1.

Electronic digital computer and its parts (CPU Memory, I-O

devices)
A computer is a general purpose device which can be programmed to carry out
a finite set of arithmetic or logical operations. Since a sequence of operations can
be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem. The
essential point of a computer is to implement an idea, the terms of which are
satisfied by Alan Turing's Universal Turing machine.
onventionally, a computer consists of at least one processing element and
some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logic
operations, and a sequencing and control unit that can change the order of
operations based on stored information. !eripheral devices allow information to
be retrieved from an e"ternal source, and the result of operations saved.
A computer's processing unit e"ecutes a series of instructions that make it read,
manipulate and then store data. onditional instructions change the sequence of
instructions as a function of the current state of the machine or its environment.
#n order to interact with such a machine, programmers and engineers developed
the concept of a user interface in order to accept input from humans and return
results for human consumption.
The first electronic digital computers were developed between $%&' and $%&( in
the United )ingdom and United States. *riginally, they were the si+e of a large
room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal
computers ,!s-.
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#n this era mechanical analog computers were used for
military applications.
0odern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times
more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space.
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Simple computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and mobile
computers can be powered by small batteries. !ersonal computers in their
various forms are icons of the #nformation Age and are what most people think of
as 2computers2. 3owever, the embedded computers found in many devices
from mp4 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most
numerous.
Memory
Main article: Computer data storage
0agnetic core memory was the computer memory of choice throughout the $%5's, until it was replaced by
semiconductor memory.
A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be
placed or read. 6ach cell has a numbered 2address2 and can store a single
number. The computer can be instructed to 2put the number $14 into the cell
numbered $4(72 or to 2add the number that is in cell $4(7 to the number that is
in cell 1&58 and put the answer into cell $(%(2. The information stored in memory
may represent practically anything. 9etters, numbers, even computer instructions
can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the !U does not differentiate
between different types of information, it is the software's responsibility to give
significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.
#n almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary
numbers in groups of eight bits ,called a byte-. 6ach byte is able to represent 1(5
different numbers ,1:8 ; 1(5-< either from ' to 1(( or =$18 to >$17. To store
larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used ,typically, two, four or
eight-. ?hen negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two's
complement notation. *ther arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen
outside of speciali+ed applications or historical conte"ts. A computer can store
any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. 0odern
computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.
The !U contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read
and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically
between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of !U.
@egisters are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to
access main memory every time data is needed. As data is constantly being
worked on, reducing the need to access main memory ,which is often slow
compared to the A9U and control units- greatly increases the computer's speed.
omputer main memory comes in two principal varietiesA randomBaccess
memory or @A0 and readBonly memory or @*0. @A0 can be read and written to
anytime the !U commands it, but @*0 is preBloaded with data and software
that never changes, therefore the !U can only read from it. @*0 is typically
used to store the computer's initial startBup instructions. #n general, the contents
of @A0 are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but @*0
retains its data indefinitely. #n a !, the @*0 contains a speciali+ed program
called the C#*S that orchestrates loading the computer's operating system from
the hard disk drive into @A0 whenever the computer is turned on or reset.
#n embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the
required software may be stored in @*0. Software stored in @*0 is often
called firmware, because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Dlash
memory blurs the distinction between @*0 and @A0, as it retains its data when
turned off but is also rewritable. #t is typically much slower than conventional
@*0 and @A0 however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed
is unnecessary.
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#n more sophisticated computers there may be one or more @A0 cache
memories, which are slower than registers but faster than main memory.
Eenerally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently
needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any
intervention on the programmer's part.
Input/output (I/O)
Main article: Input/output
3ard disk drives are common storage devices used with computers.
#F* is the means by which a computer e"changes information with the outside
world.
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Gevices that provide input or output to the computer are
called peripherals.
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*n a typical personal computer, peripherals include input
devices like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as
the display and printer. 3ard disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc
drives serve as both input and output devices. omputer networking is another
form of #F*.
#F* devices are often comple" computers in their own right, with their own !U
and memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny
computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 4G graphics
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. 0odern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the
main !U in performing #F*.
programming language

-A vocabulary and set of grammatical rules for instructing a computer to perform

specific tasks. The term programming language usually refers tohighBlevel
languages, such as CAS#, , >>, *C*9, D*@T@AH, Ada, and!ascal.
6ach language has a unique set of keywords ,words that it understands- and a
special synta" for organi+ing program instructions.
3ighBlevel programming languages, while simple compared to human languages,
are more comple" than the languages the computer actually understands,
called machine languages. 6ach different type of !U has its own unique
machine language.
9ying between machine languages and highBlevel languages are languages
called assembly languages. Assembly languages are similar to machine
languages, but they are much easier to program in because they allow
aprogrammer to substitute names for numbers. 0achine languages consist of
numbers only.
9ying above highBlevel languages are languages called fourth-generation
languages ,usually abbreviated 4GL-. &E9s are far removed from machine
languages and represent the class of computer languages closest to human
languages.
@egardless of what language you use, you eventually need to convert your
program into machine language so that the computer can understand it. There
are two ways to do thisA
I compile the program
interpret the program
See compile and interpreter for more information about these two methods.
The question of which language is best is one that consumes a lot of time and
energy among computer professionals. 6very language has its strengths and
weaknesses. Dor e"ample, D*@T@AH is a particularly good language for
processing numerical data, but it does not lend itself very well to organi+ing large
programs. !ascal is very good for writing wellBstructured and readable programs,
but it is not as fle"ible as the programming language. >> embodies
powerful obJectBoriented features, but it is comple" and difficult to learn.
