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A framework to analyse the efciency and governance of zakat institutions

Norazlina Abd. Wahab
Universiti Utara Malaysia, Sintok, Malaysia, and

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Abdul Rahim Abdul Rahman

International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Abstract
Purpose This paper aims to present a conceptual model on the efciency and governance of zakat institutions that are responsible in collecting, managing and distributing zakat in Malaysia. Zakat is an Islamic religious tax charged on the rich and well-to-do members of the community for distribution to the poor and the needy as well as other beneciaries based on certain established criteria according to the Quran. The main aim of zakat is to protect the socio-economic welfare of the poor and the needy. Design/methodology/approach The paper reviews and synthesises the relevant literature on efciency, governance and zakat. The paper then developed and proposed a conceptual model to study the efciency and governance of zakat institutions. Findings The paper identies the appropriate methods to evaluate efciency and governance of zakat institutions. Such evaluations are crucial for the Islamic nancial system to function effectively in order to achieve the noble objectives of socio-economic justice through proper distribution of wealth. Originality/value This paper presents a conceptual model of efciency and governance of zakat institutions which would be useful for further empirical research in this area. The ndings are not only relevant and applicable to Malaysia but also to other Muslim countries. Keywords Process efciency, Governance, Malaysia, Taxes, Religion, Islam Paper type Conceptual paper

1. Introduction Zakat literally means to grow and to increase (Qardhawi, 2000). The term zakat has three different connotations; linguistically, theologically and legally. Linguistically, zakat means cleansing or purication of something from dirt or lth. Theologically, it means spiritual purication resulting from giving of zakat. According to Maududi (1988), a persons wealth is impure if he does not pay the right of Allahs servant from the wealth bestowed by him. It also means growth or increase which has two dimensions; rst, spiritual development by pleasing Allah, and second, redistribution of income (as Islam forbids accumulation and hoarding) which will lead to greater enjoyment and in turn, will stimulate production and growth. Legally, zakat means transfer of ownership of specic property to specic individuals under specic conditions. Muslims have the obligation to give a specic amount of their wealth (with certain conditions and requirements) to the specied beneciaries and in fact, the payment of zakah is one of the ve pillars of Islam. The eight beneciaries are clearly specied in the Quran (Surah At-Taubah: 60); namely the poor, the needy, the administrator of zakat, those whose heart are to be inclined (including new Muslim converts who lack economic support), the slaves,

Journal of Islamic Accounting and Business Research Vol. 2 No. 1, 2011 pp. 43-62 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1759-0817 DOI 10.1108/17590811111129508

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debtors (debts due to real needs), in the cause of Allah (Fi sabilillah), and the wayfarers (Ibnu sabil ) (Muhammad, 1980). The main objective of zakat is to achieve socio-economic justice. With respect to the economic dimensions of zakat, it is aimed to achieve the favorable effects on several dimensions such as aggregate consumption, savings and investment, aggregate supply of labor and capital, poverty eradication and economic growth. Hence, the objective of this paper is to highlight the importance of efciency and governance of zakat institutions, especially in a modern Muslim country such as Malaysia, in fullling socio-religious obligations. Efciency is a term used to measure how well an organization is using its resources to meet its specic objectives (Farrell, 1957). Governance, on the other hand, is dened as the manner in which the power is exercised in the management of an organization (United Nations Development Programme, UNDP, 1997). In the context of zakat institutions, efciency refers to how well the institutions are using its resources (e.g. the staff, expenditure, etc.) to meet its objectives of socio-economic justice (e.g. reducing poverty) while governance refers to the process and structure in directing and managing the affairs of the zakat institution towards enhancing social welfare of the rightful zakat recipients as well as demonstrating accountability to the zakat payers. The ultimate objective is to seek the pleasure of Allah, whilst taking into consideration the requirements of the shariah. Hence, the need for such a study is crucial in ensuring the achievement of socio-economic justice. An aspect of novelty of this paper is its attempt to contribute towards the economic and administrative theory of zakat as there has been limited in-depth review on the efciency and governance of zakat institutions. This study will contribute to the dearth of empirical studies on zakat especially on the efciency of the institutions in managing the zakat funds. In addition, the results will be useful to policy makers in improving the institutions governance system and efciency. The remaining of the paper is structured as follows. The next section will discuss the economics of zakat, followed by past studies undertaken on zakat institutions. Section 4 of this paper discusses the background of zakat institutions in Malaysia and prior studies undertaken on the topic. Section 5 looks into the efciency and the use of data envelopment analysis (DEA) to measure efciency of zakat institutions while Section 6 explores the governance and zakat institutions. Section 7 concludes the paper. 2. The economics of zakat The theoretical underpinnings of Islamic economics are founded on the Shariah precepts, which are developed based on the main sources of Islamic knowledge and practice, i.e. the Quran and the Sunnah (the practices and sayings of Prophet Muhammad), and Fiqh ( jurisprudence). According to Shariah, an Islamic economic system should be based strictly, among others, on the following principles: (1) business and nancial transactions are free from interest (Riba); (2) goods traded and services provided are legal (Halal ) from the Islamic point of view; (3) transactions involving high uncertainty (Gharar) that may lead to nancial loss must be avoided; and (4) the payment of zakat.

