Agricultural Ecology

What is Ecology
Definition - study of the interaction between organisms
(Insects) and their environment, environment
composed of abiotic and biotic factors
Abiotic component - soil, altitude, climate
(temperature, humidity, wind, etc), latitude, other
!iotic component - predators, prey, parasites,
competitors, others
What is Agricultural Ecology
Simply stated, agricultural ecology is the
study of agricultural ecosystems and their
components as they function within
themselves and in the context of the
landscapes that contain them. Application of
this knowledge can lead to development of
more sustainable agricultural ecosystems in
harmony.
What are in Agroecosystem??
Within each ecosystem, there are habitats
which may also vary in sie. A habitat is the
place where a population lives.
A population is a group of living organisms of
the same kind living in the same place at the
same time. All of the populations interact and
form a community. !he community of living
things interacts with the non-living world
around it to form the ecosystem.
What is "nsect Ecology??
#ow do you study insect ecology??
$irst, get to know insect%%
Introduction to Insects
&haracteristics??
' body segments
( legs
) pair antennae
* !he three body parts
Head: !he anterior part of an insect body with
eyes, antennae, and mouthparts
Thorax: !he body section after the head, with
the legs and wings attached. !here are three
sections of the thorax+ the prothorax, the
mesothorax, and the metathorax
Abdomen: !he posterior section of the body
containing the reproductive and digestive
organs.
Example +,rasshopper
"hec# insect characteristics above$
Insect Classification
%iving organisms are divided into an hierarchical
system of classification
&or instance, the Animal 'ingdom is divided into
several phyla (sing phylum) Each phylum is further
divided into classes, one of which is Insecta "lasses
are further divided into orders, families, genera (sing
genus) and finally species
"lassification of the butterfly species Graphium macleayanus(
)hylum Arthropoda, "lass Insecta, *rder %epidoptera, +enus
Graphium
Reasons for Insect Ecology
, Insect diversity, abundance, and distribution
- Impact on ecosystems
. Integration of basic and applied #nowledge
/ 0ni1ueness of insects
2wo important Insect ecology traits( abundance and
diversity
E3planation of insect abundance
2his pie chart illustrates appro3imate relative
biodiversity of insects to other species groups As can
be seen from the chart, insect diversity surpasses that
of all other groups
2he generally 1uoted figure for described species is ,/
million, of which ,, million are animals It is estimated
that insects ma#e up to 456 of that ,, million,
however, with large stretches of tropical forests still
awaiting research and e3ploration, the actual numbers
are li#ely to be significantly higher
Insect Diversity
This pie chart illustrates the relative diversity within
insect orders. Order Coleoptera is comprised of beetles,
Order Hemiptera is comprised of 'true bugs' which
includes cicadas and leafhoppers, Order Hymenoptera is
comprised of bees, ants, wasps and sawflies, Order
Orthoptera is comprised of grasshoppers, crickets and
katydids and Order Lepidoptera contains butterflies,
skippers and moths.
Why are insects so successful7
2here are many attributes of insects that have allowed for
their success and diversification
8mall si9e -there are many more niches for small
organisms than for large organisms &or instance, one
insect could live solely on and in the seeds of a specific
plant
8hort life cycle - this allows many generations within a
given time for selection and evolution to ta#e place
%arge reproductive ability - large numbers of offspring
support a large variation for selection and evolution to
act upon
:ariation in the life style of different stages in an
insect;s life (eg caterpillar versus butterfly) reduces
competition for resources within the species
Wings-the ability to fly is relatively rare outside insects
and has allowed them to colonise freely
8ensory sophistication - the sensory capabilities of
insects surpasses most other organisms
Evolutionary interactions with other organisms -
coevolution leads to greater specialisation and
speciation
