Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Chapter 8

Pavement Design - New Roads

Project appraisal
Ch
Environment

DESIGN ELEMENTS

Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage Traffic Subgrade

Ch

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Problem Soils Pavement Materials

Pavement Design - New Roads

Pavement Rehabilitation Bituminous Surfacings Gravel Roads

Comparison of alternatives and selection of design Refinement of design, if required

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Comments: Pavement design procedures for gravel roads are set out in /Chapter 11 Gravel Roads/.

8.1 Objectives
The objective of structural pavement design is to provide a road surface which can withstand the expected traffic loading over a specified time without deteriorating below a predetermined level of service. This is achieved by providing a pavement structure whereby stresses on the subgrade - induced by traffic - are reduced to acceptable levels. Stresses within pavement layers must in addition be kept within acceptable limits depending on the properties of the materials being used.

8.2 Pavement Types

8.2.1 Flexible pavements
General A commonly used pavement structure in the country is the flexible pavement type whereby a surface treatment or a bituminous mix is placed over a base course made of granular materials. Other flexible pavement types being used consist of base courses made of bituminous mixes or penetration macadam.
granular granular

riding quality

rut depth

Granular base course and subbase The typical mode of distress in fully granular pavements is deformation arising from shear or densification within the granular pavement materials themselves - commonly the base course. The pavement type is highly sensitive to timely periodic maintenance by resealing. Cemented subbase and granular base course The use of a cemented subbase improves the load bearing capacity of the pavement by reducing surface deflections, hence strain in the bituminous surfacing. The typical mode of distress is by fatigue cracking of the cemented subbase until its structural behaviour eventually approaches that of a granular layer. It is however unlikely that the cracking will reflect to the surface and there is likely to be little rutting or longitudinal deformation after the subbase layer has fully cracked. The post-cracked phase of the cemented subbase can be expected to add considerable useful life to the pavement because the subbase will then function as a granular layer of good subbase quality. The use of a cemented subbase under granular base courses has a number of additional technical benefits that include: n increased in-service strength of the granular base course is realised n high compacted density of the granular base course can be achieved by having a firm platform underneath and safe use of slush techniques is enabled by the low sensitivity to moisture in the subbase material n the strength of the subbase is maintained should the drainage of the pavement be impaired in service for any reason The use of cemented subbase shall be the preferred method in areas with scarcity of natural gravel for subbase, provided this is economically equal to alternative use of crushed materials or importation of subbase from outside the project area.

cracking time and traffic

granular cemented

pre-cracked phase

post-cracked phase

influence of water

curvature deflection deformation traffic

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Pavement DesignNew Roads

Bituminous mixes for base course The modes of distress in bituminous base courses can be deformation or fatigue cracking depending on site conditions and material properties. The subbase used in this pavement is either granular or lightly cemented. The preferred method to minimise the risk of fatigue cracking is primarily by providing the stiffest possible support for the base course and thereby minimising strain in the layer. Strongly cemented subbase, i.e. stronger than material class C2, however may lead to crack reflection from the subbase through the bituminous base course and is not a desirable option. It is considered risky to compromise resistance against deformation of the bituminous base course for high resistance against fatigue cracking under the prevailing temperature conditions in the country. Penetration macadam base course Penetration macadam is made by spraying relatively large amounts of bitumen ( 2,0 - 4,0 l/m2) on a layer of coarse aggregate without fines, and subsequently rolling in a layer of chipping as a key stone to provide interlocking and stability of the layer. Alternatively a bituminous mix can be used instead of key stone. The penetration macadam base courses are exceptionally flexible, and at the same time providing high shear strength. Penetration macadam effectively arrests crack reflection from underlying layers when used in overlays. The penetration macadam can be considered a freely draining layer and it is important that the internal drainage of the pavement is in accordance with /Chapter 3 Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage/. The mode of distress in penetration macadam pavements is normally deformation in the subbase or subgrade. Disintegration of the base course takes place if periodic maintenance by resealing has been insufficient for any reason.

