USING ELECTRONIC DETONATORS TO IMPROVE FRAGMENTATION, DIGGABILITY AND CRUSHER THROUGHPUT
Richard Sullivan Senior Technical Services Engineer Orica Explosives
Abstract This paper reports on the field results of using electronic detonators to improve blast outcomes. Oricas electronic detonator, the i-kon Digitial Energy Control System, allows exact and precise timing in 1 ms increments from 0 to 15 000 ms. This gives the Blast Engineer and Shotfirer the ability to fire a blast using any possible desired sequence. In the two years that have followed the release of the i-kon System, Orica has been re-exploring ways of initiating blasts using the abilities of electronic detonators to improve fragmentation, diggability and crusher throughput. This study began with revisiting fundamental blast theory, lead to generation of new state of the art computer fragmentation modelling and ended with many iterative field trials of i-kon blasts across a wide section of mining methods and rock types. At three sites a detailed measurement process was undertaken to compare the results of pyrotechnic blasts with i-kon blasts. This paper will detail the significant improvements in fragmentation, diggability and crusher throughput that was found at these sites.
1. INTRODUCTION Electronic detonators have been in development for over three decades, yet it is only recently that commercially acceptable systems have been released to the market. The earlier systems were generally not user friendly enough to be used in day to day blasting by regular Shotfirers. They were expensive and sometimes not robust enough for general application in the field. Prior to a few years ago, electronic detonators were only being used in research blasting and customer demonstrations. Since then they have moved from being specialised alternatives to detonating cord, pyrotechnic and electric initiation systems and on to regular blasting in many different types of mines around the world. During this time many benefits of using electronic detonators have become apparent. Oricas electronic detonator, known as the i-kon Digital Energy Control System was released approximately three years ago. Orica has since spent considerable energy defining the advantages of i-kon and learning how to best apply its abilities to produce clear improvements in fragmentation, diggability and crusher throughput. This work is still in its early stages, and this paper summarises the findings from three Australian case studies where ikon has already had a big impact.
2. THE i-kon DIGITAL ENERGY CONTROL SYSTEM i-kon is an advanced electronic detonator system with the following important features; Two-way communication from the detonator to the programming and firing hardware. This provides the Shotfirer with exact information of each detonators status at all times through out the blasting process. Inherently safe operating format, where at no time is sufficient voltage to fire the blast physically hooked onto any part of the circuit, except at firing time. The Logger, used to store the initiation design and sequencing of detonators, is a low voltage unit that is used for on-bench tasks. The Blaster, which has the firing voltage, is only used once the blast area is cleared of personnel and guarded by sentries. Refer figure 1. Ability to directly download blast tie-ins from computer to the Logger. This saves the Shotfirer from having to enter any delay times or push any buttons when they are hooking up the blast. After tie-up the Logger information can be uploaded back to the computer for comparison.
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holes 1 ms apart even if they are separated by large distances. Blasts can be fired with more complex sequences than allowed with pyrotechnic systems. The i-kon System does not require factory made delay units of set delays to be inserted between adjacent blast holes. Furthermore, i-kon doesnt even need to be tied up with surface wires or connectors in a recognisable pattern as the timing of each blast hole is independent of any other blast hole in the blast. The i-kon System is not hampered by delay scatter. For example it can fire a sequence of blast holes at 600, 601, 602 and 603 ms and not have any blast hole firing out of order. Figure 2 shows how delay scatter in pyrotechnic systems preclude the use of small delays between holes. The i-kon System allows the use of complex detonator timings within the same hole, between decks or even in the same deck.