Adaptation of appendages - mouthparts, wings and legs
have often become highly specialised
Economic importance - how do insects affect us?
An insect may be of benefit to us or be regarded as a
pest
<ost are beneficial or have an indirect influence
&ewer than =,6 are regarded as pests
Advantageous effects
)lant pollination - )ollination by animals is more
effective than by wind <ost higher plants are pollinated
by animals, usually insects such as bees, wasps, flies
and beetles
)roduction of products - honey, bees wa3 and royal
>elly (an e3port industry for Australia), sil# (produced by
the caterpillar, Bombyx mori), shellac (a varnish
produced by a plant bug), cochineal (red food colouring
produced by a plant bug)
?utrient recycling - by detritus and dung feeders and
particularly in Australia by termites
@uman food - over 5== species of insects are used as
food by humans -usually cric#ets, grasshoppers, beetle
and moth larvae and termites Australian aborigines
regularly ate honeypot ants, adult bogong moths and
the larvae of wood moths (witchety grubs)
Detrimental effects
Destruction or spoilage of food (both fresh and stored)
and crops (including forests)
Damage to goods - leather, paper, te3tiles, (by beetles,
coc#roaches, silverfish or moths), timber (by termites
and different sorts of borers)
Direct disease of humans or livestoc#
Disease vectors
:enoms, allergies, urtication
?uisance value - bush flies, ants
)hobias - such as arachnophobia
Environmental factors affect insect populations
, WEA2@EA
- @A!I2A2
. &**D
/ *2@EA *A+A?I8<8
Environmental factor ,( WEA2@EA
A %ight
<ay control vegetation and therefore insect populations
)hotoperiod -stimulus for diapause initiation
?ight v day used by insects whether nocturnal or diurnal
! 2emperature
!ody temperature of insects governs rate of growth 8ince insects
have limited control over body temperature, outside temperature is
important
<ost insect activity and reproduction occurs between ,5 -.5
o
" but
each species usually has an optimum temperature
2emperature versus development time of insects
?ote that(
Within a species different stages may have different rates of
development
*ne stage may be more resistant than another stage eg over
wintering stage of bron9e orange bug
Aates of growth of insects and plants closely tied together eg
sil#worm development is tied to the appearance of mulberry
leaves
C. Wind
Indirect effect causing evaporation, humidity and so
desiccation
Dispersal eg aphids, moths grasshoppers
D. oisture
Aain(
o directly by mechanical effect, disturbing aphids
o indirectly by affecting soil and water supply for host plants
@umidity - important for egg hatching activity and development
Interaction between temperature, moisture and insect development
Environmental factor -( @A!I2A2
@abitat B Where a particular species lives
- forest, savannah etc or terrestrial a1uatic etc
2he type of soil in a habitat influences an insect;s
distribution and abundance and is easily disturbed by
agriculture, eg Irrigation changes moisture and
subse1uently, the type of pest in a crop "hemicals in
soil affect plant growth and therefore the dependant
insects
?iche B physical location and function of a species at a
given time If two species occupy the same niche, they
will compete and one will displace the other (see
competition)
Environmental !actor "# !ood
!ood $uantity
8tarvation -blowflies needing flesh may not find
necessary corpses or wounds, sil#worms hatching
before bud opening of mulberry leaves
Decline in supply - cabbage aphids at end of seasonal
crop or after harvest
Dependence up food chain eg predators of above
cannot find prey
%ac# of food at critical time - often dependent upon
weather
o @over flies (syrphid) re1uire spring pollen for
maturation of ovaries If plants not in flower --C few
eggs
o 8orghum midges diapause over winter as mature
larvae, emerging with summer rain as adults for
only - days and need to find sorghum flowers in
that time
E3ample(
Different foods produced different development and survival rates in
moth (Ephestia) larvae
!ood $uality
?utrient deficiencies <ite numbers, egg production and
longevity are directly related to ?
-
content in leaves
Development time in mites is indirectly related to the ?
-

