MCAT

EXCELERATO R

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Chapter 2
MCAT Quantitative Skills
The bad news is that you cant use a calculator on the MCAT. The good news is you wont need
to. Almost all questions are conceptual, and those that do require computation, dont require
much. So how much math do you need? Some basic quantitative skills, an understanding of units,
a bit of geometry, and a healthy helping of trigonometry. Enjoy ^)].
2.1 Mathematics
A. Magnitude
The magnitude (size) of a number increases as one moves from left to right below:
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
assignment
Which of these two half reactions has the larger standard reduction
potential?
Fe + 2e Fe E = -0.040 volts
Al + 3e Al E = -1.706 volts
solution:
The first reaction does because -0.040 > -1.706 N
assignment
List the following compounds in order of increasing solubility (as K in-
creases, solubility increases).
AgCrO K = 9.0
AgSCN K = 1.0
ZnCO K = 1.5
2 MCAT EXCELERATOR CHAPTER 2
solution:
AgSCN < AgCrO < ZnCO . Recall that 10 < 10 N
When working in scientific notation, if the number to the left of the
exp
gets smaller, the
exponent gets larger.
assignment
Convert the wavelength of red light (700 nm) to meters using scientific
notation (1 nm = 10m).
solution:
{
700 nm = 700 m = 7.00 m
n
N
When a unit becomes larger, the number attached to that unit becomes smaller, and visa versa.
assignment
How many cubic centimeters are there in 7.5 liters? One cc is equal to
one milliliter. The prefix "milli" means one over a thousand.
solution:
Since the unit of measurement is getting smaller by 1/1000, (liter to
milliliter), the number attached to the unit milliliter must get larger by a
thousand. Thus there are 7.5 x 1000, or 7500 mL in 7.5L.
7.5 / L
x
1000 mL
/ L
= 7500 mL
N
B. Algebra
assignment
What is the sum of 1.5 + 5.0?
solution:
First convert the exponent of the smaller number to equal the exponent of
the larger number. Then add.
1.5 + 0.50 = 2.0 N
assignment
Solve for C in the equation: F =
9
5
C + 32 .
MCAT QUANTITATIVE SKILLS 3
solution:
First subtract 32 from both sides of the equation to yield

F - 32 =
9
5
C .
Next divide both sides of the equation by 9/5 to give
5
9
( F - 32) = C .N
example
Solve for R in the equation,

1 1 1
R
=
R
+
R
, in terms of R and R.
solution:
The first step is to isolate R from the other variables. This may be done
by subtracting 1/R from both sides to give,

1 1 1
R
=
R
-
R
.
The next step is to multiply the terms on the right hand side of the
equation by R/R and R/R respectively, so as to obtain a common de-
nominator of RR.
1
R
=
R
R R
-
R
R R
.
Now subtract to get,

1
R
=
R - R
R R
.
Finally taking the reciprocal gives:

R =
R R
R - R
.N
assignment
The Arrhenius equation relates the temperature T to the rate constant k,
and the energy of activation E. It may be written as,

log
k
k
=
E
2.3 R

1
T
-
1
T
,

,
]
]
]
. R is a constant.
Which of the following is a correct alternative form of the Arrhenius
equation?
4 MCAT EXCELERATOR CHAPTER 2

,
,

,
,
,
,
. C
A. log
k
k
=
E
2.3 R
1
T - T
]
]
B. log
k
k
=
E
2.3 R
1
T

- T
]
]
log
k
k
=
E
2.3
R
T

- T
TT
]
]
D. log
k
k
=
E
2.3 R
T - T
TT
]
]
]
]
]
]
solution:

1
T
-
1
T
=
T
TT
-
T
TT
=
T - T
TT
,

,
]
]
]
,

,
]
]
]
,

,
]
]
]
Answer C. N
C. Fractions
1/2 = 0.500 1/3 = 0.333 1/4 = 0.250 1/5 = 0.200
1/8 = 0.125 1/9 = 0.111 1/10 = 0.10 1/100 = 0.010
When working with fractions, if the numerator increases by 100, the number increases by 100.
For example since 1/3 = 0.333, then 100/3 = 33.3. When the denominator increases by 100, the
number decreases by 100. For example since 1/2 = 0.500, so 1/200 = 0.00500.
example
Solve for x in the equation:

1
2
+
1
5
= x
solution:
To add these fractions we need a common denominator. The lowest
common denominator divisible by both 2 and 5 is 10. So we multiply 1/2
by 5/5, and 1/5 by 2/2 to give:

5
10
+
2
10
=
7
10
N
Or we can use the decimal equivalents of the fractions:
0.5 + 0.2 = 0.7 N
MCAT QUANTITATIVE SKILLS 5
example
Solve for x in the equation:

3
4
= x
5
2
solution:
First we invert the denominator and bring it to the top, to give:

3
4
x = x
2
5
Next we multiply the numerators, and we multiply the denominators, to
get 6/20, which may also me expressed as 3/10 or 0.3.

6
20
=
3
10
= 0.3
N
D. Percent
If one out of every two applicants are admitted to medical school, we may represent this ratio as
the fraction 1/2, as the decimal 0.5, or as a percent. Percent % is a fraction (or its decimal
equivalent), multiplied by 100. Therefore, the percent of applicants accepted would be 50%.
If the total number of applicants were 30,000, we could find the number of students admitted by
multiplying 30,000 by 0.5 (or by 1/2) and get 15,000.
E. Exponents
(x) = 1 (x) = 1/x (x) = x
xx = x
(12) = 1 (2) = 1/2 (16) = 4 xx = x
x/x = x (x) = x x = x
x/x = x (x) = x x= x
F. Logarithms
A logarithm is a way of expressing a number as the power of 10. The number 100 is equal to 10,
so the logarithm of 100 is 2. The number 0.01 is equal to 10, so the logarithm of 0.01 is -2.
An antilog is a way of returning a logarithm back to its original number. For example, the antilog
of 2 is equal to 10 or 100. The antilog of -2 is equal to 10 or 0.01.
To find the antilog of a number, simply make the number an exponent of ten (antilog # = 10
#
).
log (ab) = log a + log b log a/b = log a - log b
log 6 = log 2 + log 3 log 2/3 = log 2 - log 3
log a = blog a log a = 1/blog a
log 2 = 5log 2 log 7 = 1/2log 7 (Recall )
6 MCAT EXCELERATOR CHAPTER 2
G. Change verses Proportional Change
The symbol is used to represent the difference between a final and an initial value of some
variable. For example, if the temperature changes from 100 K to 300 K the temperature change
T is defined as T-T, or 300 K - 100 K = 200 K. Because the size of a Celsius degree is equal
to the size of a Kelvin, a change of 200 K is equivalent to a change of 200C. A temperature of
200K, however, is NOT equivalent to a temperature of 200C! The former example is a change
in temperature, the later is the temperature.
In the example above, the proportional change in the temperature is T/T, or 300K/100K=3.
This indicates that the temperature has tripled. Alternatively if we multiply by 100, we may say
that there has been a 300% increase in the temperature. This calculation is only valid in Kelvin,
because only Kelvin temperatures are directly proportional to each other (See Section 2.1K and
Chapter#)
Only the Kelvin scale may be used to determine proportional changes in temperature.
A temperature increase from 100 K to 300 K, or a temperature change from 300 K to 900 K,
both represent a three fold increase. These two sets of temperature changes are said to be
proportional to each other, since they both represent the same proportional change, T/T = 3.
H. Direct Proportionality & Slope
A pair of variables are said to be directly proportional if, when multiplied by a proportionality
factor, they can be set equal to each other. For example, in Newtons second law, F = ma, the
variables F and a are directly proportional. In this example m is the proportionality factor .If m
remains constant, a will double as F doubles. The relationship between F and a is depicted below
for both a 1 and a 2 kg mass. Although in both cases a doubles as F doubles, note that in the case
of the 2 kg mass, twice the force is required to achieve the same acceleration. This difference is
reflected in the different slopes shown in Figure 2.1.
F
o
r
c
e