The choice of which language to use depends on the type of computer the
program is to run on, what sort of program it is, and the e"pertise of the
programmer.
2.personal computer software
WORD PROCESSING PACKAGES
?ord processing packages are readily available foruse in office
environments on microcomputers. They enable you to create, modify ,insert,
delete, rearrnge-,save, copy, and print documents ,see figure 4B$-. Theusual
method of entering a document is to type it on akeyboard. Another method is to
use a scanner to read aprinted document and encode it into a digital file
forcomputer processing.Kou might also receive adocument that has been
transmitted over a network orphone system
Spreadsheet packages
Spreadsheet is a name for all programs designed to handle all accounting and
statistical problems. A spreadsheet is an electronic version of the manual
worksheet used to organi+ed and manipulate numbers and displays options for
whatBif analysis. it is based on the traditional accounting worksheet that have
long been used by accountants and managers to work balance sheets, sales
proJections and e"pense budgets. spreadsheets are also used by financial
analysts, contractors and other businessmen concerned with manipulating
numeric data. Cefore the introduction of electronic spreadsheet, the ledger was
the accountant's primary tool for recording financial transactions. Any
application that has to do with rows and columns is an application for
spreadsheet. some of these application includes income statements,
demographic data, budget summaries e.t.c. spreadsheets are important because
they handle spreadsheet problems e"ceptionally well. At the heart of any
spreadsheet is a column of information, such as set of prices for set items that
need to be worked on such as addition. with manual spreadsheet, someone
would have to look up the prices, perform the calculation, and then write down
the result.
Apart from all the time this takes there is the possibility of errors. The electronic
spreadsheet on the other hand, will do all the calculations in a matter of split
second, prints out the result the way you want with virtually no chance of errors.
Kou can manipulate numbers by using stored formulas and calculate different
outcomes. Dor e"ample, a retail store manager can estimate quarterly profits by
proJecting sales over a threeBmonth period. The manager can subtract e"penses
resulting from advertisement, cost of goods and salaries. if he sees that
e"penses are too high to produce a profit, he can e"periment on the screen by
reducing some e"penses and see the result immediately.
Structure of Spreadsheet
A spreadsheet is organi+ed in a tabular structure with rows and columns. it has
several partsB the worksheet area of the spreadsheet, which displays the row and
column table. The rows are usually numbered down the left side while the
columns are lettered across the top. The columns run from A,C,,..AL and so on
up to 1(5 columns. most spreadsheet packages permit up to 8$%5 rows or more
depending on the si+e of the @A0. The intersection of a row and column
designates a cell. Gata is entered and held in a cell. The position of a cell is
celled cell address. #n the worksheet area of rows and columns movable highlight
is used to point to the cells. This highlight is known as the cell pointer and can be
moved around with the cursorBmovement,arrow keys to any cell address in much
the same way that you move the insertion point in a word processor.
Entering Data
All that is required to enter data in the spreadsheet is simply moving
the pointer to the appropriate cell using the cursor-control keys, and
then keying in the data. ou also move the pointer to the appropriate
cell in order to edit an already keyed data. !he address and content of
the current cell are usually displayed in the user-interface portion of
the spreadsheet-top corner of the spreadsheet work area. "hatever
you are keying into a cell is displayed as you typed the characters.
"hen you finish typing, the E#!E$ key or the cursor-control key is
pressed to insert the data into the cell where you have the pointer. if it
is the arrow key that was pressed, the data is inserted and the pointer
moves to the ne%t cell.
!ypes &f Data Entries
There are three classifications for the information ,data- that we can put in a cell.
if the data is a te"t such as a person's name, title or heading, it is classified as
label entry. A label ,te"t- entry is a word, phrase, or any string of alphanumeric
te"t ,space included- that occupies a cell. A numeric entry is classified as value.
The third classification is formulas, which are instructions for calculations. They
calculate results using numbers in referenced cells. for e"ample, to calculate the
total for a set of cells, first you need to position the pointer in the cell where you
want to have the total usually at the end of a row or column for the set of cells.
Kou should tell the spreadsheet that what you want to enter is a formula, not a
label or value. in some spreadsheets, you do this by typing the M sign. #n 6"cel
you use the ; sign. A typical e"ample is ;G1>A(. This means add the value in
G1 to the value in A(. The result of this calculation will be displayed wherever the
pointer is positioned. Spreadsheet formulas use standard notation for arithmetic
operationsA >,B,N,F,:. Unless otherwise specified, numeric entries are right
Justified. you can however, specify otherwise. you can also center your entry in
the cell.