Comments: The consequences of deformation occurring are more severe than cracking, since the useful life of the pavement can be considerably prolonged if cracks are attended to in time and kept sealed.
bituminous mix granular or cemented

riding quality

rut depth

cracking time and traffic

Roads with high traffic speed require a levelling layer made of a bituminous mix in order to achieve good riding quality.

penetration macadam granular or cemented

riding quality

deformation

cracking time and traffic

8.2.2

Semi-rigid pavements
Pavements where only the base course is cemented with granular subbase are sensitive to high axle loading and loss of strength by ingress of water through surface cracks. It is particularly important that the first scheduled reseal is not missed or deferred due to the early development of block cracks in this pavement type.

General Semi-rigid pavements are those utilising cemented materials in the base course layer or both the base course and subbase layer. Where both base course and subbase are cemented this pavement type is a viable option for high traffic conditions. Pavements with only the base course cemented with granular subbase have limitations in the upper ranges of traffic loading. Mode of distress In semi-rigid pavements most of the traffic stresses are absorbed by the cemented layers - little by the subgrade - and fatigue of the cemented layers is the dominant mode of distress. Initial block cracking from shrinkage or thermal forces is likely to develop soon after construction of cemented base courses. These cracks are normally of little concern if sealed by normal recurrent and periodic maintenance. Later development of traffic induced cracks may lead to ingress of water and pumping of fines. While this pavement type normally gives good user service up to this point, deformation tends to accelerate after water gets free access into the structure. Loss of the bituminous surfacing takes place if periodic maintenance by resealing has been insufficient for any reason.

cemented cemented (preferred)

riding quality

cracking rut depth time and traffic

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Comments: The concrete may be either conventional jointed slabs, a continuously reinforced type or roller compacted concrete.

8.2.3

Rigid pavements are made of concrete, where most of the traffic loading is carried by the concrete slab and less by the foundation. Good resistance against the effect of traffic loading and high tyre pressures, are typical features of concrete pavements. However due to the large investment cost, their use is normally limited to heavily trafficked interurban and urban roads. The design method for concrete pavements is not included in this manual, however references is made to /8-10/ for further details on the principles of rigid pavement design.

Rigid pavements

8.3 Structural Design

8.3.0
Pavement design catalogues are provided for the following pavement types and site conditions: n n n n n granular base course, dry or moderate climatic zones granular base course, wet climatic zones cemented base course bituminous mix base course penetration macadam base course

General

The design catalogue aims to provide sufficient support for the layer in the design of the subbase and subgrade and thereby reducing strain, hence minimising the risk of fatigue cracking in bituminous layers.

8.3.1

Input data

Climate A separate design catalogue is provided in respect of wet climatic zones for pavements with granular base course.
Climatic zones for the purpose of pavement design: /Chapter 2 Environment/.

Traffic The Traffic Load Class (TLC) determined according to /Chapter 4 Traffic/ is input to the catalogue and the classes are shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Traffic Load Classes - TLC
D esign traffic loading [million E80] < 0.2 0.2 to 0.5 0.5 to 1 1 to 3 3 to 10 10 to 20 20 to 50 Traffic Load C lass (TLC ) TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1 TLC 3 TLC 10 TLC 20 TLC 50

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Heavy load conditions Where more than 50% of E80 is a result of axles heavier than 13 tonnes, the Traffic Load Class is given an index, i.e.:
TLC 05-H TLC 1-H TLC 3-H TLC 10-H TLC 20-H TLC 50-H

Comments: Insufficient data normally makes it unrealistic to determine the proportion of E80 that is a result of axles loaded above 13 tonnes where the design traffic loading is less than 0.2 million E80. A traffic load class TLC02-H is therefore not established. Procedures to evaluate subgrade strength and to design improved subgrade layers: /Chapter 5 Subgrade/.