content of leaves
@*W D* I?8E"28 *:EA"*<E &**D
)A*!%E<87
Dispersal
)olyphagy - eat multiple species of
predators or plants
8torage of food - social insects - ants,
bees
Environmental /( *ther organism
Intraspecific - %etween individuals of the same species.
2his involves population density - scarcity and crowding
At low density males and females may not meet eg sheep #eds
2hese wingless flies move from sheep to sheep by sheep contact
'ed population will die out id there are less than one per sheep
At high density there is competition between individuals 2his leads
to reduced reproductive rate, survival and longevity
Aeproductive rate versus density in a fly population
Interspecific - %etween individuals of other
species.
"ompetition
Involves niche overlap whereby the needs of - or more different
species for a resource coincide 2his leads to competitive
displacement Eg 2wo species of flour beetle (Tribolium confuse
and T. cutaneum) were placed in flour at -D
o
" and counted every
.= days for . years
8urvival rate of two species of flour beetle at -D degrees "elsius
T. casteneum will displace T. confusum under these conditions
@owever, if the temperature is E -D
o
", T. confusum will dominate
?atural enemies
2hese may be
predators
pathogens
parasites
@ow do we study insect ecology
%evel of !iological Integration
A ma>or challenge for current ecologyy is to
integrate research

approaches that address
different levels of biological organi9ation,

from
subcellular mechanisms to functions in ecological
communities

2he study of plant-insect interactions provides
interesting

options for this
E3ample to study individual and population in insect
ecology
Insect as a pest77
A pest is an organism which harms man or his property
%ess than =,6 of insects are pests
Insects can cause damage directly (by their feeding or ma#ing of
shelters) or indirectly by other means
DIREC&
a. "hewing of plants
eg grasshoppers, caterpillars, leaf miners, root chewing
beetle larvae, stem borers
b )iercing and suc#ing
Direct removal of plant sap or animal blood
eg aphids, vegetable bugs, mites, bed bugs, lice, tic#s
I'DIREC&
a 2ransmitters of disease (vectors) - from plant to plant or animal
to animal
eg plant viruses and bacteria transmitted via aphids and
leafhoppers, malaria, dengue fever and heartworm via
mos1uitoes
b Disease entering independently through wound site of feeding
or egg laying
eg bacterial rots of cotton, infected bites on animals
c 8poiling
eg webbing and faeces in food products, coc#roach faeces
on goods, sooty mould growing on honeydew e3udate from
aphids leading to both spoilage and reduction of
photosynthesis by affected foliage
d 2o3ic saliva or allergies
eg flea irritation on dogs, mos1uitoes and sandflies on
humans
What is )est <anagement 777
(a comprehensive approach to pest control that uses
com%ined means to reduce the status of pests to
tolerant levels while maintaining a $uality environment.(
Characteristics
, 8elective for the pest
- "omprehensive for the production system
. "ompatible with ecological principles
/ 2olerant of potentially harmful species within
economically acceptable limits
)%*ectives
+. Aeduce pest populations
- )reventing economic loss
. Accept some pest damage
/ <aintenance of the environment
a "onservation of the environment
b Emphasi9es that cropping systems are li#e
natural systems
c <aintain 1uality and have a lasting solution
,est management strat-gies
*ptions(
a. do nothing.
b. reduce pest population directly (more common;
e.g. chemical and biological control)
c. reduce crop susceptibility.
d. combination of tactics.
A. Chemical Control
"hemical control includes both %ehaviour modifiers and
insecticides
I !ehaviour modifiers
, Attractants - cause insects to move towards their
source
a )heromones - secreted by insect, species specific
- may be used to lay trails, or for aggregation,
swarming, alarm or se3ual attraction
b &ood and oviposition attractants Eg Fld fruit fly is
attracted to ?@
. ,
flavouring essences and protein
sources

- Antifeedants - prevent an insect from feeding and it
starves
. Antioviposition chemicals - females won;t lay eggs
/ Aepellents - eg personal fly repellents
II Insecticides
Insecticides are agents of chemical or biological origin
that control insects
.I/&)R0 )! I'/EC&ICIDE 1/E
GearH)eriod InsecticideHs 0sed
-=== years ago 8ulphur, oils
,=== years ago Arsenics in "hina
,I5= Aotenone (derris dust) - botanical
,ID= 2obacco (nicotine)
,JI=H,JD=
)aris green and other arsenates
'erosene and oil emulsions
) yrethrum
? aphthalene, paradichloroben9ene
!ordeau3 mi3 B lime and copper sulphate
Early -=
th

