Chapter 7 First-Order Circuits

Circuit elements
Passive elements : resistors, capacitors and inductors Active element : OP Amp (operational amplifier)

Analysis of RC and RL circuits by applying Kirchhoffs laws RC and RL circuits are first-order circuit A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order differential equation Excitation of first-order circuits
Source-free circuit : initial conditions on inductor and capacitor Independent sources : dc, sinusoidal and exponential sources

7.2 The Source-Free RC Circuit

A source-free RC circuit occurs when dc source is suddenly removed The resistor and capacitor may be equivalent circuit of combinations of them We want to know the circuit response, i.e. the capacitor voltage v(t). Assuming, v(0) = V0 The energy stored is 1 w(0 ) = CV02 2 Applying KCL: iC + iR = 0
C dv v dv v + = 0 or + =0 dt R dt RC
1

The Source-Free RC Circuit

This is a first-order differential equation
dv 1 = dt v RC

Integrating both sides

t + ln A where A is the integration constant RC v t ln = A RC v (t ) = Ae t / RC From the initial conditions, v (0 ) = A = V0 ln v = v (t ) = V0 e t / RC
An exponential decay of the initial voltage
2

The Source-Free RC Circuit

The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in terms of voltages and currents) of the circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation Natural response depends only on the nature of the circuit alone, nothing related to the external sources The time constant ( = RC)of a circuit is the time required for the response to decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its initial value v ( ) = V0 e / RC = V0 e 1 = 0.368V0
and v (t ) = V0 e t /
3

Steady state v.s. transient state

t v(t)/V0 0.36788 0.13534 0.04979 0.01832 0.00674

2 3 4 5

v(t) is less than 1% of V0 after 5; in other words, It takes 5 for the circuit to reach its final state or steady state when no changes occur The state before steady state is called transient state The smaller the time constant, the faster the response
4

Energy in RC circuit
The resistor current iR (t ) =
2

v (t ) V0 t / = e R R The power dissipated in the resistor is p (t ) = viR =

V0 2 t / e R The energy absorbed by the resistor up to time t is wR (t ) = =

t 0 2 V0 2 2t / t V0 2 t / pdt = e dt = e 0 R 0 2R t

1 2 CV0 (1 e 2 t / ) 2

where = RC 1 2 CV0 , which is equal to wC (0 ) 2

5

Notice that as t , wR ( )

Another perspective of time constant

d v 1 = e t / dt V0 t =0 =
t =0

v (t ) = V0 e t /

The time constant is the initial rate of decay, or the time taken for v/V0 to decay from unity to zero, assuming constant rate of decay This initial slope interpretation is used to find from the response curve Draw the tangent to the curve at t = 0 The tangent intercepts with the time axis at t =

Work with a Source-free RC Circuit

First find:
The initial voltage v(0) = V0 across the capacitor The time constant

The capacitor voltage is then The time constant is identical regardless of what output is When a circuit contains a single capacitor and several resistors or dependent sources, the Thevenin equivalent can be found at the terminals of the capacitor
vC (t ) = v (t ) = v (0 )e t /

Example 7.1
In the figure, let vC(0) = 15V. Find vC, vx, and ix, for t > 0. Sol: The equivalent resistance R = 20 5 = 4 eq 20 + 5 The time constant = Req C = 4(0.1) = 0.4 s Thus t / t / 0.4

v = v (0)e

= 15e V

V,

vc = v = 15e vx =

2.5t

12 v = 0.6(15e 2.5t ) = 9e 2.5tV 12 + 8 v ix = x = 0.75e 2.5t A 12

8

Practice Problem 7.1

For the circuit, let vC(0) = 30V. Determine vC, vx, and io, for t 0.

Ans: 30e-0.25tV, 10e-0.25tV, -2.5e-0.25tV

Example 7.2
The switch in the circuit has been closed for a long time, and it is opened at t = 0. Find v(t) for t 0 and the initial energy stored in the capacitor. Sol: Using voltage division

vc ( t ) =

9 (20) = 15V , t < 0 9+3

vC(0) is the same as vC(0-)

vc (0) = V0 = 15V Req = 1 + 9 = 10

= ReqC = 10 20 103 = 0.2 s

v (t ) = Vc (0)e t / = 15e t / 0.2V
10

Example 7.2
The initial energy

1 1 wc (0) = Cvc2 (0) = 20 103 152 = 2.25 J 2 2

Practice Problem 7.2 If the switch in the circuit opens at t = 0. Find v(t) for t 0 and wC(0). Ans: 8e-2tV, 5.33J

