Part 1.

Introduction to the UNIX Operating System

Part 1. Introduction to the UNIX Operating System

1. Main components of a computer
1.1 Software
The operating system is a collection of programs and files with the primary function of instructing the computer on what to do with the hardware. Without operating system PC hardware usually has only BIOS and Bootloader which are difficult to use if you need to do complicated tasks with the computer. Operating systems handle memory management, internal usses and scheduling for programs. PC operating systems are usually installed with !"I ut many em edded systems offer only te#tual interface from e#ternal computer, some $%&s or small character ased displays and some push uttons 'like &igital Su scri er $ine modems '(&S$), digital tele*ision recei*ers 'digi o#) or $ego +indstorm). (pplication programs use peripherals and computers internal hardware through operating systems application programming interface '(PI).

1.2 Hardware
The four main hardware components of a computer are the random access memory ',(+), the CP", the input-output 'I-.) de*ices, and the hard disk or other mass storage de*ice. 1.2.1 Random Access Memory ,(+ is the main computer memory which is often referred to as physical memory. Programs and data must e loaded into physical memory for the system to process them. The statement, /The system has 012 + ytes of memory,/ refers to the amount of ,(+ or physical memory currently installed. ( software program resides on the hard disk and, when acti*ated, an image or copy of that program is loaded into ,(+. In em edded systems hard disk is often a 3lash memory i.e. internal solid state non4 *olatile memory. Programs remain in ,(+ as long as needed. When the programs are no longer re5uired, they can e o*erwritten y copies of other programs. If the system is re ooted or e#periences a power loss, all data in physical memory is cleared. 1.2.2 Centra Processing Unit The CP" is the computer logic chip that e#ecutes instructions recei*ed from physical memory. These instructions are stored in a inary language. There can e se*eral CP"s in a computer and se*eral cores in a CP". In CP" there is usually also memory a*aila le and in small em edded systems it may e all the memory a*aila le 'like toys, dri*ers and adapters). 1.2.! Input"Output #e$ices The I-O component reads input from a de*ice, such as a key oard, into memory, and it writes output from memory to a de*ice, such as a terminal window.

Part 1. Introduction to the UNIX Operating System

6our input de*ices include the key oard and mouse. &isplay, printer and tape dri*e are e#amples of primary output de*ices. 1.2.% &ard #is' The hard disk is a magnetic storage de*ice in which files, directories, and applications are stored.

2. Operating system 2.1 Kernel

The kernel of "7I8 is the hu of the operating system9 it allocates time and memory to programs and handles the filestore and communications in response to system calls. (s an illustration of the way that the shell and the kernel work together, suppose a user types rm myfile 'which has the effect of remo*ing the file my(i e). The shell searches the filestore for the file containing the program rm, and then re5uests the kernel, through system calls, to e#ecute the program rm on my(i e. When the process rm myfile has finished running, the shell then returns the "7I8 prompt : to the user, indicating that it is waiting for further commands. ;0<

2.2 Command-line interpreter

( command) ine interpreter 'also called a command ine she , command anguage interpreter, or a re*iated as C*I) is a computer program that reads lines of te#t entered y a user and interprets them in the conte#t of a gi*en operating system or programming language. Command4line interpreters allow users to issue *arious commands in a *ery efficient 'and often terse) way. This re5uires the user to know the names of the commands and their parameters, and the synta# of the language that is interpreted. The shell acts as an interface etween the user and the kernel. When a user logs in, the login program checks the username and password, and then starts another program called the shell. The shell is a command line interpreter 'C$I). It interprets the commands the user types in and arranges for them to e carried out. The commands are themsel*es programs9 when they terminate, the shell gi*es the user another prompt ': on our systems). ;0<

2. Unix history
2.1 UNIX
"ni# was originally de*eloped in 1=>= y a group of (T?T employees at Bell $a s 'including @en Thompson, and Brian @ernighan, &ennis ,itchie who is thought as founder of C4programming. +ain ad*antage in "ni# operating system was that it was programmed in higher language than assem ler making it much easier to port it to other processor systems. /The Open !roup, an industry standards consortium, owns the A"ni#B trademark. Only systems fully compliant with and certified according to the Single "7I8 Specification are 5ualified to use the trademarkC

