859

Open Market Operations in the 1990s

Cheryl L. Edwards, of the Board’s Division of Mone- institutions maintain accounts at Federal Reserve
tary Affairs, prepared this article. Gerard Sinzdak Banks that they use to make payments on behalf of
provided research assistance. their customers or themselves. They use the end-of-
day balances in these accounts to meet reserve and
Open market operations are the Federal Reserve’s other balance requirements (See box ‘‘Reserve Con-
principal tool for implementing monetary policy.1 cepts, Technical Factors, and Required Clearing Bal-
These purchases and sales of U.S. Treasury and fed- ances.’’) If a depository institution anticipates that it
eral agency securities largely determine the federal will end the day with a larger balance than it wants, it
funds rate—the interest rate at which depository insti- can reduce that balance in several ways depending on
tutions lend balances at the Federal Reserve to other how long it expects the surplus to persist. For exam-
depository institutions overnight. The federal funds ple, if it expects the surplus to be temporary, the
rate, in turn, affects monetary and financial condi- institution often lends the excess balance overnight to
tions, which ultimately influence employment, out- a depository institution that anticipates having a
put, and the overall level of prices. smaller end-of-day balance than it wants. The market
The objectives and conduct of open market opera- in which the lending of Federal Reserve balances
tions have evolved over the years, partly in response takes place is the federal funds market, and the inter-
to the way the Federal Open Market Committee—the est rate at which the loan is made is the federal funds
Federal Reserve’s primary monetary policymaking rate.2 The total supply of Federal Reserve balances
body—implements policy and explains it to the pub- available to depository institutions is determined pri-
lic. Also shaping the conduct of open market opera- marily by open market operations. Through these
tions have been changes in financial markets, includ- operations, the Federal Reserve has considerable
ing a move to arrange transactions in the market for influence over conditions in the federal funds market.
repurchase agreements earlier in the day, prompted Open market operations can be directed at achiev-
by the Federal Reserve’s imposition of a fee on ing a desired quantity of balances, as specified by the
daylight overdrafts in the accounts of depository Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), or a
institutions. Another important influence has been a desired price (federal funds rate), but they may not be
decline in the balances that depository institutions are able to achieve both at once. The greater the empha-
required to hold at the Federal Reserve stemming sis on a quantity objective, the more short-run
from the widespread adoption of retail sweep pro- changes in the demand for balances will influence the
grams, which transfer funds from deposit accounts federal funds rate; conversely, the greater the empha-
that are subject to reserve requirements to deposit sis on a funds-rate objective, the more shifts in
accounts that are not. demand will influence the quantity of Federal
Reserve balances.
Over the years, the Federal Reserve has used varia-
FEDERAL RESERVE BALANCES tions of both approaches to open market operations.3
AND RESERVE OBJECTIVES

Open market operations are a powerful tool in imple- 2. Federal funds lending is not collateralized; therefore, different
depository institutions pay different rates for loans depending on their
menting monetary policy because of their connection creditworthiness. Depository institutions can arrange transactions
with the total supply of balances at the Federal directly between themselves, or for large transactions they can use a
Reserve and the federal funds rate. Many depository federal funds broker. Typically, the term ‘‘federal funds rate’’ refers to
the rate at which the most creditworthy institutions borrow and lend
balances in the brokered market.
1. The other tools of monetary policy are reserve requirements and 3. Detailed discussions of the history of monetary policy can be
the discount window, the Federal Reserve’s lending facility. See found in Ann-Marie Meulendyke, U.S. Monetary Policy and Financial
Joshua N. Feinman, ‘‘Reserve Requirements: History, Current Prac- Markets (New York: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, 1989),
tice, and Potential Reform,’’ Federal Reserve Bulletin, vol. 79 pp. 18–47, and in Ann-Marie Meulendyke, ‘‘A Review of Federal
(June 1993), pp. 569–89, and James A. Clouse, ‘‘Recent Develop- Reserve Policy Targets and Operating Guides in Recent Decades,’’
ments in Discount Window Policy,’’ Federal Reserve Bulletin, vol. 80 Federal Reserve Bank of New York Quarterly Review, vol. 13
(November 1994), pp. 965–77. (Autumn 1988), pp. 6–17.
860 Federal Reserve Bulletin November 1997

Reserve Concepts, Technical Factors, and Required Clearing Balances

Reserve Concepts cash held in excess of reserve requirements is not included

in excess reserves or in total reserves.
Total reserves equal vault cash used by depository institu-
tions to meet reserve requirements (so-called applied vault
cash) plus reserve balances held by depository institutions Supply of Reserves
at their Federal Reserve Banks. Reserve balances, and thus The supply of reserves has two components, borrowed
total reserves, exclude required clearing balances of deposi- reserves and nonborrowed reserves.
tory institutions.
Borrowed Reserves (BR). Borrowed reserves are bal-
ances provided to depository institutions through the Fed-
Demand for Reserves
eral Reserve’s discount window lending facility. In general,
The demand for reserves has two components, required a depository institution is expected to use the discount
reserves and excess reserves. window to meet its liquidity needs only after drawing on all
other reasonably available sources of funds. This adminis-
Required Reserves (RR). Each depository institution
trative criterion limits considerably the use of the window,
must hold a percentage of certain of its deposit liabilities as
even though the rate charged for discount window loans—
reserves. Reserve requirements are currently applied to the
the discount rate—is typically below the federal funds rate.
average level of transaction deposits over a two-week com-
Since the mid-1980s, depository institutions have become
putation period and are specified as an average level to be
quite reluctant to turn to the discount window because of
maintained over a two-week reserve maintenance period.1
concerns that their borrowing might become known to
A depository institution’s reserve requirement is satisfied
private market participants—even though the Federal
first by its vault cash—currency held in its vault—and, if
Reserve treats the identity of borrowers in a highly confi-
vault cash is insufficient, by the end-of-day balances it
dential manner—and that such borrowing might be viewed
maintains during the reserve maintenance period in its
as a sign of weakness.2 As a result, the volume of balances
account at its Federal Reserve Bank. Holding required
supplied through the discount window is generally a very
reserve balances—the difference between required reserves
small fraction of the total supply of reserves.
and applied vault cash—is costly for a depository institution
because the Federal Reserve does not pay interest on these Nonborrowed Reserves (NBR). Nonborrowed reserves
balances. are reserves provided to depository institutions through
means other than the discount window and include applied
Excess Reserves (ER). A depository institution may
vault cash. Over time, nonborrowed reserves are affected
choose to hold balances at its Federal Reserve Bank in
primarily by open market operations. They are also influ-
addition to those it must hold to meet reserve requirements;
enced by changes in technical factors (described below).
these balances are called excess reserves. Depository insti-
Although the Federal Reserve does not have complete con-
tutions hold excess reserves to avoid deficiencies in their
trol over technical factors, it can offset fairly closely their
required reserve balances and to avoid overnight overdrafts,
effects on nonborrowed reserves through open market
both of which are subject to charges. In general, depository
operations, and thus it can exercise considerable control
institutions hold few excess reserves because these holdings
over the supply of reserves.
do not earn interest. Most excess reserves are held by small
depository institutions for whom the cost of very close In equation form, the reserve concepts are related as
management of reserve balances would exceed the interest follows:
they could earn by holding fewer excess reserves. Vault
TR = RR + ER = BR + NBR.
1. Approximately 99 percent of all required reserves are held by deposi-
tory institutions that meet their reserve requirements on a two-week average At equilibrium, the total demand for reserves must equal the
basis. The computation and maintenance periods for these depository institu-
tions are nearly contemporaneous. Small depository institutions hold the total supply of reserves.
remaining required reserves. The computation and maintenance periods for
these institutions are one-week long, but there is a lag between the two
periods. 2. See Clouse, ‘‘Recent Developments in Discount Window Policy.’’

