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PHYS 331: Junior Physics Laboratory I

Exercise on Analog Circuits

In this exercise you will assemble and operate some simple transistor and op-amp
circuits. The examples chosen are typical of those used elsewhere in our labs and in research.
Your write-up should explain clearly what you did in each part, following the general
organization of this guide. Include a schematic of each circuit as you built it, using the
schematics in the notes as a guide to standard practice. Provide complete answers to any
questions posed in the text. A neatly hand-written report with clear free-hand figures is entirely
acceptable.
Before starting the lab work you should review the topical notes on Analog Circuits,
available on the course web site. Sections 2.01-2.09, 2.15, 4.01-4.10, and 15.02 of The Art of
Electronics by Horowitz and Hill will also be helpful.

A. Circuit construction
The most convenient way to set up test circuits is on a breadboard, a large plastic block
with sockets to mount transistors, integrated circuits, resistors, capacitors, etc. Pre-cut jumper
wires are used to make connections by plugging in to the interconnected sockets. An auxiliary
circuit board plugs into the main board to provide connections for positive and negative supply
voltages and for external signals. The connections to the outboard can be understood by careful
examination.
Pin identifications for semiconductor devices are posted near the work areas. Connections
to other components should be evident. Note that the larger-value capacitors are polarized, as
indicated (usually) by a negative sign near one lead. Be sure to observe polarity in your circuit to
avoid malfunction.

B. Transistor circuits
Two transistor types are provided: 2N3904 (NPN) and 2N3906 (PNP). The manufacturer
specifies 100 < !
"#
<300, maximum collector current of 200 mA, and maximum collector -
emitter voltage 40 V. The 12 V supply will be within ratings for the collector, but you will
destroy the transistor if you exceed $
%
= 200 mA or apply supply voltage directly to the base,
even briefly.

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1. Common emitter amplifier
Set up the NPN common emitter circuit of Fig. 1(a) and drive it with sine-wave inputs of
various amplitudes. Using the scope, compare the input and output wave forms. You should be
able to qualitatively explain the severe distortion you will see, and the additional clipping at large
amplitudes, in terms of the general characteristics of transistors. Also try driving the input with a
fairly large amplitude square wave to demonstrate that the circuit can be a logic inverter.
Now construct the biased common emitter circuit of Fig. 1(b). Again, drive the input with
sine waves and qualitatively explain the output wave form, including the DC component. Be sure
to determine the phase and amplitude of the output signal relative to the input so you can
calculate the AC voltage gain and demonstrate that the amplifier inverts. What happens when the
input amplitude becomes large?

2. Push-pull follower
Construct the push-pull output stage shown in Fig. 2(a), driving the input with a sine
wave. Sketch and compare the input and output wave forms, and explain the distortion near the
zero crossings. Find the gain for large amplitude signals, and determine the maximum amplitude
before noticeable clipping. Can you demonstrate a larger output amplitude from this circuit than
from the biased common emitter? Is the DC component essentially absent, as claimed in the
notes?
Next add the bias network shown in Fig. 2(b). Biasing should remove or minimize the
cross-over distortion. Does it? Sketch the wave forms, noting any remaining irregularities. What
is the maximum undistorted amplitude from this arrangement?
!"
#
#
$%&
100K
10K
+12V
!"
#
$%&
#
+12V
100K
10K
10K
1K
2N3904
0.047!F
2N3904
(b) (a)

Fig. 1 Practical common emitter amplifier circuits, with and without biasing.

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C. Basic op-amp circuits
The type 741 op-amp is supplied in an eight pin integrated-circuit package. It requires
both positive and negative supplies in the range 10 to 36 V, but no explicit ground connection.
There is provision for exactly zeroing the apparent input voltage, but we will not use that feature.
The output can reach within a volt or so of either supply voltage and produce up to 20 mA of
output current.

1. Inverters and followers
Following the schematic in the notes, design and build an inverter with a gain of 10. The
resistors should be chosen so that most of the current capacity of the op amp is available for
driving the external load. Verify that your circuit is an inverter with the specified gain at low
frequencies, and find the frequency at which the gain is reduced by a factor of !" # (This is
called the 3 dB point because it is the frequency at which the power output is half the
maximum.). Keep the output below a volt or two, to avoid large-amplitude effects.
It is also interesting to explore some of the limitations of the inverter. How large an
output amplitude will it produce before clipping or severely distorting the signal? Try driving the
input with a small-amplitude square wave, about 1-2 V at the output, comparing input and output
signals. What is the maximum rate of change of voltage, in volts/!s, that the amplifier can
produce? This is called the slew rate, and is important in some applications.
Next, set up a unity-gain non-inverting follower and again check the frequency response
and slew rate. Do you notice any difference from the inverter? These characteristics will differ
!"
#
$%&
#
+12V
-12V
2N3904
2N3906
!"
#
2N3904
2N3906
$%&
#
+12V
-12V
10K
10K
1K
(a) (b)
1K

Fig. 2 Push-pull amplifier circuits, with and without biasing.
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for various types of op amp in various configurations, and must be considered when designing
circuits for specific applications.