(
N
)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
m = 2 kg
m = 1 kg
F = ma
acceleration (m/s)
Newton's Second Law
Figure 2.1 A direct proportionality with a positive slope.
The slope of a line is defined as the change in the vertical axis, divided by the change in the
horizontal axis.
Slope = y/x
Equation 2.1
MCAT QUANTITATIVE SKILLS 7
In Figure 2.1 the slope for the 2 kg mass is 2 N/m/s, while that for the 1 kg mass is 1N/m/s.
Hooks Law, F = -kx, relates
the Force F, of a spring to its
di spl acement f r om i t s
equilibrium position, x.
The negative sign in this
equation indicates that the
direction of the displacement
and the resulting force have
opposite orientations. The
relationship between F and x in
Hookes law is similar to the
relationship between F and a in
Newtons law. Note, however,
that Hookes law results in a
negative slope.
Some physics texts do not use the negative sign in Hookes law. They redefine F to refer to the
force that is applied to the spring, rather than the force which results from the spring. In this case
the plots of Newtons and Hookes law will both have positive slopes.
I. Area under a curve
In Figure 2-3 of force verses distance, the total work may be calculated by finding the area under
the curve. This is expressed by the equation Work = Force x Distance.
Force vs Distance
distance (m)
Work = Fd
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
1
2
3
4
5
Force (N)
F
o
r
c
e

(
N
)
Figure 2.3 Work as a function of the area under a curve.
The area under the curve is depicted by the triangle above. The area of a triangle is given by one
half its base times its height. The total work, therefore, is (4 m)(4 N) = 8 Nm.
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
k = 2 N/m
k = 1 N/m
F = -kx
displacement (m)
Hooke's Law
F
o
r
c
e

(
N
)
Figure 2.2 A direct proportionality with a negative slope.
8 MCAT EXCELERATOR CHAPTER 2
J. Inverse Proportionality
Boyles law states that for a given
quantity of an ideal gas at a constant
temperature, the pressure multiplied
the volume will be constant. PV = k.or
P = k/V or P = k(V). Variables related
in this manner are said to be inversely
proportional. When the pressure dou-
bles the volume will half. If the pres-
sure where to drop by a quarter, the
volume would quadruple. In other
words, when one variable goes down,
the other goes up by the same propor-
tional amount.
Mathematical relationships, like
Hookes law (previously discussed)
which take the form, y = k(x), are first
order equations and will always produce a straight line. Boyles law, on the other hand, takes the
form y = k(x). Its order is negative one. See Section# for additional information concerning
the order of an equation.
Only first order equations produce linear plots, when one variable is plotted directly against
another.
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
10
20
k = 0.5 kg
KE vs Velocity
velocity (m/s)
KE = mv
K
E

(
J
)
Figure 2.5
The equation for transnational kinetic energy, KE = mv, is second order with respect to veloc-
ity. When mass is held constant, the kinetic energy quadruples as the velocity doubles. If the ve-
locity were to drop by one fifth, the kinetic energy would drop by to onetwenty fifth. This rela-
tionship is represented in the exponential curve depicted in Figure 2-5.
0.0 10.0 20.0
0.0
10.0
20.0
Volume (L)
PV = k
Boyle's Law
k = 16 Latm
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
a
t
m
)
Figure 2.4 An inverse proportionality.
MCAT QUANTITATIVE SKILLS 9
0 10 20
0
10
20
KE = mv
(velocity) (m/s)
KE vs Velocity Squared
m = 0.5 kg
K
E

(
J
)
Figure 2.6
Although KE is not proportional to the velocity, it is proportional to the square of the velocity.
This relationship is depicted in Figure 2.6. Note that we have obtained a linear plot by placing the
square of the velocity on the horizontal axis.
A common mathematical form on the MCAT is the inverse square. Note that in the two equa-
tions below, the force F is inversely proportional to the distance squared r.
F
m
r
gravity
=
Gm
1 2
2
F
q
r
electrostatic
=
kq
1 2
2
The relationship between force and distance in the Law of Universal Gravitation, and Coulombs
Law shown respectively above, can be captured by the expression F k/r. Where is the symbol
for proportionality, and k is the proportionality constant. When the distance r between two
masses, or two charges, doubles, the force acting between them will drop to one fourth of its pre-
vious value. This inverse square relationship is depicted in Figure 2.7.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
10
20
30
40
Inverse Square Law
distance (m)
F = k/r
k = 32 Nm
F
o
r
c
e