data'ase management system packages
A database management system (GC0S) is a sot!are pac"a#e
!it$ computer pro#rams t$at contro% t$e creation& maintenance& an'
use o a 'ata(ase) It a%%o!s or#ani*ations to con+enient%y 'e+e%op
'ata(ases or +arious app%ications (y 'ata(ase
a'ministrators (D,As) an' ot$er specia%ists) A 'ata(ase is an
inte#rate' co%%ection o 'ata recor's& i%es& an' ot$er o(-ects) A
D,MS a%%o!s 'ierent user app%ication pro#rams to concurrent%y
access t$e same 'ata(ase) D,MSs may use a +ariety o'ata(ase
mo'e%s& suc$ as t$e re%ationa% mo'e% or o(-ect mo'e%& to
con+enient%y 'escri(e an' support app%ications) It typica%%y
supports .uery %an#ua#es& !$ic$ are in act $i#$/%e+e% pro#rammin#
%an#ua#es& 'e'icate' 'ata(ase %an#ua#es t$at consi'era(%y simp%iy
!ritin# 'ata(ase app%ication pro#rams) Data(ase %an#ua#es a%so
simp%iy t$e 'ata(ase or#ani*ation as !e%% as retrie+in# an'
presentin# inormation rom it) A D,MS pro+i'es aci%ities or
contro%%in# 'ata access& enorcin# 'ata inte#rity&
mana#in# concurrency contro%& an' reco+erin# t$e 'ata(ase ater
ai%ures an' restorin# it rom (ac"up i%es& as !e%% as maintainin#
'ata(ase security)
Current tren's
#n $%%8, database management was in need of a new style of databases to solve
current database management problems. @esearchers reali+ed that the old
trends of database management were becoming too comple" and there was a
need for automated configuration and management. SuraJit haudhuri, Eerhard
?eikum and 0ichael Stonebraker were the pioneers that dramatically affected
the thought of database management systems.
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They believed that database
management needed a more modular approach and there were too many
specifications needed for users. Since this new development process of
database management there are more possibilities. Gatabase management is no
longer limited to Omonolithic entitiesP. 0any solutions have been developed to
satisfy the individual needs of users. The development of numerous database
options has created fle"ibility in database management.
There are several ways database management has affected the field of
technology. Cecause organi+ations' demand for directory services has grown as
they e"pand in si+e, businesses use directory services that provide prompted
searches for company information. 0obile devices are able to store more than
Just the contact information of users, and can cache and display a large amount
of information on smaller displays. Search engine queries are able to locate data
within the ?orld ?ide ?eb. @etailers have also benefited from the developments
with data warehousing, recording customer transactions. *nline transactions
have become tremendously popular for eBbusiness. onsumers and businesses
are able to make payments securely through some company websites.
(edit)*omponents
D,MS en#ine accepts logical requests from various other GC0S
subsystems, converts them into physical equivalents, and actually accesses
the database and data dictionary as they e"ist on a storage device.
Data 'einition su(system helps the user create and maintain the data
dictionary and define the structure of the files in a database.
Data manipu%ation su(system helps the user to add, change, and delete
information in a database and query it for valuable information. Software tools
within the data manipulation subsystem are most often the primary interface
between user and the information contained in a database. #t allows the user
to specify its logical information requirements.
App%ication #eneration su(system contains facilities to help users
develop transactionBintensive applications. #t usually requires that the user
perform a detailed series of tasks to process a transaction. #t facilitates easyB
toBuse data entry screens, programming languages, and interfaces.
Data a'ministration su(system helps users manage the overall
database environment by providing facilities for backup and recovery,
security management, query optimi+ation, concurrency control, and change
management.
(edit)+odeling language
A modeling language is a data modeling language to define the schema of each
database hosted in the GC0S, according to the GC0S database model.
Gatabase management systems ,GC0S- are designed to use one of five
database structures to provide simplistic access to information stored in
databases. The five database structures areA
the hierarchical model,
the network model,
the relational model,
the multidimensional model, and
the obJect model.
#nverted lists and other methods are also used. A given database management
system may provide one or more of the five models. The optimal structure
depends on the natural organi+ation of the application's data, and on the
application's requirements, which include transaction rate ,speed-, reliability,
maintainability, scalability, and cost.
(edit)!he hierarchical structure
The hierarchical structure was used in early mainframe GC0S. @ecordsQ
relationships form a treelike model. This structure is simple but nonfle"ible
because the relationship is confined to a oneBtoBmany relationship. #C0Qs #0S
system and the @G0 0obile are e"amples of a hierarchical database system
with multiple hierarchies over the same data. @G0 0obile is a newly designed
embedded database for a mobile computer system. The hierarchical structure is
used primarily today for storing geographic information and file systems.
Hierarchical model redirects here. For the statistics usage,
see hierarchical linear modeling.
A $ierarc$ica% 'ata(ase mo'e% is a data model in which the data is
organi+ed into a treeBlike structure. The structure allows representing
information using parentFchild relationshipsA each parent can have many
children, but each child has only one parent ,also known as a 0/to/many
re%ations$ip-. All attributes of a specific record are listed under an entity
type.
6"ample of a hierarchical model
#n a database an entity type is the equivalent of a table. 6ach individual
record is represented as a row, and each attribute as a column. 6ntity types
are related to each other using :! mappings, also known as oneBtoB
many relationships. This model is recogni+ed as the first database model
created by #C0 in the $%5's.
urrently the most widely used hierarchical databases are #0S developed
by #C0 and ?indows @egistry by 0icrosoft.
(edit)!he #etwork Structure
The net"or# structure consists of more comple" relationships. Unlike the
hierarchical structure, it can relate to many records and accesses them by
following one of several paths. #n other words, this structure allows for manyB
toBmany relationships.
For computer net"or# models, see net"or# topolog$, pac#et generation
model and channel model.
The net!or" mo'e% is a database model conceived as a fle"ible way of
representing obJects and their relationships. #ts distinguishing feature is
that the schema, viewed as a graph in which obJect types are nodes and
relationship types are arcs, is not restricted to being a hierarchy or lattice.
6"ample of a Hetwork 0odel.