During most of the 1970s, it targeted the federal Under this approach, market interest rates varied over
funds rate. In October 1979, at a time when anti- a wide range, mainly in response to deviations in M1
inflationary restraint was called for, it began instead growth from the FOMC’s objective.
to target the quantity of reserves—specifically, non- By late 1982, it had become clear that financial
borrowed reserves—to achieve greater control over innovation had weakened the historical link between
M1, the narrowest measure of the money stock. M1 and the economic objectives of monetary policy,
 Open Market Operations in the 1990s 861

Reserve Concepts, Technical Factors, and Required Clearing Balances—Continued

Technical Factors the check is physically presented to it. Float temporarily

Affecting Nonborrowed Reserves adds reserve balances to the depository system because,
until the paying institution’s account is debited, the two
Technical factors are items on the Federal Reserve’s bal- depository institutions essentially are credited with the same
ance sheet other than loans and holdings of domestic securi- reserve balances. Float is most volatile following inclement
ties that can affect the supply of nonborrowed reserves to weather that disrupts the normal check-delivery process.
depository institutions.3 The key factors are described here.
Foreign Exchange. When the Federal Reserve purchases
Currency. The Federal Reserve supplies currency to dollars, it does so by selling assets denominated in foreign
depository institutions. When it does so, it debits the Fed- currencies. It debits the account of the purchaser of the
eral Reserve account of the depository institution receiving foreign currency asset (or the purchaser’s depository institu-
the currency, thus draining reserve balances from the tion if the purchaser is not a depository institution) for the
depository system. The amount of currency demanded by dollar value of the transaction, so reserve balances decrease.
the public, both in the United States and abroad, tends to Conversely, when the Federal Reserve sells dollars, it pur-
grow over time, in part reflecting increases in nominal chases assets denominated in foreign currencies. It credits
spending. Consequently, an increasing volume of reserve the account of the seller’s depository institution for the
balances is drained from the depository system and must be dollar value of the transaction, and reserve balances
replenished. The expansion of currency outstanding is the increase. The effects of these transactions on reserve bal-
primary reason the Desk conducts outright purchases of ances are sterilized, or offset, by open market operations.
securities.
Treasury Balance. The U.S. Treasury maintains an Required Clearing Balances
account at the Federal Reserve. When a payment is made to
the Treasury, the Federal Reserve account of the depository Depository institutions that use Federal Reserve priced ser-
institution on which the payment is drawn is debited, and vices (such as check clearing or electronic payment ser-
the Federal Reserve account of the Treasury is credited. The vices) may establish required clearing balances at their
Treasury is not a depository institution, so the transaction Federal Reserve Banks. When a depository institution estab-
drains reserve balances from the depository system. The lishes a required clearing balance, it commits in advance
Treasury’s Federal Reserve balance is the most volatile to holding a specified balance, above its required reserve
technical factor that affects nonborrowed reserves, espe- balance, on average over the reserve maintenance period.
cially in the weeks following the April 15 deadline for Required clearing balances, like excess reserves, provide
federal income tax payments. a cushion against overnight overdrafts; unlike excess
reserves, however, required clearing balances earn implicit
Federal Reserve Float. Federal Reserve float is created interest, in the form of earnings credits. If the depository
when the account of the depository institution presenting a institution fails to satisfy its required clearing balance, the
check for payment is credited before the account of the deficiency is subject to a charge.
depository institution on which the check is drawn is deb- Although they are excluded from reserve measures
ited. This situation can arise because credit is granted to the because they cannot be used to meet reserve requirements,
presenting depository institution on a preset schedule, required clearing balances play an important role in helping
whereas the paying institution’s account is not debited until depository institutions avoid overnight overdrafts. For the
Desk’s purposes, required clearing balances are included
3. A more detailed discussion of the factors affecting nonborrowed
reserves can be found in Ann-Marie Meulendyke, U.S. Monetary Policy and in nonborrowed reserves as a technical factor absorbing
Financial Markets, pp. 141–47. reserves.

and the FOMC began to make more discretionary remaining need for reserves by borrowing at the
decisions about money market conditions, using a discount window. The total amount borrowed is lim-
wider array of economic and financial variables to ited, however, even though the discount rate is gener-
judge the need for an adjustment in short-term inter- ally below the federal funds rate, because access to
est rates. In the day-to-day conduct of open market discount window credit is restricted. In particular,
operations, this change was manifested in a shift of depository institutions are required to pursue all other
focus from a nonborrowed reserve target to a bor- reasonably available sources of funds, including those
rowed reserve target. The Federal Reserve routinely available in the federal funds market, before credit is
supplies fewer reserves than the estimated demand, granted. During the time it was targeting borrowed
thus forcing depository institutions to meet their reserves, the Federal Reserve influenced the level of
862 Federal Reserve Bulletin November 1997

the federal funds rate by controlling the extent to the seller’s depository institution at the Federal
which depository institutions had to turn to the dis- Reserve. Conversely, sales of securities decrease the
count window. When it wanted to ease monetary quantity of Federal Reserve balances because the
policy, it would reduce the borrowed reserve target Federal Reserve extinguishes balances when it debits
and supply more nonborrowed reserves to meet esti- the account of the purchaser’s depository institution
mated demand. With less pressure to borrow from the at the Federal Reserve. In contrast, when financial
discount window, depository institutions would bid institutions, business firms, or individuals conduct
less aggressively for reserve balances at the Federal transactions among themselves, they simply redistrib-
Reserve, and the federal funds rate would fall. ute existing balances held at the Federal Reserve
Beginning in the mid-1980s, spreading doubts without changing the aggregate level of those
about the financial health of some depository institu- balances.5
tions led to an increasing reluctance on the part of
many institutions to borrow at the discount window,
thus weakening the link between borrowing and the Domestic Securities Holdings
federal funds rate.4 Consequently, the Federal
Reserve increasingly sought to attain a specific level Open market operations are arranged by the Domes-
of the federal funds rate rather than a targeted quan- tic Trading Desk at the Federal Reserve Bank of
tity of borrowed reserves. New York (the Desk) under authorization from the
In early 1994, the FOMC was preparing to tighten FOMC, which was created by statute to direct open
monetary policy for the first time in five years, and it market operations. Operations are conducted in
wanted the public to understand its objectives as domestic securities, primarily U.S. Treasury and
quickly and clearly as possible. For many years, the federal agency securities.6 Nearly all of the Federal
FOMC did not announce changes in the stance of Reserve’s domestic securities holdings are Treasury
monetary policy. Instead, market participants had to securities, with roughly equal shares of Treasury bills
infer changes from the type of open market operation and Treasury coupon securities—notes and bonds
conducted and the level of the federal funds rate (table 1). Federal agency securities have accounted
relative to their perceptions about the FOMC’s target for only a small proportion of the domestic securities
rate. The perceived change would then be publicized portfolio since the Federal Reserve began purchasing
through wire service stories and other press accounts. such securities in 1971. The Desk has not added to
This means of communicating could, and on a few the Federal Reserve’s permanent holdings of agency
occasions did, lead to misunderstandings about the securities through open market purchases since 1981;
stance of policy or to delays in recognizing changes. moreover, when suitable replacements for maturing
As a result, the FOMC in 1994 began announcing issues have not been offered, the Desk has had to
changes in its policy stance, so that the public would allow existing holdings to mature without replace-
learn of any change immediately. In 1995, it sought ment. As a result, the Federal Reserve’s holdings of
to make its announcements even clearer by explicitly federal agency securities have declined steadily, and
stating its short-term objective for open market opera- recently the Desk stated that it will permit the remain-
tions, which is currently a target level for the federal der of these holdings to mature without replacement.
funds rate. It continues, however, to acquire agency securities in
temporary operations, which are discussed below.

