout the water depth. The Lerwick case history demonstrated that ALWC
was significant at bed level and in the immersion zone as well as at low water.

Fig. 4 - ALWC
Martin Hawkswood 4

Corrosion rates are increased in high temperature regions, or with low pH levels, pollution,
wave and current action, salinity as well as other effects
11
or where poor quality steel has been
used. Many jetties with steel piles are not monitored until holing visably appears. At this stage
the pile is probably structurally inadequate, plus the corrosion rate increases, due to the newly
exposed internal faces.
Corrosion rates are extremely variable rendering monitoring highly important.
Condition and Corrosion Monitoring
Historically, many steel pile structures have been
designed with a corrosion allowance, typically of the
order of 5 mm
11
. Accelerated and concentrated corrosion
rates from ALWC clearly threaten these structures in the
short term.
This threat can be managed by visually checking for the
development of ALWC and steel thickness monitoring
using suitable measuring instruments. This can be
conducted quite simply and cost effectively from a boat at
low water and above. Reference should be made where
possible to the original design and the corrosion thickness allowance, so that the section loss
can be measured against this allowance.
When corrosion loss becomes significant relative to the design allowance, a full diver survey
through the water column and up to the deck is advisable. Thickness readings should be at
closer centres to areas of critical loss (usually to low water zone) and then adjusted to locate
the areas of maximum section loss. H piles or Rendex piles (welded sheet pile sections,
Lerwick & Dublin Port) should be checked on all flat elements due to differing corrosion
performance. Extruded steel circular piles are normally checked on 4 sides to critical areas.
The management of sampling and testing should be overseen by a suitable engineer to pick
up any local issues, other structural damage and determine the need for future monitoring or
intervention repair
10
. Where ALWC is found to be occurring, more frequent monitoring is
desirable or an immediate move to provide protection and preserve sections, see Lerwick and
Dublin.
Design of Protection
For rigid jetties where piles are purely compression members and no structural loss of
sections has occurred beyond the corrosion allowance, the pile may be cleaned and encased
in plain concrete. See Mombassa, Lerwick, Odessa and Dun Laoghaire case histories.
Bracing and raker piles subject to significant direct tension loads should be reinforced.
For flexible jetty structures, it is considered prudent to reinforce encasement protection to
piles subject to bending action. This is to control durability cracking of concrete encasement
in tension zones, particularly during extreme bending action such as seismic action, ship
berthing impact or wave loading to exposed jetties
4,13
. Encased steel sections can be designed
as composite construction to Eurocode 4.
Cover and Durability
The concrete cover to steel piles, or any strengthening reinforcement, can be guided by
reinforced concrete codes. Concrete encasement protection principally protects against
surface carbonation and chloride ion penetration causing the onset of further corrosion.
Fig. 5 Thickness
Monitoring
Martin Hawkswood 5

Typically, 75 mm encasement thickness has been adopted as a minimum locally with 40 50

N/mm strength concrete (C32/40 to C40/50).
Protection Length
Where ALWC or significant corrosion is occurring at bed level it is common to extend the
protection into the bed as Lerwick. Otherwise protection can be designed to commence at bed
level or an appropriate height at risk. The protection is usually taken up to the deck soffit.
Where an extended dry zone is present, a suitable paint treatment, overlapped into the
encasement can be adopted as Lerwick or similar.
Repair and Strengthening Reinforcement
Where pile section loss is structural, the piles can be
designed to be strengthened by reinforced concrete
encasement. Where steel section loss is modest, it can
simply be made up with reinforcement bars or similar.
Where section loss is significant, it is more effective to
design reinforcement using a composite steel and RC
section basis. For ease of application, reinforcement is
usually designed in 2 half cages which are accurately
fabricated for relatively easy assembly round the pile
with loose curved overlap links fixed by diver to link
them together (Fig. 6).
Preparation
Steel piles need to be thoroughly cleaned of all marine growth and all corrosion deposits
removed back to bare metal. This is usually done by hand held high pressure jetting
equipment suitable for diver operation. Where sufficient repetition allows, automated jetting
equipment can be adopted and Engineer inspection of the cleaning is important.
Cast Iron Piles
Corrosion rates for cast iron are much less for mild steel and they
are not known to suffer from ALWC. Cast iron is mainly found in
Victorian pier structures (Fig. 7). These columns are mostly prone
to abrasion loss of thickness due to sand and shingle carried in wave
action. A high quality abrasion resistant mix should be selected that
can be produced in conjunction with the pile jacket bleed
enhancement.
Reinforced Concrete Piles
Corrosion Risk
Damage to sections is normally caused by surface carbonation of the concrete with the
penetration of chlorides (readily present in sea water) promoting rusting of the reinforcement
and subsequent cracking and spalling of the concrete cover. Generally damage has occurred
from just below low water (LAT) through the tidal zone and lessening into the splash zone.
Reinforcement corrosion is not generally found in the continuous immersion zone.