Part 1. Introduction to the UNIX Operating System

others may e called /"ni# system4like/ or /"ni#4like/ 'though the Open !roup disappro*es of this term). Dowe*er, the term /"ni#/ is often used informally to denote any operating system that closely resem les the trademarked system./ ;1<

1.3 Linux history

/1==1, a fateful year In 1==1, ideal conditions e#isted that would create $inu#. In essence, $inus Tor*alds had a kernel ut no programs of his own, ,ichard Stallman and !7" had programs ut no working kernel. ,ead the two menEs own words a out this9 $inus9 /Sadly, a kernel y itself gets you nowhere. To get a working system you need a shell, compilers, a li rary etc./ ,+S9 The !7" Durd is not ready for production use. 3ortunately, another kernel is a*aila le. ;It is called< $inu#. So com ining the necessary programs pro*ided y !7" in Cam ridge, +assachusetts and a kernel, de*eloped y $inus Tor*alds in Delsinki, 3inland, $inu# was orn. &ue to the physical distances in*ol*ed, the means used to get $inusE kernel together with the !7" programs was the Internet, then in its infancy. We can say then that $inu# is an operating system that came to life on the Internet. The Internet would also e crucial in $inu#Es su se5uent de*elopment as the means of coordinating the work of all the de*elopers that ha*e made $inu# into what it is today./ ;2<

xamp!e 1.1 Lo"in

1. Start Putty 6ou will most likely e using telnet or ssh protocols to connect to a remote "ni# computer. Because telnet protocol does not support encryption, user and password information, as well as data, are transferred o*er the network in plain. When logging in o*er the network it is recommended that you use a program which has a higher standard of data security, such as SSD 'Secure Shell). "se SSD 2. Configurate connection 'host eduni#.metropolia.fi, type SSD) F. $ogin The login process identifies a user to the system. (fter succesful login you should see a shell prompt, indicating that the shell is ready to recei*e a command. F. pwd Print working directory9 p+d command is used to output the path of the current working directory.'It works like the /cd/ command with no arguments in +S Win command prompts.) G. who Command +ho displays a list of users who are currently logged into a computer. %ach user has a uni5ue user I& on a "ni# system. 0. e#it $ogs you out of the system and terminates shell program.

Part 1. Introduction to the UNIX Operating System

2. Some Unix terms

2.1 Session
Session starts when you log in and ends when you log out.

2.2 User account

%*ery user must ha*e a user account on the system to log in. (ll user accounts are defined in the -etc-passwd file and contain the elements that identify each uni5ue user to the system. System administrators are responsi le for creating and maintaining user accounts. In "ni#4style computer operating systems, root is the con*entional name of the user who has all rights or permissions 'to all files and programs) in all modes. "ser name is the name you use 'typical H characters) to login. %*ery user that has a permission to access a "ni# computer has own uni5ue username on that computer.

2.3 #assword
Password is needed also to gain access on a "ni# computer with a username. Password authoriIation is done efore log in is completed and session started. Password strength is a measure of the effecti*eness of a password in resisting guessing and rute4force attacks.

2.!.1 ,-uide ines (or strong pass+ords

Common guidelines Common guidelines for choosing good passwords are designed to make passwords less easily disco*ered y intelligent guessing9 Include num ers, sym ols, upper and lowercase letters in passwords Password length should e around 12 to 1G characters if permitted, and longer still if possi le while remaining memora le (*oid any password ased on repetition, dictionary words, letter or num er se5uences, usernames, relati*e or pet names, romantic links 'current or past), or iographical information 'e.g., dates, I& num ers, ancestors names or dates, ...). If the system recogniIes case as significant, use capital and lower4case letters Password should e easy to remem er for the user, and not force insecure actions 'e.g., the *ery insecure practice of writing the password down on a Post4It note stuck to the monitor) (*oid using the same password for multiple sites or purposes The num er of possi le passwords increases e#ponentially as we increase password length. It should, howe*er, e noted that including num ers and a *ariety of other sym ols does not significantly affect the passwordEs security as it only affects the ase, not the e#ponent. (dditional guidelines &ou le a character consecuti*ely, to discourage shoulder surfing, the techni5ue where y someone o ser*es the typing o*er a shoulder. &onEt triple a character and donEt dou le more than one character. If the typist is fast, itEs hard to see how many times a key was consecuti*ely pressed.B;G<

2.!.2 Changing your pass+ord

6ou should change your password often and especially if you ha*e reason to elie*e someone has gained

Part 1. Introduction to the UNIX Operating System

access to your password. Dow to change your password9 J passwd %nter old password9 %nter new password9 ,e4enter new password9 Password updated successfully.