11

7.3 The Source-Free RL Circuit

Analysis goal is to find the circuit response Select inductor current as the response in order to take advantage of that: inductor current cannot change instantaneously Assuming i(0) = I0, the energy stored in the 1 2 inductor is
LI 0 2 Applying KVL : vL + vR = 0 w(0 ) =

di di R + Ri = 0 or + i =0 dt dt L

This is a first-order differential equation

12

The Source-Free RL Circuit

Rearranging
di R = dt i L

Integrating both sides

t R di = dt I0 0 L i i (t ) R t Rt ln i = ln i (t ) ln I 0 = + 0 I0 L0 L

i (t )

ln

i (t ) Rt = I0 L where

i (t ) = I 0 e Rt / L = I 0 e t /

L R
13

An exponential decay of the initial current

Natural response of RL circuit

The natural response of the RL circuit is an exponential decay of the initial current
vR (t ) = iR = I 0 Re t / p = vRi = I 02 Re 2 t / wR (t ) = pdt = I 02 Re 2 t / dt
0 0 t t

1 1 2 = I 02 Re 2 t / = LI 0 (1 e 2 t / ) 2 2 0 Note that as t , wR ( ) 1 2 LI 0 , which is equal to wL (0) 2

14

Key to Work with a Source-free RL Circuit

First find:
The initial current i(0) = I0 through the inductor The time constant of the circuit

The inductor current is then

iL (t ) = i (t ) = i (0 )e t /

Once iL is determined, inductor voltage vL, resistor voltage vR and resistor current iR can be obtained When a circuit contains a single inductor and several resistors or dependent sources, the Thevenin equivalent can be found at the terminals of the inductor

15

Example 7.3
Assuming that i(0)=10A, calculate i(t) and ix(t) in the circuit. Sol: Method 1:

Applying KVL 2(i1 i2 ) + 1 = 0 i1 i2 = 5 6i2 2i1 3i1 = 0 i2 = i1 6 i1 = 3 A, i0 = i1 = 3 A Hence Req = RTh = v0 1 = i0 3

16

1 2

Example 7.3
The time constant is = L 3 = s Req 2 t>0

Thus, the current through the inductor is i (t ) = i (0)e t / = 10e (2 / 3) t A

Method 2:

1 di1 + 2(i1 i2 ) = 0 2 dt 5 6i2 2i1 3i1 = 0 i2 = i1 for loop 2 6 di1 2 Substituting + i1 = 0 dt 3 2 di Rearranging terms 1 = dt 3 i1 Apply KVL for loop1

17

Example 7.3
2 i (t ) ln i i (0) = t 3 0 i (t ) = i (0)e (2 / 3) t = 10e (2 / 3) t A v=L t >0 di 2 10 = 0.5(10)( )e (2 / 3) t = e (2 / 3) tV dt 3 3 v ix (t ) = = 1.667e (2 / 3)t A, t>0 2
Practice Problem 7.3 Let i(0)=5A, find i(t) and vx(t) in the circuit. Ans: 5e-53t A, -15e-53t V
18
t

Example 7.4
The switch in the circuit has been closed for a long time. At t = 0, the switch is opened. Calculate i(t) for t > 0. Sol:

Combine the 4 and 12 resistors 4 12 = 3 4 + 12 40 Hence, i1 = = 8A 2+3 Using current division t<0

12 i1 = 6 A, 12 + 4 i (0) = i (0 ) = 6 A i (t ) =

19

10

Example 7.4
Combining the resistors, we have

Req = (12 + 4) || 16 = 8
The time constant is Thus,

L 2 1 = = s Req 8 4

i (t ) = i (0)e t / = 6e 4t A

Practice Problem 7.4 For the circuit, find i(t) for t > 0.

Ans: 2e-2t A

20

Example 7.5
In the circuit, find io, vo, and i for all time, assuming that the switch was open for a long time. Sol: For t < 0

10 = 2A, v0 (t ) = 3i (t ) = 6 V 2+3 i (0 ) = 2A i (t ) =
For t > 0

RTh = 3 || 6 = 2

L = 1s RTh
21

i (t ) = i (0 )e t / = 2e t A

11

Example 7.5
Since the inductor is in the parallel with the 6 and 3
v0 (t ) = vL = L i0 (t ) = Thus t<0 0 A, i0 (t ) = 2 t , e A, t > 0 3 t<0 2 A, i (t ) = t 2e A, t 0 6V , v0 (t ) = t 4e V , t<0 t<0 di = 2( 2e t ) = 4e tV , t > 0 dt vL 2 = e t A, t > 0 6 3

