UNIT 1

Basics of Computer and its Evolution

By: Nitin Nagpal 1

Introduction of Computer
The term computer is derived from the word compute, which means to calculate.
In its most basic form a computer is any device which aids humans in performing various kinds
of computations or calculations. In that respect the earliest computer was the abacus, used to
perform basic arithmetic operations.
The first electronic digital computers were developed between 1940 and 1945.
Originally they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several
hundred modern personal computers (PCs).In this era mechanical analog
computers were used for military applications.
Every computer supports some form of input, processing, and output. This is less obvious on a
primitive device such as the abacus where input, output and processing are simply the act of
moving the pebbles into new positions, seeing the changed positions, and counting. Regardless,
this is what computing is all about, in a nutshell. We input information; the computer processes
it according to its basic logic or the program currently running, and outputs the results.
Modern computers do this electronically, which enables them to perform a vastly greater
number of calculations or computations in less time. Despite the fact that we currently use
computers to process images, sound, text and other non-numerical forms of data, all of it
depends on nothing more than basic numerical calculations. Graphics, sound etc. are merely
abstractions of the numbers being crunched within the machine; in digital computers these are
the ones and zeros, representing electrical on and off states, and endless combinations of
those. In other words every image, every sound, and every word have a corresponding binary
code.

What is computer?
A computer is a programmable machine that receives
input, stores and manipulates data/information, and
provides output in a useful format.
or
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates
information or "data." It has the ability to store,
retrieve, and process data. You can use a computer to
type documents, send email, and surf the Internet.
You can also use it to handle spreadsheets,
accounting, database management, presentations,
games, and more.

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Basics of Computer and its Evolution

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Evaluation of Computers

The origin of computer technology took
place in the 19th century. People desired to
have a machine that would carry out
mathematical calculations for them. The
ABACUS is considered to have been the first
computer in the world. It was used to
perform simple measurements and
calculations.
The abacus (plural abaci or abacuses), also
called a counting frame, is a calculating tool
used primarily in parts of Asia for
performing arithmetic processes.

ABACUS is available even today for school going children.
In the 17th century, a scientist named Pascal developed a machine that could perform
mathematical calculations. This machine comprised of a number of gears. The movement of
gear mechanism was used to perform some calculations. He named the machine PASCALINE.

However, the concept of the modern computer was propounded by the scientist and
mathematician Charles Babbage. He first wrote on the use of logic and loops in process
execution. Based on the concept of logic and loops, Babbage envisaged two models for
performing computations- Analytical Engine and Difference Engine. In those days, electronics
was not developed. Therefore, these models proposed by Babbage existed only on paper.
However, the ideas given by Babbage were implemented after the invention of electronics.
George Boolean developed the famous Boolean Algebra based on binary numbers.
De Morgan put forward theorems on logic gates. These theorems are known as De
Morgans
Theorems.
Lady Ada was the first computer programmer.
The real application of computers began in the late fifties. The computers were used in
the United States for various applications such as census, defence, R&D, universities etc.









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Basics of Computer and its Evolution

By: Nitin Nagpal 3


Generation of Computer
First Generation Computers (1940s 1950s)
First electronic computers used vacuum tubes, and they
were huge and complex. The first general purpose
electronic computer was the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical
Integrator And Computer). It was digital, although it didnt
operate with binary code, and was reprogrammable to
solve a complete range of computing problems. It was
programmed using plug boards and switches, supporting
input from an IBM card reader, and output to an IBM card
punch. It took up 167 square meters, weighed 27 tons, and
consuming 150 kilowatts of power. It used thousands of
vacuum tubes, crystal diodes, relays, resistors, and
capacitors.
The first non-general purpose computer was ABC (AtanasoffBerry Computer), and other
similar computers of this era included german Z3, ten British Colossus computers, LEO, Harvard
Mark I, and UNIVAC.
Second Generation Computers (1955 1960)
The second generation of computers came about thanks
to the invention of the transistor, which then started
replacing vacuum tubes in computer design. Transistor
computers consumed far less power, produced far less
heat, and were much smaller compared to the first
generation, albeit still big by todays standards.
The first transistor computer was created at the
University of Manchester in 1953. The most popular of
transistor computers was IBM 1401. IBM also created the
first disk drive in 1956, the IBM 350 RAMAC.