The underlying reasons behind those principles are grounded on the salient Islamic socio-economic objectives and equitable distribution of wealth (Samad et al., 2005). Islamic economic system comprises of both prot and non-prot nancial institutions. Prot nancial institutions are institutions that make prot through its businesses like banks, insurance rms, pawnshops, etc. while non-prot nancial institutions are institutions that are not making prot such as zakat institutions, baitulmal[1], etc. The institution of zakat, a non-prot nancial institution, has several direct impacts on the economic system (Khan, 1995). It is regarded as a complement to the nancial institutions and as part of a comprehensive Islamic economic system. Unfortunately, most secular governments in Muslim countries manage zakat only as a peripheral system and not as one of the main parts of the scal system[2]. Unlike taxation which forms an integral part of the scal system, zakat is treated only as a voluntary system (Bakar and Rahman, 2007). Furthermore, modern Islamic economic institutions have been regarded as focusing too much on wealth creation institutions (e.g. Islamic banks, Islamic insurances, etc.) with little emphasis on wealth distribution institution such as the zakat institution. Islam encourages people to work and earn legitimate income to sustain themselves and their families but Allah has reminded Muslims to achieve a balance between worldly life and the hereafter. Hence, the mechanisms of wealth creation need to be balanced with wealth distribution in order to achieve the main objective of zakat, which is socio-economic justice. Proper distribution of zakat may affect aggregate consumption, savings and investment, aggregate supply of labor and capital, eradication of poverty, enhancement of social security system, distributive efciency and economic growth. The effect of zakat on aggregate consumption especially among the beneciaries can be considered in a Keynesian framework of declining marginal propensity to consume (Kahf, 1997). If the rich use their income for consumption, buying capital goods (saving), spending for the cause of Allah their zakat obligation as well as making charitable contributions, and the poor spend their income including those received from zakat and charity, this will theoretically increase the overall consumption and reduce savings. Figure 1 shows how socio-economic justice can be attained via the mechanisms of wealth creation and distribution. Zakat is expected to increase savings since it takes away a part of the precautionary savings (Choudhury, 1983). If income is expected to fall short of subsistence, people will tend to save more as a precautionary measure. Metwally (1986), however, added that the impact of zakat on savings will depend on the nature of the consumption function that the society follows in its consumption behavior. If the consumption behavior takes the relative income hypothesis[3], zakat is likely to increase savings because it will reduce
Wealth creation mechanisms - Businesses - Savings - Employment - Others Source: Authors own Wealth distribution mechanisms

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Recipients

- Payment of zakah - Sadaqah (charity) - Others (waqf, tax)

- The 8 beneficiaries of zakat - Others

Figure 1. Mechanisms to achieve socio-economic justice

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the income of the rich. If it corresponds to the absolute income hypothesis[4], the savings effect of zakat is likely to be negative since zakat redistributes resources from the rich to the poor and the average propensity to consume by the low-income group is relatively higher than those in the high-income group. On the other hand, if the permanent income hypothesis[5] is relevant, then the saving effect will be neutral (Sadeq, 2002). In theory, zakat should make positive impact on investment since people have the incentive to invest their wealth rather than keep the investable resources idle. Kahf (1997) argued that zakat could affect the aggregate supply in three ways: supply of labor, supply of capital and resource allocation. The impact of zakat on the supply of labor can be achieved through improvement of the health, nutrition and other living conditions of the poor. Thus, it will increase labour productivity and positively affects the supply of goods produced in the economy. In theory, zakat will not only increase the demand for goods and fulll the basic needs of the poor, but may also reduce demand for luxurious goods by the rich. The institution of zakat can also contribute to eradication of poverty, which is one of the major problems in society today. If zakat is effectively implemented, it will encourage the rich to invest their wealth, which would then increase the disbursement of zakat, and in turn, increase employment and productivity. Zakat also provides a social security system to Muslims. According to Afzal (1980), the mutual responsibility to look after each other in time of need is the essence of the Islamic concept of responsibility. Thus, every Muslim community is responsible in supporting the less fortunate members of the society from the zakat proceeds. The zakat institution is part of the wider social security system which should be enforced by the state for the upliftment of the disadvantaged groups in society (Sadeq, 2002) rather than being treated as a voluntary institution. 3. Prior studies on zakat Several studies on zakat institutions have been theoretically and empirically undertaken. Kahf (1989), Buang (2000) and Bakar and Rahman (2007) considered the theoretical aspects of zakat. Kahf (1989) discussed on the issues of zakatable items during the life of the Prophet Mohammad Saw and the potential proceeds of zakat in eight Muslim countries. The study suggests that zakat can eradicate poverty in the Muslim world within a reasonable period of time, only if the new forms of wealth and new sources of income, especially in the sectors of industries, commerce, nance and services, are made zakatable. Buang (2000) discussed on the issue of zakat management. The study outlined the basic principles of zakat management derived from the main sources and relevant fatawa (legal pronouncement in Islam made by scholars) on zakat administration. Bakar and Rahman (2007), on the other hand, distinguished between zakat and modern taxation and further discussed the implementation of zakat and taxation in Malaysia. Rahman (2007) discussed the pre-requisites to effectively integrate zakat into mainstream Islamic nancial system in Malaysia. The pre-requisites discussed include the objective and fair measurement of business wealth for zakat purposes, standardizing zakat accounting practices and development of appropriate performance measures[6]. Past studies indicate the importance of efcient collection of zakat to ensure socio-economic objectives of zakat are attainable. Shehata (1994), for instance, examined the contemporary utilization of zakat funds in nancing socio-economic infrastructure for Muslim individuals and communities. The study examined the legal rules regulating the expenditure of zakat including the entitlement and distribution of zakat.

It further deliberated on the policy of zakat distribution among the eight types of beneciaries. Shehata (1994) developed a framework for the contemporary use of zakat fund in nancing Islamic socio-economic infrastructure as well as policy to manage zakat fund. There are many types of programs that could be funded by zakat such as providing education for the poor, the establishment of schools, vocational training and rehabilitation for zakat recipients to make them more productive, establishment of agriculture and cottage industries, provision of xed assets and equipments to small business projects, provision of working capital, building of low-cost housing, providing medical treatment and health care, etc. In summary, zakat is vital as it has several positive impacts on the macroeconomic variables in the society. The importance of zakat, especially to Muslim community, can be considered as comparable and complementary to the social security system that exists in many developed countries. Although it has so far been managed as a peripheral system, the positive effects of zakat to the overall economy should be subjected to further empirical studies. 4. Background of zakat institutions in Malaysia In Malaysia, zakat is administered under the respective states jurisdiction as part of the administration of the State Islamic Religious Council (SIRC)[7]. The law on zakat is governed by each states enactment or its own zakat law (Bakar, 1998). SIRCs are fully responsible in managing zakat affairs including its collection and distribution. Each state has its own SIRC but they are all referred to as zakat institutions in the Malaysian context. Although the approach in managing zakat varies from one state to another, the main aim remains the same. The federal government has established the Department of Zakat, Waqf and Hajj with the aims of mainly coordinating and promoting these institutions in Malaysia. Hence, as stated by Rahman (2007), the development of a proper performance measurement system is important to effectively integrate zakat into mainstream Islamic nancial system in Malaysia. Rahman (2007) urged for the Malaysian Constitution to take pro-active steps in developing an objective and fair measurement of zakat on business wealth in Malaysia because current business activities are very complex and the traditional methods of measurement may not reect the true and fair amount of zakat due. For Islamic business entities, such as Bank Islam Malaysia Berhad, which is burdened with two charges, i.e. corporate tax and zakat on business wealth, the introduction of tax liability rebate may help ensure that such corporations are fairly treated. Also, standardized zakat accounting practices and proper performance management system are needed to satisfy the needs of stakeholders for zakat nancial information, including the payers, the recipients and the zakat administrators. The Government of Malaysia is expected to play an important role in promoting good governance within such institution. The governance of zakat institutions here refers to the governance structure and mechanism to ensure nancial and managerial accountability of zakat collection and distribution. In addition, Rahman (2003) proposed that as part of good governance, the Malaysian Government should institute good nancial management practices such as the promulgation of accounting and auditing standards on zakat, and undertake reform of zakat distribution practices through instituting performance management system. The Malaysian Government can also emulate and adapt the model of voluntary and charity sector governance as