22

Practice Problem 7.5

Determine i, io, and vo for all t in the circuit. Assume that the switch was closed for a long time. It should be noted that opening a switch in series with an ideal current source creates an infinite voltage at the current source terminals. Clearly this is impossible. For the purposes of problem solving, we can place a shunt resistor in parallel with the source (which now makes it a voltage source in series with a resistor). In more practical circuits, devices that act like current sources are, for the most part, electronic circuits. These circuits will allow the source to act like an ideal current source over its operating range but voltage-limit it when the load resistor becomes too large (as in an open circuit). Ans: t<0 t<0 2 A, 8V , t<0 4 A, i ( t ) = 2 t i0 (t ) = 4 2 t v0 (t ) = 8 2 t e V, t < 0 e A, t > 0 4e A, t 0 3 3
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12

7.4 Singularity Functions ()

Singularity functions are functions that either are discountinuous or have discountinuous derivatives. Singularity functions (also called switching functions) serve good approximations to the switching signals in the circuits with switching operations These functions are used to describe the sudden application of an independent dc voltage or current source Three most widely used are unit step, unit impulse, and unit ramp functions

24

Unit step functions

The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative values of t and 1 for positive values of t.

0, t < 0 u (t ) = 1, t > 0
0, t < t0 u (t t0 ) = 1, t > t 0
0, t < t0 u (t + t0 ) = 1, t > t 0
25

13

Unit step voltage source

Step function is used to represent an abrupt change in voltage or current, like the changes that occur in the circuits of control system or digital computers 0, t < t0 If a voltage is like v (t ) = V0 , t > t0
It can be represente d mathmatically as v (t ) = V0 u(t t0 )

Voltage source V0u(t)

Equivalent circuit
26

Unit step current source

Similarly,
0, t < 0 If a current is like i (t ) = I0 , t > 0 It can be represente d mathmatically as i (t ) = I 0 u(t )

Current source I0u(t)

Equivalent circuit
27

14

Unit impulse function

Unit impulse function (t) is zero everywhere except at t = 0, where it is undefined Unit impulse function is the derivative of the unit step function t<0 0, d (t ) = u (t ) = Undefined , t = 0 dt 0, t >0 Unit impulse function is also known as delta function The unit area is known as the strength unit area of the impulse function

(t )dt = (t )dt = 1
0

0+

28

Sampling or sifting property

If an impulse function has a strength other than unity, the area of the impulse is equal to its strength

f (t ) (t t0 )dt =
t0+ t0

where a < t0 < b

f (t0 ) (t t0 )dt
t0+ t0

= f (t0 ) (t t0 )dt = f (t0 )

Integrating the function results in the value of the function exactly at the point where the impulse occurs Useful feature known as sampling or sifting property
29

15

Unit ramp function

The unit ramp function is zero for negative values of t and has a unit slope for positive values of t Integrating the unit step function u(t) results in the unit ramp function r(t)
r (t ) = u(t )dt = tu(t )
t

or 0, r (t ) = t , t0 t0

A ramp is a function that changes at a constant rate

30

Delayed and advanced ramp function

Delayed ramp function

t t0 0, r (t t0 ) = t t0 , t t0
Advanced ramp function

t t0 0, r (t + t0 ) = t + t0 , t t0

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16

Relationship between the singularity functions

The three singularity functions are related By differentiation

(t ) =

du(t ) dt dr (t ) u (t ) = dt
u(t ) = (t )dt
t t

By integration

r (t ) = u(t )dt

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Example 7.6
Express the voltage pulse in the figure in terms of the unit step. Calculate its derivative and sketch it.

v (t ) = 10u (t 2) 10u (t 5)

33

17

Example 7.6
Taking the derivative of this gives dv = 10[ (t 2) (t 5)] dt
Practice Problem 7.6 Express the current pulse in terms of the unit step. Find its integral and sketch it.

34

Example 7.7
Express the sawtooth function shown in the figure in terms of singularity functions. Sol: Method 1 v (t ) = v1 (t ) + v2 (t ) + v3 (t )

v1 (t ) = 5r (t )

v2 (t ) = 5r (t 2)

v3 (t ) = 10u(t 2) v (t ) = 5r (t ) 5r (t 2) 10u(t 2)

35

18

Example 7.7

Method 2

v (t ) = 5t[u(t ) u(t 2)] = 5tu(t ) 5tu(t 2) = 5r (t ) 5(t 2 + 2)u(t 2) = 5r (t ) 5(t 2)u(t 2) 10u(t 2) = 5r (t ) 5r (t 2) 10u(t 2)
36

Example 7.7
Method 3

v (t ) = 5r (t )u( t + 2) = 5r (t )[1 u(t 2)]

Practice Problem 7.7 Express i(t) in terms of singularity functions.

i (t ) = 2u (t ) 2 r (t ) + 2 r (t 2)
37

19

Example 7.8
Given the signal
t<0 3, g (t ) = 2, 0 < t <1 2t 4, t >1 Express g(t) in terms of step and ramp functions.
g(t) 3 -2 2t - 4 t