2. Integrator filter
Set up an averaging filter using the component values in Fig. 3. For an input signal of a
volt or two, plot the output amplitude vs frequency on logarithmic scales. Is the 3dB point where
you would expect from the component values? Don't forget that ! = 2"!.
It is also interesting to look at the phase shift as a function of frequency. You can do this
easily by displaying the input signal on channel 1 and the output on channel 2 of the scope. At
low frequencies the output is inverted, as expected, but you will notice an additional shift at
higher frequency, which you should describe. Depending on the intended use, the phase shift or
equivalent time delay may be an important filter characteristic.

3. Oscillator
In the Wien-bridge oscillator circuit shown in Fig. 4 the RC network acts a frequency-
dependent voltage divider, feeding 1/3 of the output voltage to the non-inverting input when ! =
1/(2""#). Since the RC network has no phase shift at this frequency, this is positive feedback
and the circuit will oscillate if the gain, 1 + "
2
/"
1
, is greater than 3.
-
+
!
"
!
#
10K
10K
0.047!F

Fig. 3 An integrator/filter circuit.
-
+
R
2
R
1
V
o
1K
1K .01 F
.01 F
NC

Fig. 4 Wien-bridge oscillator circuit. Note that there is no connection to the top of "
1
, and that no
signal source is needed to start the oscillation. Avoid connecting the resistor slider to either the
12V supply or ground, as damage will result for some settings.
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Construct the circuit as shown, with !
"
a 1 K! variable resistor and !
2
= 1 K!, and
observe the effect on the output of changing the variable resistor setting. You should be able to
find resistor settings for which the output voltage is essentially zero, a stable-amplitude sine
wave, or a badly clipped waveform. Determine the variable resistance value needed to produce a
stable sine wave, and calculate the expected gain. Is it approximately 3? Does the circuit oscillate
at the expected frequency?
This circuit is not very useful because the amplitude of the oscillations is quite sensitive
to the amplifier gain, 1 + !
2
/!
1
, which may drift with time or temperature. It can be stabilized by
replacing !
1
with a small incandescent light bulb. As the amplifier output increases more current
is drawn through the lamp, causing the resistance of the metal filament to increase. This negative
feedback decreases the amplifier gain and the output is reduced until a steady state is reached.
Demonstrate this effect by using a light bulb for !
1
and the variable resistor for !
2
. Adjust !
2
to
get stable oscillations, and then note the effect of !
2
values somewhat larger or smaller than the
stable setting. It is also interesting to watch the oscillations build up after the power is turned on
when !
2
is at the stable setting. You should be able to see the effects of the thermal response
time of the lamp quite clearly.
(Historical note: The use of a light bulb to stabilize an oscillator was invented by William
R. Hewlett and patented by him in 1942. A variable-frequency audio oscillator based on this
circuit was the first product from the Hewlett-Packard company.)

4. Power booster
Construct a unity-gain inverter, using 10K! input and feedback resistors. Find the
maximum output voltage with an open circuit, and again when the output is driving a 100!
resistor. What is the output current capability of the op amp? Is this consistent with the
-
+
V
i
R
load
out
V
+12V
-12V
2N3904
2N3906
10K
10K

Fig. 5 An op-amp inverter with power output stage.
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specification for the 741? Now construct the circuit shown in Fig. 5, and again check the output
voltage for !
"#$%
= ! and for !
"#$%
= 100". Do you see a substantial increase in output current
capacity, as predicted?
This circuit can also be used to demonstrate the use of feedback to suppress distortion.
Sketch the output waveform of the circuit as built. Then reconnect the feedback resistor to the
normal inverter configuration, from the op amp output to the inverting input. Sketch the new
output waveform, and comment on the differences you see.
For a more dramatic demonstration, connect a small loudspeaker to the output of the
unity-gain inverter. What is the maximum output voltage before the signal distorts? Now drive
the speaker with the power booster circuit, and again check the maximum undistorted amplitude.
You should also hear a large increase in acoustic output. &#'(: Do these tests very quickly, to
minimize overheating of the transistors. Real amplifiers need heat sinks to keep the transistors
from melting.