The network model's original inventor was harles Cachman, and it was
developed into a standard specification published in $%5% by
the *GASK9 onsortium.
(edit)!he relational structure
The relational structure is the most commonly used today. #t is used by
mainframe, midrange and microcomputer systems. #t uses twoB
dimensional rows and columns to store data. The tables of records can be
connected by common key values. ?hile working for #C0, 6.D. odd
designed this structure in $%7'. The model is not easy for the end user to
run queries with because it may require a comple" combination of many
tables.
(edit)!he multidimensional structure
The multidimensional structure is similar to the relational model. The
dimensions of the cubeBlike model have data relating to elements in each
cell. This structure gives a spreadsheetBlike view of data. This structure is
easy to maintain because records are stored as fundamental attributesR
in the same way they are viewedRand the structure is easy to
understand. #ts high performance has made it the most popular database
structure when it comes to enabling online analytical processing ,*9A!-.
(edit)!he o',ect-oriented structure
The o%&ect-oriented structure has the ability to handle graphics, pictures,
voice and te"t, types of data, without difficultly unlike the other database
structures. This structure is popular for multimedia ?ebBbased
applications. #t was designed to work with obJectBoriented programming
languages such as Sava.
The dominant model in use today is the ad hoc one embedded in ST9,
despite the obJections of purists who believe this model is a corruption of
the relational model since it violates several fundamental principles for the
sake of practicality and performance. 0any GC0Ss also support
the *pen Gatabase onnectivity A!# that supports a standard way for
programmers to access the GC0S.
Cefore the database management approach, organi+ations relied on file
processing systems to organi+e, store, and process data files. 6nd users
critici+ed file processing because the data is stored in many different files
and each organi+ed in a different way. 6ach file was speciali+ed to be
used with a specific application. Dile processing was bulky, costly and
infle"ible when it came to supplying needed data accurately and promptly.
Gata redundancy is an issue with the file processing system because the
independent data files produce duplicate data so when updates were
needed each separate file would need to be updated. Another issue is the
lack of data integration. The data is dependent on other data to organi+e
and store it. 9astly, there was not any consistency or standardi+ation of
the data in a file processing system which makes maintenance difficult.
Dor these reasons, the database management approach was produced.
(edit)Data structure
Gata structures ,fields, records, files and obJects- optimi+ed to deal with
very large amounts of data stored on a permanent data storage
device ,which implies relatively slow access compared to volatile main
memory-.
(edit)Data'ase query language
A database query language and report obJect allows users to interactively
interrogate the database, analy+e its data and update it according to
the users privileges on data. #t also controls the security of the
database. Gata securityprevents unauthori+ed users from viewing or
updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the
entire database or subsets of it called su%schemas. Dor e"ample, an
employee database can contain all the data about an individual
employee, but one group of users may be authori+ed to view only payroll
data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical
data.
#f the GC0S provides a way to interactively enter and update the
database, as well as interrogate it, this capability allows for managing
personal databases. 3owever, it may not leave an audit trail of actions or
provide the kinds of controls necessary in a multiBuser organi+ation.
These controls are only available when a set of application programs are
customi+ed for each data entry and updating function.
(edit)!ransaction mechanism
A database transaction mechanism ideally guarantees A#G properties in
order to ensure data integrity despite concurrent user
accesses ,concurrency control-, and faults ,fault tolerance-. #t also
maintains the integrity of the data in the database. The GC0S can
maintain the integrity of the database by not allowing more than one user
to update the same record at the same time. The GC0S can help prevent
duplicate records via unique inde" constraints< for e"ample, no two
customers with the same customer numbers ,key fields- can be entered
into the database. See A#G properties for more information.
(edit)!opics
1e'it2E3terna%& %o#ica% an' interna% +ie!
Traditional view of data
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A GC0S !rovides the ability for many different users to share data and
process resources. As there can be many different users, there are many
different database needs. The question isA 3ow can a single, unified
database meet varying requirements of so many usersU
A GC0S minimi+es these problems by providing three views of the
database dataA an e"ternal view ,or user view-, logical view ,or conceptual
view- and physical ,or internal- view. The userQs view of a database
program represents data in a format that is meaningful to a user and to
the software programs that process those data.
*ne strength of a GC0S is that while there is typically only one
conceptual ,or logical- and physical ,or internal- view of the data, there
can be an endless number of different e"ternal views. This feature allows
users to see database information in a more businessBrelated way rather
than from a technical, processing viewpoint. Thus the logical view refers
to the way the user views the data, and the physical view refers to the
way the data are physically stored and processed.
1e'it24eatures an' capa(i%ities
Alternatively, and especially in connection with the relational model of
database management, the relation between attributes drawn from a
specified set of domains can be seen as being primary. Dor instance, the
database might indicate that a car that was originally 2red2 might fade to
2pink2 in time, provided it was of some particular 2make2 with an inferior
paint Job. Such higher arity relationships provide information on all of the
underlying domains at the same time, with none of them being privileged
above the others.
1e'it2Simp%e 'einition
A database management system is the system in which related data is
stored in an efficient or compact manner. 26fficient2 means that the data
which is stored in the GC0S can be accessed quickly and 2compact2
means that the data takes up very little space in the computer's memory.
The phrase 2related data2 means that the data stored pertains to a
particular topic.
Speciali+ed databases have e"isted for scientific, imaging, document
storage and like uses. Dunctionality drawn from such applications has
begun appearing in mainstream GC0S's as well. 3owever, the main
focus, at least when aimed at the commercial data processing market, is
still on descriptive attributes on repetitive record structures.