For t < 0, g (t ) is 3u( t ) For 0 < t < 1, g (t ) is 2[u(t ) u(t 1)] For t > 1 , g (t ) is (2t 4)u (t 1) g (t ) = 3u( t ) 2[u(t ) u(t 1)] + (2t 4)u(t 1) = 3u( t ) 2u(t ) + (2t 4 + 2)u(t 1) = 3u( t ) 2u(t ) + 2(t 1)u(t 1) = 3u( t ) 2u(t ) + 2 r (t 1) Then g (t ) = 3[1 u(t )] 2u(t ) + 2 r (t 1) = 3 5u(t ) + 2 r (t 1)

38

Practice problem 7.8

t<0 0, 4, 0<t<2 h(t ) = 6 t , 2<t<6 0 t>6

If

express h(t) in terms of the singularity functions. Ans: 4u(t) - r(t - 2) + r(t - 6)

39

20

Example 7.9
Evaluate the following integrals involving the impulse function

(1) (2)
Sol:

10

(t 2 + 4t 2) (t 2)dt ( (t 1)e t cos t + (t + 1)e t sin t )dt

(1)

10

(t 2 + 4t 2) (t 2)dt = (t 2 + 4t 2) ( (t 1)e t cos t + (t + 1)e t sin t )dt

t =1

t =2

= 4 + 8 2 = 10 (2)

= e t cos t
1

+ e t sin t
1

t =1

= e cos1 + e sin( 1) = 0.1988 2.2873 = 2.0885

40

Practice problem 7.9

Evaluate the following integrals:

(1) (2)

10

(t 3 + 5t 2 + 10) (t + 3)dt

(t ) cos 3t dt

Ans: (1) 28 (2) -1

41

21

7.5 Step Response of an RC Circuit

When dc source is suddenly applied on an RC circuit, the voltage or current source can be modeled as a step function The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the excitation is the step function, which may be a voltage or a current source

v (0 ) = v (0+ ) = V0

capacitor voltage cannot change immediately

42

Step Response of an RC Circuit

Applying KCL
C dv v V u (t ) dv v VS u (t ) + = 0 or + = S dt RC RC R dt dv v VS For t > 0 + = dt RC RC dv v VS dv dt = = or dt RC v VS RC
t

Integrating both sides and introducing initial conditions

ln( v Vs ) V
v(t )
0

t = RC

ln( v (t ) Vs ) ln(V0 Vs ) =

t v Vs t + 0 or ln = RC V0 Vs RC
43

22

Step Response of an RC Circuit

Taking the exponential of both sides
v Vs = e , = RC V0 Vs t

v Vs = (V0 Vs )e

or
t

assuming Vs > V0

v(t ) = Vs + (V0 Vs )e , t > 0

Thus,
t<0 V0 , v (t ) = t / Vs + (V0 Vs )e , t 0
This is known as the complete response (or total response) of the RC circuit
44

Step Response of an RC Circuit

If assuming the capacitor is initially uncharged, then V0 = 0 t<0 0, v(t ) = t / t>0 Vs (1 e ), The above can be alternatively written as v(t ) = Vs (1 e t / )u (t ) The capacitor current is obtained by i(t) = Cdv/dt dv C t / = Vs e , t > 0 i (t ) = C dt V or i (t ) = s e t / u(t ) R
45

23

V s

Complete response
vtotal

Complete response = nature response + forced response

V 0
stored energy independent source

vf

vn

Originally 0 v(t ) = Vs + (V0 Vs )e , t > 0 Alternatively v = vn + v f

where vn = V0 e t / , v f = Vs (1 e t / )
Natural response vn is the source-free response, dying out gradually with the transient part of the forced response Forced response vf is the response induced by external force, existing continually to form the steady-state component
46

Complete response
Complete response = transient response + steady-state response
Temporary part Permanent part

v = vt + vss where vt = (V0 Vs )e t / , vss = Vs

The transient is the circuits temporary response that will die out with time V The steady-state response is the behavior of the circuit a long time after an external excitation is applied
0 0

Vs

vss v response total

vt
47

24

Decomposition of complete response

The first decomposition of the complete response is in terms of the source of the responses; the latter is the permanency of the responses Under certain conditions, the natural and transient responses are the same; so as forced and steady-state responses Either way, complete response can be written as

v(t ) = v() + [v(0) v()]e t /

where v(0) is the initial voltage at t = 0+ and v() is the final or steady-state value

48

Solving RC circuit with response decomposition

To find the step response of an RC circuit requires three things
The initial capacitor voltage v(0) The final capacitor voltage v() The time constant