Subgrade The design catalogue requires that all subgrade is brought to a design strength of CBR minimum 15% by constructing one or more improved subgrade layers - where necessary - before the pavement is placed. Climate is part of the input data to design improved subgrade layers. Pavement materials Pavement materials used in the design catalogue are those shown in Table 8.2. where references are given to the respective chapters where material quality requirements are set out.
Table 8.2 Pavement materials
Material class Surfacing: ST AC B ase course: D BM - LAMBS PM FBMIX - BEMIX C RR - C RS C2 - C1 - CM G80 - G60 S u b b ase: C1 - CM G45 - G25 C emented, li me or cement Granular, natural C hapter 7.3 C hapter 7.2.1 Bi tumi nous hot mi x Penetrati on macadam Bi tumi nous cold mi x Granular, crushed C emented, li me or cement Granular, natural C hapter 7.4.2 C hapter 7.4.3 C hapter 7.4.4 C hapter 7.2.2 C hapter 7.3 C hapter 7.2.1 Surface treatments Asphalt concrete C hapter 10.2 to 10.4 C hapter 10.8 Material ty pe Material requirements, references

Substitutes of subbase material Substitutes of subbase materials can be made as listed below. The layer thickness shall not be changed when doing the substitutes. No other substitutes of subbase material shall be made in the pavement design. n n n n C1 can be replaced by C2 CM can be replaced by C1 or C2 G45 can be replaced by CM, C1, G60, G80 or CRS G25 can be replaced by CM, C1, G45, G60, G80 or CRS

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8.3.2

The pavement design catalogues are presented in the respective tables listed in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3 List of pavement design catalogues

Pavement design catalogues

Table reference Pav ement ty pe in design catalogue Table 8.4 Table 8.5 Table 8.6 Table 8.7 Table 8.8
Urban areas have a large number of junctions and other areas where construction of surface treatments is difficult to carry out with good workmanship.

Granular base course Dry or Moderate climatic zones Granular base course Wet cli mati c zones C emented base course Bi tumi nous mi x base course Penetrati on macadam base course

The design catalogues specify surfacing types for rural- and interurban roads. On all major urban roads, where the base course is not of a bituminous type, consideration should be given to the use of asphalt concrete surfacing irrespective of traffic loading due to the common excess of slow moving and turning traffic. This traffic pattern is unfavourable for the use of surface treatments and may lead to premature damage of thin surfacings.

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Table 8.4 Pavements with granular base course dry or moderate climatic zones
Traffic: - Traffic Load Classes, including the heavy ( -H ) classes: /Chapter 4/ Subgrade design: - Design for CBR less than 15%: /Chapter 5/ - Material standards of improved subgrade layers: /Chapter 5/ Surfacing design: - Surface treatments, carriageway: /Chapter 10.2 to 10.4/ - Shoulders: /Chapter 10.7/ - Asphalt concrete: /Chapter 10.8/ Material requirements: - Granular or cemented materials for subbase layers or base course: /Chapter 7/ - Bituminous surfacings: /Chapter 10/ Heavy Traffic Load Classes (-H) apply for E80 >0.2 million under conditions where more than 50% of E80 comes from axles loaded to above13 tonnes.

Base course type:

Granular
Climatic zones:
/Figure 2.1/

Dry / Moderate
(million E80)
3 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 50 1-3

Traffic Load Classes

< 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.0

TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1

(not applicable) as below as below

TLC 3 TLC 10 TLC 20 TLC 50

as below 50mm

Surfacing

For the heavy Traffic Load Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H )

AC

100mm

AC

General requirements

ST

ST

ST

ST

ST

50mm

AC

Base course

For the heavy Traffic Load Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H )

(not applicable)

125mm

150mm

150mm

CRS
150mm

CRS 2)

CRR

as below

as below

150mm

150mm

150mm

150mm

150mm

General requirements G60 G80 G80 CRS CRR CRR

For the heavy Traffic Load Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H )

200mm (not applicable) as below as below

Subbase 1)

CM

as below

as below

150mm

+
150mm

General requirements
150mm 150mm

200mm

200mm

200mm

C2 C1

G25

G45

G45

G45

C1

Subgrade
1) 2)

CBR > 15%

If other types of subbase materials are preferred, the substitute shall meet the requirements set out in Chapter 8.3.1 G80 can be used up to 2 million E80 in dry climatic zone /Figure 2.1/

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Table 8.5 Pavements with granular base course wet climatic zones