(
N
)
Figure 2.7
10 MCAT EXCELERATOR CHAPTER 2
2.2 Units of Measurement
A. Metric System Prefixes
pico p = 10 nano n = 10 micro = 10 milli m = 10
centi c = 10 deci d = 10 kilo k = 10 mega M = 10
giga G = 10 tera T = 10
B. SI System
Quantity (symbol) Name of Unit Units Symbol Description
Temperature (T) kelvin K base unit
Quantity of matter (n) mole mol base unit
Mass (m) kilogram kg base unit
Displacement* (d or s) meter m base unit
Distance (d or s) same as above
Angular Displacement radian rad supplementary unit
Time (t) second s base unit
Velocity* (v) none (m/s) Displacement/Time
Acceleration* (a) none (m/s) Displacement/(Time)
Momentum* (p) (kgm/s) (Mass)(Velocity)
Force* (F) newton N (kgm/s) (Mass)(Acceleration)
Pressure (P) Pascal Pa (N/m) Force/Area
Torque* () (Nm)
Energy (E) joule J (Nm) (Force)(Displacement)
Work (W) Same as above.
Power (P) watt W (J/s) Energy/Time
Frequency (f or ) hertz Hz (s) Oscillations /Time
Radioactivity Activity () becquerel Bq (s) Disintegrations/Time
Electrical Charge (q) coulomb C base unit
Elect. Potential (E) volt V (J/C) Energy/Charge
Electromotive force (emf) Same as above.
Elect. Current (I) ampere A (C/s) Charge/Time
Elect. Resistance (R) ohm (V/A) Potential/Current
Capacitance (C) farad F (C/V) Charge/Elect. Potential
MCAT QUANTITATIVE SKILLS 11
Electric Field* (E) (N/C) Force/Charge
Magnetic Field* (B) tesla T (Ns/Cm) Force/ChargeVelocity
Magnetic Flux* (F) weber W (Tm) (Magnetic Field)(Area)
*Vector quantities. See section 2.4D.
The symbols listed above are in common use, but may vary somewhat from one textbook to
another.
C. Conversion Factors & Constants
1000 g = 1 kg 1 mL = 1 cc (cubic centimeter)
1000 mL = 1 L 1000 L = 1 m *
760 torr = 760 mm Hg = 1 atm 1 atm 10 Pa
Avogadros number 6 particles /mole 6 atomic mass units (amu) 1.0 gram
Density of HO 1g/mL Density of HO 1000 kg/m
Charge on an electron = -1.6 C 1 eV = 1.6 J
1 angstrom (1) = 10 m Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s 10 m/s
C = Kelvin degrees - 273 Speed of light in vacuum 3 m/s
1.00 calorie 4.18 joules 2 1.4
*

1
3
m x
100 cm
m
x
L
1000 cm
= 1000 L
j
(
\
,
12 MCAT EXCELERATOR CHAPTER 2
2.3 Geometry
A. Geometric Formulas
TRIANGLE
Perimeter = s + s + s
Area = (b x h)
s
s
s
b
h
s
s s
s
SQUARE
Perimeter = 4s
Area = s x s
(b = base, h = height, l = length, r = radius, s = side, w= width)
b
h
RECTANGLE
Perimeter = 2(b + h)
Area = b x h
h
b
PARALLELOGRAM
Perimeter = 2(l x w)
Area = b x h
(Note that w > h)
w
l
Figure 2.8
MCAT QUANTITATIVE SKILLS 13
CUBE
Surface area = 6(s x s)
Volume = s x s x s
CIRCLE
Circumference = 2r
Area = r
SPHERE
Surface area = 4r
Volume = 4/3r
CYLINDER
Surface area = 2r + h(2r)
Volume = h(r)
BOX
Surface area = 2(lw) + 2(lh) + 2(wh)
Volume = l x w x h
r
h
l
w
h
s
s
s
Figure 2.9
B. Angles
A right angle is any 90 angle. An acute angle is any angle less than 90. An obtuse angle is any
angle greater than 90.
When two parallel lines are intersected as in Figure 2.10 (b), the angles + will equal 180.
The acute angle is always adjacent to the obtuse angle . Also note that is always diagonal to
, and is always diagonal to .
less than 90
acute angle
greater than 90
obtuse angle
90
right angle
90
right angle