If the switch changes position at time t = t0, there is a time delay in the response

v (t ) = v ( ) + [v (t0 ) v ()]e ( t t0 ) /
where v(t0) is the initial value at t = t0+

49

25

Example 7.10
The switch in the figure has been in position A for a long time. At t = 0, the switch moves to B. Determine v(t) for t > 0 and calculate its value at t = 1s and 4s. Sol: By voltage division

5 (24) = 15V 5+ 3 Since the capacitor voltage cannot change v(0 ) = v(0) = v(0 ) = v(0+ ) = 15V The time constant = RThC = 4 103 0.5 103 = 2s
50

Example 7.10
Since the capacitor acts like an open-circuit to dc at steady state

v(t ) = v() + [v(0) v()]e t / = 30 + (15 30)et / 2 = (30 15e0.5t )V At t = 1s At t = 4s v(1) = 30 15e0.5 = 20.902V v(4) = 30 15e2 = 27.97V

Practice Problem 7.10 Find v(t) for t > 0. Assume the switch has been open for a long time and is closed at t = 0. calculate at v(t) t = 0.5. Ans: -5+15e-2tV, 0.5182V
51

26

Example 7.11
In the figure, the switch has been closed for a long time and is opened at t = 0. Find i and v for all time. Sol: By definition of the unit step function

0, t < 0 30u(t ) = 30, t > 0 For t < 0 v = 10V , i= v = 1 A 10

Since the capacitor voltage cannot change

v (0) = v (0 ) = 10V
52

Example 7.11
For t > 0, by using voltage division

20 (30) = 20V 20 + 10 10 20 20 RTh = 10 20 = = 30 3 20 1 5 = s = RThC = 3 4 3 v (t ) = v ( ) + [v (0) v ( )]e t / v() = = 20 + (10 20)e (3/ 5) t = (20 10e 0.6t )V i= v dv +C dt 20 0.6 t = 1 0.5e + 0.25( 0.6)( 10)e 0.6t = (1 + e 0.6t ) A
53

27

Example 7.11
10V , v= 0.6 t (20 10e )V , 1A, i= 0.6 t (1 + e ) A, t<0 t0 t<0 t>0

Practice Problem 7.11 The switch is closed at t = 0. Find i(t) and v(t) for all time. Note that u(-t) = 1 for t < 0 and 0 for t > 0. Also u(-t) = 1- u(t). Ans:
t<0 0, i (t ) = 1.5t 2(1 + e ) A, t > 0 t<0 20V , v (t ) = 1.5t 10(1 + 10e )V , t > 0
54

7.6 Step Response of an RL Circuit

Consider the RL circuit, which may be replaced by the circuit applying unit step function Our goal is to find the inductor current Decomposing the answer into transient and steady-state responses, i.e. i = it + iss Since transient response is a decaying exponential; that is L it = Ae t / , = , A is a constant R After long time, the inductor short-circuited

iss =

Vs R

55

28

Step Response of an RL Circuit

The complete response is i = Ae t / +
Vs R

Let I0 be the initial inductor current Since the current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously, thus i (0+ ) = i (0 ) = I 0 At t = 0,

I0 = A +
Therefore,

V0 R

or A = I 0

Vs R

i (t ) =

Vs V + ( I 0 s )e t / R R
56

Step Response of an RL Circuit

The response may be written as

i (t ) = i () + [i (0) i ()]e t /
where i(0) and i() are the initial and final values of i To find the step response of an RL circuit requires:
The initial inductor current i(0) at t = 0 The finial inductor current i() The time constant

If the switching happens at time t = t0 instead of t = 0, then

i (t ) = i () + [i (t0 ) i ()]e ( t t0 ) /
57

29

Step Response of an RL Circuit

If I0 = 0, then
t<0 0, i (t ) = Vs (1 e t / ), t > 0 R V or i (t ) = s (1 e t / )u (t ) R The voltage across the inductor
di L t / e , = Vs dt R v (t ) = Vs e t / u (t ) v (t ) = L

L , t>0 R

58

Example 7.12
Find i(t) in the circuit in the figure for t > 0. Assuming that the switch has been closed for a long time. Sol:

10 = 5A 2 i (0) = i (0+ ) = i (0 ) = 5 A When t > 0, the switch is open 10 i () = = 2A 2+3 RTh = 2 + 3 = 5 i (0 ) =

1 1 L = =3= s RTh 5 15
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30

Example 7.12
Thus i (t ) = i ( ) + [i (0) i ()]e t / = 2 + (5 2)e 15t = 2 + 3e 15t A, t>0 Check : for t > 0 KVL must be satisfied 10 = 5i + L 5i + L di dt

di 1 = [10 + 15e 15t ] + [ (3)( 15)e 15t ] = 10 dt 3

60

Practice Problem 7.12

The switch has been closed for a long time. It opens at t = 0. Find i(t) for t > 0.