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recommended by Deakin Report published in the UK in 1996. The report made a number of policy recommendations on effectiveness, accountability, standards, user involvement, governance, equality and fairness and staff management (Rahman, 2003). Furthermore, being a public organization, zakat institutions are subjected to intense public scrutiny on their efciency and effectiveness in managing zakat affairs. There are a limited number of empirical studies undertaken on the efciency and governance of zakat institutions. Past empirical studies focused mainly on the management of zakat collection and distribution. Hence, due to the lack of studies on the economic efciency and governance of public service organizations, these concerns need to be empirically studied especially in the context of a modern Muslim state. In brief, the economic efciency mathematically measures how well an organization generates outputs based on the available inputs or resources. Public service governance refers to the specic mechanisms and arrangements to ensure public service organizations manage their resources well and with proper accountability to stakeholders. In the case of Malaysia, Idris and Ayob (2002), Idris et al. (2003), Nor et al. (2004) and Wahid et al. (2005) studied the determinants of zakat compliance. Idris and Ayob (2002) looked at various components of attitude towards zakat on employment income including the level of compliance for zakat payment among Muslim employees, and their implication on compliance behavior. Based on the items in each component, the results indicate that attitude towards zakat on employment income can be divided into ve categories, namely general attitude (e.g. have to pay, happy to pay, purify the income, etc.), positive attitude (e.g. suitable to be implemented, calculation is easy, still pay although its unclear), uncertain attitude (e.g. waiting for a good system, confusing, asking for scholars opinion rst, etc.), conditional attitude (e.g. penalty, standardized law in every states, etc.) and technical attitude (e.g. zakat calculation same as tax, confuse with its calculation). Each type of attitude have different effects on compliance behavior. Using logistic regression analysis, the results revealed that positive, uncertain and technical attitudes were positively and signicantly related to the compliance behavior while the other two attitudes were insignicant. Wahid et al. (2005) studied factors inuencing payment of zakat among 2,500 individuals in Malaysia. The results showed that gender, age of the respondents, marital status, income and expenses of the respondents were signicant factors inuencing zakat payment. On the other hand, Nor et al. (2004) examined the compliance of professionals towards zakat on income. Using a logit binomial model, the results showed that the level of religious belief (Iman) and religious education are two of the most signicant factors that inuence the payment of zakat on income. Idris et al. (2003) examined the intrinsic motivational factors such as perceived service quality, degree of knowledge, degree of exposure on promotional campaign and level of religiosity, in inuencing employees working for the federal government to pay zakat on employment income. They found three intrinsic motivational variables, namely perceived service quality, level of zakat knowledge and level of exposure, to be signicantly related to payment of zakat. Wahid et al. (2004) further examined the effect of zakat distribution on the quality of life of the beneciaries especially among the poor and the needy. An effective zakat distribution should result in better quality of life including food, education, health and shelter for the beneciaries. Using logit model, the study examined the level of satisfaction of recipients in three states in Malaysia on the different categories of quality

of life, i.e. transportation, health, education, shelter and involvement in social activities. Results indicate general dissatisfaction among respondents with the zakat distribution. Education and involvement in social activities were the only factors that the respondents were satised with compared to other quality of life (transportation and communication, health and housing). The level of education was found to be the most signicant factor in affecting the quality of life of the respondents. However, the effect of zakat aid was insignicant. The level of income received was also found to be insignicant in affecting the quality of life of the poor. Recent studies also revealed that there were many shortcomings in the distribution of zakat funds (Ahmad et al., 2006; Muhammad, 2008; Wahid et al., 2008, 2009). Ahmad et al. (2006) examined factors contributing to dissatisfaction towards formal zakat institutions based on a sample of 753 respondents who paid zakat to six privatized institutions. Logistic regression was used to analyze the probability of paying to such zakat institutions. Results indicate that satisfaction on the distribution and efcient management of zakat are main factors inuencing zakat payment. About 57 percent of the respondents were dissatised with the distribution of zakat funds which signicantly affects payments to the zakat institutions. The results were also conrmed by Muhammad (2008) who examined the perceptions of academics on the efciency of zakat administration especially in terms of distributing and collecting funds, having accessibility to the funds, and providing sufcient information to the public. The study found a positive signicant relationship between perception on the distribution of zakat funds and payment of zakat formally to the zakat institutions. Other studies such as Wahid et al. (2008, 2009) revealed two main factors contributing to dissatisfaction are the ineffectiveness of zakat distribution and the lack of transparency on information about the distribution of zakat. The lack of condence on the governance of zakat institutions due to the perceived lack of efciency and effectiveness may directly undermine the zakat institutions in attaining their desired socio-economic objectives. Table I summarizes studies on zakat institutions in Malaysia Table I summarizes the approaches and the ndings of past studies on the practices of zakat and zakat institutions. Most of the studies above are descriptive and theoretical in nature. Some of the studies empirically examined various concerns on zakat collection, distribution and management. However, most studies are lacking in terms of rigorous theoretical model development, and robust empirical testing of more pertinent and emerging issues such as efciency and governance. Table I clearly indicates the dearth of empirical studies especially on efciency and governance, and the interactions of these two important areas of concern in the context of zakat institutions. 5. Efciency and zakat institutions Economic efciency, based on conventional economic context, is a term describing how well a system is performing in terms of generating the maximum desired output from given inputs and available technology. In other words, efciency is improved when more output is generated with the same or less amount of inputs. An economic system is more efcient if it can provide more goods and services for society without using more resources. The concept of economic efciency measurement proposed by Farrell (1957) consists of two components, namely technical efciency (TE) and allocative efciency. TE reects the rms ability to obtain maximum output from a given set of inputs, and allocative efciency reects the rms ability to use the inputs in optimal