Third Generation Computers (1960s)
The invention of the integrated circuits (ICs), also known as
microchips, paved the way for computers as we know them
today. Making circuits out of single pieces of silicon, which is
a semiconductor, allowed them to be much smaller and
more practical to produce. This also started the ongoing
process of integrating an ever larger number of transistors
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onto a single microchip. During the sixties microchips started making their way into computers,
but the process was gradual, and second generation of computers still held on.
First appeared minicomputers, first of which were still based on non-microchip transistors, and
later versions of which were hybrids, being based on both transistors and microchips, such as
IBMs System/360. They were much smaller, and cheaper than first and second generation of
computers, also known as mainframes. Minicomputers can be seen as a bridge between
mainframes and microcomputers, which came later as the proliferation of microchips in
computers grew.

Fourth Generation Computers (1971 present)
First microchips-based central processing units consisted of multiple microchips for different
CPU components. The drive for ever greater integration and miniaturization led towards single-
chip CPUs, where all of the necessary CPU components were put onto a single microchip, called
a microprocessor. The first single-chip CPU, or a microprocessor, was Intel 4004.
The advent of the microprocessor spawned the evolution of the microcomputers, the kind that
would eventually become personal computers that we are familiar with today.


ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS

Compared to traditional systems, computers offer many noteworthy advantages.
This is one reason that traditional systems are being replaced rapidly by computer-based
systems. The main advantages offered by computers are as follows:

High Accuracy
Superior Speed of Operation
Large Storage Capacity
User-friendly Features
Portability
Platform independence
Economical in the long term




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Basics of Computer and its Evolution

By: Nitin Nagpal 5


Classification of computers
Analog Computers and Digital computers are the two kinds of computers, the combination
of which is responsible for the invention of the modern Hybrid computers.
Working on binary mathematics.
Examples of digital computers are personal computers, supercomputers, mainframe computers
etc.

Supercomputers Are the most powerful computers in terms of speed of execution and large
storage capacity. NASA uses supercomputers to track and control space explorations.
Mainframe Computers Are next to supercomputers in terms of capacity. The mainframe
computers are multi terminal computers, which can be shared simultaneously by multiple users.
Unlike personal computers, mainframe computers offer time-sharing
For example, insurance companies use mainframe computers to process information
about millions of its policyholders.
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Minicomputers These computers are also known as midrange computers. These are desk-sized
machines and are used in medium scale applications. For example, production departments use
minicomputers to monitor various manufacturing processes and assembly-line operations.
Microcomputers As compared to supercomputers, mainframes and minicomputers,
microcomputers are the least powerful, but these are very widely used and rapidly gaining in
popularity.
Personal Computer PC is the term referred to the computer that is designed for use by a single
person. PCs are also called microcontrollers because these are smaller when compared to
mainframes and minicomputers. The term PC is frequently used to refer to desktop computers.
Although PCs are used by individuals, they can also be used in computer networks.

BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS (Block diagram or Architecture of Computer System)
A computer as shown in Fig. performs basically five major operations or functions irrespective of
their size and make. These are 1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input, 2) it stores
data, 3) it can process data as required by the user, 4) it gives results in the form of output, and
5) it controls all operations inside a computer. We discuss below each of these operations.
1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You
should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as
inputs raw data and performs some processing giving out processed data. Therefore, the input
unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized manner for processing.