2.!.! .he "etc"pass+d /ntry

%ach user account entry in the -etc-passwd file contains se*en fields, each separated y a colon. userl9#91.291.9"ser (ccount 19-e#port-home-userl9- in-ksh "ser name 'userl) 4 Specifies the name used y the system to identify the user. &epending on the system administrator, user names are usually some com ination of a userEs first and last names. 3or e#ample, a user named Bo Wood might e gi*en the user name o w, wood, or wood . The user name must e uni5ue. Placeholder '#) 4 +aintains the field for the password, which is kept in the -etc-shadow file. The -etc-shadow file contains encrypted passwords and password aging informati on 'for e#ample, how long efore a user must change a password and a date on which the account e#pires). This file can e read only y the system administrator. "I& ' 1.2) 4 Identifies the userEs uni5ue numerical I& or user identification '"I&). !I& '1.) 4 Identifies the userEs uni5ue numerical group I& '!I&). Comment '"ser (ccount 1) 4 Is traditionally the full name of the user. Dome directory '-e#port-home-userl) 4 Specifies the directory in which users create and store their personal files. $ogin shell '- in-ksh) K &efines the shell in which the user will e working after the user logs into the system.

xamp!e 2.1 Manua!

1. Start Putty and login 2. man date 'space ar to ne#t page, 5 for 5uit) The online "7I8 ,eference +anuals 'also called man pages) pro*ide detailed descriptions of commands and their usage. These online manual pages are included in the "ni# Operating %n*ironment. The man command is primarily used to display the online manual page for any gi*en command.

Part 1. Introduction to the UNIX Operating System

F. man 4f G. man 4k 0. apropos time >. whatis time L. date 44help H. e#it

2.$ She!!
When you log in to the "ni# computer, shell will e started 'in " untu applications menu9 Terminal). The shell is a command line interprter which reads command and e#ecutes the relati*e program. The shell operates etween the kernel and user. There are many different shells 'sh, ash, csh, tcsh). Within a session you can start se*eral shells. The shell starts as other programs with its name e.g. ash. %#it from shell with command e#it.

2.%.1 0ourne She

The Bourne shell is the original "7I8 shell, de*eloped y Ste*e Bourne at (T?T Bell $a oratories. It is the recommended Shell for programming and is the default shell for the root 'system administrator) account. The default Bourne shell prompt for a regular user account is a dollar sign

2.%.2 C She
The C shell was de*eloped y Bill Moy at the "ni*ersity of California at Berkeley. It is ased on the C programming language and has a num er of features, such as command line history, aliasing, and No control. This shell has een fa*ored o*er the Bourne shell y ordinary system users. The default C shell prompt for a regular user account is the host name followed y a percent sign 'hostname:.).

2.%.! 1orn She

The @orn shell is a superset of the Bourne shell, de*eloped y &a*id @orn at (T?T. This shell had a num er of features added to it eyond the enhancements of the C shell. (dditionally, the Bourne shell is almost completely upwardly compati le with the @orn shell, so older Bourne shell scripts can run in this shell. The @orn shell is considered the most efficient shell and is recommended as the standard shell for regular system users. The default @orn shell prompt for a regular user account is a dollar sign 's).

Part 1. Introduction to the UNIX Operating System

2.%.2 Other She s
B(SD 4 The !7" Bourne 4(gain Shell is a Bourne 4compati le Shell that incorporates useful features from the @orn and C shells. O shell 4 The O shell most closely resem les the @orn shell ut includes many other enhancements. TC shell 4 The TC shell is a completely compati le *ersion of the Berkeley "7I8 C Shell with additional enhancements.