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Author(s) Factor analysis and logistic regression analysis

1. Idris and Ayob (2002)

2. Idris et al. (2003)

3. Rahman (2003)

4. Wahid et al. (2004) Examine the impacts of zakat distribution on the quality of life Logit model (i.e. transportation and communication, education, health shelter and social involvement) of the zakat beneciaries especially among the poor and the needy

5. Nor et al. (2004)

Table I. Summary of studies on zakat institutions in Malaysia

Method(s) of analysis Main nding(s) Multivariate logistic regression analysis Conceptual analysis Logit binomial model Identied ve categories of attitude, namely general attitude, positive attitude, uncertain attitude, conditional attitude and technical attitude towards zakat on employment income. Positive attitude, uncertain attitude and technical attitude were positively and signicantly related to compliance behavior while the other two attitudes were insignicant Three intrinsic motivational variables, namely perceived service quality, level of zakat knowledge and level of exposure, were found to be signicantly related to payment of zakat. Surprisingly, the level of religiosity was found to be negatively related to compliance behavior and this may be attributed to disagreement on the zakatability of income from employment. Compliance in the study is strictly limited to ofcial payment to the authority Proposed for the federal government to institute good nancial management practices and reform zakat distribution practices. Also proposed the introduction of two zakat governance measures, i.e. the promulgation of Islamic accounting standard, and structural and policy reform towards more effective zakat distribution The respondents were generally not satised with the zakat distribution. Education and social involvement (involving in social activities) were the only factors that the respondents were satised with relative to other quality of life variables (i.e. transportation and communication, health and housing). The level of education was found to be the most signicant factor in affecting the quality of life of the respondents. The effect of zakat aid and level of income was found to be insignicant in affecting the quality of life of the poor Level of religious belief (Iman) and religious education are found to be the two most signicant factors inuencing the payment of zakat on income. Other factors (i.e. gender, number of dependants, level of education and knowledge on zakat on income) are less signicant in inuencing the payment of zakat on income. The role and function of the zakat collection centre is found to be not signicant in inuencing payment of zakat on income (continued )

Focus/issue(s)

Analyse attitudes towards zakat on employment income and their implications on compliance behaviour

Analyse the intrinsic motivational factors, namely perceived service quality, degree of knowledge, degree of exposure on promotional campaign and level of religiosity, in inuencing governmental employees to pay zakat on employment income

Analyse contemporary issues of zakat on business wealth as practiced in Malaysia

Examine the compliance behaviour of professionals towards zakat on income

Author(s) Logistic regression analysis

Focus/issue(s)

Method(s) of analysis

Main nding(s)

6. Ahmad et al. (2006) Analyse factors contributing to the dissatisfaction towards zakat institutions based on a sample of 753 respondents who paid zakat to six privatized zakat institutions

7. Rahman (2007)

Identify and examine factors that determine the success of zakat institutions towards the effective integration of zakat as part of the mainstream Islamic nancial system

Conceptual analysis

8. Muhammad (2008) Analyse the perceptions of academics on zakat administration Regression analysis especially in terms of distributing and collecting funds, having accessibility to funds and providing sufcient information to the public

9. Wahid et al. (2008) Analyse factors of dissatisfaction among zakat payers towards Logistic regression analysis zakat distribution, and whether there exist differences in the degree of dissatisfaction towards privatised and non-privatised zakat institutions 10. Wahid et al. Analyse perceptions of zakat payers towards zakat institutions Descriptive analysis (2009) and the distribution of zakat to the beneciaries

The main factors inuencing zakat payment are found to be satisfaction on the distribution and the efcient management of zakat. About 57 percent of the respondents were dissatised with the current distribution of zakat which in turn signicantly affect the payment to the zakat institutions Proposed three pre-requisites to make zakat a prominent component in mainstream Islamic nancial system: (1) developing objective and fair measurement of zakat on business wealth; (2) standardizing zakat accounting practices; and (iii) developing proper performance measurement system A favourable perception on the distribution of zakat funds is signicantly and positively associated with payment of zakat formally to the zakat institutions while unfavorable perception on zakat distribution will increase the probability of zakat being paid directly to the recipients Most respondents were dissatised with zakat distribution but this did not affect zakat payment signicantly. Privatisation was found to have no effect on respondents zakat payment. Most of the respondents (57 percent) were dissatised with zakat distribution. Unclear method of distribution and lack of transparency on information about the distribution are among the factors identied

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Table I.