+ = 180
(a) Figure 2.10 (b)
14 MCAT EXCELERATOR CHAPTER 2
C. Triangles
A right triangle is any triangle with a 90 angle. The side opposite the 90 angle is called the
hypotenuse.
The sum of the three angles in any triangle are equal to 180.
Figure 2.11
The largest angle opposes the longest side. The smallest angle opposes the shortest side.
30
60
90
1
3
2
90 > 60 > 30
2 > 3 > 1

3
4
5
37
53
90
90 > 53 > 37
5 > 4 > 3

Figure 2.12
An equilateral triangle has three 60 angles and therefore, has three sides of equal length.
An isosceles triangle has two equal angles, and therefore, has two sides of equal length.
An equilateral
triangle
60
1 1
1
60 60
45
1
2 1.4
45
90
1
An isosceles
right triangle

Figure 2.13
h
y
p
o
t
e
n
u
s
e
90
A right triangle

+ + = 180
MCAT QUANTITATIVE SKILLS 15
The triangles marked by an arrow in Figure 2.13, frequently appear on the MCAT
If it is known that two of a triangles sides are equal to two sides of another triangle, then these
triangles are congruent. Congruent triangles are identical two each other. They share three of the
same angles, and three sides of the same lengths.
3
4
5
37
53
90
3
4
5
37
53
90
Congruent Triangles
Figure 2.14
If two triangles are not congruent, but it is known that they share two angles, then these trian-
gles are similar. Similar triangles are identical to each other in proportion, but are different in
size. They share three of the same angles, but their side lengths, although proportional, are not
equal.
2
45
90
45
2
2
45
1
2
45
90
1
Similar Triangles
Figure 2.15
16 MCAT EXCELERATOR CHAPTER 2
2.4 Trigonometry
A. Degrees and Radians
The formula x + y = r, describes a circle with a radius equal to r, and its center on the origin of
the x and y axes. The circle shown in Figure 2.16 has a radius equal to one, and therefore is called
a unit circle.
s
90
1.57 (rad)
180
3.14 (rad)
270
4.71 (rad)
(1, 0)
(0, 1)
(-1, 0)
(0, -1)
x-axis
y
-
a
x
i
s
r
360
6.28 (rad)
(0, 0)

radians
=
s
r

s = arc length
r = radius
Figure 2.17
If we start at the point labeled (1, 0) and make one
complete revolution around the circle, the arc length s
will be the circumference of the circle and will equal
to 2r, where r = 1 and = 3.14.
The angular displacement is equal to 360 for one
complete counterclockwise revolution and -360 for a
clockwise rotation. Angular displacement may also be
described in radians. Lets look at the angle depicted
by the shaded wedge within the unit circle shown
above. The angular displacement in radians is found
by dividing the arc length s by the radius r. The result
is a unit-less number. Since s equals 2r for one com-
plete revolution, the number of radians per revolution
is 2r/r . This equals 2 radians (or 2 x 3.14 radians =
6.28 radians). By dividing 6.28 radians into 360 we
find that one radian is equal to 57.3.
Note that if the radius of the circle where to double, the arc length required to complete one
revolution would also double, but the angular displacement would remain the same.
57. 360
6.28(rad)
=
3
2/ r 1
rev
x
/
r
=
2(rad)
rev
=
28
360
6.