Thus, the GC0S of today roll together frequently needed services and
features of attribute management. Cy e"ternali+ing such functionality to
the GC0S, applications effectively share code with each other and are
relieved of much internal comple"ity. Deatures commonly offered by
database management systems includeA
5uery a(i%ity
Tuerying is the process of requesting attribute information from various
perspectives and combination of factors. 6"ampleA 23ow many 1Bdoor
cars in Te"as are greenU2 A database query language and report writer
allow users to interactively interrogate the database, analy+e its data and
update it according to the users privileges on data.
,ac"up an' rep%ication
opies of attributes need to be made regularly in case primary disks or
other equipment fails. A periodic copy of attributes may also be created for
a distant organi+ation that cannot readily access the original. GC0S
usually provide utilities to facilitate the process of e"tracting and
disseminating attribute sets. ?hen data is replicated between database
servers, so that the information remains consistent throughout the
database system and users cannot tell or even know which server in the
GC0S they are using, the system is said to e"hibit replication
transparency.
Ru%e enorcement
*ften one wants to apply rules to attributes so that the attributes are clean
and reliable. Dor e"ample, we may have a rule that says each car can
have only one engine associated with it ,identified by 6ngine Humber-. #f
somebody tries to associate a second engine with a given car, we want
the GC0S to deny such a request and display an error message.
3owever, with changes in the model specification such as, in this
e"ample, hybrid gasBelectric cars, rules may need to change. #deally such
rules should be able to be added and removed as needed without
significant data layout redesign.
Security
Dor security reasons, it is desirable to limit who can see or change specific
attributes or groups of attributes. This may be managed directly on an
individual basis, or by the assignment of individuals and privileges to
groups, or ,in the most elaborate models- through the assignment of
individuals and groups to roles which are then granted entitlements.
Computation
ommon computations requested on attributes are counting, summing,
averaging, sorting, grouping, crossBreferencing, and so on. @ather than
have each computer application implement these from scratch, they can
rely on the GC0S to supply such calculations.
C$an#e an' access %o##in#
This describes who accessed which attributes, what was changed, and
when it was changed. 9ogging services allow this by keeping a record of
access occurrences and changes.
Automate' optimi*ation
Dor frequently occurring usage patterns or requests, some GC0S can
adJust themselves to improve the speed of those interactions. #n some
cases the GC0S will merely provide tools to monitor performance,
allowing a human e"pert to make the necessary adJustments after
reviewing the statistics collected.
1e'it2Meta/'ata repository
0etadata is data describing data. Dor e"ample,
a listing that describes what attributes are
allowed to be in data sets is called 2metaB
information2.
1e'it2A'+ance' D,MS
An e"ample of an advanced GC0S is
Gistributed Gata Case 0anagement System
,GGC0S-, a collection of data which logically
belong to the same system but are spread out
over the sites of the computer network. The two
aspects of a distributed database are distribution
and logical correlationA
GistributionA The fact that the data are not
resident at the same site, so that we can
distinguish a distributed database from a
single, centrali+ed database.
9ogical orrelationA The fact that the data
have some properties which tie them
together, so that we can distinguish a
distributed database from a set of local
databases or files which are resident at
different sites of a computer network.
es! top pu"lis#ing
Des"top pu(%is$in# ,abbreviated D6P- is the creation of printed materials
using page layout software on a personal computer. ?hen used skilfully, desktop
publishing can produce printed literature with attractive layouts and typographic
quality comparable to traditional typography and printing. This technology allows
individuals, businesses, and other organi+ations to selfBpublish a wide range of
printed matterRfrom menus and local newsletters to books, maga+ines, and
newspapersRwithout the sometimesBprohibitive e"pense of commercial printing.
Gesktop publishing methods provides more control over design, layout, and
typography than word processing does. 3owever, word processing software has
evolved to include some, though by no means all, capabilities previously
available only with professional printing or desktop publishing.
!erminology
There are two types of pages in desktop publishing, electronic pages and virtual
paper pages to be printed on physical paper pages. All computeri+ed documents
are technically electronic, which are limited in si+e only by computer
memory or computer data storage space.
Virtual paper pages will ultimately be printed, and therefore require paper
parameters that coincide with international standard physical paper si+es such as
2A&,2 2letter,2 etc., if not custom si+es for trimming. Some desktop publishing
programs allow custom si+es designated for large format printing used
in posters, billboards and trade show displays. A virtual page for printing has a
predesignated si+e of virtual printing material and can be viewed on a monitor
in?KS#?KE format. 6ach page for printing has trim si+es ,edge of paper- and a
printable area if bleed printing is not possible as is the case with most desktop
printers.
A web page is an e"ample of an electronic page that is not constrained by virtual
paper parameters. 0ost electronic pages may be dynamically reBsi+ed, causing
either the content to scale in si+e with the page or causing the content to reBflow.
0aster pages are templates used to automatically copy or link elements and
graphic design styles to some or all the pages of a multipage document. 9inked
elements can be modified without having to change each instance of an element
on pages that use the same element. 0aster pages can also be used to apply
graphic design styles to automatic page numbering.
!age layout is the process by which the elements are laid on the page orderly,
aesthetically, and precisely. 0ain types of components to be laid out on a page
include te"t, linked images that can only be modified as an e"ternal source, and
embedded images that may be modified with the layout application software.