Fig:Basic computer Operations
2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data
has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing
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speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with
the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and
processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do
the above functionality. It provides space for storing data and instructions.
The storage unit performs the following major functions:
All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.
3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage
unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data
provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit.
4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information.
Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere
inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again the output is also
stored inside the computer for further processing.
5. Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are
performed. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by
control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations in side the computer.
FUNCTIONAL UNITS
In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer allocates the
task between its various functional units. The computer system is divided into three separate
units for its operation. They are 1) arithmetic logical unit, 2) control unit, and 3) central
processing unit.
1. Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)
After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit. The actual
processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major
operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and
comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the
output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored.
2. Control Unit (CU)
The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that
things are done in proper fashion. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer
programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main
memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer
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to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the
computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of computers peripheral
equipment as they perform the input and output. Therefore it is the manager of all operations
mentioned in the previous section.
3. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. You
may call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major
decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions by
activating and controlling the operations.
What is Hardware?
Computer system hardware includes the CPU and its associated input and output devices. Input
and output devices, separate from the CPU itself, are called peripheral equipment. The CPU
communicates with each peripheral device through input and output
channels. To operate an electronic-imaging workstation, you must have a general
understanding of CPU primary and secondary storage, peripheral devices, input and output
channels, and modems.


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Basics of Computer and its Evolution

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Input and Output Devices
The computer will be of no use unless it is able to communicate with the outside world.
Input/Output devices are required for users to communicate with the computer.
In simple terms, input devices bring information INTO the computer and output devices bring
information OUT of a computer system. These input/output devices are also known as
peripherals since they surround the CPU and memory of a computer system. Some commonly
used Input/Output devices are listed in table below.
Input Devices Output Devices
Keyboard Monitor
Mouse LCD
Joystick Printer
Scanner Plotter
Light Pen
Touch Screen
Input Devices

(a) Keyboard

It is a text base input device that allows the user to input alphabets, numbers and Other
characters. It consists of a set of keys mounted on a board.
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Basics of Computer and its Evolution

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Alphanumeric Keypad
It consists of keys for English alphabets, 0 to 9 numbers, and special characters like + / * (
) etc.
Function Keys
There are twelve function keys labeled F1, F2, F3 F12. The functions assigned to these
keys differ from one software package to another. These keys are also user programmable
keys.
Special-function Keys
These keys have special functions assigned to them and can be used only for those specific
purposes. Functions of some of the important keys are defined below.
Enter
It is similar to the return key of the typewriter and is used to execute a command or
program.
Spacebar
It is used to enter a space at the current cursor location.
Backspace
This key is used to move the cursor one position to the left and also delete the character in
that position.
Delete
It is used to delete the character at the cursor position.
Insert
Insert key is used to toggle between insert and overwrite mode during data entry.
Shift
This key is used to type capital letters when pressed along with an alphabet key. Also used
to type the special characters located on the upper-side of a key that has two characters
defined on the same key.
Caps Lock
Cap Lock is used to toggle between the capital lock features. When on, it locks the
alphanumeric keypad for capital letters input only.
Tab
Tab is used to move the cursor to the next tab position defined in the document. Also, it is
used to insert indentation into a document.
Ctrl
Control key is used in conjunction with other keys to provide additional functionality on the
keyboard.
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Alt
Also like the control key, Alt key is always used in combination with other keys to perform
specific tasks.
Esc
This key is usually used to negate a command. Also used to cancel or abort executing
programs.
Numeric Keypad
Numeric keypad is located on the right side of the keyboard and consists of keys having
numbers (0 to 9) and mathematical operators (+ * /) defined on them. This keypad is
provided to support quick entry for numeric data.
Cursor Movement Keys
These are arrow keys and are used to move the cursor in the direction indicated by the
arrow (up, down, left, right).

(b) Mouse
The mouse is a small device used to point to a particular place on the screen and select in order
to perform one or more actions. It can be used to select menu commands, size windows, start
programs etc. The most conventional kind of mouse has two buttons on top: the left one being
used most frequently.

Mouse Actions

Left Click : Used to select an item.
Double Click : Used to start a program or open a file.
Right Click : Usually used to display a set of commands.
Drag and Drop : It allows you to select and move an item from one location to
another. To achieve this place the cursor over an item on the screen, click
the left mouse button and while holding the button down move the cursor
to where you want to place the item, and then release it.