Fig. 7 Encased C.I.
Pile, Cromer
Fig. 6 Reinforcement Cage
Martin Hawkswood 6

Condition and Corrosion Monitoring

The corrosion loss of reinforcement and loss of spalled concrete area is
usually determined by sampling suitable trial areas by breaking out
spalled concrete and cleaning reinforcement to allow direct bar
thickness measurement. Condition inspections should be managed by a
suitable engineer as often unexpected conditions need to be interpreted,
see Dun Laoghaire.
Protection
Where the structural loss of reinforcement is within acceptable limits,
the section can be prepared, cleaned and encased in high quality
concrete
6
, with appropriate cover as previously described, or with a
minimum thickness of 75 mm to the corners of square sections for
robustness.
Repair and Strengthening
Strengthening reinforcement within the concrete encasement can be
designed as required to cover the defective pile length. As previously
described, reinforcement cages should be designed in two accurately
made halves which can be readily linked together by divers using curved links (Fig 6).
Preparation
For long-term repairs, it is important to remove all marine
growth, cracked and spalled concrete around all bars
subject to any significant corrosion action. All rusted bars
should be cleaned back to bare metal. Concrete cutting and
removal and reinforcement cleaning is best undertaken
underwater by appropriate hand held high pressure water
equipment (Fig. 9) which is also suitable for diver use
underwater. Engineer control and inspection of preparation
works is important. Where piles are significantly weakened
during repairs, suitable analysis, loading restrictions or temporary works arrangements should
be made.
Timber Piles
Repair of timber piles by concrete encasement is not very common in
the U.K. It is more widely used in North America
12
where timber
piles are more common. Concrete encasement repair (Fig.10) should
safely be considered as a short term repair as evidenced by current
performance periods. No known evaluation or testing of the
condition of encased timber piles is known and would be of benefit if
undertaken. All decayed timber should be removed and encased
sections reinforced with links and vertical bars to avoid timber
movement and splitting action. Where timber section loss is high,
preparation of load transfer ends should be engineer designed along
with any temporary works requirements, which are common.



Fig. 9 J et Cleaning
Fig. 10 Timber
Pile
Fig. 8 - Damaged
R.C. Pile,
Hunterston
Martin Hawkswood 7

Encasement Concrete
A highly fluid, sand: cement micro concrete is usually used with
the pile jacket system. This mix is typically pumped through 50
mm diameter hose, which can be readily handled by divers and
surface crews. Historically a 2:1 sand: cement mix has been used
with typical cube strengths at 28 days of 35 50 N/ mm. The
strength is influenced by the sand selection. Higher strength
mixes, in the usual design range of 40 50N/ mm, sometimes
require increased cement content. Micro concrete is often used in
conjunction with fabric formwork systems for marine
constructions
7,8

A well rounded sand of river or sea origin is preferred with a good grading distribution, sand
size is typically below 5 mm. The mix fluidity is controlled by a Marsh flow cone to aid
pumpability and ensure the mix is readily self levelling within the pile jacket. Water content
ratios are typically some 0.55 to 0.7 at the mixer. The highly fluid mix ensures complete
encasement of the pile section (Fig. 11) and any reinforcement for increased durability.