2.% root directory In "ni# system files are arranged like an upside down tree, e*erything eginning from a directory called root denoted with character -. 6ou can list the resourses on systems root directory with command s ". (lways when gi*ing files as arguments to commands you can refer them with the a solute path, gi*ing the whole path to that file eginning with the root like s "users2"'"'irsirat. 2.& home directory When you start a session y login to a "ni# system your first working directory will e your home directory, named like your username. 6ou can get ack to your home directory at any time y issuing the command cd without any arguments. 6ou can refer to your own home directory also with the special character 3 'tilde). 6ou can refer to another users homedirectory in the same system y Pusername.

2.' (enera! remar)s

/F.1 7otes for the "7I8 Clueless 1. $I7"8 IS C(S%4S%7SITIQ%. 3or e#ample9 +oIilla, +OOI$$(, mOIilla, and moIilla would e four different commands ' ut of the four, only moIilla is a*aila le on my system). (lso my fil%,my file, and my 3I$% are three different files. 6our user login name and password are also case sensiti*e. 'This goes with the tradition of "7I8 and the BcB programming language eing case sensiti*e.) 2. 3ilenames can e up to 20> characters long and can contain letters, num ers, A.B 'dots), A B 'underscores), A4B 'dashes), plus some other non4recommended characters. F. 3iles with names starting with B.B are normally not shown y the ls 'list) or dir command. Think of these AdotB files as AhiddenB. "se ls 4a 'list with the option BallB) to see these files. G. A-B is an e5ui*alent to &OS AnB 'root directory, meaning the parent of all other directories, or a separator etween a directory name and a su directory or filename). 3or e#ample, try cd -usr-doc. 0. "nder $inu#, all directories appear under a single directory tree 'there are no &OS4style dri*e letters). This means directories and files from all physical de*ices 'plus network filesystems) are merged into this single4 *iew tree.

Part 1. Introduction to the UNIX Operating System

>. In a configuration file, a line starting with ARB is a comment. When changing a configuration file, donSt delete

old settingsKcomment out the original lines with ARB. (lways insert a short comment descri ing what you ha*e done 'for your own enefitT). L. $inu# is inherently multi4user. 6our personal settings 'and all other personal files) are in your home directory which is -home-your user login name. +any settings are kept in files with names starting with a dot B.Bso as to keep them out of your way 'see point F a o*e). 6ou ha*e to login to do anything. H. System4wide settings are kept in the directory -etc. =. "nder $inu#, as in any multiuser operating system, directories and files ha*e an owner and a set of permissions. 6ou will typically e allowed to write only to your home directory which is -home-your user login name. $earn to use the file permissions else you will e constantly annoyed with $inu#. 1.. Command options are introduced y a dash, B4B, followed y a single letter 'or K when the option is more than one letter). Thus B4B is an e5ui*alent of &OSSs switch B-B. 3or e#ample, try rm 44help. 11. Type command ? 'the command name followed y an ?) to start a command in the ackground. This is usually the preferred way of starting a program from the 84window terminal./;F<

xamp!e 2.2 She!!

1. Start Putty and login 2. echo JSD%$$ - in- ash JSD%$$ command shows the name and path of the shell program you are using. 'space ar to ne#t page, 5 for 5uit) The online "7I8 ,eference +anuals 'also called man pages) pro*ide detailed descriptions of commands and their usage. These online manual pages are included in the "ni# Operating %n*ironment. The man command is primarily used to display the online manual page for any gi*en command. F. history Shell stores commands in command history file. "sing command history you can print the content of the history file. 6ou can rowse commands with arrow keys. G. man 4k 0. apropos time >. whatis time L. date 4help H. e#it

Part 1. Introduction to the UNIX Operating System

"

3. *asic commands and usin"

3.1 +ommand,Line Syntax
6ou can enhance the capa ility of commands y using options and arguments 'some ody will say parameters rather than arguments). The asic synta# of a "7I8 command includes9

command

4option5s67

4argument 5s67

Separate all different parts with spaceTTTT

!.1.1 command
4 %#ecuta le 'specifies what the system is to do)

!.1.2 options
4 +odifies the command 'this specifies how the command is run). Options start with a 4 'dash) character. Options, which guide the functioning of a command, are usually single characters in front of which you ha*e the preceding minus sign. Options can e com ined