Some embedded images are rendered in the application software, while others
can be placed from an e"ternal source image file. Te"t may be keyed into the
layout, placed, or ,with database publishing applications- linked to an e"ternal
source of te"t which allows multiple editors to develop a document at the same
time.
Eraphic design styles such as color, transparency, and filters, may also be
applied to layout elements. Typography styles may be applied to te"t
automatically with style sheets. Some layout programs include style sheets for
images in addition to te"t. Eraphic styles for images may be border shapes,
colors, transparency, filters, and a parameter designating the way te"t flows
around the obJect called 2wraparound2 or 2runaround.2
(edit)*omparisons
1e'it2Wit$ !or' processin#
?hile desktop publishing software still provides e"tensive features necessary for
print publishing, modern word processors now have publishing capabilities
beyond those of many older GT! applications, blurring the line between word
processing and desktop publishing.
#n the early days of graphical user interfaces, GT! software was in a class of its
own when compared to the fairly spartan word processing applications of the
time. !rograms such as ?ord!erfect and ?ordStar were still mainly te"tBbased
and offered little in the way of page layout, other than perhaps margins and line
spacing. *n the other hand, word processing software was necessary for
features like inde"ing and spell checking, features that are common in many
applications today.
As computers and operating systems have become more powerful, vendors have
sought to provide users with a single application platform that can meet all
needs.
1e'it2Wit$ ot$er e%ectronic %ayout sot!are
#n modern usage, GT! is not generally said to include tools such as TeW or troff,
though both can easily be used on a modern desktop system and are standard
with many Uni"Blike operating systems and readily available for other systems.
The key difference between electronic typesetting software and GT! software is
that GT! software is generally interactive and ?KS#?KE in design, while other
electronic typesetting software, such as TeW, 9aTeW and other variants, tends to
operate in batch mode, requiring the user to enter the processing program's
markup language without immediate visuali+ation of the finished product. This
kind of workflow is less userBfriendly than ?KS#?KE, but more suitable for
conference proceedings and scholarly articles as well as corporate newsletters or
other applications where consistent, automated layout is important.
*ne of the early and comprehensive reference books on the art of Gesktop
!ublishing is Gesktop !ublishing Dor 6veryone by ).S.V. 0enon. This
publication deals with virtually every facet of publishing and nearly all tools
available as at the time of the publishing of this book in the year 1'''. #t is
currently out of print.
There is some overlap between desktop publishing and what is known
as 3ypermedia publishing ,i.e. ?eb design, )iosk, GB@*0-. 0any
graphical 3T09 editors such as 0icrosoft Dront!age and Adobe
Greamweaver use a layout engine similar to a GT! program. 3owever, some
?eb designers still prefer to write 3T09 without the assistance of a ?KS#?KE
editor, for greater control and because these editors often result in code bloat.
(edit)D!- applications
For a more comprehensi'e list, see List of des#top pu%lishing soft"are.
Aldus !ersonal !ress
Adobe Drame0aker
Adobe #nGesign
Adobe !age0aker
Adobe 3ome!ublisher
orel Ventura
Datpaint ,?ebBbased application-
iStudio !ublisher
0icrosoft *ffice !ublisher
*pen*ffice.org F 9ibre*ffice
!ageStream ,used to be 2!ublishing !artner2-
!T Arborte"t
TuarkW!ress
@eady,Set,Eo
Scribus
Serif !age!lus
*omputer animation packages
Computer animation is the process used for generating animated images by
using computer graphics. The more general term computer generated
imagery encompasses both static scenes and dynamic images, while computer
animation only refers to moving images.
0odern computer animation usually uses 4G computer graphics,
although 1G computer graphics are still used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and
faster realBtime renderings. Sometimes the target of the animation is the
computer itself, but sometimes the target is another medium, such as film.
omputer animation is essentially a digital successor to the stop
motion techniques used in traditional animation with 4G models and frameBbyB
frame animation of 1G illustrations. omputer generated animations are more
controllable than other more physically based processes, such as
constructing miniatures for effects shots or hiring e"tras for crowd scenes, and
because it allows the creation of images that would not be feasible using any
other technology. #t can also allow a single graphic artist to produce such content
without the use of actors, e"pensive set pieces, or props.
To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer
screen and repeatedly replaced by a new image that is similar to it, but advanced
slightly in time ,usually at a rate of 1& or 4' framesFsecond-. This technique is
identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with television and motion
pictures.
Dor 4G animations, obJects ,models- are built on the computer monitor ,modeled-
and 4G figures are rigged with a virtual skeleton. Dor 1G figure animations,
separate obJects ,illustrations- and separate transparent layers are used, with or
without a virtual skeleton. Then the limbs, eyes, mouth, clothes, etc. of the figure
are moved by the animator on key frames. The differences in appearance
between key frames are automatically calculated by the computer in a process
known as tweening or morphing. Dinally, the animation isrendered.
Dor 4G animations, all frames must be rendered after modeling is complete. Dor
1G vector animations, the rendering process is the key frame illustration process,
while tweened frames are rendered as needed. Dor preBrecorded presentations,
the rendered frames are transferred to a different format or medium such as film
or digital video. The frames may also be rendered in real time as they are
presented to the endBuser audience. 9ow bandwidth animations transmitted via
the internet ,e.g. 1G Dlash, W4G- often use software on the endBusers computer
to render in real time as an alternative to streaming or preBloaded high bandwidth
animations.