OPEN MARKET OPERATIONS: AN OVERVIEW 5. More detailed discussions of open market operations can be
found in Meulendyke, U.S. Monetary Policy and Financial Markets,
Open market operations affect the supply of Federal and in M.A. Akhtar, Understanding Open Market Operations
(New York: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, 1997).
Reserve balances to depository institutions. Purchases 6. The Desk is also authorized to conduct limited operations in
of securities increase the quantity of Federal Reserve bankers’ acceptances, and it was very active in that market until 1977,
balances because the Federal Reserve creates the when the FOMC decided to discontinue outright purchases under
ordinary circumstances. Outright transactions in bankers’ acceptances
balances to pay the seller by crediting the account of had not contributed materially to meeting reserve needs for a number
of years, and the FOMC noted that the market had become mature and
efficient and no longer needed support from Federal Reserve opera-
tions. Similar motivations prompted the FOMC to discontinue tempo-
4. See Clouse, ‘‘Recent Developments in Discount Window Pol- rary purchases of bankers’ acceptances in 1984.
icy.’’ See also ‘‘Monetary Policy and Open Market Operations during The Federal Reserve also holds securities denominated in foreign
1988,’’ Federal Reserve Bank of New York Quarterly Review, vol. 14 currencies. Purchases and sales of these securities are not considered
(Winter–Spring 1989), pp. 83–102. open market operations.
 Open Market Operations in the 1990s 863

1. Federal Reserve holdings of U.S. Treasury and federal 2. Average maturity of marketable U.S. Treasury securities,
agency securities, September 24, 1997 selected years, 1975–97
Billions of dollars Months

Type of security Holding Year Federal Reserve Holdings of

holdings private investors
Treasury bills 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209.6
Treasury coupon securities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216.5 1975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 29
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.5 1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 45
Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55.0 1985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 60
Federal agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Total Treasury and agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427.0 1990 ................. 39 71
1991 ................. 35 72
1. Includes Treasury bills sold under matched sale–purchase transactions. 1992 ................. 36 70
1993 ................. 38 68
1994 ................. 38 66

1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 63
The overall size of the Federal Reserve’s portfolio 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 63
1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 64
of domestic securities is dictated by the FOMC’s
monetary policy objectives. The liquidity and matu- Note. End-of-year data except 1997; for 1997, end-of-June data. Federal
Reserve holdings exclude the effects of securities acquired and sold in
rity of that portfolio depend on the FOMC’s prefer- temporary transactions.
ences, which have evolved over time. In the early Source. Federal Reserve Bank of New York and Treasury Bulletin.

1980s, the average maturity of the portfolio was

slightly more than four years, similar to the average
maturity of the public’s holdings of marketable U.S.
Counterparties
Treasury debt (table 2). In 1984, when Continental
The FOMC’s authorization to conduct open market
Illinois National Bank faced a severe liquidity crisis,
operations permits the Desk to conduct business with
emphasis on the liquidity of the portfolio increased
foreign official and international institutions that
because the Desk had to offset the massive volume of
maintain accounts at the Federal Reserve Bank of
balances provided to Continental through the dis-
New York and with securities dealers. The dealers
count window. The Federal Reserve was able to
with which the Desk transacts business are called
maintain the desired level of reserve balances by
primary dealers. For many years, primary dealers
allowing Treasury bills to mature without replace-
were expected to meet market share and capital
ment and by selling them in a market that was recep-
requirements, to bid meaningfully for new securities
tive to liquid short-term issues of the highest quality.
at U.S. Treasury auctions, and to permit review of
The crisis underscored the importance of having a
their dealer activities by the Federal Reserve through
liquid portfolio, one that could accommodate devel-
statistical and financial reporting and on-site visits.8
opments requiring large cuts in holdings over a short
In addition to being invited to bid in open market
period. Over the next seven years, the average matu-
operations, primary dealers, unlike other dealers,
rity trended down as the Desk purchased more Trea-
were allowed to bid on behalf of customers at all
sury bills than Treasury coupon issues on balance.7
Treasury auctions and to bid at Treasury note and
By the end of 1991, the average maturity of the
bond auctions without first making a deposit or
portfolio was just under three years.
obtaining a guarantee. The practice of transacting
In the spring of 1992, the FOMC reviewed the
with a limited number of dealers was intended to
maturity structure of the Federal Reserve’s portfolio
foster the development of active and liquid secondary
holdings. It concluded that the portfolio was suffi-
markets for Treasury debt, to promote vigorous bid-
ciently liquid and directed the Desk to take steps to
ding at Treasury auctions, and to ensure that the
keep the average maturity from falling further. Fol-
Federal Reserve had counterparties who could handle
lowing a further review in September 1996, the
its large orders efficiently and safely.
FOMC confirmed its view that the primary objective
In 1991, following disclosures of bidding irregu-
in managing the composition of the Federal Reserve’s
larities at Treasury auctions by Salomon Brothers,
domestic securities portfolio was to ensure a high
Inc., the Treasury, the Securities and Exchange Com-
degree of liquidity.
mission, and the Federal Reserve reviewed many
aspects of the market for Treasury securities, includ-

7. The notable exception in this downtrend occurred in 1989, when

the average maturity ticked up. Heavy purchases of foreign currency
by the Federal Reserve injected more reserve balances into the deposi- 8. See also ‘‘Monetary Policy and Open Market Operations during
tory system than were consistent with reserve objectives, and the Desk 1991,’’ Federal Reserve Bank of New York Quarterly Review, vol. 17
absorbed the overabundance through sales of Treasury bills. (Spring 1992), pp. 1–24.
864 Federal Reserve Bulletin November 1997

Estimating the Need for Open Market Operations

The first step in estimating the need for open market opera- equation is used to construct the nonborrowed reserve
tions is constructing the nonborrowed reserve objective. objective. For example, if required reserves are estimated at
Rearranging the equation that defines reserve concepts, $47.5 billion, the demand for excess reserves is assumed
to be $1 billion, and borrowed reserves are estimated at
NBR = RR + ER − BR.
$0.4 billion, then the nonborrowed reserve objective for the
The demand for required reserves (RR) is estimated by staff period is $48.1 billion.
at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and at the Board The second step is forecasting the supply of nonborrowed
of Governors on the basis of data on deposits reported by reserves in the absence of any additional open market
depository institutions. The Desk assumes that the demand operations over the remainder of the maintenance period.
for excess reserves (ER) will be $1 billion, but it sometimes These forecasts, which are provided to the Desk by staff at
adjusts that figure as the maintenance period progresses on the New York Reserve Bank and the Board, include an
the basis of econometric models and data on holdings of estimate of the amount of vault cash that depository institu-
excess reserves by type of depository institution (for exam- tions will use to meet their reserve requirements.
ple, large banks, small banks, thrift institutions, and U.S. The amount of reserve balances that must be added or
branches of foreign banks). The supply of borrowed drained through open market operations each day, on aver-
reserves (BR) is estimated by the Desk as the amount of age, over the entire reserve maintenance period is the differ-
reserve balances to be supplied through the discount ence between the nonborrowed reserve objective and the
window that is consistent with the difference between the projected supply of nonborrowed reserves. If the projected
discount rate and the FOMC’s target federal funds rate. supply exceeds the objective, the Desk must drain reserve
Most discount window borrowing is done under the sea- balances during the period. If the objective exceeds the
sonal program, and the interest rate charged is a floating, projected supply, the Desk must add reserve balances; for
market-based rate; such borrowing rises in the spring (as example, if the staff estimates that the supply of nonbor-
loans are extended during the planting season), peaks in the rowed reserves is $44.1 billion for the period and the
summer, and tapers off in the fall (as loans are repaid after objective is $48.1 billion, then the Desk needs to add a daily
the harvest). Once these three estimates are available, the average of $4 billion over the maintenance period.