!.1.! Argument
4 ( file name, directory name, or te#t. The names of input files are gi*en last the command normally e#ecutes a default function, If the input files are not gi*en, the command normally e#ecutes a default function reading the input information from stdin 'terminal).The reading ends with control4&. The s5uare rackets are not written out. The s5uare rackets indicate that options and arguments, are not compulsory.

xamp!e 3.1 +ommands usin" options and ar"uments

1. Start Putty and login 2. ls 'pu licUhtml we testUhtml) F. ls 4l total H drw#444r4# F kirsirat users G.=> Oct 2 2.9.G pu licUhtml drw#444r4# 2 kirsirat users G.=> Oct > 2..H we testUhtml G. ls 4la total >G drw#44#44# 0 kirsirat users G.=> Oct 1 .=9.= . drw#r4#r4# 2FF root root 122HH Oct 1 .29.0 ..

Part 1. Introduction to the UNIX Operating System

4rw4444444 1 kirsirat users 2HF Oct F 1H900 . ashUhistory 4rw4r44r44 1 kirsirat users FF Oct 21 2..H . ashUlogout 4rw4444444 1 kirsirat users 1H> Oct > 2..H . ashUprofile 4rw4r44r44 1 kirsirat users 12G Oct 21 2..H . ashrc 4rw4444444 1 kirsirat users 010 &ec 11 2..L .emacs drw#r4#r4# F kirsirat users G.=> (ug 12 2..2 .kde drw#444r4# F kirsirat users G.=> Oct 2 2.9.G pu licUhtml 4rw4444444 1 kirsirat users LH. Oct 1 .=9.= .*iminfo drw#444r4# 2 kirsirat users G.=> Oct > 2..H we testUhtml 0. ls 4l 4a This is same command as ls 4la

1#

>. ls pu 'ta pu licUhtml-) Command line completion 'also ta completion) is a common feature of command line interpreters, in which the program automatically fills in partially typed commands. L. ls 4l pu licUhtmlH. cal The cal command displays a calendar for the current month. =. cal 2 2..2 3e ruary 2..2 Su +o Tu We Th 3r Sa 1 2 F G 0 > L H = 1. 11 12 1F 1G 10 1> 1L 1H 1= 2. 21 22 2F 2G 20 2> 2L 2H 1.. uname 4rpns $inu# eduni#.metropolia.fi 2.>.1H41=G.11.G.el0 #H>U>G H. e#it

3.2 (ettin" he!p

!.2.1 man
The man command is primarily used to display the online manual page for any gi*en command. Command 3ormat man ;4s section< commandU name V man 4k keyword V. 6ou can in*oke the man command without options for e#ample9 J man uname

Part 1. Introduction to the UNIX Operating System

11

6ou can in*oke the man command with the 4k option for a keyword lookup to display a list of the commands that might e rele*ant. When you are not sure of the name for a command, you can use the 4k option with the man command to specify a keyword as a su Nect. J man 4k calendar

!.2.2 Scro ing in man pages

Ta le shows the keys used to control the scrolling capa ilities while using the man command.

1ey Space ar ,eturn key f 5 -pattern n h

Action &isplays the ne#t screen of a man page Scrolls through a man page one line at a time +o*es ack one screen +o*es forward one screen Wuits the man command Searches forward for this pattern 3inds the ne#t occurrence of pattern Pro*ides a description of all scrolling capa ilities

!.2.! apropos
apropos topic !i*e me the list of the commands that ha*e something to do with my topic.

!.2.% +hatis
What is topic !i*e me a short list of commands matching my topic. whatis is similar to apropos 'see the command a o*e)K they oth use the same data ase. But whatis searches keywords, while apropos also searches the descriptions of the keywords.))

!.2.2 command option )he p

Command option, introduced y a preceding minus sign. Some programs use two minus signs i.e. 44help.

!.2.8 Using the uname Command

The uname command lists information a out the system. By default, entering this command displays the name of the current operating system. To display the operating system information, e#ecute the following9

J uname

Part 1. Introduction to the UNIX Operating System

!.2.9 #isp aying current users

12

The who command displays a list of users currently logged in to the local system, with their login name, login terminal identifier 'TT6) Port, login date and time, and the elapsed time since their last acti*ity. When a user is logged in remotely, the remote system name displays for that user.