Traffic: - Traffic Load Classes, including the heavy (-H ) lasses: /Chapter 4/ Subgrade design: - Design for CBR less than 15%: /Chapter 5/ - Material standards of improved subgrade layers: /Chapter 5/ Surfacing design: - Surface treatments, carriageway: /Chapter 10.2 to 10.4/ - Shoulders: /Chapter 10.7/ - Asphalt concrete: /Chapter 10.8/ Material requirements: - Granular or cemented materials for subbase layers or base course: /Chapter 7/ - Bituminous surfacings: /Chapter 10/ Heavy Traffic Load Classes (-H) apply for E80 >0.2 million under conditions where more than 50% of E80 comes from axles loaded to above13 tonnes.

Base course type:

Granular
Climatic zones:
/Figure 2.1/

Wet
(million E80)
3 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 50 1-3

Traffic Load Classes

< 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.0

TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1

(not applicable) as below as below

TLC 3 TLC 10 TLC 20 TLC 50

AC
50mm 100mm

Surfacing

For the heavy Traffic Load Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H )

AC

100mm

AC

General requirements

AC ST ST ST ST
50mm

AC
50mm

Base course

For the heavy Traffic Load Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H )

(not applicable)

125mm

150mm

150mm

CRS
150mm

CRR

CRR

as below

as below

150mm

150mm

150mm

150mm

150mm

General requirements G80 G80 CRS CRS CRR CRR

For the heavy Traffic Load Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H )

200mm (not applicable) as below

Subbase 1)

CM

as below

as below

as below

150mm

+
150mm

General requirements
150mm 150mm

200mm

200mm

200mm

C2 C1

G25

G45

G45

CM

C1

Subgrade
1)

CBR > 15%

If other types of subbase materials are preferred, the substitute shall meet the requirements set out in Chapter 8.3.1

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Table 8.6 Pavements with cemented base course

Traffic: - Traffic Load Classes, including the heavy ( -H ) classes: /Chapter 4/ Subgrade design: - Design for CBR less than 15%: /Chapter 5/ - Material standards of improved subgrade layers: /Chapter 5/ Surfacing design: - Surface treatments, carriageway: /Chapter 10.2 to 10.4/ - Shoulders: /Chapter 10.7/ - Asphalt concrete: /Chapter 10.8/ Material requirements: - Granular or cemented materials for subbase layers or base course: /Chapter 7/ - Bituminous surfacings: /Chapter 10/
Heavy Traffic Load Classes (-H) apply for E80 >0.2 million under conditions where more than 50% of E80 comes from axles loaded to above13 tonnes.

Base course type:

Cemented
Climatic zones:
/Figure 2.1/

All
(million E80)
3 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 50 1-3

Traffic Load Classes

< 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.0

TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1

(not applicable) as below as below

TLC 3 TLC 10 TLC 20 TLC 50

as below

Surfacing

For the heavy Traffic Load Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H )

50mm

AC

100mm

AC

General requirements

ST

ST

ST

ST

ST

50mm

AC

Base course

For the heavy Traffic Load Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H )

(not applicable)

as below

as below

as below

as below

as below

150mm

150mm

150mm

150mm

150mm

150mm

General requirements CM C1 C1 C2 C2 C2

For the heavy Traffic Load Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H )

200mm (not applicable) 150mm 150mm

Subbase 1)

CM

CM

C1

as below

as below

125mm

150mm

+
125mm

+
150mm

General requirements
150mm 150mm 150mm

200mm

C1 G45 CM

C1 C1

G25

G45

G45

Subgrade
1)

CBR > 15%

If other types of subbase materials are preferred, the substitute shall meet the requirements set out in Chapter 8.3.1

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Table 8.7 Pavements with a bituminous mix in the base course

Traffic: - Traffic Load Classes: /Chapter 4/ Subgrade design: - Design for CBR less than 15%: /Chapter 5/ - Material standards of improved subgrade layers: /Chapter 5/ Surfacing design: - Surface treatments, carriageway: /Chapter 10.2 to 10.4/ - Shoulders: /Chapter 10.7/ - Asphalt concrete: /Chapter 10.8/ Material requirements: - Granular or cemented materials for subbase layers: /Chapter 7/ - Bituminous base course: /Chapter 7/ - Bituminous surfacings: /Chapter 10/
No special pavement design alternatives are required for the heavy Traffic Load Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 50-H for) this pavement type.