Ans: (2 + e-10t) A, t > 0

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31

Example 7.13
At t = 0, switch S1 in the figure is closed, and switch S2 is closed 4s later. Find i(t) for t > 0. Calculate i for t = 2s and t = 5s. Sol: For t < 0 , i (0 ) = i (0 ) = i (0 + ) = 0 For 0 t < 4 40 = 4 A, RTh = 4 + 6 = 10 i() = 4+6 L 5 = = = 0 .5 RTh 10

i (t ) = i ( ) + (i (0 ) i ( ) )e t / = 4 + (0 4 )e 2t

= 4(1 e 2 t ) A, 0 t < 4
62

Example 7.13
For t > 4

i (4 ) = i (4 ) = 4(1 e 8 ) 4 To find i ( ) , Using KCL 40 v 10 v v 180 + = v= V 4 2 6 11 v 30 = 2.727 A i ( ) = = 6 11 42 22 +6 = RTh = 4 || 2 + 6 = 6 3 15 L 5 = = = s 22 RTh 22 3

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32

Example 7.13
i (t ) = i () + (i (4) i () )e ( t 4 ) / = 2.272 + (4 2.272)e 1.4667 ( t 4 )
To sum up, 0, i (t ) = 4(1 e 2 t ), 2.727 + 1.273e 1.4667( t 4) , At t = 2 i (2) = 4(1 e 4 ) = 3.93 A At t = 5 i (5) = 2.727 + 1.273e 1.4667 = 3.02 A
64

t>4
t0 0t4 t4

Practice Problem 7.13

Switch S1 is closed at t = 0, and switch S2 is closed at t = 2s. Calculate i(t) for all time. Find i(1) and i(3). Ans:

t0 0, 9 t i (t ) = 2(1 e ), 0t2 3.6 1.6e 5( t 2) , t2 i (1) = 1.9997 A, i (3) = 3.589 A

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7.7 First-Order Op Amp Circuits

An op amp circuit containing a storage element will exhibit first-order behavior Differentiators and integrators are examples of first-order op amp circuits For practical reasons, inductors are hardly used in op amp circuits; only RC type circuits are considered The following three examples illustrate the location of the capacitor will influence the circuit behaviors; i.e. located in the input, output, or the feedback loop

66

Example 7.14 (source-free op amp circuit)

For the op amp circuit in the figure, find vo for t > 0, given that v(0)= 3V. Let Rf = 80 k, R1 = 20 k and C = 5 F. Sol: Method 1:

Applying KCL at node 1 , Q v1 = v

0 v1 dv =C R1 dt

dv v + =0 dt CR1

v (t ) = V0e t / , = R1C , v (t ) = 3e 10t Applying KCL at node 2 C dv 0 v0 dv = or v0 = R f C dt Rf dt t>0

67

v0 = 80 103 5 106 ( 30e 10t ) = 12e 10tV ,

34

Example 7.14
Method 2:

Applying KCL at node 2 3 0 v0 (0+ ) + = 0, vo (0+ ) = 12V 20, 000 80000 Applying KVL to the input loop 20,000(1) v = 0 Then Req = v = 20kV v = 20k 1 and = ReqC = 0.1. Thus, v0 (t ) = v0 ( ) + [v0 (0) v0 ( )]e t / = 0 + (12 0)e 10t = 12e 10tV , t > 0
68

Practice Problem 7.14

For the op amp circuit in the figure, find vo for t > 0, if v(0) = 4V. Assume that Rf = 50 k, R1 = 10 k and C = 10 F.

Ans: -4e-2t V, t > 0

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Example 7.15
Determine v(t) and vo(t) in the circuit. Sol:

v (t ) = v () + [v (0) v ( )]e t / ,

t>0

= RC = 50 10 10 = 0.05
3 6

For t < 0, For t > 0, v0 () = (1 + v1 v0 = v

v (0) = 0 v1 = 20 3 = 2V 20 + 10

50 )v1 = 3.5 2 = 7V 20

So that v ( ) = 2 7 = 5V
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Example 7.15
Substituting v (t ) = 5 + [0 ( 5)]e 20 t = 5( e 20t 1)V , t > 0 We obtain v0 (t ) = v1 (t ) v (t ) = 7 5e 20 tV ,
Practice Problem 7.15 Find v(t) and vo(t) in the op amp circuit.