ing the primary dealer system.9 The review prompted primary dealers currently is close to its 1991 level:
the Federal Reserve to establish a more open system Some dealers have been added to the list, while a few
of trading relationships based primarily on the have either exited the business or merged with other
value of the dealers as counterparties for the Federal primary dealers.
Reserve and the Treasury. The Federal Reserve
dropped the market share criterion, which was
viewed by some market participants as a barrier, and THE DAILY CONDUCT
discontinued its dealer surveillance function, in part OF OPEN MARKET OPERATIONS
to emphasize that the Federal Reserve does not regu-
late primary dealers. As it always has, the Federal
Each morning, the staff at the Domestic Trading
Reserve does require that primary dealers be active
Desk decide whether an open market operation is
and competitive participants in open market opera-
necessary and, if so, whether it should be an outright
tions and that they be consistent and meaningful
or a temporary operation.
participants in Treasury auctions. It also requires that
primary dealers meet the capital standards of their
primary regulators rather than a standard set by the
Federal Reserve. In addition, primary dealers must Determining the Need for an Operation
freely and candidly supply the Desk with information
on market activity. The joint agency review also Staff at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and at
prompted the Treasury to change its auction proce- the Board of Governors provide the Desk with esti-
dures, extending to other dealers the privileges once mates of the average supply of and demand for
enjoyed only by primary dealers. The number of reserves for the current two-week reserve mainte-
nance period (and two future periods), along with the
daily estimates that underlie the averages for the
9. The findings of the review are reported in Joint Report on the
Government Securities Market (Washington, D.C.: Government Print- current period. The estimates of period-average
ing Office, January 1992). reserve demand, less an allowance for discount win-
 Open Market Operations in the 1990s 865

dow borrowing consistent with the federal funds rate 3. Outright purchases in the market, 1990–97
target, yield an objective for nonborrowed reserves.
Treasury bills Treasury coupon securities
(See box ‘‘Estimating the Need for Open Market
Year Volume Volume
Operations.’’) This objective is modified as the main- Number of (billions of Number of (billions of
market entries market entries
tenance period progresses to incorporate new infor- dollars) dollars)
mation on reserve demand or borrowing. The objec- 1990 ....... 5 16.6 0 . . .
tive is compared with the projected supply of 1991
1992
.......
.......
3
3
8.1
9.7
1
3
2.3
12.3
nonborrowed reserves absent any additional open 1993 ....... 2 8.6 4 16.8
1994 ....... 2 7.7 4 17.0
market operations during the maintenance period.
The difference between the objective and the pro- 1995 . . . . . . . 2 8.2 5 9.1
1996 . . . . . . . 2 9.8 5 7.2
jected supply indicates the amount of reserve bal- 1997 . . . . . . . 1 4.0 13 17.4
ances that must be added or drained each day, on Note. Data for 1997 are through September 24.
average, over the entire maintenance period: If the
objective for nonborrowed reserves exceeds the pro-
jected supply, the Desk needs to add reserve bal- waiting. In November 1995, the Desk changed its
ances; if the projected supply of nonborrowed approach to outright coupon purchases. It now
reserves exceeds the objective, the Desk needs to divides up a purchase of coupon securities, focusing
drain reserve balances. The points during the main- on only a portion of the maturity spectrum rather than
tenance period at which reserve balances are added or on all maturities at once. This approach has further
drained and the types of operations conducted depend decreased the turnaround time for such operations
importantly on the expected duration and daily pat- and has likely resulted in better prices to the Desk.
tern of the reserve need. The Desk still purchases all maturities of Treasury
coupon issues, but it generally spreads its purchases
over several weeks, in keeping with the size of esti-
Outright Operations mated reserve needs. With this new procedure, the
Desk is better able to tailor its purchases to reserve
If staff projections indicate a large and persistent needs. In addition, the operations, which had been
imbalance between reserve demand and supply, say conducted only in the early afternoon, can now be
for a month or more, the Desk may conduct an conducted in the morning as well.
outright purchase or sale of securities. (See box
‘‘Types of Open Market Operations.’’) Such transac-
tions increase or decrease the size of the Federal Temporary Operations
Reserve’s portfolio (and thus add or drain reserve
balances) permanently. The Desk conducts far more If staff projections indicate only a short-lived need
outright purchases than outright sales, primarily to add or drain reserve balances, the Desk usually
because it must offset the reserve drain resulting from conducts a temporary operation. Such operations are
the public’s increasing demand for currency. far more common than outright operations, partly
Before 1995, the Desk entered the market to con- because daily fluctuations in technical factors alter
duct outright operations only a few times each year. It reserve supply (as discussed in the box ‘‘Reserve
would wait until reserve needs were large enough Concepts, Technical Factors, and Required Clearing
to warrant a sizable transaction—on the order of Balances’’). The daily demand for reserves is gener-
$3 billion to $4 billion—in part because such opera- ally assumed to be equal to the period-average level,
tions, especially coupon purchases, were time con- but the figure is informally adjusted on days on
suming. For a coupon purchase, for example, the which reserve demand has historically appeared to be
Desk had to review numerous offers on about two elevated, such as on days on which social security
hundred securities. (The number and volume of out- payments are made. Although reserves are held on a
right purchases in recent years are shown in table 3.) two-week average basis, a large imbalance between
Automation of the bidding process in 1994 decreased demand and supply on any one day may cause the
the time needed to evaluate offers, but dealers still federal funds rate to move significantly away from
had to wait a significant amount of time between the FOMC’s target. Temporary open market opera-
submitting offers and learning whether their offers tions help to offset such large daily imbalances. The
had been accepted. For that reason, dealers, in pricing Desk arranges repurchase agreements to add reserve
their offers, took into account the risk that mar- balances temporarily and matched sale–purchase
ket prices might move adversely while they were transactions to drain reserve balances temporarily.
866 Federal Reserve Bulletin November 1997

Types of Open Market Operations

Most open market operations are conducted in the market Purchases from and Sales to Foreign and International
with the thirty-nine securities dealers that are designated Accounts. Purchases from and sales to foreign and interna-
‘‘primary dealers;’’ some are conducted with foreign official tional accounts enable the Desk to make small adjustments
and international institutions that maintain accounts at the to the Federal Reserve’s securities holdings without for-
Federal Reserve Bank of New York. All operations in the mally entering the market.2 Purchases from these accounts
market are conducted as auctions, with all primary dealers were fairly common until 1996, when the Desk decided to
invited to bid, and the bidding and bid evaluation processes make most of its purchases in the secondary market from
are now automated. Since January 1997, the Desk has primary dealers so that its operations would be more trans-
reported the par value of each of its open market operations parent. Also, the recent shift to purchasing securities in the
with primary dealers at the conclusion of the operation. market in a particular portion of the maturity spectrum has
given the Desk the flexibility to add to the Federal Reserve’s
portfolio more gradually, thus reducing the need to rely on
Outright Operations transactions with foreign and international accounts for this
The Desk may not add to the Federal Reserve’s holdings of purpose. Sales to these accounts have been infrequent in the
securities by purchasing new securities when they are first 1990s because of the strong demand for currency. The sizes
auctioned because it has no authority to lend directly to the of purchases from and sales to foreign and international
Treasury.1 Therefore, it must make any additions to hold- accounts are not explicitly reported to the public, though
ings through purchases from primary dealers in the second- they can be inferred from changes in the Federal Reserve’s
ary market or directly from foreign official and international holdings of domestic securities.3
institutions. Redemptions. The Desk can choose to reduce the size of
Purchases and Sales in the Market. When purchasing or the Federal Reserve’s holdings by redeeming some of its
selling securities in the secondary market, the Desk enter- maturing securities rather than exchanging all of them for
tains from primary dealers bids on all securities of a particu- new securities. Such an approach makes it possible to
lar type (Treasury bills or Treasury coupon securities) and, reduce the portfolio gradually without formally entering the
for coupon securities, in a particular portion of the maturity market. When replacement securities are not available, the
spectrum. In determining which bids to accept, the Desk Desk must redeem its maturing holdings.
considers the bids that represent the highest yield (for
purchases) or the lowest yield (for sales) relative to the
Temporary Operations
prevailing yield curve. To avoid holding too large a share of
any one issue, the Desk also considers the size of its An operation is temporary if the transaction will, under the
holdings of the particular issue relative to the total amount contract, unwind after a specified number of days. Tempo-
outstanding. rary open market operations help to offset short-lived imbal-
Outright sales in the market are infrequent; the most ances between reserve supply and demand. The Desk
recent one occurred in 1990. For many years, the Desk arranges repurchase agreements to add reserve balances
often sold Treasury bills in late January to absorb a surfeit temporarily and matched sale–purchase transactions to drain
of reserves resulting from seasonal declines in currency reserve balances temporarily.
outstanding and in required reserves. In the 1990s, strong
overseas demand for U.S. currency generally has offset the
2. The price at which these transactions occur is the midpoint between the
seasonal decline in currency outstanding, obviating the need bid and the ask price in the secondary market.
for outright sales. 3. Federal Reserve statistical release H.4.1, Factors Affecting Reserve
Balances of Depository Institutions and Condition Statement of F.R. Banks,
which is published each Thursday, provides data on the Federal Reserve’s
domestic securities portfolio and other factors affecting the reserve balances
1. It may exchange its maturing holdings for new securities at auction, of depository institutions. These data are also provided monthly in tables
however, and it does so routinely. 1.11 and 1.18 of the Federal Reserve Bulletin.