Base course type:

Bituminous mix
Climatic zones:
/Figure 2.1/

All
1-3 3 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 50

Traffic Load Classes (million E80)

< 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.0

TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1

TLC 3 TLC 10 TLC 20 TLC 50

Surfacing

AC ST ST ST
LAMBS DBM 40 DBM 30 FBMIX BEMIX

AC
50mm

ST
LAMBS DBM 40 DBM 30 FBMIX BEMIX

ST
LAMBS DBM 40 DBM 30 FBMIX

50mm

Base course

LAMBS DBM 40

LAMBS DBM 40

Alternative material types:

DBM 30 FBMIX BEMIX

DBM 30 FBMIX BEMIX

60mm

80mm

100mm

125mm

150mm

175mm

200mm

Subbase

1)

125mm

+
125mm 200mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 200mm 200mm

CM G45 G45 CM CM

G45

G45

G45

Subgrade
1)

CBR > 15%

If other types of subbase materials are preferred, the substitute shall meet the requirements set out in Chapter 8.3.1

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Table 8.8 Pavements with penetration macadam base course

Traffic: - Traffic Load Classes: /Chapter 4/ Subgrade design: - Design for CBR less than 15%: /Chapter 5/ - Material standards of improved subgrade layers: /Chapter 5/ Surfacing design: - Surface treatments, carriageway: /Chapter 10.2 to 10.4/ - Shoulders: /Chapter 10.7/ - Asphalt concrete: /Chapter 10.8/ Material requirements: - Granular or cemented materials for subbase layers: /Chapter 7/ - Penetration Macadam: /Chapter 7/ - Bituminous surfacings: /Chapter 10/
No special pavement design alternatives are required for the heavy Traffic Load Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 50-H) for this pavement type.

Base course type:

Penetration Macadam
Climatic zones:
/Figure 2.1/

All
1-3 3 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 50

Traffic Load Classes (million E80)

< 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.0

TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1

TLC 3 TLC 10 TLC 20 TLC 50

Surfacing

AC ST ST ST
50mm

AC
50mm

AC
100mm

AC
100mm

Base course

50mm

50mm

100mm

100mm

125mm

125mm

125mm

PM30

PM30

PM60

PM60

PM80

PM80

PM80

Subbase

1)

150mm 125mm

+
150mm

+
125mm 200mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm

C1 CM CM

C1 CM

G45

G45

CM

CM

Subgrade
1)

CBR > 15%

8.11

If other types of subbase materials are preferred, the substitute shall meet the requirements set out in Chapter 8.3.1

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Comments:

References
8-1 8-2 AUSTROADS (1992): Pavement Design: A guide to the structural design of road pavements. Sydney, Australia. BOTSWANA ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1994). Draft Volume 3, Materials and Pavement Design. Ministry of Works, Transport and Communications, Roads Department. Republic of Botswana. COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TRH 4 (1997): Structural design of flexible pavements for interurban and rural roads. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD (1962). The AASHO Road Test. Report 5, Pavement Research. Highway Research Board Special Report No. 61E. National Research Council, Washington DC, USA. MITCHELL, R L, C P VAN DER MERWE and H K GEEL (1975). Standard Flexible Pavement Design For Rural Roads with Light to Medium Traffic. Republic of Zimbabwe. ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1987). Part III, Materials and Pavement Design for New Roads. Ministry of Transport and Comm., Roads Department. Republic of Kenya. ROLT, J (1994). The performance of a full scale road pavement design experiment in Jamaica. In: Proc. of Institution of Civil Engineers. Transport. August 1994. SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of Practice for the Design of Road Pavements. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC. TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1993). A guide to the structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and subtropical countries. Overseas Road Note No. 31. TRL, Crowthorne, for ODA, London, UK. YODER E J, WITCZAK M W (1975). Principles of pavement design. Second edition. A Wiley-Interscience Publication, USA and Canada.

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8-9

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