t>0

Ans: 40(1-e-10t) mV, 40(e-10t -1) mV

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Example 7.16
Find the step response vo(t) for t > 0 in the op amp circuit. Let vi = 2u(t) V, R1 = 20 k, R2 = R3 = 10 k, C = 2 F. Sol: R Vab = f vi R1
To find Thevenin voltage VTh = R3 R3 R f Vab = vi R2 + R3 R2 + R3 R1

To find Thevenin resistance RR RTh = R2 R3 = 2 3 ( R0 = 0) R2 + R3

72

Example 7.16
VTh = RTh = R3 R f 10 50 vi = 2u(t ) = 2.5u(t ) R2 + R3 R1 20 20

R2 R3 = 5k R2 + R3

v0 (t ) = 2.5(1 e t / )u (t ) where = RThC = 5 103 2 106 = 0.01 Thus the step response v0 (t ) = 2.5( e 100t 1)u(t )V

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Practice Problem 7.16

Obtain the step response vo(t) in the op amp circuit. Let vi = 2u(t) V, R1 = 20 k, Rf = 40 k, R2 = R3 = 10 k, C = 2 F.

Ans: 6(1 - e-50t)u(t) V

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7.9 Transient Analysis with PSpice

Transient response is the temporary response of the circuit that soon disappears PSpice can be applied to obtain the transient response of a circuit with storage elements If necessary, dc PSpice analysis is first carried out to determine the initial conditions The initial conditions are used in the transient PSpice analysis to obtain the transient responses It is recommended that during dc analysis, all capacitors are open-circuited while all inductors are short-circuited

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38

Example 7.17
Use Pspice to find the response i(t) for t > 0 in the circuit.

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Practice Problem 7.17

For the circuit, use Pspice to find v(t) for t > 0.

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39

Example 7.18
In the circuit, use Pspice to find v(t) for t > 0.

v (t ) = 10 18e tV

Circuit for t > 0

Simplified circuit
78

Example 7.18
Method 1 (dc transient analysis)

dc analysis

transient analysis

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40

Example 7.18
Method 2 (simulate directly)

80

Practice problem 7.18

The switch was open for a long time but closed at t = 0. If i(0) = 10A, find i(t) for t > 0 by hand and also by Pspice.

Ans: i(t) = 6 + 4e-5t

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7.9 Applications
Devices making use of RC or RL circuits include filtering in dc power supplies, smoothing circuits in digital communications, differentiators, integrators, delay circuits, and relay circuits The short or long time constants of the RC or RL circuits are applied in the devices In the following, delay circuits, photoflash unit, relay circuits and automobile ignition circuit are introduced

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7.9.1 Delay Circuits

An RC circuit can be used to provide various time delays When the switch is closed, the capacitor voltage increase gradually toward 110V at a rate determined by the circuits time constant,(R1+R2)C The lamp will not emit light until the voltage across it exceed 70V When the voltage level is reached, the lamp fires and the capacitor discharge through it
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Delay Circuits
Due to the low resistance of the lamp when on, the capacitor voltage drops fast and the lamp turns off Therefore, the lamp will turn on and off repeatedly Adjusting R2, we can introduce either short or long time delay The warning blinkers commonly found on road construction sites are the application examples

84

Example 7.19
Consider the circuit in the figure, and assume that R1 = 1.5 M, 0 < R2 < 2.5 k. (a) Calculate the extreme limits of the time constant of the circuit. (b) How long does it take for the first time after the switch is closed? Let R2 assume its largest value. Sol: (a)

The samllest value for R2 is 0

= ( R1 + R2 )C = (1.5 106 + 0) 0.1 106 = 0.15s

The largest value for R2 is 2.5M

= ( R1 + R2 )C = (1.5 + 2.5) 106 0.1 106 = 0.4 s

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Example 7.19
(b)

vc (0) = 0, vc ( ) = 0 vc (t ) = vc ( ) + [vc (0) vc ( )]e t / = 110[1 e t / ] where = 0.4 s, the lamp glows when vc = 70V 7 = 1 e t0 / 11 4 11 or e t0 / = et0 / = 11 4 Taking the natural logarithm of both sides 11 t0 = ln = 0.4 ln 2.75 = 0.4046s 4 70 = 110[1 e t0 / ]
86

Example 7.19
A more general formula for finding t0 is t0 = ln v ( t0 ) v ( )
Practice Problem 7.19 The RC circuit is designed to operate an alarm which activates when the current through it exceeds 120A. If 0 R 6k, find the range of the time delay that the variable resistor can create. Ans: Between 47.23ms and 124ms
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v (0) v ( ) v (t0 ) v ( )

The lamp will fire repeatedly every t0 seconds if and only if

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7.9.2 Photoflash Unit

This application exploits the ability of the capacitor to oppose any abrupt change in voltage The charging time is approximately tcharge = 5R1C (when the switch is in position 1) The discharging time is approximately tdischarge = 5R2C (when the switch is in position 2)