Command format who finger users

!.2.: Identi(ying a User
"se the who am i command to identify the user name. This command is e5ui*alent to typing the who 4m command.

Command format who am i

!.2.; Identi(ying user group detai s
"se the id command to identify the user I&, user name, group I&, and group name of a system user.

Command format id ; username <

To identify your user account information, e#ecute the following9 Jid To identify a specific user, e#ecute the following9 Jid kirsirat

!.2.1< /ntering mu tip e commands (rom a sing e command ine

The semicolon 'C) is a special character to the shell and is used as a command separator. The semicolon ena les you to enter multiple commands on a single command line. The shell e#ecutes each command from left to right when the ,eturn key is pressed. The following e#amples demonstrate the use of the semicolon. J cdC ls

J dateCcalCpwd

!.2.11 Specia Characters

Part 1. Introduction to the UNIX Operating System

Through the use of special control characters, you can stop and start screen output, erase an entire command line, or stop the e#ecution of a command from the key oard.

13

To enter a se5uence of control characters, hold down the Control key and press the appropriate character on the key oard for the desired action. Ta le lists the control characters you can use.

Contro Characters

Purpose

Control4C Control4" Control4S Control4W Control4& Control4W Control4O

Terminates the command currently ,unning ' intr) %rases all characters on the current command line 'kill) Stops output to the screen ,estarts output to the screen after Control4S has een pressed Indicates end4of4file or e#it %rases the last word on the command line Suspends a process. 6ou can return to the suspended process y entering the command fg 'foreground).

$. - pea) ahead
xamp!e $.1 .i!es and directories
1. Start Putty and login 2. cd pu licUhtml Change directory to pu licUhtml. F. nano inde#.html Start the te#teditor named nano to edit file named inde#.html. G. XDT+$YXTIT$%Y+y home pageX-TIT$%YXBO&6Y(*aila le soon...X-BO&6YX-DT+$Y Content of the file. 0. control48 %#it nano. >. 6

Part 1. Introduction to the UNIX Operating System

Sa*e the file 6es. L. chmod aZr inde#.html !i*es the permission to read the file for all users. H. e#it =. In we rowser goto http9--users.metropolia.fi-PmyUusername!o to your pu licUhtml directory with the rowser.

14

$.2 Some Linux distri/utions

http9--www.de ian.org&e ian, a non4commercial distri ution maintained y a *olunteer de*eloper community with a strong commitment to free software principles http9--fedoraproNect.org3edora, a community distri ution sponsored y ,ed Dat http9--www.u untu.com" untu, a popular desktop and ser*er distri ution deri*ed from &e ian, maintained y Canonical $td.. http9--www.slackware.comSlackware, one of the first $inu# distri utions, founded in 1==F, and since then acti*ely maintained y Patrick M. Qolkerding. +ore information on distros9 http9--en.wikipedia.org-wiki-$inu#Udistri ution

$.3 0ne Linux on stic)1

http9--www.youtu e.com-watch[*\20hF*l=NgFo 4 install unet ooting 4 select distri ution 4 press ok and wait 4 oot up

%. 2eferences
;1< http9--en.wikipedia.org-wiki-"ni# '10.=.2.1.) ;2< http9--www.linu#.org-lessons- eginner-l1-lesson1 .html '2L.=.2.1.) ;F< http9--lnag.sourceforge.net-downloads-$inu#7ew ie(dministrator!uide.pdf '21.=.2.1.) ;G< http9--en.wikipedia.org-wiki-PasswordUstrength 'F.1..2.1.) ;0< http9--www.ee.surrey.ac.uk-Teaching-"ni#-uni#intro.html '1.11.2.11)

&. 0ther !iterature used1

+aterials y +arkku 7uutinen, +etropolia, 2.1. +aterials y (nne @eskitalo, O(+@ Must %nough "7I8, Paul @. (ndersen, Gth ed 2..F "7I84((PI7%7, Dannu Tiitu, Pasi Tikka, T@@ 2..H "7I8 och $I7"8 p] 1. minuter, PC Boken 2...