Once in place, free water bleed through the porous pile jacket, causes the water cement ratio
in the mix to drop to a natural minimum of around 0.40. This causes a significant increase in
strength, chemical resilience, durability and abrasion resistance (Fig. 12). To replicate this
process in mix development and quality control tests, the mix is usually placed into a 100 mm
diameter fabric test sock to allow matching material to be cut and tested in cylinders. The low
water cement ratio minimises shrinkage in conjunction with submerged curing. Since 1998 at
Lerwick, it has been common practice to include polypropylene fibres, in order to aid
durability.
In hot tropical climates or similarly aggressive locations, a corrosion inhibitor additive can be
used. Additives are generally kept to a minimum with plasticisers, retarders and anti-washout
additives not usually required. A suitable mix design should be developed, tested and
approved in advance of the works. The most important requirement is that the mix is reliably
pump placed in tremie fashion to avoid segregation of the mix below water level.




Fig. 12 Bleed Strengthening
Fig. 11 Concrete
Encasement
Martin Hawkswood 8

Pile Jacket System

The system is applied by divers who should be suitably experienced or trained.
Application Process
Piles cleaned, repaired and inspected
Spacers fixed and any reinforcement
Pile jacket (lost shutter) is fixed & zipped up
Re-usable PVC mesh corset is fixed (Fig. 20)
Pump fill in tremie fashion
Next day, remove corset










As the woven polypropylene pile jacket remains in place, it
provides protection for concrete curing above water. Pile jackets
are relatively easy for divers to fix plus they can be adapted to a
variety of pile shapes and lengths. Steel reinforcement can be
included for strengthening where required with PVC pipe spacers
usually preferred (Fig. 15). The bottom of the jacket has a self-sealing turn up to tubular
piles and jackets incorporate self-sealing fillers that importantly allow easy pump filling in
submerged tremie fashion (Fig. 13).

For example, the pile jacket is pump filled from bottom sleeve 1, to above sleeve 2, before
filling is transferred to sleeve 2. The micro concrete fill level can be seen in the fabric jacket
and this important control process can be monitored or suitably recorded by diver camera.
Mix segregation is found to occur at very low mix drop heights in water and this risk must be
managed.
The system is suitable for working on jetties in sheltered ports and harbours with wave
heights during working periods below 0.5 m.
The corset system was first used in Mombassa in 1998 and has been adopted ever since (Fig.
20, 24). Unsupported fabric jackets are prone to stretch during filling. This causes an increase
in concrete thickness with the jacket becoming uncontrolled by its spacers, which can result
in banana shaped vertical repairs and an associated loss of cover.
Pile jacket systems should be obtained from experienced manufactures and suppliers who
provide a temporary works design, an appropriate job specific installation guide and site
support as may be required.

Fig. 14 Steel Pile
Fig. 15 R.C. Pile
Fig. 13 Vertical
Section
1
2
Martin Hawkswood 9

Steel Pile Case Histories

Mombasa, Kenya
Consultant: Bertlin and Partners

A new jetty was constructed in
1988 by Mowlem
International for the Kenyan
Navy (Fig. 16). It was
immediately protected by
concrete encasement using the
pile jacket system (Fig.17). Concrete encasement was
considered a cost effective solution to the harbour sea water
environment with mild pollution. 450 tubular steel piles of 508
to 610 mm diameter were protected by an 85 mm thickness of micro concrete containing a
polypropylene mesh. The protection length was some 10 m down to the bed. The corset
system was first used on this project.
Lerwick, Scotland
Consultant: Arch Henderson





In 1997/98, 186 piles to the Holmgarth (Fig. 18) and Gremista (Fig. 19) piers were protected
full height with a 75 mm nominal thickness of sand: cement micro concrete encasement.
ALWC was evident to the piers and other harbour structures generally.
The consultant and Lerwick Harbour Board opted to protect the Holmsgarth piles just before
they suffered structural section loss. Gremista Pier piles were also prudently protected before
becoming structurally critical by ALWC. The upper pile height above the splash zone was
protected by an appropriate paint treatment which overlapped into subsequent concrete
encasement.
ALWC was also found to be significant through the immersion zone and particularly just
above bed level and this is thought to be promoted by local pollution. The protection was cast
0.6 m below bed level to protect against this. J etty stability was provided by bracing and
raker piles. Both vertical and raker piles were protected by plain concrete encasement (Fig.
21).
This project was the first use of polypropylene fibres within the micro concrete mix to
enhance durability. Pile lengths were up to 15 m long. The pile jacket system was adapted for
bracing and raker piles with concrete spacers and stiffened corsets used to section topsides.
Node joints were encased using tailored pile jackets and shaped steelwork node support.
Fig. 16 Encased Piles
Fig. 16 Encased
Section
Fig. 18
Holmsgarth Section
Fig. 19
Gremista Section
Fig. 20 - Corset
Martin Hawkswood 10