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(c) Joystick
The joystick is a vertical stick which moves the graphic cursor in a direction the stick is moved. It
typically has a button on top that is used to select the option pointed by the cursor. Joystick is
used as an input device primarily used with video games, training simulators and controlling
robots
(d)Scanner
Scanner is an input device used for direct data entry from the source document into the
computer system. It converts the document image into digital form so that it can be fed int o the
computer. Capturing information like this reduces the possibility of errors typically experienced
during large data entry.
Hand-held scanners are commonly seen in big stores to scan codes and price information for
each of the items. They are also termed the bar code readers.
(e) Bar codes
A bar code is a set of lines of different thicknesses that represent a number. Bar Code Readers
are used to input data from bar codes. Most products in shops have bar codes on them.Bar
code readers work by shining a beam of light on the lines that make up the bar code and
detecting the amount of light that is reflected back.
(f) Light Pen
It is a pen shaped device used to select objects on a display screen. It is quite like the mouse (in
its functionality) but uses a light pen to move the pointer and select any object on the screen by
pointing to the object.
Users of Computer Aided Design (CAD) applications commonly use the light pens to directly
draw on screen.

(g) Touch Screen
It allows the user to operate/make selections by simply touching the display screen. Common
examples of touch screen include information kiosks, and bank ATMs.

(h)Digital camera
A digital camera can store many more pictures than an ordinary camera. Pictures taken using a
digital camera are stored inside its memory and can be transferred to a computer by connecting
the camera to it. A digital camera takes pictures by
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converting the light passing through the lens at the front into a digital image.

Output Devices

(a) Monitor
Monitor is an output device that resembles the television screen and uses a Cathode Ray Tube
(CRT) to display information. The monitor is associated with a keyboard for manual input of
characters and displays the information as it is keyed in. It also displays the program or
application output. Like the television, monitors are also available in different sizes.
(b) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
LCD was introduced in the 1970s and is now applied to display terminals also. Its advantages
like low energy consumption, smaller and lighter have paved its way for usage in portable
computers (laptops).
(c) Printer
Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hardcopy) output. Based on the
technology used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.

(d) Audio Output: Sound Cards and Speakers:
The Audio output is the ability of the computer to output sound. Two components are needed:
Sound card Plays contents of digitized recordings, Speakers Attached to sound card.



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Figure 2
Personal Computer Configuration
Now let us identify the physical components that make the computer work. These are
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2. Computer Memory (RAM and ROM)
3. Data bus
4. Ports
5. Motherboard
6. Hard disk
7. Output Devices
8. Input Devices
All these components are inter-connected for the personal computer to work.
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MEMORY SYSTEM IN A COMPUTER
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instruction. Computer memory
is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored.
The memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is called cell. Each location
or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus one.
For example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory
location. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of two types
Internal Memory - cache memory and primary/main memory
External Memory - magnetic disk / optical disk etc.
Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy are following when we go from top to bottom.
Capacity in terms of storage increases.
Cost per bit of storage decreases.
Frequency of access of the memory by the CPU decreases.
Access time by the CPU increases
In other terms
There are two kinds of computer memory: primary and secondary. Primary memory is
accessible directly by the processing unit. RAM is an example of primary memory. As soon as
the computer is switched off the contents of the primary memory is lost. You can store and
retrieve data much faster with primary memory compared to secondary memory. Secondary
memory such as floppy disks, magnetic disk, etc., is located outside the computer. Primary
memory is more expensive than secondary memory. Because of this the size of primary
memory is less than that of secondary memory. We will discuss about secondary memory later
on.
Computer memory is used to store two things:
i) Instructions to execute a program and
ii) Data. When the computer is doing any job, the data that have to be processed are
stored in the primary memory. This data may come from an input device like
keyboard or from a secondary storage device like a floppy disk.