Using 9 ms control row with 400 ms in-hole delays
Figure 1: i-kon System components; detonator, Logger, Blaster Vastly superior resistance to stray electrical currents and static electricity compared to electric detonators. The system requires sophisticated firing codes to arm the i-kon detonators which are only generated by the Blaster. Reduced magazine inventory. The system does not require separate surface delays nor detonators manufactured with pre-set in hole firing times. One detonator can perform all required tasks. Extremely high accuracy of better than +/0.01% programmed delay. Programmability of 0 to 15 000 ms in 1 ms increments
Pyrotechnic Example:
0
Nominal firing time
18
27
36
411
422
433
444 436 452
Allowing for 2 standard deviations of scatter; Earliest firing time 403 414 425 Latest firing time 419 430 441
Out of Sequence
Assuming; 4 m spacing between holes, Coef of variation of a 400 ms unit of 1%
Figure 2: Out of sequence firing using pyrotechnic The i-kon System allows use of timing sequences optimised for the best possible blast outcomes for fragmentation, diggability and crusher throughput because it is free from the practical limitations of other initiation systems. The challenge is to determine just what is the best sequence. With any timing at all now allowable, Oricas first step was to re-visit blasting theory. 3. BLASTING THEORY A very general blasting theory is that using delays between blast holes will give better fragmentation than firing all the blast holes simultaneously. This has been observed and reported from early studies
The last two features give the Blasting Engineer and Shotfirer the abilities to use timing sequences that were previously impossible. For example; Blast holes can be fired in faster sequences than achievable with detonating cord. Though cord fires at high speeds, there is still a burn time for the initiation signal to travel from one hole to another. The i-kon System can fire
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and blasting experience. In many of these situations it was shown that in fact any delay between the blast holes was better than none. Detailed lab work has been undertaken to refine which delays give the best results, for example 1/10 scale tests by Stagg and Nutting which reached the conclusion that finest fragmentation was achieved at delay intervals of 3 to 56 ms/m of burden (Stagg and Nutting 1987). Iterative blasting experience from the field has led to the formation of rules of thumb for example Oricas Safe and Efficient Blasting in Open Cut Mines manual (Orica, 1998) suggests that between 2 and 5 ms per metre for timing along rows and in the range of 10 to 25 ms/m of effective burden for timing between rows, for optimum blast results. Deriving the exact delays to use through solving equations of blasting from a rock mechanics point of view has been much more difficult. Firstly, describing the equations relating to the behaviour of fast moving waves interacting in a rock unit containing realistic structural geology requires huge numbers of complex calculations. This is the domain of computer modelling using methods such as finite element analysis (Rossmanith 2003). Secondly, fast timings recommended from studying these mechanical principles of fracture and wave propagation could not be field tested due to the scatter in commercially available pyrotechnic detonators, (Rossmanith 2000). With the arrival of the precise firing electronic detonator, full scale field trials became possible. 4. FIELD TRIALS OF THE i-kon SYSTEM Orica has taken the results of its own in-house computer modelling to form trial programs for the introduction of i-kon into the field. The objective of these trials has been to develop initiation sequences using i-kon that demonstrate improved fragmentation, diggability and crusher throughput. In practise this has meant introducing elements of the new timings in a step by step fashion to selected mines and quarries in a way that ensures each sites blasting outcomes are not compromised. As each element is trialed it is compared to previous blasts to see if a positive and significant change has been affected. In this way the trials progress from using i-kon to duplicate
existing pyrotechnic timings towards using state of the art timings that are far from conventional. As with most field trialing programs, geological variance, operational issues and measurement limitations introduce sources of error when trying to determine if one blast was better than another, or if a new idea produced a real change. There have been many success stories using the i-kon System, but the following case studies are limited to sites where actual detailed measurements have indicated a statistically relevant improvement. Large open cut mine in Western Australia (Brad Bulow, Stuart Thomson and Martin Adam). Quarry in South Queensland (Richard Sullivan). Large New South Wales quarry (Geoff Brent, Andrew Brodbeck and Richard Leghissa). 5. LARGE OPEN CUT MINE IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA This site features a range of rock types from medium hard to hard (in terms of blastability). Typically the site uses large diameter holes on 15 m benches. The main issues were achieving larger waste blasts whilst maintaining or increasing digger performance, and for ore blasts, improving crusher throughput. This site was selected for the i-kon System because it was expected that fragmentation could be enhanced using more specialised timing. Also the increase in the required size of waste blasts required longer delays between the back rows, longer than allowable with the burning front limitations of pyrotechnics. The first waste blast was in a particularly hard waste rock and was compared to an almost identical pyrotechnic shot. The results of the trial demonstrated the following improvements; Increased fragmentation (see figure 3) of 11% more material passing the 300 mm size fragment A 2% increase in dig rate over the control pyrotechnic shot Increased heave and improved muckpile shape. The next two blasts were in the ore zone. For more reliable comparisons each blast was divided into sections, with a section using modified i-kon
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allow the gap on the primary crusher to be closed when mining the i-kon section of this shot. The diggability results showed an increase of 16% in the shovels average tonnes per hour dig rate (refer figure 5). Furthermore comments from the Shovel Operators Assessment Sheet were very encouraging, such as; We should blast all areas the same as that section and Best ore shot Ive ever dug!