radians
=
r
s
1 rev = 2r = 360
(rad)
(rad)
Figure 2.16
MCAT QUANTITATIVE SKILLS 17
B. The Pythagorean Theorem
Recall that a right triangle has a 90 angle opposite its longest side called the
hypotenuse. Its other two sides are referred to as legs.
The Pythagorean theorem states that the square of the length of the hy-
potenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of its legs.
For example if the length of a is 0.6, and the length of b is 0.8 then the length
of the hypotenuse c is
given by: c = a + b .
So,

c = (0.36) +(0.64) 1.00
Note that the Pythagorean theorem, and the
equation for a circle are closely related. The
points that define the unit circle, are given by
all sets of x and y values that satisfy the
condition x + y = 1. This equation also
describes all right triangles with leg lengths of
x and y and a hypotenuse equal to one. As
increases from the starting point (indicated y
an arrow), the leg labeled x will decrease in
length, while the leg labeled y will increase.
The trigonometric functions sine, cosine and
tangent quantitatively describe the changes in
x, y, and
C. Sine, Cosine, and Tangent
The definitions of the sine, cosine, and tangent func-
tions are given in Figure 2.20.
If side a is equal to 3, and side o is equal to 4, then by
applying the Pythagorean theorem we may calculate
the hypotenuse to be equal to 5.
The value for sin would then equal 4/5. The value
for cos would be 3/5, and tan would be 4/5.
SOH CAH TOA
SOH: S in = O pposite / H ypotenuse
CAH: C os = A djacent / H ypotenuse
TOA: T an = O pposite / A djacent
(0.6, 0.8)
r
r
a
d
i
u
s

=

1
x
y
90
x + y = r
x-axis
y
-
a
x
i
s

Figure 2.18
Figure 2.20
Figure 2.19
c
h
y
p
o
t
e
n
u
s
e
a
b
90
a + b = c
o
h
sin =
a
h
h
y
p
o
t
e
n
u
s
e
a
o
90
a + o = h

a is the side adjacent to the angle

o the is side opposite the angle
h the is the side opposite the 90 angle
a
h
cos =
tan =
o
18 MCAT EXCELERATOR CHAPTER 2
assignment
Which of the following is true with regard to the triangle shown below?
A. sin = 3/5
B. sin = 4/5
C. sin = 4/3
D. sin = 3/4
solution:
Answer B. Since sin is defined as the side opposite divided by the
hypotenuse, the correct answer is 8/10 or 4/5. If you choose answer A,
remember that you cannot assume that the vertical leg will always be
related to the sine function.
In Figure 2.21, the three right triangles inscribed in a unit circle are used to illustrate important
values of the sine and cosine functions.
sin 45 = 2/2
cos 45 = 2/2
sin 60 = 3/2
cos 60 = 1/2
y
-
a
x
i
s

sin 270 = -1
cos 270 = 0
sin 18 0 = 0
cos 180 = -1
sin 90 = 1
cos 90 = 0
sin 30 = 1/2
cos 30 = 3/2
sin 0 = 0
cos 0 = 1
Values of
Sin & Cos
x-axis
angle: 0 30 45 60 90 180 270
sine: 0 1/2 2/2 3/2 1 0 -1
cosine: 1 3/2 2/2 1/2 0 -1 0
Figure 2.21
Note that the length of each vertical leg is equal to sin , the length of each horizontal leg
equals cos , and tan is equal to the slope of the hypotenuse (y/x). Since y = sin , and x
= cos, it follows that:

tan =
sin
cos

Equation 2.2

10
8
6
MCAT QUANTITATIVE SKILLS 19
Note that at 45, sin is equal to cos , so the tangent of 45 is equal to one.
A GOOD ONE TO REMEMBER
Sin 90 = Cos 0 = Tan 45 = 1
Referring to Figure 2.22, for small angles where r is much larger than o, the angular displacement
can be approximated by Equation 2.3. Note that will be in radians.

h
r
s
o ( rad) =
s
r
Figure 2.22

For small angles :

(rad)

o
r
Equation 2.3
Equation 2.3 is valid for small angles because o s. Any angle with r more than twice as great as
o may be approximated by this method. Also note that since r h, sin tan.
D. Vectors
Physical quantities may be classified as either scalar or vector quantities.
A scalar quantity has magnitude, but no direction. Mass and volume are examples of scalar
quantities.
Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction. Force and acceleration are examples of
vector quantities.
VECTORS
A vectors position is generally irrelevant; only its magnitude and
direction are important.
An arrow drawn above a variable may be used to signify a vector quantity. In the Equation 2.4,
F and a are labeled as vector quantities.