The pile encasement is regularly monitored by the Consultant and is reported to be working
well.
Cork, Ireland
Consultant: Malachy, Walsh & Partners
The jetty was built in XXX. By 2007 natural corrosion
had caused significant corrosion with many piles holed
around low water level. From thickness surveys, the
worst piles were prioritised and 14 repaired with
reinforced concrete encasement. The piles are 610 mm
tubular sections, which were initially XXX mm thick
giving a concentrated corrosion rate at holes of XXX
mm/ year. A concrete thickness of 160 mm was used with
a nominal 75 mm cover to reinforcement (Fig. 22, 24)
Holed piles were locally sealed with
fabric sleeves after high pressure jet cleaning. Reinforcement cages were
accurately made by tack welding in a jig and pipe spacers pre attached to
aid fixing round the pile (Fig. 23).
A 40 N/ mm (C32/40) 1.4: 1 sand:
cement micro concrete mix was used with
polypropylene fibres and partial cement
replacement by ground granular blast
furnace slag (GGBS), all to aid durability.
The mix was pre dried, blended and
blown into mixer silos on site (Fig. 24)
This gives improved mix proportion
quality control. Fig. 24 also shows a
micro concrete test sock being cured
underwater for subsequent cylinder
testing and quality control.
Dublin, Ireland
Consultant: J acobs, Babtie
The Bulk J etty was built in 1950. The steel piles to the
jetty where in such a poor condition with many piles
holed through corrosion that the structure was
considered for demolition (Fig 26).
The jetty piles had suffered from Accelerated Low
Water Corrosion with many of the 13 mm thick coated
Rendex piles holed by 2006.
Following a steel thickness survey and structural
appraisal, the Consultant Engineers selected a 100mm
thick concrete encasement with weakened pile lengths
to be reinforced with bolted steel split rings. A site test was conducted to demonstrate the
construction of this detail.
Fig. 24 Pier & Silo
Fig. 23 Cage
& Spacers
Fig. 25 Bulk J etty
Fig. 22 Reinforced
Section
Martin Hawkswood 11

A traditional 2: 1 sand: cement micro concrete mix was developed to achieve 45 N/ mm

strength (C35/45). Polypropylene fibres were included to aid durability and shrinkage
control.
The steel piles where high pressure jet cleaned and inspected
before the pile jacket system was applied. 138 piles were protected
including raker piles. Pile encasement lengths were typically 9-
11m long down to bed level. The top 0.3m of the pile was
protected by sprayed concrete onto joint continuity mesh
reinforcement. The work was completed in some 7 months,
generally using 2 dive teams, putting the jetty back into working
condition.
Holed pile sections were infilled with micro concrete in pumped tremie fashion along with
the pile jacket.











Lunenburg, Canada
Contractor: J . Mason
The steel H piles to the fishing jetty were severely corroded by
2001 with many pile sections completely rusted through and
loose. Steel angle reinforcement was welded in where required
and all sections wrapped in wrapping fabric steel mesh before
encasing in sand: cement micro concrete with a 75 mm nominal
cover. 84 piles were repaired.



Fig. 30
Fig. 28 Encased
Section
Fig. 29 Reinforced
Section
Fig. 27 J etty Pile
Repairs
Fig. 26 Holed Pile
Martin Hawkswood 12