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REGISTERS
The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed, there is also movement of data
between various units of computer. It is necessary to transfer the processed data with high
speed. So the computer uses a number of special memory units called registers. They are not
part of the main memory but they store data or information temporarily and pass it on as
directed by the control unit.
RAM
A RAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and program
result. It is read/write memory. It is called random access memory (RAM).
Since access time in RAM is independent of the address to the word that is, each storage
location inside the memory is as easy to reach as other location & takes the same amount of
time. We can reach into the memory at random & extremely fast but can also be quite
expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with computers.
RAM is small , both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
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RAM is of two types
Static RAM (SRAM)
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
STATIC RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power remains
applied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips
use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent
leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher.
Static RAM is used as cache memory needs to be very fast and small.
DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order for it to maintain the data. This is
done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per
second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells. These cells are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.

ROM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write
on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture.
A ROM, stores such instruction as are required to start computer when electricity is first turned
on, this operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chip are not only used in the computer but
also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
Following are the various types of ROM
MROM (MASKED ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs. It is inexpensive ROM.
PROM (PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM programmer. Inside the PROM chip
there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only
once and is not erasable.
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EPROM(ERASABLE AND PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY)
The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of upto 40 minutes.
Usually, a EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming an electrical charge is
trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because the
charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz
crystal window(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use
the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM(ELECTRICALLY ERASABLE AND PROGRAMMABLE READ
ONLY MEMORY)
The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed
about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second).
In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be
erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-
programming is flexible but slow.
Serial Access Memory
Sequential access means the system must search the storage device from the beginning of the
memory address until it finds the required piece of data. Memory device which supports such
access is called a Sequential Access Memory or Serial Access Memory. Magnetic tape is an
example of serial access memory.
Direct Access Memory
Direct access memory or Random Access Memory, refers to condition in which a system can go
directly to the information that the user wants. Memory device which supports such access is
called a Direct Access Memory. Magnetic disk, optical disks are an examples of direct access
memory.
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts
as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and
program which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.
ADVANTAGES
Cache memory is faster than main memory.
It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
It stores data for temporary use.
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DISADVANTAGES
Cache memory has limited capacity.
It is very expensive.
Virtual memory is a technique that allows the execution of processes which are not completely
available in memory. The main visible advantage of this scheme is that programs can be larger
than physical memory. Virtual memory is the separation of user logical memory from physical
memory.
This separation allows an extremely large virtual memory to be provided for programmers when
only a smaller physical memory is available. Following are the situations, when entire program
is not required to be loaded fully in main memory.
User written error handling routines are used only when an error occured in the data or
computation.
Certain options and features of a program may be used rarely.
Many tables are assigned a fixed amount of address space even though only a small amount of
the table is actually used.
The ability to execute a program that is only partially in memory would counter many benefits.
Less number of I/O would be needed to load or swap each user program into memory.
A program would no longer be constrained by the amount of physical memory that is available.
Each user program could take less physical memory, more programs could be run the same
time, with a corresponding increase in CPU utilization and throughput.
Auxiliary Memory/Secondary
Auxiliary memory is much larger in size than main memory but is slower. It normally stores
system programs, instruction and data files. It is also known as secondary memory. It can also
be used as an overflow/virtual memory in case the main memory capacity has been exceeded.
Secondary memories can not be accessed directly by a processor. First the data / information of
auxillary memory is transferred to the main memory and then that information can be accessed
by the CPU. Characteristics of Auxiliary Memory are following
Non-volatile memory - Data is not lost when power is cut off.
Reusable - The data stays in the secondary storage on permanent basis until it is not
overwritten or deleted by the user.
Reliable - Data in secondary storage is safe because of high physical stability of secondary
storage device.
Convenience - With the help of a computer software, authorized people can locate and access
the data quickly.
Capacity - Secondary storage can store large volumes of data in sets of multiple disks.
Cost - It is much lesser expensive to store data on a tape or disk than primary memory.
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Difference Between Primary and Secondary Memory