*reating characters and o',ects on a computer
4G computer animation combines 4G models of obJects and programmed or
hand 2keyframed2 movement. 0odels are constructed out of geometrical
vertices, faces, and edges in a 4G coordinate system. *bJects are sculpted much
like real clay or plaster, working from general forms to specific details with
various sculpting tools. A boneFJoint animation system is set up to deform the E#
model ,e.g., to make a humanoid model walk-. #n a process called rigging, the
virtual marionette is given various controllers and handles for controlling
movement. Animation data can be created using motion capture,
or keyframing by a human animator, or a combination of the two.
4G models rigged for animation may contain thousands of control points B for
e"ample, the character 2?oody2 in !i"ar's movie (o$ )tor$, uses 7'' speciali+ed
animation controllers. @hythm and 3ues Studios labored for two years to
create Aslan in the movie (he Chronicles of !arnia: (he Lion, the *itch and the
*ardro%e which had about $8($ controllers, 7&1 in Just the face alone. #n the
1''& film (he +a$ ,fter (omorro", designers had to design forces of e"treme
weather with the help of video references and accurate meteorological facts. Dor
the 1''( remake of -ing -ong, actor Andy Serkis was used to help designers
pinpoint the gorilla's prime location in the shots and used his e"pressions to
model 2human2 characteristics onto the creature. Serkis had earlier provided the
voice and performance for Eollum in S. @. @. Tolkien's (he Lord of the
.ings trilogy.
(edit)*omputer animation development equipment
omputer animation can be created with a computer and animation software.
Some impressive animation can be achieved even with basic programs<
however, the rendering can take a lot of time on an ordinary home computer.
Cecause of this, video game animators tend to use low resolution, low polygon
count renders, such that the graphics can be rendered in real time on a home
computer. !hotorealistic animation would be impractical in this conte"t.
!rofessional animators of movies, television, and video sequences on computer
games make photorealistic animation with high detail. This level of quality for
movie animation would take tens to hundreds of years to create on a home
computer. 0any powerful workstation computers are used instead. Eraphics
workstation computers use two to four processors, and thus are a lot more
powerful than a home computer, and are speciali+ed for rendering. A large
number of workstations ,known as a render farm- are networked together to
effectively act as a giant computer. The result is a computerBanimated movie that
can be completed in about one to five years ,this process is not comprised solely
of rendering, however-. A workstation typically costs X1,''' to X$5,''', with the
more e"pensive stations being able to render much faster, due to the more
technologically advanced hardware that they contain. !rofessionals also use
digital movie cameras, motion capture or performance capture, bluescreens, film
editing software, props, and other tools for movie animation.
.. / perating System concepts
W$at is an Operatin# System7
The $%5'Qs definition of an operating system is Othe software that controls the
hardwareP. 3owever, today, due to microcode we need a better definition. ?e
see an operating system as the programs that make the hardware useable. #n
brief, an operating system is the set of programs that controls a computer. Some
e"amples of operating systems are UH#W, 0ach, 0SBG*S, 0SB?indows,
?indowsFHT, hicago, *SF1, 0ac*S, V0S, 0VS, and V0.
ontrolling the computer involves software at several levels. ?e will differentiate
kernel services, library services, and applicationBlevel services, all of which are
part of the operating system. !rocesses run Applications, which are linked
together with libraries that perform standard services. The kernel supports the
processes by providing a path to the peripheral devices. The kernel responds to
service calls from the processes and interrupts from the devices. The core of the
operating system is the kernel, a control program that functions in pri+i%e#e'
state ,an e"ecution conte"t that allows all hardware instructions to be e"ecuted-,
reacting to interrupts from e"ternal devices and to service requests and traps
from processes. Eenerally, the kernel is a permanent resident of the computer. #t
creates and terminates processes and responds to their request for service.
*perating Systems are resource managers. The main resource is computer
hardware in the form of processors, storage, inputFoutput devices,
communication devices, and data. Some of the operating system functions areA
implementing the user interface, sharing hardware among users, allowing users
to share data among themselves, preventing users from interfering with one
another, scheduling resources among users, facilitating inputFoutput, recovering
from errors, accounting for resource usage, facilitating parallel operations,
organi+ing data for secure and rapid access, and handling network
communications.
#eed and function of operating system
Some information is here about the operating system in your !.
Deinition o Operatin# System8 /
An *perating System is an essential component of a computer system. #t is a
large set of large and comple" program that acts as an interface between the
computer hardware Y its user. #ts serves twin obJectives, interpreting the user
program instructions to the hardware as well as providing coordination services
necessary to enable a group of users to share computer system resources
efficiently.
Nee' o Operatin# System8
#n earlier dayQs user had to design the application according to the internal
structure of the hardware. *perating System was needed to enable the user to
design the application without concerning the details of the computerQs internal
structure. #n general the boundary between the hardware Y software is
transparent to the user.
9sa#e o Operatin# System8
$. 6asy interaction between the human Y computer.
1. Starting computer operation automatically when power in turned on.
4. 9oading Y scheduling users program.
&. ontrolling input Y output.
(. ontrolling program e"ecution.
5. 0anaging use of main memory.
7. !roviding security to users program.
4unctions o Operatin# System 8
The main functions perform by most *perating System of today are as followA B
0) Process Mana#ement8 / 6$e process management module of an *perating
System takes care of the creation Y deletion of processes, scheduling of
various system resources to the different process requesting them, Y
providing mechanism for synchroni+ation Y communication among
processes.