For more than seventeen years, the Desk entered casts. Although the market for repurchase agreements
the market to arrange temporary transactions between was somewhat more active earlier in the day, it was
11:30 a.m. and 11:45 a.m. This time was selected usually sufficiently active at this time to accommo-
because it gave staff members at the Board and the date open market operations. Nonetheless, there was
New York Reserve Bank time at the beginning of the a risk that the volume of offers on the operation
business day to assemble data on factors affecting would not be sufficient to allow the Desk to inject the
reserve supply and demand and to make their fore- desired amount of reserve balances into the deposi-
 Open Market Operations in the 1990s 867

Types of Open Market Operations—Continued

Repurchase Agreements arranged by the Desk with primary dealers on behalf of

When the Desk arranges a repurchase agreement, it pur- foreign official and international institutions that maintain
chases securities from a primary dealer (or the dealer’s accounts at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York.
customer) and agrees to resell the securities to the dealer (or These institutions maintain accounts at the New York
customer) on a specified date. The Desk arranges two types Reserve Bank to help manage their U.S. dollar payments
of repurchase agreements: System and customer-related. and receipts. The Federal Reserve provides a means by
For both types, the Desk solicits offers from primary deal- which the cash balances in these accounts can be invested
ers. The dealers may make offers on their own behalf or on overnight. The accounts purchase securities from the Fed-
behalf of their customers. The offers set forth a rate and an eral Reserve’s portfolio and simultaneously agree to resell
amount of repurchase agreements that the dealer (or its the securities the next business day at prices that give the
customer) is prepared to transact.4 The Desk ranks the bids accounts a market-based rate of return. Reserve balances
in descending order of rate. It accepts the offer with the are drained when balances in these accounts rise. When the
highest rate first and continues to accept lower rates until Desk wants to replenish reserve levels, it may decide to
the total volume of offers equals the amount of reserve pass these accounts’ purchase requests through to primary
balances that the Desk wants to inject into the depository dealers as customer-related repurchase agreements.
system. If a greater quantity is offered at the lowest rate Customer-related repurchase agreements were first used
than is needed to attain the desired quantity, the offers at in 1974 and were quite common until recently. In December
that rate are prorated. 1996, the Desk announced that it would no longer routinely
conduct these operations, and it did not conduct any over
System Repurchase Agreements. The Desk does not the first nine months of 1997. When the Desk did conduct
announce the intended size of the operation when it solicits these transactions, it announced the intended size of the
offers. The dealer (or customer) whose offer is accepted operation to dealers but usually did not report the final
sends securities (Treasury or federal agency) to the Federal accepted amount. The operations were generally smaller
Reserve Bank of New York, and the Bank pays for them by than operations involving System repurchase agreements;
creating balances in the Federal Reserve account of the the maximum size was limited by the volume of purchase
dealer’s (or the dealer’s customer’s) clearing bank. requests. The maturity of these agreements was generally
System repurchase agreements are conducted on an over- overnight because participation in the investment facility
night or term basis. Term repurchase agreements may last changed each day. These operations were viewed as techni-
no longer than fifteen days and may be either withdrawable cal in nature and as a signal of satisfaction with the level of
or fixed term. If the agreement is withdrawable, the dealer the federal funds rate.
has the option of asking, before 10:00 a.m. on any day
before the agreement concludes, for the return of its securi-
Matched Sale–Purchase Transactions
ties; it usually does so if financing rates fall below the rate
arranged with the Desk. If the repurchase agreement is fixed Matched sale–purchase transactions (which are akin to
term, the dealer may not withdraw its securities early. reverse repurchase agreements) are the method by which
Until February 1994, when the FOMC began announcing the Federal Reserve drains reserve balances temporarily.
changes in its policy stance, overnight System repurchase They were first used in 1966. In these transactions, the
agreements were often used to signal an easing of monetary Federal Reserve agrees to sell a short-dated Treasury bill at
policy. Term System repurchase agreements, in contrast, a specified price, and the buyer simultaneously enters into
were considered more technical, though the Desk generally another agreement to sell the bill back to the Federal
refrained from such operations when the federal funds rate Reserve on a specific date.
was noticeably below the FOMC’s target, so as not to In a matched sale–purchase transaction, the Desk indi-
mislead market participants about the stance of policy. cates the bill and the rate at which it will sell the bill.
Dealers then submit offers for the amount of the bill they
Customer-Related Repurchase Agreements. Customer-
will buy and the rate at which they will resell it to the Desk.
related repurchase agreements are a type of transaction
The Desk accepts the highest rate first (so that it buys back
the bill at the lowest price) and continues to accept lower
4. The price at which the Federal Reserve temporarily purchases the
securities is that day’s market price. This price and the rate quoted by the
rates until the total of accepted offers equals the amount of
dealer determine the price at which the Federal Reserve resells the securities. reserve balances that it wants to drain.

tory system, particularly when reserve needs were tion time or might preannounce the operation on the
large. At times when the risk was high, the Desk preceding afternoon to try to ensure that the volume
might enter the market before its customary interven- of offers would be adequate.
868 Federal Reserve Bulletin November 1997