r
r
F ma
Equation 2.4
When two scalars are added, subtracted, multiplied or divided, the result will always be a
scalar.
20 MCAT EXCELERATOR CHAPTER 2
When a one vector is added or subtracted from another vector, the result will also be a vector.
Vector addition and subtraction are demonstrated below.
When a vector is multiplied or divided by a scalar, the result will be a new vector with the same
direction but a different magnitude.
When a vector is multiplied or divided by another vector, a new vector will result. Vector mul-
tiplication is dealt with on the MCAT only by application of the right hand rule. The right hand
rule is covered in Chapter#.
A vector may be represented graphically by an arrow as depicted in Figure 2.23(a). The arrows
length represents the vectors magnitude. The orientation of the arrow indicates the vectors direc-
tion. Figure 2.23(a) depicts a vector with a magnitude of five, directed 53 above the horizontal.
A vector which does not lie on either the x or y axis may be resolved into its x and y compo-
nents by the application of the cosine and sine functions. The x component of a vector is equiva-
lent to its length when measured along the x axis. Its y component is its height measured along
the y axis. This relationship is demonstrated in Figure 2.23(b).
5
53
5
53
x component
x-axis
y
-
a
x
i
s
y

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
(a) Figure 2.23 (b)
The application of the cosine and sine functions to determine the x and y components of a vector
quantity is illustrated below.
5
53
sin53
=
y component
5
cos53
=
x component
5
y component = 4
x component = 3
(a) Figure 2.24 (b)
Vectors may be added or subtracted by use of a graphic or a mathematical procedure.
In the graphic approach, shown in Figure 2.25, two vectors will be added. When using this
method it is important to remember that a vector representation may be moved about freely, as
long as its length and orientation are not changed.
The first step in adding two vectors is to place the tail (the end opposite the arrow head) of one
vector on to the head of the other. An arrow is drawn from the free tail of one vector to the head
MCAT QUANTITATIVE SKILLS 21
of the other, as depicted in Figure 2.25(b). The new arrow represents the vector resulting from the
addition.
+
= ?
tail
tail
head
head
head
tail
tail head
Figure 2.25
Any number of vectors may be added together by the use of the tail to head method. The se-
quence in which vectors are added will not effect the result. Below three vectors are added.
+ = +
r
e
s
u
l
t
a
n
t
Figure 2.26
To subtract vectors, the vectors which bear the negative signs are reversed in direction and then
added in the same manner as previously outlined. An example follows.
- - =
+ +
=
r
e
s
u
l
t
a
n
t
Figure 2.27
To add vectors mathematically, each vector is broken down into its x and y components. The
x and y components are then added together. The Pythagorean theorem and the tangent function
are then used to obtain the resultant magnitude and direction. An example follows.
22 MCAT EXCELERATOR CHAPTER 2
In the following example vectors are assigned a negative value if they are directed downward
or to the left. Angles are assigned a negative value if they are directed downward (i.e., a clock-
wise rotation of less than 180 with respect to the positive x axis.)
53
5
10
53
+ =
10 sin (-53) = -8
10 cos (-53) = 6
+
1) Resolve each vector into x and y components.
6
-8
5 sin 53 = 4
5 cos 53 = 3
3
4
2) Add the x and y components independently.
x components = 3 + 6 = 9
y components = 4 + (-8) = -4
9
-4
-4
The magnitude is just less than 10. N
3) Use the Pythagorean theorem to get the magnetude,
and the tangent function to get the angle.
magnitude
=
(9) + (-4)
=
97 100
-24 N (The negative sign indicates a clockwise rotation.)
(deg)

rad)
(rad)

57.
(
x

9
3
tan =
-4
9
(rad)
-4
9

rad) -4
x
60
( rad)
10
(

(deg)

Ok now lets bump up the

numerator and the
denominator to make the
math ridiculously easy!

<10
-24
9
-4
r
e
s
u
l
t
a
n
t
The method for mathematically subtracting vectors involves the same steps as outlined above. In
step two, however, one must subtract rather than add.