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proportions, based on given prices and production technology. The two measures are then combined to provide a measure of total economic efciency. However, for measuring the efciency of zakat, we proposed the use of DEA. 5.1 Efciency of zakat and the use of DEA Based on certain input(s) and output(s), the efciency of zakat institutions can be measured using several methods such as the frontier approach and DEA. Of the available methods, the non-parametric DEA is deemed appropriate for small sample size of rms. DEA is a linear programming technique that forms a piecewise linear convex isoquant over the data points such that no observed point lies to the left or below it (Isik and Hassan, 2002). Thus, DEA frontier represents the set of efcient observations for which no other production unit or linear combination of units employs as little or less of every input without changing the output quantities generated or produces as much or more of every output without altering the input quantities used (Isik and Hassan, 2002). DEA allows focusing on the TE which measures the proportional reduction in input usage that can be attained if the rm operates on the efcient frontier. The DEA also permits further decomposition of the TE into its two components, i.e. pure TE (PTE) and scale efciency (SE). PTE measures the relative ability of operators to convert inputs into outputs while SE measures the extent the operators can take advantage of returns to scale by altering its size towards optimal scale. Obviously, the decomposition lets one to better trace the sources of inefciency in the production units (Isik and Hassan, 2002). In the case of zakat institutions, there are several variables that could be t into the model. The variables could be the number of staff and its total expenditure as the inputs with the total amount of zakat collected, total amount of zakat distributed, total number of zakat payers and total number of zakat recipients as the outputs. Since the DEA allows a few number of institutions in the analysis, the study of zakat institutions in 14 states in Malaysia will be useful as an indicator for a better governed institution. Several studies have been conducted on the efciency of the public sector as well as the private ones. Among studies on the efciency of the public sector include Ruggiero and Vitaliano (1999), Husain et al. (2000), Sarker and De (2004) and Ibrahim and Salleh (2006). Husain et al. (2000) measured public sectors productivity, namely Road Transport Department in Malaysia, by examining how well resources were combined and utilized in order to accomplish optimized set of results. Using the DEA with multiple inputs and multiple outputs, the result showed that out of 46 service units, only 11 service units score above 50 percent on the efciency scores. Hence, the DEA method is able to objectively identify efcient and inefcient service units. The study also contributed in developing policy measures to improve the efciency of service units such as reduction in the number of labour and labour cost. Using a similar method, Sarker and De (2004) examined the efciency of resource usage of different types of tenure and farm size. Using DEA, the input chosen for the analysis include human labour costs with the outputs being various crops, credit, marketing of products and agricultural extension. The results showed that most of the farms are ideally efcient and valid for both technologically advanced villages, villages that used higher incidence of irrigation and high-yield varieties (HYV) technology, and technologically backward villages, villages that have no irrigational facilities except rainwater and non-HYV technology in agriculture. The result showed that small farms are more efcient than larger size farms. Overall, the study showed that the diffusion

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on new agricultural technology is not an important factor in improving level of efciency of farms. Thus, the adoption of technology may not lead to better efciency; instead, the management of technology and the governance of the organizations could be critical factors that may inuence efciency. Using stochastic frontier model, a parametric economic approach, Ibrahim and Salleh (2006) examined the performance of local governments in providing local public goods and services and developed the indices of cost efciency. The local governments were categorized into three components: city councils for city centres, municipality for large towns and district council for small urban centres. The major function of the local governments is to provide public goods and services that are specic for the localities. The study used labour as the input while number of public toilets, number of parking lots, number of stall spaces, amount of waste disposed, number of trees planted, total population and the length of road were used as proxies for output indicators. A survey instrument was disseminated to 99 local governments in 2000 in order to obtain information on the local public goods and services provided by the local governments and 46 responses were analyzed. The result showed that most of the local governments in Malaysia were cost inefcient. The observed cost of the local governments was 59 percent more inefcient than the best practice cost. Furthermore, the result also showed that municipality councils were more inefcient than the district councils. With regard to zakat institutions, there is no published empirical studies that examine the efciency of the institutions. Hence, a study looking at relevant and robust economic measurements of efcient zakat collection and distribution is important. The evaluation of the institutions efciency is crucial in improving the overall operations and in turn, in contributing towards achieving Islamic socio-economic objectives. 6. Governance and zakat institutions Good governance may contribute to an efcient organization. The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacic (2008) denes governance as the process of decision making and the process by which decisions are implemented. According to the UNDP (1998) and Huther and Shah (1998), governance refers to the exercise of economic, political and administrative power in the management of the resource endowment of a state. Its practice requires mechanisms, processes and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations and mediate their differences. The 1997 UNDP on good governance covers ve principles: (1) legitimacy and voice; (2) direction; (3) performance; (4) accountability; and (5) fairness (Graham et al., 2003). Legitimacy and voice calls for all men and women be given democratic voice in decision making. Good governance also mediates differing interests to reach a broad consensus on what is in the best interest of the group and where possible on policies and procedures. The second principle, direction, addresses the strategic vision where leaders and the public have a broad and long-term perspective on good governance along with a sense

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of what is needed for development. The third principle, performance, is related to producing results that meet the needs of the stakeholders while making the best use of resources. This encompases issues such as cost-effectiveness, capacity, responsiveness, dissemination of information regarding performance to the public and monitoring and evaluating management performance. The fourth principle, accountability, requires organizations to be accountable to the public as well as to institutional stakeholders, and also to be fully transparent. Processes, institutions and information should be accessible to those concerned with them and enough information should be provided to stakeholders for monitoring purposes. The fth principle, fairness, deals with equity and rule of law and call for all men and women be given equal opportunities and for the legal frameworks to be enforced impartially. In the context of zakat institutions, legal frameworks must also encompass the shariah requirements on zakat. This is crucial to ensure that the frameworks are relevant to the Islamic institution of zakat. The UNDP (1997) has also enunciated a set of good governance principles specically for sustainable human development (SHD). SHD is dened by UNDP as the process by which the range of opportunities and choices for people can increase and be expanded, while protecting those same opportunities and choices for future generations as well as the natural systems upon which all life depend (Management Development and Governance Division, 2006, p. 9). This denition was derived from a number of sources, including international declarations emanating from conferences such as the 1992 Earth Summit and from signicant work undertaken by others, such as the 1987 Brundtland Commission[8]. SHD according to UNDPs denition is all about the well being of individual human beings. The new paradigm of SHD places people at the center as the principal actor and the ultimate goal of development. By enhancing human capabilities to expand choices and opportunities for all, SHD creates an environment in which human security is guaranteed and individual human beings can develop their full potential and lead a life of dignity and freedom. Human development indicator was developed by UNDP in 1990 as an indicator of the degree of human development enjoyed in respective countries comprising of longevity (life expectancy at birth), knowledge (adult literacy rate, gross enrolment ratio) and decent standard of living (GDP percapita). The UNDP focuses on four critical elements of SHD: (1) eliminating poverty; (2) creating jobs and sustaining livelihoods; (3) protecting and regenerating the environment; and (4) promoting the advancement of women. Meanwhile, the human poverty index was introduced in the 1997 Human Development Report in order to measure the extent of human poverty in a community. It measures the extent of deprivations in developing countries along three dimensions: a long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent standard of living. In the context of zakat, the system is a balanced human development programme with the main purpose of ensuring and protecting the social and economic welfare of the poor and the needy. Islam considers mankind as vicegerents (khalifah) of Allah, and they must ensure that other fellow human beings are well protected socially and economically. The socio-economic cooperation is well ingrained in the Islamic system of zakat whereby the rich