In 1994, the Federal Reserve began charging a fee more than once to arrange repurchase agreements on
for daylight overdrafts in depository institutions’ Fed- only two days in the first nine months of 1997.
eral Reserve accounts.10 Securities dealers, who now
faced fees on the daylight overdrafts in their accounts
with depository institutions, began arranging and set- CHANGES IN THE DEMAND FOR BALANCES
tling more of their financing transactions earlier in AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS
the day to reduce their daylight overdrafts. The Desk,
in turn, sought to align its market entry more closely Innovations in the 1990s have reduced required
with the period of greatest market activity, and reserve balances. Although depository institutions
in January 1997, after an acceleration of Federal have increased the amount of balances they contract
Reserve data flows and modifications to processing to hold in the form of required clearing balances,
procedures, it moved its intervention time to around total required balances have dropped to historically
10:30 a.m. low levels. This development has implications for the
Shifts in the short-run target for open market opera- conduct of open market operations and for the federal
tions have influenced the number of times the Desk funds rate.
enters the market each day to conduct temporary
transactions and the role of reserve estimates in deter-
mining the amount of reserve balances to be sup- High Total Required Balances
plied. In the 1970s, when the target was the federal
funds rate, the Desk frequently entered the market Until the early 1990s, depository institution demand
several times a day. Although reserve estimates gen- for balances at the Federal Reserve was high and
erally guided decisions about the quantity of reserve relatively stable. This environment facilitated the
balances to be supplied, the Desk responded to any conduct of open market operations. High required
deviation of the federal funds rate from target, regard- reserves created a stable, predictable demand for
less of the reserve estimates, up until its intervention reserve balances, so the Desk could more readily
window closed in the early afternoon. During the achieve the FOMC’s reserve market objective by
1979–82 period, when the target was nonborrowed manipulating the supply of reserve balances. More-
reserves, the Desk entered the market at most once a over, high required reserve balances and the averag-
day. Estimates of reserve supply and demand were ing method used to satisfy them allowed depository
essential in determining the quantity of reserve bal- institutions to manage their daily account balances
ances to be supplied. At the time of this single market flexibly, thus helping to smooth the federal funds
entry, the Desk typically conducted only one opera- rate.11
tion, although at times it conducted two operations The size of the balance that a depository institution
with different terms, such as four- and seven-day wants to hold at the end of the day in most cases is
repurchase agreements. Since late 1982, as proce- either its required reserve balance (plus perhaps a
dures have evolved and the federal funds rate again desired amount of excess reserves) or the balance it
has become the short-run target for open market chooses to hold to protect itself against unanticipated
operations, the Desk has continued, generally, to enter debits that could leave its account overdrawn at
the market at most once a day to conduct temporary the end of the day—its payment-related demand.
transactions, and at times to conduct two operations When required reserve balances are high relative to
with different terms. Estimates of reserve supply and payment-related balances, depository institutions
demand continue to play a role in determining the have a great deal of flexibility in managing their daily
amount of reserve balances to supply in order to keep account balances because they can substitute a bal-
the federal funds rate close to the FOMC’s target ance held on one day for a balance held on another
level. It is possible that the Desk will enter the market day.12 A depository institution that finds its balance at
several times on any given day when reserve needs the Federal Reserve unexpectedly high on one day
warrant, but multiple market entries are not expected (for instance, because a customer made an unex-
to become routine. The Desk entered the market pected deposit or an expected payment was not made)

11. A depository institution’s required reserve balance is the differ-

10. For a discussion of the reasons for the Federal Reserve’s ence between its required reserves and its applied vault cash.
imposition of fees for daylight overdrafts and the response to these 12. The degree of substitutability is more limited on the final day
fees, see Heidi Willmann Richards, ‘‘Daylight Overdraft Fees and the of the maintenance period because reserve carryover rules control the
Federal Reserve’s Payment System Risk Policy,’’ Federal Reserve extent to which deficient or excess balances may be carried into the
Bulletin, vol. 81 (December 1995), pp. 1065–77. next maintenance period.
 Open Market Operations in the 1990s 869

does not have to offer to lend the extra balance at 1. Required balances at Federal Reserve Banks, 1984–97
very low rates; it can absorb the surplus by choosing Billions of dollars
to hold lower balances over the remainder of the
period and still meet its balance requirement.13 Hold- Required reserve balances
ing a lower balance on a subsequent day of the period 40
does not necessarily increase the likelihood that the
depository institution will incur an overnight over-
30
draft because its targeted balance is still high relative
to its payment-related demand for balances. This
flexibility in managing account balances buffers 20

variations in reserve demand and supply that would

otherwise put pressure on the federal funds rate. 10
Before the early 1990s, the demand for balances
to meet reserve requirements was well above the
payment-related demand for balances. Imbalances
between the daily supply of and demand for reserves Required clearing balances 7
could be relatively sizable without affecting the
federal funds rate as long as cumulative-average bal-
ances were close to period-average requirements. For 5
example, unexpected deviations of reserve supply
from projections generally did not create volatility in
the federal funds market until near the end of the 3
reserve maintenance period.

Innovations Reducing
Required Reserve Balances

In recent years, the level of required reserve balances 40

Total required balances
has been trending down (chart 1, top panel), for
several reasons. 30

20
Cuts in Reserve Requirement Ratios
Required reserve balances
In the early 1990s, sharp declines in required reserve 10
Required clearing balances
balances followed two cuts in reserve requirement
ratios by the Federal Reserve:14 In December 1990,
1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996
the ratio for nontransaction deposits was reduced
from 3 percent to zero, and in April 1992, the ratio Note. Maintenance-period averages, not seasonally adjusted; 1997 data
through September 24.

for transaction deposits was reduced from 12 percent

13. A depository institution’s end-of-day balances during a reserve to 10 percent.15 The cuts had little effect on the
maintenance period must at least average its balance requirement, and
any deficiency may be subject to a charge. The charge is 2 percentage amount of vault cash held by depository institutions,
points above the lowest discount rate in effect for borrowing from its which depends largely on customer needs for cur-
Federal Reserve Bank on the first day of the month in which the rency, so most of the reductions in required reserves
deficiency occurred. Reserve carryover rules permit the depository
institution to carry over a deficiency (or surplus) of up to 4 percent of were reflected in lower required reserve balances.
its required reserves into the next maintenance period. Any deficiency Each of the cuts trimmed required reserve balances
that cannot be carried over is subject to charge immediately. If the about one-third.
depository institution fails to cover the deficiency that was carried
over to the subsequent period, the deficiency charge applies to that
portion as well.
14. The subsequent rebounds in these balances reflected strong 15. The reasons these cuts were made and their implications are
growth in transaction deposits due in part to falling market interest discussed in Feinman, ‘‘Reserve Requirements: History, Current Prac-
rates. tice, and Potential Reform.’’
870 Federal Reserve Bulletin November 1997

Initiation of Retail Sweep Programs programs reached an estimated $226 billion in