:) Memory Mana#ement8 / The memory management module of an *perating
System takes care of the allocation Y reallocation of memory space to the
various program in need of this resource.
;) 4i%e Mana#ement8 / computer use a lot of data Y programs, which are, stored
on secondary storage devices. Dile management functions of an *perating
System. #nvolves keeping track of all different files Y maintaining the integrity
of data stored in the files including file directory structure.
<) Security8 / The security modules of an *perating System protect the
resources Y information of a computer system against destructionY
unauthori+ed access.
=) Comman' Interpretation8 /The ommand #nterpretation module of an
*perating System takes care of interpreting of user commands, Y directing
the system resources to handle the requests. ?ith this mode of interaction
with the system, the user is usually not too concerned with the hardware
details of the system.
>) Input/Output or De+ice Mana#ement8 / coordination Y control of various
input Y output devices is an important function of the *perating System. This
involves receiving the request for #F* interrupts, Y communicating back to the
requesting process.
?) @o( Contro%8 / ?hen the user wants to run an application program, he must
communicate with the *perating System telling it what to do. 3e does this
using *perating System Job control language or S9. S9 consists of a
number of *perating Systems commands, called system commands that
control the functioning of the *perating System.
catagories of operating system
An operating system is the single most important software when you run a
computer, it is what takes care of pretty much everything on a computer system,
while the maJority of computers we see happen to be using one ZtypeQ of
operating system performing the same functions, operating systems can be
branched into several different types as well. #tQs been a while since #Qve shared a
fairly technical post on omputer @ealm so # guess today would be a good day
for one.
Catch !rocessing *perating System
#n a batch processing operating system interaction between the user and
processor is limited or there is no interaction at all during the e"ecution of work.
Gata and programs that need to be processed are bundled and collected as a
ZbatchQ and e"ecuted together.
Catch processing operating systems are ideal in situations whereA
B There are large amounts of data to be processed.
B Similar data needs to be processed.
B Similar processing is involved when e"ecuting the data.
The system is capable of identifying times when the processor is idle at which
time ZbatchesQ maybe processed. !rocessing is all performed automatically
without any user intervention.
@ealBtime *perating System
A realBtime operating system processes inputs simultaneously, fast enough to
affect the ne"t input or process. @ealBtime systems are usually used to control
comple" systems that require a lot of processing like machinery and industrial
systems.
Single User *perating System
A single user *S as the name suggests is designed for one user to effectively
use a computer at a time.
0ultiBTasking *perating System
#n this type of *S several applications maybe simultaneously loaded and used in
the memory. ?hile the processor handles only one application at a particular
time it is capable of switching between the applications effectively to apparently
simultaneously e"ecute each application. This type of operating system is seen
everywhere today and is the most common type of *S, the ?indows operating
system would be an e"ample.
0ultiBUser *perating System
This type of *S allows multiple users to simultaneously use the system, while
here as well, the processor splits its resources and handles one user at a time,
the speed and efficiency at which it does this makes it apparent that users are
simultaneously using the system, some network systems utili+e this kind of
operating system.
Gistributed *perating System
#n a distributed system, software and data maybe distributed around the system,
programs and files maybe stored on different storage devices which are located
in different geographical locations and maybe accessed from different computer
terminals.
?hile we are mostly accustomed to seeing multiBtasking and multiBuser operating
systems, the other operating systems are usually used in companies and firms to
power special systems.
/.*omputer and communication
Aumans $a+e a%!ays communicate') In t$e (e#innin# o man"in'& man an'
!oman use' speec$ an' (o'y %an#ua#es) No!a'ays& !e a%so use
te%ecommunication tec$no%o#y or communication) Durin# t$e re%ati+e
s$ort era o computers !e $a+e 'e+e%ope' %an#ua#es an' ru%es or
communication (et!een t$em) 6$ese %an#ua#es an' ru%es are ca%%e'
protoco%s) 6$e most !e%% "no!n protoco%s are 6CP/IP& use' in t$e Internet)
In our researc$& !e ocus on ra'io (ase' computer communication) Our
+ision is to pro+i'e t$e same mo(i%ity to t$e user as t$e ce%%u%ar p$one&
!it$ t$e same communication perormance& cost an' .ua%ity as t$e i3e'
!ire' net!or"s)
The success of the #nternet has been tremendous. The original design of the
#nternet protocols has
scaled to a worldwide network with millions of computers interconnected by wires
and optical fibers.
3owever, the #nternet protocols and technology do not scale that well for mobile
and wireless
computers since the original protocols assumed that the computers were
relatively stationary. They also have problems to meet the requirements from
new applications, such as peerBtoBpeer networking. #n our research we study new
protocols that can handle the mobility better and that give better support and
higher performance for new applications.
#n the future, computers will be so common in our everyday appliances and
mobile units that we will not react on them. ?ireless embedded sensor networks
with powerful !Us will be common. All these computers will be able to
communicate with each other, often over wireless networks. Cut, in the future we
will not have the time, or the desire to configure this massive amount of
computers and networks that we constantly will have around us. #nstead, the
computers must configure and setBup networks themselves for their task at hand.
A significant part of our research studies such spontaneous autonomic networks,
created for the situation and moment. #t could be an adBhoc network of mobile
phones for a disaster area where the stationary infraBstructure is broken. A maJor
part of our research is in the area wireless sensor networks within the Uppsala
?#S6H6T center of 6"cellence.