and the well-to-do members of the community take care of the needs and the social welfare of the poor and the needy through an institutionalized system of zakat. A crucial aspect of SHD is governance, which encompasses concepts such as accountability, transparency, corruption, election, participation, democracy, free media, access to information, human rights and rule of law (Hasegawa, 2001). Improvement in the governance system will help improve SHD. With regard to zakat, the main objective is the achievement of socio-economic justice (Kahf, 1989). Thus, zakat can provide an alternative to the shortcomings of the secular economic system as the main focus of zakat is to alleviate poverty through transfer of wealth from the rich to the poor. The Islamic system of zakat places human welfare and well being of individuals as an important objective in achieving socio-economic justice. The proper distribution of zakat funds will ensure that the poor in a community may enjoy a decent standard of living or at least be able to overcome or reduce poverty. The study by Shipley and Kovacs (2007) is among studies that used UNDPs principles of good governance. Using the UNDPs (1997) principles of good governance as a reference along with the United Nations Economic, Social and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), International Council on Monuments and Sites charters and conventions and other governance reports, Shipley and Kovacs (2007) measured the oversight and operation of cultural heritage institutions with regard to their relevance to good governance. The study found that there exists a good model in the ve principles of good governance (IOG, 2003) that are well conceived and clearly articulated based on the UNDPs characteristics of good governance. These principles, after comparisons with and evaluation against UNESCO and National Trust documents, emerge as robust, useful and transferable with only a small number of additions. Graham et al. (2003) used the principles of good governance based on UNDPs list of good governance in the context of protected areas (PA). In applying those principles, three steps were undertaken. First the understanding of the means and ends of the PA governance where the variety of objectives can be summarized under four headings: nature conservation, science, visitor opportunities (recreational, educational, cultural, spiritual, etc.) and local and indigenous needs. This was followed by developing specic criteria for each of the ve principles and nally applying the principles and criteria by analyzing specic governance challenges in a PA context in order to pinpoint gaps or weak points in a governance regime. They found that the ve principles appeared to be relevant to the full range of models of PA governance. However, the study is rather a conceptual study that discusses the possibility of applying the principles in order to create a meaningful analytical tool. In the context of zakat institutions, the model of governance developed by UNDP can be adapted and modied for the purpose of developing zakat governance by taking into considerations relevant shariah requirements, and the Islamic concepts of accountability and fairness. A good governance institution is an institution that is accountable, transparent and fair. These principles are important to ensure the achievement of goals and objectives of the institution. For many authors, good governance is the key variable in the rm valuation besides the mitigation of agency conicts. Hence, study of governance is important towards the achievement of the respective goals and objectives. In the Malaysian case, Siddiquee and Mohamed (2007) evidenced that the Malaysian Government has introduced a variety of changes in its public management system that are

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geared towards enhancing efciency and institutional capacity of the governmental machinery, as well as transforming it into a dynamic, accountable and customer-oriented administration. The early reform attempts and those that followed in the 1970s were geared towards institution building and strengthening the administrative capacity to promote state-led socio-economic development while the adoption of the market ideology in the mid-1980s and subsequent policy decisions under the National Development Policy and Vision 2020 (the 30-year perspective plan that seeks to transform Malaysia into a developed country by 2020) marked the new beginning of reforms. The reforms involved providing customer-oriented services, improving systems and work processes, strengthening public-private cooperation, enhancing accountability and integrity and inculcating values of excellence in the public service and promoting the values of good governance and responsible administrative behavior. The reforms in general, have produced positive impacts in ensuring quick, hassle-free and timely services to customers, and contributed to streamlining the structure and size of public bureaucracy. However, the reforms have fallen short of what was required to promote good governance. For instance, concentration of extensive policy and managerial authority for planning and implementation activities undertaken from the federal to the state and local and district levels limit capacity and resources. The problem of public participation and adequate scrutiny of policy decisions has been compounded by absence of transparency and openness in government operations. Pellegrina (2007) investigated the different effect of efciency and governance of European and Islamic banks during the period of 1996-2002. Using productivity (staff expenses/number of employees) as proxy of governance, the results show that insufcient role of staff members in Islamic banks gave a clear signal of inefciency. Similarly, the estimated parameter is also positive (although largely undersized) in the simulation performed on the European sample banks. In the case of zakat institutions in a Muslim country like Malaysia, good governance is important since it may contribute towards efciency and effectiveness in zakat funds. Closer examination of the various governance mechanisms is important because zakat institutions control signicant nancial resources. Based on the theory and past studies discussed earlier, we proposed a framework for measuring the efciency and governance of zakat institutions in Malaysia. The theoretical model is shown in Figure 2. Based on Figure 2, it is assumed that the governance factors (examined by its governance characteristics such as board size, proportion of professionals on board, active board of directors, audit committee and organizational structure) and other administrative/structural factors (including privatisation, number of branches and technology) may lead to better efciency of the zakat organization. The above factors are determined based on the functions and characteristics of zakat institutions in Malaysia. The study postulates that the above governance factors such as the composition of the board of directors is a principal mechanism that can enhance and create the coalitions with the stakeholders controlling resources required by an institution. Alshimmiri (2004) argues that larger boards include directors with diverse skills and expertise which would help improve the efciency of transmitting the information of the organization. Professionals are people who have great skills and expertise in particular areas. Besides educational background, professionals gain their professionalism and expertise through experience and job training. Educational background for instance,

Governance factors (1) Board size (2) Proportion of professionals on board (3) Active board of directors (4) Audit committee (5) Organizational structure Administrative/ structural factors (1) Privatisation (2) Number of branches (3) Technology Pure technical efficiency (PTE)

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Technical efficiency (TE)

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Efficiency

Scale efficiency (SE)