century
&luorides, creosote
,D,J Aerial crop dusting
,D.J 8esame oil as synergist
,D/= <ethyl bromide as fumigant
,D/=s
DD2, other organochlorides
- wide spectrum, cheap, high residual,
environmental problems
,D5=s
*rganophosphates
- less residual but high to3icity"arbamates
- less to3ic to humans, faster brea#down
,DI=s Kuvenile hormones, synthetic pyrethroids
?ow I)<, biological control
&uture :enom derivatives 7
AD2A'&A3E/ A'D DI/AD2A'&A3E/
Advantages
"ompared to other forms of control, insecticide use is
, highly effective
- easily employed by farmers and
. in many cases there is no commercially viable alternative
Disadvantages
, Aesurgence of treated populations
)est populations 1uic#ly recover and bounce bac#, leading to
repeated insecticide applications
- Aesistance %arge reproductive ability and short generation
time help speed selection of resistant individuals and
insecticides are than applied at ever increasing concentrations
. 8elective #ill and environments alteration can lead to minor
pests becoming ma>or pests 2wo-spotted mite problems on
apples after DD2 application
/ Aesidues can be long lived and dangerous
5 Insecticides and their applications can be costly and time
consuming
,roperties of perfect insecticide
, @igh to3icity to target pest
- 8elective to3icity so beneficial insects are not affected
. %ow to3icity to plants other non target organisms
/ ?o harmful residue
5 "heap and safe to manufacture
I 8tabile under storage
4 ?on corrosive
J Aesidues readily and cheaply detectable
2his graph shows the relationship between pest numbers
and insecticide applications over time
Insecticide <anagement
i Aeduce the ris#s of pesticides to human health
ii Aeduce the ris#s of pesticides to non-target organisms
iii Aeduce the potential for contamination of groundwater,
surface water or other
valued environmental resources
What Is 4iological ,est Control?
!iological control is, generally, man;s use of a specially chosen
living organism to control a particular pest 2his chosen organism
might be a predator, parasite, or disease which will attac# the
harmful insect It is a form of manipulating nature to increase a
desired effect A complete !iological "ontrol program may range
from choosing a pesticide which will be least harmful to beneficial
insects, to raising and releasing one insect to have it attac# another,
almost li#e a Lliving insecticideL
/ome Advantages of 4iological ,est Control
!iological control methods can be used as part of an overall
integrated pest management (I)<) program to reduce the legal,
environmental, and public safety ha9ards of chemicals In addition,
it may be a more economical alternative to some insecticides
8ome biological control measures can actually prevent economic
damage to agricultural crops 0nli#e most insecticides, biological
controls are often very specific for a particular pest *ther helpful
insects, animals, or people can go completely unaffected or
disturbed by their use 2here is less danger of impact on the
environment and water 1uality
/ome Disadvantages of 4iological ,est Control
!iological control ta#es more intensive management and planning
It can ta#e more time, re1uire more record #eeping, more patience,
and sometimes more education or training 8uccessful use of
biological control re1uires a greater understanding of the biology of
both the pest and its enemies <any natural enemies are very
susceptible to pesticides, and using them successfully in an I)<
program ta#es great care In some cases, biological control may be
more costly than pesticides *ften, the results of using biological
control are not as dramatic or 1uic# as the results of pesticide use
<ost natural enemies attac# only specific types of insects - unli#e
broad-spectrum insecticides, which may #ill a wide range of insects
2hough often an advantage, this can also be a disadvantage
&he &hree ain Approaches to 4iological Control
!iological control uses naturally occurring predators, parasites and
diseases to control pests 2here are three main ways to use these
natural enemies against unwanted insect pest populations
Classical Biological Control (importation) involves traveling to the
country or area from which a newly introduced pest originated and
returning with some of the natural enemies that attac#ed it and #ept
it from being a pest there ?ew pests are constantly arriving
accidentally or intentionally 8ometimes they survive When they
come, their enemies are left behind If they become a pest,
introducing some of their natural enemies can be an important way
to reduce the amount of harm they can do
Augmentation is a method of increasing the population of a natural
enemy which attac#s a pest 2his can be done by mass producing a
pest in a laboratory and releasing it into the field at the proper time
Another method of augmentation is breeding a better natural enemy
which can attac# or find its prey more effectively <ass rearings can
be released at special times when the pest is most susceptible and
natural enemies are not yet present, or they can be released in
such large numbers that few pests go untouched by their enemies
2he augmentation method relies upon continual human
management and does not provide a permanent solution unli#e the
importation or conservation approaches may
Conservation of natural enemies is an important part in any
biological control effort 2his involves identifying any factors that
limit the effectiveness of a particular natural enemy and changing
them to help the beneficial species "onservation of natural
enemies involves either reducing factors which interfere with the
natural enemies or providing needed resources that help natural
enemies