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Photoflash Unit
This circuit provides a short-duration, high-current pulse
I1 = Vs R1

I2 =

Vs R2

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Example 7.20
An electron flashing has a current-limiting 6k resistor and 2000F electrolytic capacitor to 240V. If the lamp resistance is 12, find: (a) the peak charging current, (b) the time required for the capacitor to fully charge, (c) the peak discharging current, (d) the total energy stored in the capacitor, and (e) the average power dissipated by the lamp. Sol: V 240 = 40mA (a) The peak charging current is I1 = s = R1 6 103
3 6 (b) tcharge = 5R1C = 5 6 10 2000 10 = 60s = 1 minute

(c) The peak discharging current is I 2 = (d) The energy stored is W =

1 1 CVs2 = 2000 106 2402 = 57.6 J 2 2

90

Vs 240 = = 20 A R2 12

Example 7.20
(e)

tdischarge = 5R2C = 5 12 2000 106 = 0.12 s p= W tdischarge = 57.6 = 480W 0.12

Practice problem 7.20 The flash unit of a camera has a 2mF capacitor charged to 80V. (a) How much charge is on the capacitor? (b) What is the energy stored in the capacitor? (c) If the flash fires in 0.8ms, what is the average current through the flashtube? (d) How much power is delivered to the flashtube? (e) After a picture has been taken, the capacitor needs to be recharged by a power unit that supplies as maximum of 5mA. How much time does it take to charge the capacitor? Ans: (a) 0.16C, (b) 6.4J, (c) 200A, (d) 8kW, (e) 32s
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7.9.3 Relay Circuits

A magnetically controlled switch is called a relay The coil current gradually increases and produces a magnetic field Eventually the magnetic field is sufficiently strong to pull the movable contact in the other circuit and close switch At this time the relay is said to be pulled in The time interval td between the closure of switch S1 and S2 is called the relay delay time
92

Example 7.21
The coil of a certain relay is operated by a 12V battery. If the coil has a resistance of 150 and an inductance of 30mH and the current needed to pull in is 50mA, calculate the relay delay time. Sol:

The current through the coil is given by i (t ) = i ( ) + [i (0) i ( )]e t / 12 = 80mA, where i (0) = 0, i ( ) = 150 L 30 103 = 0.2ms and = = R 150 Thus i (t ) = 80(1 e t / )mA If i (td ) = 50mA, then

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Example 7.21
50 = 80(1 e td / ) 5 = 1 e td / 8 3 8 or e td / = etd / = 8 3 By taking the natural logarithm on both sides, we get 8 8 td = ln = 0.2ln ms = 0.1962ms 3 3

Practice problem 7.21 A relay has a resistance of 200 and an inductance of 500mH. The relay contacts close when the current through the coil reaches 350mA. What time elapses between the application of 110V to the coil and contact closure? Ans: 2.529ms
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7.9.4 Automobile Ignition Circuit

The ability of inductors to oppose rapid change in current makes them useful for arc or spark generation To form a spark requires thousands of volts between the air gap How can such a high voltage be obtained from the car battery?
Since the voltage across the inductor is v = Ldi/dt , we can make di/dt large by creating a large change in current through the inductor

When the ignition switch is closed, the final current value is i = Vs / R L The time taken to charge is tcharge = 5 = 5 R
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Automobile Ignition Circuit

At steady state, di/dt = 0, therefore, inductor voltage v = 0 When the switch suddenly opens, a large voltage is developed across the inductor causing a spark The induced large voltage is due to the rapidly collapsing field The spark continues until the energy stored in the inductor is dissipated in the spark discharge

96

Example 7.22
A solenoid with resistance 4 and inductance 6mH is used in an automobile ignition circuit. If the battery supplies 12V, determine: the final current through the solenoid when the switch is closed, the energy stored in the coil, and the voltage across the air gap, assuming that the switch takes 1s to open. Sol: The final current through the coil is

Vs 12 = = 3A R 4 The energy stored in the coil is I= W= 1 2 1 LI = 6 103 32 = 27mJ 2 2 The voltage across the gap is 3 I = 6 103 = 18kV 1 106 t
97

V =L

49

Example 7.22
The spark coil of an automobile ignition system has a 20mH inductance and a 5 resistance. With a supply voltage of 12V, calculate: the time needed for the coil to fully charge, the energy stored in the coil, and the voltage developed at the spark gap if the switch opens in 2s. Ans: 20ms, 57.6mJ, and 24kV

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Assignments
7.3, 7.7, 7.16, 7.19, 7.26, 7.39, 7.43, 7.49, 7.56, 7.66, 7.73

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