August 1997.16 As a consequence, required reserves
More recently, depository institutions have reduced declined nearly $21 billion, or one-third, between
the amount of balances they must hold at the Federal December 1993 and August 1997. Sweep programs
Reserve by instituting retail sweep programs. Under lower the balance a depository institution must hold
such a program, a depository institution shifts funds to meet its reserve requirement; in some cases, they
from a depositor’s reservable transaction deposit (a lower the required reserve balance so much that it
checking account) to that depositor’s nonreservable falls to zero because the depository institution’s vault
account (in most cases a money market deposit cash is more than sufficient to satisfy its reserve
account). (See box ‘‘Retail Sweep Programs.’’) By requirement. In the aggregate, required reserve bal-
doing so, the depository institution decreases the ances dropped nearly $20 billion, or 70 percent,
level of its deposits subject to reserve requirements between December 1993 and August 1997.
and, with no change in its vault cash holdings, its
required reserve balance, on which it earns no inter-
est. A sweep program is profitable because the
depository institution can invest the balances for- The Response of Required Clearing Balances
merly held as reserves in interest-earning assets.
Retail sweep programs were first implemented For many depository institutions, the cuts in reserve
in January 1994, and since then they have spread to requirement ratios and the introduction of sweep
most large depository institutions. The total amount programs have brought their reserve-requirement-
of reservable deposits initially swept under such related demands for balances below their payment-
related demands. For such an institution, setting a
target end-of-day balance equal only to its required
reserve balance would provide insufficient protection
Retail Sweep Programs against overnight overdrafts, yet setting a target bal-
ance equal to its payment-related demand would
In a retail sweep program, a depository institution sweeps result in excess reserves, on which it earns no inter-
amounts above a predetermined maximum level from a est. The institution may have another alternative:
depositor’s checking account (either a demand deposit or Any depository institution that uses Federal Reserve
an interest-bearing checking account) into a special- priced services (such as check clearing or electronic
purpose money market deposit account (MMDA) created payment services) may establish a required clearing
for the depositor. If the balance in the checking account balance at its Federal Reserve Bank. The institution
falls below some minimum level, funds are moved from contracts with the Reserve Bank to hold a specified
the MMDA back into the checking account to bring the level of balances on average during the reserve main-
checking account balance to the specified maximum
tenance period.17 In return, the depository institution
level. The maximum and minimum levels are set by the
earns implicit interest, in the form of earnings credits,
depository institution on the basis of the depositor’s
pattern of activity. Regulations limit the number of auto- on balances held to satisfy its clearing balance
matic transfers from an MMDA to six a month, so upon requirement. It may use the earnings credits to defray
the sixth transfer the remaining funds in the depositor’s the cost of the Federal Reserve services it uses. If the
MMDA are swept back into the checking account. depository institution fails to maintain its contracted
Retail sweep programs, which were initiated in Janu- clearing balance, on average, over the maintenance
ary 1994, differ from wholesale sweep programs, which
have been in existence since the 1970s. In a wholesale
sweep, a depository institution sweeps funds in a busi-
ness’s demand deposit account into one of several types 16. The Federal Reserve does not collect data on the actual amount
of money market instruments, such as repurchase agree- of deposits swept each day. Nor does it officially collect information
on the initiation of retail sweep programs. It learns about the initiation
ments, Eurodollar deposits, or money market mutual of programs through notification by depository institutions and
funds. For wholesale sweeps, the instruments into which through routine inspection of deposit data submitted by depository
business deposits are swept may or may not be liabilities institutions. It obtains estimates of initial amounts swept directly from
of the depository institution; for retail sweeps, on the the depository institutions or from the deposit data and then sums
these estimates to arrive at a total.
other hand, the swept funds remain on the books of the 17. The Federal Reserve will also impose a required clearing
depository institution. balance on any depository institution that has a history of repeated
overnight overdrafts.
 Open Market Operations in the 1990s 871

period, the deficiency is subject to a charge.18 Re- The Current Environment:

quired clearing balances are similar to required Low Total Required Balances
reserve balances in that they establish an average
balance that must be maintained over the reserve Low total required balances give depository institu-
maintenance period. For this reason, required clear- tions less flexibility in managing their daily balance
ing and required reserve balances are often summed, positions and thus do not provide a buffer for the
and that sum is referred to as total required balances. federal funds rate as high total required balances do.
The use of required clearing balances has grown When its total required balance is low, a depository
considerably since 1990 (chart 1, middle panel). institution is less able to substitute balances across
These balances rose sharply in response to the 1990 days of the maintenance period. It is less likely to
cut in reserve requirement ratios and the general hold a balance above its total required balance
downtrend in market interest rates occurring at that because its ability to target lower balances on subse-
time.19 More recently, depository institutions that quent days is constrained by the increased risk of an
implemented sweep programs increased their overnight overdraft; therefore, it will actively seek to
required clearing balances an estimated $31⁄3 billion lend any extra balances, on which it earns no interest,
between January 1994 and August 1997. The rise in even if the funds rate is already low. It is also less
required clearing balances has not matched the likely to tolerate a balance below its total required
decline in required reserve balances, however, in part balance because it is more likely to be close to an
because depository institutions do not need as large a overdraft; therefore, it will seek to borrow balances,
cushion to protect against overnight overdrafts as was and even a small shortfall can trigger aggressive
once provided by their required reserve balance. bidding for balances at the Federal Reserve that can,
Also, the growth of required clearing balances at in turn, push up the federal funds rate.21
some depository institutions is limited by the extent In addition, when a depository institution’s total
to which the institution uses Federal Reserve priced required balance is low, its targeted balance at the
services.20 Thus, the drop in total required balances at Federal Reserve is likely to fluctuate more from day
the Federal Reserve is smaller than the decline in to day. Its payment-related demand for balances may
required reserve balances. However, total required more often exceed its demand for balances to meet its
balances remain at historically low levels (chart 1, total balance requirement. Payment-related demand
bottom panel) and are likely to decline somewhat is a precautionary demand for end-of-day balances
further as additional depository institutions imple- that must be met each day, and the magnitude of that
ment retail sweep programs. demand depends on the uncertainty about the size
and timing of payments flowing through the insti-
tution’s Federal Reserve account.22 The uncertainty
appears to be related to the volume of the payments.
This volume likely fluctuates considerably each day,
18. The penalty for failing to meet the required clearing balance, as suggested by the aggregate data shown in chart 2.
after application of the so-called clearing balance band, is 2 percent With uncertainty varying from one day to the next, a
per annum on any deficient amount that is 20 percent or less than the depository institution’s payment-related demand and
contracted clearing balance requirement and 4 percent per annum on
any remaining deficiency. The clearing balance band exempts from
charge 2 percent of the contracted clearing balance or $25,000,
whichever is greater.
19. Required clearing balances are sensitive to the level of interest
rates because the earnings credits generated from the clearing balance
are calculated using the period-average effective federal funds rate. 21. An overnight overdraft is charged at an annual rate equal to the
For a more detailed discussion of required clearing balances, see E.J. day’s effective federal funds rate plus 4 percentage points. If the
Stevens, ‘‘Required Clearing Balances,’’ Federal Reserve Bank of depository institution incurs more than three overnight overdrafts in a
Cleveland Economic Review, vol. 29 (1993 Quarter 4), pp. 1–14. moving twelve-month period, the spread over the funds rate rises by
20. A depository institution is better off holding excess reserves, 1 percentage point for each additional overdraft.
which can be adjusted daily, than contracting to hold a required 22. At the end of the day, depository institutions still face some
clearing balance that generates more credits than it can use. The uncertainty about their final balance. Responses to the Federal
opportunity cost of holding excess reserves and excess clearing bal- Reserve’s May 1996 Senior Financial Officer Survey indicated that
ances is the interest forgone on those balances, but the clearing the posting of off-line transactions after the close of the electronic
balance locks the depository institution into holding a specified funds transfer system and the possibility that corrections to earlier
amount during the maintenance period and makes any deficiency entries might result in a lower balance were very important reasons for
subject to a charge. Depository institutions have one year to use the not targeting a lower end-of-day balance in their Federal Reserve
credits earned during a maintenance period. accounts.
872 Federal Reserve Bulletin November 1997

2. Daily change in total volume of credits posted to the Federal Reserve accounts of all depository institutions,
November 1996–January 1997
Billions of dollars

250

+
0
–

250

11/18/96 11/25/96 12/02/96 12/09/96 12/16/96 12/23/96 12/30/96 1/6/97 1/13/97

its targeted balance at the Federal Reserve can vary determinant of the total demand for balances at the
substantially each day as well. Federal Reserve. Data on credits posted to the Fed-
eral Reserve accounts of depository institutions sug-
gest that payment flows are heaviest on the first
Implications for Open Market Operations business day, the fifteenth calendar day, and the last
business day of the month. On these days, depository
The Desk attempts to attain a level of nonborrowed institutions face more uncertainty about their end-of-
reserves over a reserve maintenance period that is day balances. Some depository institutions respond
consistent with the FOMC’s targeted federal funds by targeting a higher balance. The Desk seeks to
rate. When planning open market operations, it has provide balances more generously on these days.
always paid attention to the daily pattern of reserve However, the exact magnitude of payment-related
needs. Now, with total required balances low, the demand is hard to measure and to estimate. More-
daily estimates are playing an even more important over, even if it were to supply a quantity of balances
role in decisionmaking. The Desk now also reviews that exactly matched aggregate demand, the Desk
forecasts of the total amount of balances at the Fed- could not ensure that the supply to each institution
eral Reserve for the day and for future days. During would exactly match its demand. For these reasons,
maintenance periods when total required balances are the federal funds rate may exceed the FOMC’s target
especially low, the Desk conducts open market opera- on these days. Generally, however, the Desk is able to
tions to smooth low points in the estimated daily keep the effective federal funds rate (the volume-
level of total balances. In addition, as it always has, it weighted average rate paid on all transactions during
attempts to supply more reserve balances on days the day) close to the FOMC’s target rate.
when the payment-related demand for balances is
expected to be elevated. These additional consider-
ations have resulted in an increase in the number and 4. Temporary open market operations, 1990–97
volume of overnight repurchase agreements arranged
in 1996 and thus far in 1997 (table 4).23 An overnight Overnight Term Matched
repurchase repurchase sale–purchase
operation is a more effective means of fine tuning the agreements agreements transactions
daily level of balances than is a term or outright Year Number Volume Number Volume Number Volume
of (billions of (billions of (billions
operation and better addresses heightened payment- market of market of market of
related demands. entries dollars) entries dollars) entries dollars)