Figure 2. Theoretical model

can be an important determinant of efciency of an organization with better educated directors being more likely to adopt innovative activities. In the context of zakat institutions, experts and professionals from various elds such as syariah, conventional law, information and communication technology (ICT), etc. are important in improving the efciency of the institutions. Furthermore, active board of directors measured by number of meetings postulates that more discussion activities (e.g. through meetings frequency) would enhance governance quality (Khanchel, 2007) and also increase the efciency level (Lin et al., 2009). The existence of an audit committee is expected to improve the accountability of an institution and improve the quality of governance of an institution since its existence may improve internal control and also act as effective monitoring device for improving the efciency of the institution. Organisational structure refers to the chairman of the religious councils in Malaysia who is responsible in determining the objectives and the missions of the council. The authority of an institution should have people who are able to respond to local demand as well as having adequate mechanisms for accountability. In the case of zakat institutions in Malaysia, decentralisations in the 1980s indicate a transfer of the chairmanship role of some councils from the Sultan (the king of a state) to the state government (Chief Minister) and the Chief Minister while other councils still have the Sultan as the chairman. The new public management system adopted is assumed to signicantly contribute to the efciency of zakat institutions in Malaysia as it is seen to be more effective and contributed to the decline in the traditional ethos of the public sector (Brereton and Temple, 1999). Hence, decentralisation measured by type of authorities (Sultan, Chief Minister or others) may lead to better performance of the institution and consequently to the efciency of zakat institutions in Malaysia.

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By privatization, an institution will follow the management philosophy of corporate institution such as marketing, research and development as well as utilizing management information system. Through privatisation, zakat institutions will adopt the management concept of corporate institution in collecting and distributing the funds and this may contribute to better performance of the instituions in managing the funds and consequently leading to the efciency of the institutions. Applying the branching concept to zakat institutions is expected to increase the efciency of the instituions. There are different numbers of zakat branches in every state in Malaysia. More branches is expected to help in identifying potential zakat recipients as well as monitoring the effectiveness of the disbursement in certain area. Hence, it is expected that the higher the number of branches, the more efcient the instituions. The use of ICT through interconnected computer networks allows individual and institutions to communicate with each other effectively and inexpensively. The widespread availability of ICT (computers, digital telecommunication, etc.) has led to the creation of an unprecedented capacity for dissemination of knowledge and information to the society. In the context of zakat institutions, the use of the ICT is expected to improve the efciency of the institutions as it helps them to improve productivity as well as making it easy for the zakat payers to fulll their obligation and responsibility easily. Thus, measurement based on the number of computers, internet access, web site availability and availability of online payment of zakat, the use of ICT is expected to improve efciency of the institutions. Good governance is associated with accountability of the leaders. Effective leadership will enhance the performance of the organization while other factors (privatisation, number of branches and technology) may ease the institution in improving its administrative affairs and efciency. Hence, the governance and other administrative factors mentioned above are assumed to positively inuence the efciency of zakat institutions in Malaysia. 7. Conclusion The economic impacts of zakat, in theory, can positively affect major economic variables such as consumption, saving, poverty eradication and economic growth. This paper presents a review of the literature on the importance of ensuring the efciency of zakat institutions in managing zakat funds through good governance practices. Some recent studies in the context of a modern Muslim country such as Malaysia revealed many shortcomings of the zakat institutions, especially in terms of distributing the funds and also a lack of proper governance mechanisms. Owing to the dearth of empirical studies on the efciency and governance of zakat institutions, the paper proposes a comprehensive framework for studying efciency of zakat institutions in Malaysia using DEA. In addition, the undertaking of an empirical study on governance will contribute towards a proper understanding of the governance mechanisms and issues on the complex economics and management of zakat. The developed conceptual model in this paper and future empirical ndings using this model will hopefully contribute towards sustainability of zakat institutions and the enhancement of the noble socio-economic objectives of zakat.
Notes 1. Baitulmal is the institution that acts as a trustee for the Muslims that looks after assets from which members of the Muslim public could benet.

2. One of the ways by which zakat has been marginalised is by attaching it to the religious department rather than the Ministry of Finance as in the case of Malaysia. Another method of marginalising zakat is by only imposing it on some business activities and exempt others on purely political grounds rather than Islamic socioeconomic justice as proscribed in the Holy Quran (9:34; 4:141; 2:188). 3. Relative income hypothesis developed by James Stemble Duesenberry (1949), states that an individuals attitude to consumption and saving is dictated more by his income than by abstract standard of living in relation to others. So, an individual is less concerned with absolute level of consumption than by relative levels. The percentage of income consumed by an individual depends on his percentile position within the income distribution. 4. Absolute income hypothesis proposed by John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) examines the relationship between income and consumption, and asserts that the consumption level of a household depends not on its relative income but on its absolute level of income. As income rises, the theory asserts, consumption will also rise but not necessarily at the same rate. 5. Permanent income hypothesis developed by Milton Friedman states that the choices made by consumers regarding their consumption patterns are determined not by current income but by longer term income expectations that the individual will consume a constant proportion of his/her permanent income. The key determinant of consumption is an individuals real wealth, not his current real disposable income. 6. Performance measurement in public sector should be measured based on 3Es, i.e. economy, efciency and effectiveness. Economy represents the relationship between resources expended or budgeted for an activity and what is received from them. Effectiveness focuses mainly on the outputs, i.e. the goods and services produced as a direct result of management activities. Efciency deals with both inputs and outputs and measures how productive inputs are turned into outputs. The additional measure of performance is outcomes which refer to the consequences of the output produced. 7. There are 14 states in Malaysia and the administration of zakat affairs are governed by the states due to the legacy of the British before independence of Malaya, over the administration of (1) matters related to Islam and Malay Customs; and (2) other aspects of state and national administration, where the former was administered by the establishment in each state of a central organization eventually known as the Council of Religion and Malay Customs. 8. UNDP and governance: experiences and lessons learned, available at: http://mirror.undp.org/ magnet/docs/gov/Lessons1.htm#2.5 References Afzal, O. (1980), The social security of Islam, in Zaman, M.R. (Ed.), Some Aspects of the Economics of Zakah, American Trust Publications, Indianapolis, IN, pp. 173-8. Ahmad, S., Wahid, H. and Mohamad, A. (2006), Penswastaan Institusi Zakat dan Kesannya Terhadap Pembayaran Secara Formal di Malaysia (Privatisation of zakat institutions in Malaysia and its effect on formal payment), International Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 175-96. Alshimmiri, T. (2004), Board composition, executive remuneration and corporate performance: the case of REITS, Corporate Ownership and Control, Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 104-18. Bakar, M.D. (1998), The Malaysian zakat system: law and policy reform, Jurnal Undang-undang IKIM, Vol. 2 No. 2, pp. 1-36. Bakar, N.B.A. and Rahman, A.R.A. (2007), A comparative study of zakah and modern taxation, J.KAU: Islamic Economics, Vol. 20 No. 1, pp. 25-40.