Primary memory vs Secondary memory Processor access the primary memory in a
random fashion. Unlike primary memory, secondary memory is not directly accessed
through CPU. The accessing of the primary memory through CPU is done by making
use of address and data buses, whereas input/ output channels are used to access
the secondary memory.
The primary memory is embedded with two types of memory technologies; they are
the RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory). The secondary
memory is accessible in the form of Mass storage devices such as hard disk,
memory chips, Pen drive, floppy disk storage media, CD and DVD.
Primary memory is volatile in nature, while secondary memory is non volatile. The
information that is stored in the primary memory cannot be retained when the power
is turned off. In case of secondary memory, the information can be retrieved even if
the power is turned off because the data will not be destructed until and unless the
user erases it.
When the data processing speed is compared between the primary and secondary
memory, the primary memory is much faster than the secondary memory.
In the cost perspective, the primary memory is costlier than the secondary memory
devices. Because of this reasons most of the computer users install smaller primary
memory and larger secondary memory.
As the secondary memory is permanent, all the files and programs are stored in the
secondary memory most and as the primary memory interacts very fast with the
micro processor, when the computer needs to access the files that are stored in the
secondary memory, then such files are first loaded into the primary memory and
then accessed by the computer. More..
Primary Memory Secondary Memory
These are semiconductor memories. These are magnetic and optical memories.
They are characterized as volatile random
access memories (RAM) or non-volatile
memories (ROM). They are non-volatile.
They contain program and data that is
currently being used by micro processor. These are used to for bulk storage.
These memories are fast enough to interact
with the microprocessor. Slower than primary memories.
Also known as Main Memory
Also known as Backup Memory or Auxiliary
Memory. E.g. Tapes, Floppies, Hard Discs, CD
ROMs, DVDs
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Capacity of Primary Memory
You know that each cell of memory contains one character or 1 byte of data. So the capacity is
defined in terms of byte or words. Thus 64 kilobyte (KB) memory is capable of storing 64 * 1024
= 32,768 bytes. (1 kilobyte is 1024 bytes).
1 byte= 8 bits
1KB=1024 byte
1MB=1024 KB (MB stands for Mega Byte)
ITB=1024MB (TB stands for Tera Byte)
A memory size ranges from few kilobytes in small systems to several thousand kilobytes in
large mainframe and super computer. In your personal computer you will find memory capacity
in the range of 64 KB, 4 MB, 8 MB and even 16 MB (MB = Million bytes).
The following table highlights the major difference between the RAM memory and ROM
memory:
Options RAM ROM
Elaboration Random Access Memory Read Only memory
Accessibility In reference with the processor, the
information stored in the RAM is
easily accessed
The processor cannot directly access the
information that is stored in the ROM. In
order to access the ROM information, first the
information will be transferred into the RAM
and then it gets executed by the processor
Working type Both the read and write operations
can be performed over the
information that is stored in the
RAM
The ROM memory only allows the user to
read the information. User cannot make any
changes to the information.
Storage RAM memory is only used to store
the temporary information.
ROM memory is used to store permanent
information and cannot be deleted.
Speed the accessing speed of RAM is
faster, it assist the processor to boost
up the speed
Speed is slower in comparison with RAM,
ROM cannot boost up the processor speed
UNIT 1
Basics of Computer and its Evolution

By: Nitin Nagpal 22

Data preserving Electricity is needed in RAM to
flow to preserving information
Electricity is not needed in ROM to flow to
preserving information
structure The RAM is an chip, which is in the
rectangle form and is inserted over
the mother board of the computer
ROMs are generally the optical drivers,
which are made of magnetic tapes.
Cost The price of RAMs are
comparatively high
The price of ROMs are comparatively low
Chip size Physically size of RAM chip is
larger than ROM chip
Physically size of ROM chip is smaller than
RAM chip.
Types The RAM memory is categorized
into two types they are the: Statistic
RAM (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM
(DRAM)
The ROM memory is categorized into three
types, they are: PROM (Programmable Read
Only memory), EPROM (Erasable
Programmable Read Only memory) and
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable
Programmable Read Only memory)