Concrete Pile Case Histories

Odessa, Ukraine
Consultant: Proserve
Reinforced concrete piles some 40 years old supporting the
passenger terminal had suffered from the onset of
reinforcement corrosion and concrete splitting and spalling to
the top 1.5 m pile length above low water. The piles are
exposed to frozen ice and severe winter temperatures.
Reinforcement inspection showed little loss of bar sections,
allowing the reinforcement to be cleaned and the top 2.5 m of
pile encased. A 90 mm thick encasement to pile corners has
been used for robustness (Fig.31). The micro concrete mix is a
sand: cement mix, of 40 N/ mm strength (C32/40) with
polypropylene fibres. 40 piles were completed in the 2010
season and repairs are ongoing.
Hunterston, Scotland
Consultant: J acobs
The jetty piles had been suffering from reinforcement corrosion
within the tidal range. Repairs currently underway are using a
reinforced concrete encasement to 54 piles (Fig. 32). Preparation is
by hydro demolition. The micro concrete mix is a 2: 1 sand: cement
mix, 40 N/ mm (C32/ 40) with polypropylene fibres with 50 mm
cover provided to new reinforcement.
Dun Laoghaire, Ireland
Consultant: Moylan
The reinforced concrete jetty piles were formed using an old
colloidal concrete technique of placing reinforcement, large
aggregate and then after grouting in tremie fashion with a
sand cement mix. Weak grout areas poorly formed by the
technique have been eroded after the galvanised steel casing
has corroded away (Fig 33). The reinforcement was found
to have only slight section loss. This may have been due to
the cathodic action of the corroding galvanised casing.
The piles were simply cleaned, casing remains
removed along with weak grout areas and
encased with a 100 mm nominal thickness of
plain micro concrete (Fig. 34). A 1.4: 1 sand:
cement mix was used with a 50% cement
replacement by GGBS and polypropylene
fibres to achieve a 50 N/ mm (C40/50)
strength. 39 piles were repaired in 2006
(Fig 35) and a further 23 undertaken in 2011.

Fig. 31
Fig. 32
Fig. 35 Repaired
Pile
Fig. 34
Fig. 33 Damaged Piles
Martin Hawkswood 13

Acknowledgements
This paper presents the views of the author, not necessarily of his employer or clients. The
author is however grateful for wise words and support from his colleagues, particularly
Ernest Cannon for this pioneering work on pile jacket repairs before his retirement at
Proserve, Bill Wilcox of Norfolk Marine for many examples of repairs and B.J . Ackers of
Construction Techniques.
References
1. Institution of Civil Engineers [no date] Maritime Board Briefing on Accelerated Low
Water Corrosion [leaflet] London: Institute of Civil Engineers
2. Institution of Civil Engineers [no date] Maritime Board Briefing on Concentrated
Corrosion [leaflet] London: Institute of Civil Engineers
3. British Standards Institution (2005) BS 8110-1:1997 Structural use of concrete Part
1: Code of practice for design and construction. Milton Keynes: BSI.
4. British Standards Institution (2003) BS 6349-1:2000 Maritime structures Part 1:
Code of practice for general criteria. Milton Keynes: BSI.
5. CIRIA (2010) Use of concrete in the marine environment (C674). London: CIRIA
6. Concrete Repair Association , The Route to a Successful Repair XX
7. Cannon E.W, Boyes R.G.H. (1987) Permeable Woven Fabric Formwork. In: Civil
Engineering. March 1987; pp. 57-60
8. Hawkswood M.G, Alsop N.W.H. (2009) Foundations to Precast Marine Structures.
In: Institution of Civil Engineers, Coasts, Marine Structures and Breakwaters.
Edinburgh, 16 18 September 2009, London: Thomas Telford
9. British Standards Institution (2008) BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Eurocode 2: Design of
concrete structures Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings. Milton Keynes:
BSI.
10. Institution of Structural Engineers (2001) Guide to Inspection of underwater
structures. London: Institution of Structural Engineers.
11. Thoresen C. A. (2003) Port Designers Handbook: Recommendations and Guidelines.
London: Thomas Telford.
12. US Army Corps of Engineers (2002) Coastal Engineering Manual (EM 1110-2-1100)
[online] available at: http://140.194.76.129/publications/eng-manuals/ [Accessed 28
February 2011].
13. M
c
Connell K, Allsop W. and Cruickshank I (2004) Piers, jetties and related
structures exposed to waves. London: Thomas Telford.
14. Price WF (2000) Controlled permeability formwork (C511). London: CIRIA.
15. Building Research Establishment (2004) Alkali-silica reaction in concrete Detailed
guidance for new construction (Digest 330). London: BRE