There is indirect evidence that on certain days 1990 .. 93 253.5 34 136.4 22 76.8
payment-related demand is an especially important 1991 .. 108 320.2 34 188.5 34 78.8
1992 .. 89 254.5 56 278.9 20 28.6
1993 .. 83 266.7 82 361.0 5 10.9
1994 .. 80 217.6 66 257.1 5 13.1

23. An overnight operation matures on the next business day. The 1995 . . 68 206.3 61 248.8 17 48.6
1996 . . 92 347.5 70 250.3 23 52.9
increased use of overnight repurchase agreements is also discussed in 1997 . . 91 351.5 59 296.5 0 . . .
‘‘Open Market Operations during 1996,’’ Federal Reserve Bulletin,
vol. 83 (July 1997), pp. 565–74. Note. Data for 1997 are through September 24.
 Open Market Operations in the 1990s 873

Implications for the Federal Funds Rate bid the funds rate to very high levels rather than
borrow at the window.25
Low total required balances, together with the diffi- The level at which total required balances can
culty of gauging the size of payment-related demand, trigger a rise in funds rate volatility is not clear. Since
can lead to greater volatility in the federal funds rate, late 1996, for example, total required balances have
both during a day and across days.24 For example, been below their 1991 levels, yet funds rate volatility
the 1990 cut in reserve requirement ratios brought has failed to rise significantly.26 Apparently, total
required reserve balances below the payment-related required balances are sufficiently above the payment-
demand for balances, and funds rate volatility rose related demand for balances to keep the funds rate
significantly (chart 3). The time between the announce- relatively stable. The payment-related demand for
ment and implementation of the cut was quite short. balances is likely lower now than it was in 1991.
Many large depository institutions had no experience Depository institutions have improved their own
managing their end-of-day balances at the Federal internal information systems as well as their profi-
Reserve with total required balances as low as they ciency in using real-time information on the balances
were after the cut. Depository institutions responded in their Federal Reserve accounts available through
by holding on to their balances until late in the day, the Federal Reserve’s Account Balance Monitoring
when their need for balances to avoid an overnight System. In addition, the imposition of fees for day-
overdraft became clearer. The funds rate would light overdrafts has encouraged depository institu-
remain above the FOMC’s target until that time, and tions to manage their balances more closely during
then, when depository institutions entered the market the day. In the future, the payment-related demand
to try to lend their excess balances, it would drop for balances may continue to fall. Interstate branch
sharply. At the same time, the acute reluctance of banking may contribute to lower payment-related
depository institutions to borrow at the discount win- demand because separately chartered affiliate banks
dow also contributed to the volatility. On days when of a single bank holding company are being merged
balances were in short supply, depository institutions into a single interstate branched bank with one Fed-

25. Some of the bidding pressure also came from depository insti-
24. See James A. Clouse and Douglas W. Elmendorf, ‘‘Declining tutions that apparently had little or no collateral on deposit with
Required Reserves and the Volatility of the Federal Funds Rate,’’ a Federal Reserve Bank and therefore could not borrow readily.
Finance and Economics Discussion Series Paper 1997-30 (Board of See ‘‘Monetary Policy and Open Market Operations during 1990,’’
Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Divisions of Research and Federal Reserve Bank of New York Quarterly Review, vol. 16
Statistics and Monetary Affairs, June 1997). The authors present a (Spring 1991), pp. 52–78.
model of a depository institution’s demand for balances that distin- 26. See also Paul Bennett and Spence Hilton, ‘‘Falling Reserve
guishes requirement-related demand from payment-related demand. Balances and the Federal Funds Rate,’’ Federal Reserve Bank of
They also explore the differing behavior of the funds rate in 1991 and New York Current Issues in Economics and Finance, vol. 3
1996. (April 1997), pp. 1–6.

3. Daily range for the federal funds rate, November 1990–April 1991
Percent

100 90
Daily high 35
Effective rate
Daily low 30

25

20

15

10

11/28/90 12/12/90 12/26/90 1/9/91 1/23/91 2/6/91 2/20/91 3/6/91 3/20/91 4/3/91
Note. Effective rate is the volume-weighted average rate paid on all transactions during the day.
874 Federal Reserve Bulletin November 1997

5. Daily average volatility of the federal funds rate, ances to the point that payment-related demand is
1994–97 routinely larger than requirement-related demand. If
Percentage points
that does happen, the federal funds rate could become
Measure 1994 1995 1996 1997 more volatile, and depository institutions may have
to change the way they manage their account bal-
Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.35 1.06 1.87 1.54
Intraday standard deviation . . . .19 .15 .23 .19 ances. Especially if that volatility is passed on to
Late range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.16 .89 1.56 1.35
other market interest rates, the Federal Reserve might
Note. Values for 1997 are based on data through September 24. Range is the need to alter the way it operates in the funds market.
difference between the highest and lowest rate at which federal funds lending
took place in the brokers market. Intraday standard deviation is a volume- One way to forestall the need to make such changes
weighted standard deviation of all rates paid in the brokers market. Late range would be to pay interest on balances held at the
is the difference between the highest and lowest rate at which federal funds
lending took place in the brokers market between the close of the New York Federal Reserve. Payment of a market rate of interest
Clearing House Interbank Payments System (usually 4:30 p.m.) and the close of on required reserve balances would virtually elimi-
funds trading (usually 6:30 p.m.)
nate the implicit current tax on depository institu-
tions, likely encouraging some depository institutions
to discontinue their sweep programs. However, the
eral Reserve account. Before interstate branching,
payment of interest on Federal Reserve balances
each affiliate account had to end the day with a
requires legislation.
nonnegative balance; under interstate branching, the
transactions of all affiliates (now branches) flow
through only one account. SUMMARY
The variability in the federal funds rate in recent
years is summarized in table 5. In 1996, the daily Open market operations are the principal tool used by
trading range for federal funds widened, on average, the Federal Reserve to implement monetary policy.
as did an alternative measure, the intraday standard They are a powerful and flexible means of fostering
deviation of the funds rate. However, both measures conditions in the federal funds market that are con-
indicate that volatility tapered off during the first nine sistent with policy objectives. The conduct of open
months of 1997. Overall, the slight increase in the market operations in the 1990s has been shaped by a
intraday variability of the funds rate has not had number of factors, including shifts in the way the
adverse effects on the Desk’s ability to attain the FOMC communicates changes in the stance of mone-
FOMC’s funds rate target; nor has the rise in vari- tary policy, developments in the market for repur-
ability affected other market interest rates more chase agreements, and changes in the demand for
generally. balances at the Federal Reserve. In the years ahead,
Additional sweep programs are expected to be the Federal Reserve will undoubtedly continue to
implemented, and it is not clear whether their prolif- adapt the way it conducts open market operations as
eration might eventually lower total required bal- financial markets evolve.