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Maududi, A.A. (1988), Maashiaati Islam, Islamic Publication, Lahore. Metwally, M.M. (1986), The effect of the religious tax of zakah on investment in an Islamic economy, Humanomics, Vol. 2 No. 2, pp. 43-55. Muhammad, A. (1980), A note on the concept of zakah and taxation, in Zaman, M.R. (Ed.), Some Aspects of the Economics of Zakah, American Trust Publications, Indianapolis, IN, pp. 69-79. Muhammad, A. (2008), Perception of academicians towards zakat administration particularly zakat distribution: the case of Selangor and Kelantan, unpublished Master thesis, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. Nor, M.A.M., Wahid, H. and Nor, N.G.M. (2004), Kesedaran Membayar Zakat Pendapatan di Kalangan Kakitangan Profesional Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (The awareness of paying zakat on income among professional staff of National University of Malaysia), Islamiyyat, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 59-67. Pellegrina, L.D. (2007), Capital adequacy ratios, efciency and governance: a comparison between Islamic and Western banks, working paper, Universita Biccocca and Centro Paolo Baf, Universita Bocconi, Milan, 10 April. Qardhawi, Y. (2000), Fiqh Al Zakah A Comparative Study of Zakah, Regulations and Philosophy in the Light of Quran and Sunnah, Vol. 1, Scientic Publishing Centre, King Abdul Aziz University, Jeddah (translated by M. Kahf). Rahman, A.R.A. (2003), Zakat on business wealth in Malaysia: corporate tax rebate, accountability, and governance, Jurnal IKIM, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 37-50. Rahman, A.R.A. (2007), Pre-requisites for effective integration of zakah into mainstream Islamic nancial system in Malaysia, Islamic Economic Studies, Vol. 14 Nos 1/2, pp. 91-107. Ruggiero, J. and Vitaliano, D.F. (1999), Assessing the efciency of public schools using data envelopment analysis and frontier regression, Contemporary Economic Policy, Vol. 17 No. 3, pp. 321-31. Sadeq, A.A.-H. (2002), A Survey of the Institution of Zakah: Issues, Theories and Administration, IDB/IRTI, Jeddah. Samad, A., Gardner, N.D. and Cook, B.J. (2005), Islamic banking and nance in theory and practice: the experience of Malaysia and Bahrain, The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, Vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 69-86. Sarker, D. and De, S. (2004), Non-parametric approach to the study of farm efciency in agriculture, Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol. 34 No. 2, pp. 207-20. Shehata, S.I. (1994), Limitations on the use of zakah funds in nancing socio-economic infrastructure, Islamic Economic Studies, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 63-78. Shipley, R. and Kovacs, J.F. (2007), Good governance principles for the cultural heritage sector: lessons from international experience, Corporate Governance, Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 214-28. Siddiquee, N.A. and Mohamed, M.Z. (2007), Paradox of public sector reforms in Malaysia: a good governance perspective, Public Administration Quarterly, Fall, pp. 284-312. (The) United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacic (2008), What is good governance?, UNESCAP, available at: www.unescap.org/pdd/prs/ProjectActivities/ Ongoing/gg/governance.pdf (accessed September 20). UNDP (1997), Governance for Sustainable Human Development, A Policy Document, United Nations Development Programme, New York, NY, available at: http://magnet.undp.org/ policy/default.htm (accessed 20 January 2009).

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UNDP (1998), UNDP and governance experiences and lessons learned, Lessons-Learned Series No. 1, Management Development and Governance Division, New York, NY, available at: http://magnet.undp.org/docs/gov/Lessons1.htm (accesed 3 February 2009). Wahid, H., Ahmad, S. and Kader, A.R. (2008), Pengagihan Zakat oleh Institusi Zakat di Malaysia: Mengapa Masyarakat Islam Tidak Berpuashati (Distribution of zakat in Malaysia: why are the Muslims still dissatised), Proceedings of Seminar Kebangsaan Ekonomi Malaysia 2008, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi. Wahid, H., Ahmad, S. and Kader, A.R. (2009), Pengagihan Zakat oleh Institusi Zakat kepada Lapan Asnaf: Kajian di Malaysia (Distribution of zakat to the eight asnaf: Malaysian case), Proceedings of Seminar Kebangsaan Ekonomi Islam 2008/09, Akademi Pengajian Islam, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. Wahid, H., Ahmad, S. and Nor, M.A.M. (2004), Kesan Bantuan Zakat Terhadap Kualiti Hidup: Kajian Kes Asnaf Fakir dan Miskin (The effect of zakat aid on the quality of life: the case of the poor and needy recipients), The Journal of Muamalat & Islamic Finance Research, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 151-66. Wahid, H., Nor, M.A.M. and Ahmad, S. (2005), Kesedaran Membayar Zakat: Apakah Faktor Penentunya? (Awareness to pay zakat: what are the contributing factors?), International Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 12 No. 2, pp. 171-89. Further reading Awan, M.M. (1980), Economic policy for development a treatise on Zakah, in Zaman, M.R. (Ed.), Some Aspects of the Economics of Zakah, American Trust Publications, Indianapolis, IN, pp. 179-83. Ihsan, I. and Hassan, M.K. (2002), Technical, scale and allocative efciencies of Turkish banking industry, Journal of Banking & Finance, Vol. 26 No. 4, pp. 719-66. Taylor, D.W. (2000), Facts, myths and monsters: understanding the principles of good governance, The International Journal of Public Sector Management, Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 108-21. Corresponding author Norazlina Abd. Wahab can be contacted at: [email protected]

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