Figure 3: Waste Blast Fragmentation results timing and a section with the currently optimised pyrotechnic timing. The video of the first blast showed the i-kon section performing very differently. The use of a fast, complex timing sequence gave the following excellent results; The muckpile of the blast showed visually finer fragmentation, refer to Figure 4. The fragmentation change was confirmed at the primary crusher, where the power draw showed a 30% reduction. The last i-kon blast extended the ideas trialed in both the previous ore and waste blasts and achieved improvement in both fragmentation and diggability. The fragmentation was improved enough to
Figure 5: Ore Blast Diggability results 6. QUARRY IN SOUTH QUEENSLAND This site was selected for the trials because of its very uniform geology and its consistent operating conditions such as personnel on the crusher and loading equipment. The rock type is a hard and tough columnar basalt. The main issue for the site
Figure 4: Photo of first Ore blast. Section A; modified i-kon timing, B; standard timing using pyrotechnics, C: standard timing using i-kon.
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is increased crusher throughput and reduced crusher downtime from blockages caused by large bony feed material. Three i-kon blasts were fired, over a period of 6 months, with each blast building on the results of the last and using progressively more aggressive timing. A benchmark of Powersieve fragmentation information and crusher throughput data was collected from previous pyrotechnic blasts. The first blast produced a visibly superior muckpile. The measurement program showed; A 6.5 % increase in the percentage passing 100 mm size fraction compared to the benchmark. Crusher throughput was increased by an average 8% (tonnes per hour). The second blast produced excellent results with surprising throw and sizeable powertrough (refer to figure 6). Though this blast was designed with a slightly expanded pattern, the specialist timing used gave results equal to or better than the benchmark pyrotechnic blasts as follows; Powersieve showed the same increase of 6.5% of material passing 100 mm compared to the benchmark. The crusher throughput showed further improvement, an increase of 11% over the benchmark. The third blast also featured an expanded pattern
and was fired on 1 September 2003. The data collection is still ongoing. Early subjective results are that this blast has improved diggability and fragmentation over all previous blasts at this site. The results from the first and second i-kon blasts are compared to the benchmark in figures 7 and 8.
Figure 7 Daily crusher throughput
Figure 8 Fragmentation results
Figure 6: photo of second i-kon blast Page 5 of 7
7. LARGE NEW SOUTH WALES QUARRY This site has complex basalt geology. The site issues are a requirement for increased crusher throughput, improved diggability and reduced fines. It was chosen as an ideal site to conduct trials examining the effect of varying the in-hole firing times of the top and bottom primers and the effect on fragmentation and crusher throughput. Conventional in-hole timing has been replaced with timing only achievable using electronic detonators. Subjective estimates of oversize from the top of the muckpile have suggested that oversize may be reduced through optimising in-hole firing times. Detailed fragmentation and productivity measurements are still in progress. Initial measurements of crusher throughput have indicated that changes in the in-hole timing may have led to an improvement in crusher throughput. An increase of 8% in the active crushing rate was observed from a blast section using the new i-kon timing compared to an adjacent blast section using conventional in-hole timing. Figure 9 shows a view of the trial blast. Further trials are required and are currently in progress to confirm and explore this
effect. 8. CONCLUSION Electronic detonator systems allow the use of timing not previously possible with pyrotechnic systems. Development of blasting theory has advanced to requiring the description of complex wave interactions via computer modelling. Such work has suggested new initiation sequences that employ the advantages of electronic detonators to produce superior blast outcomes. Early field trials with the i-kon system has verified that significant improvements in fragmentation, diggability and crusher throughput are achievable.
9. REFERENCES Orica. 1998. Safe and Efficient Blasting in Open Cut Mines. Orica Australia Operations, p 138. Rossmanith, H.P. 2000. The Influence of Delay Timing on Optimal Fragmentation in Electronic Blasting. Paper in Explosives and Blasting
Figure 9. View of trial blast at NSW quarry. The section using modified in-hole timing with i-kon is in the foreground. Page 6 of 7
Technique (Proc. 1st World Conf. on Explosives and Blasting Techniques), Munich, Germany, pp. 141-147. Rossmanith, H.P. 2003. The Mechanics and Physics of Electronic Blasting. ISEE: 29th Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique: February 2-5, 2003: Nashville, Tennessee, USA: Vol.1 p. 83+ Stagg, M. S., and M. J. Nutting. 1987. Influence of blast delay time on rock fragmentation: one-tenthscale tests. BuMines IC 9135, Chicago, IL, pp 7995b
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