\CHAPTER 1 Reproduction: defined as a biological process in which an organism gives rise to young ones (offspring) similar to itself.

Asexual reproduction:

Offsprings produced by single parents. Without involvement of gamete formation Offsprings are

Sexuality in organism: Plant having both male and female sex organ called homothallic or monoecious. Plants having only one sex organ is called heterothallic or dioecious. In flowering plants, the unisexual male flower is staminate, i.e. bearing staments, while the female is pistillate or bearing pistils.

Animal having one type of reproductive system, called unisexual. Animal having both male and female reproductive system,

called hermaphrodite or bisexual.

Cell division during gamete formation:

Gametes in all heterogametic species two types namely male and female. Gametes are always haploid irrespective of parents ploidy. A haploid parent produces gametes by mitotic division. Diploid parent produces gametes by meiotic division. In diploid organisms specialized cells called meiocytes (gamete mother cell) undergo meiosis to produce haploid gametes.

Gamete transfer:

Male and female gamete must be physically brought together to facilitate fusion called fertilization.

In most cases male gametes are motile, female gametes are non-motile. In case of few fungi and algae, both male and female gametes are motile. In most cases water is the medium for gamete transfer. Male gametes are produced in several thousand times the number of female gametes produced to compensate the loss during transfer.

Fertilization:

Fusion of male and female gamete is called fertilization or syngamy. The female gamete undergoes development to form new organism without fertilization. This phenomenon is calledparthenogenesis.

Gametic fusion takes place outside the body i.e. water is called external fertilization. Their must be synchrony of gamete release, large number of gametes released to enhance the chance of fertilization.

Enable the individual to produce large number of offsprings. A major disadvantage is that the offsprings are extremely vulnerable to predators. Fertilization takes place inside the body is called internal fertilization.

Zygote:

Formation of zygote after fertilization is universal in all sexually reproducing organisms. Zygote is formed usually in water in case of external fertilization. Zygote is formed inside the body of the organism in internal fertilization. Zygote of fungi and algae develops a thick wall that is resistant to dessication and damage.

Organism with haplontic life cycle, zygote undergoes meiosis to produce haploid spores.

Embryogenesis:

Development of zygote into an embryo is called embryogenesis. Zygote undergoes cell division (mitosis) and cell differentiation. Oviparous animal which lays eggs and development takes place inside egg. Viviparous animal gives birth to the young. The development takes place inside the body of the female.

In plants:
o o o o o

Zygote developed into embryo. Ovule developed into seed Integument of the ovule developed into seed coat. Ovary developed into fruit. Ovary wall developed into pericarp.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Pre fertilization: structure and events:

Hormonal and structural changes in plants leads to development of flower, Androecium consists of a whorl of stamens represents male sex organ. Gynoecium represents the female reproductive organ.

Stamen, Microsporangium and Pollen grain:

Typical stamen consists of two parts, long and slender stalk called filament and terminal bilobed structure calledanther.

Atypical angiosperm anther is bilobed. Each lobe have two theca i.e. dithecous. Each anther contains four microsporangia located at the corners, two in each lobe.

Microsporangia become pollen sacs and are packed with pollen grains.

Structure of microsporangium:

Each microsporangium surrounded by four wall layers

Epidermis Endothecium Middle layer. Tapetum.

The innermost layer is tapetum which is multinucleated, with dense cytoplasm; it nourishes the developing pollen grain.

The

centers

of

each

microsporangium

contain

homogenous

cells

called sporogenous tissues.

Microsporogenesis:

The process of formation of microspores from pollen mother cell through meiosis is called microsporogenesis.

The sporogenous tissue of microsporangium differentiated into microspore mother cell or pollen mother cell.

Each

microspore

mother

cell

undergoes

meiosis

and

gives

rise

to

haploid microspore tetrad.

On dehydration microspore tetrad dissociated to form four microspores. Each microspore developed into a pollen grain.

Pollen grain:

Pollen grain represents the male gametophytes. It is spherical and measuring about 25-50 micrometer in diameter. It is covered by two layers. The hard outer layer called the exine is made up of sporopollenin, which is one of the most resistant organic materials known. It can withstand high temperature and strong acids and alkali. No enzyme can degrades sporopollenin is so far known.

The exine has prominent apertures called germ pore where sporopollenin is absent.

The inner wall of pollen grain is called intine. It is thin and continuous layer made of cellulose and pectin.

On

maturity

the

pollen

grain

contains

two

cells,

the vegetative

cell and generative cell.

The vegetative cell is bigger, has abundant food reserve and a large irregularly shaped nucleus.

The generative cell is small and floats in the cytoplasm of vegetative cell. In 60% of angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at this 2-celled stage. In others the generative cell divides mitotically to form two male gametes before pollen grain are shed (3-celled stage).

Economic importance of pollen grain:

Pollen grain may cause severe allergies and bronchial afflictions. It may cause chronic respiratory disorders asthma, bronchitis, etc. Pollen grain of Parthenium or carrot grass causes pollen allergy. Pollen grains are rich in nutrients hence used as pollen tablets for food supplements.

Pollen consumptions increase performance of athletes and race horses. After shedding the viability depends on temperature and humidity. In wheat and rice the pollen grain lose viability within 30 min. of their release. In Rosaceae, Leguminoseae and Solanaceae they remain viable for months. Pollen grain can be preserved for years in liquid nitrogen (-196oC).

The Pistil, Megasporangium (ovule) and Embryo Sac:

The Gynoecium represents the female reproductive part of the flower. The Gynoecium may contain single pistil (monocarpellary) or may have more than one pistil (multicarpellary).

Fused pistils are called syncarpous and free pistils are called apocarpous. Each pistil has three parts the stigma, style and ovary. Inside the ovary is the ovarian cavity (locule). The placenta located inside the ovarian cavity. Megasporongia or ovules arise from the placenta. The number of ovule inside the ovary may be single or many.

The Megasporangium (Ovule):

Ovule is a small structure attached to the placenta of locule with a stalk called funicle.

The body of the ovule fused with the funicle in the region called hilum. Hilum is the junction between the funicle and ovule. Each ovule has one or two protective envelops called integuments. Integument covered the ovule except an opening at the top called micropyle.

Opposite of the micropylar end, is the chalaza, representing the basal part of the ovule?

Megasporogenesis:

The process of formation of megaspores from the megaspore mother cell is called Megasporogenesis.

In the centre of the ovule there is a mass of tissue called nucellus. Cells of nucellus have abundant reserve food materials. One cell of the nucellus towards micropylar end differentiated into megaspore mother cell (MMC).

It is a large diploid cell, dense cytoplasm with prominent nucleus. The MMC undergo meiotic division resulting four haploid megaspores.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS Female gametophyte:

Out of four megaspores, one megaspore is functional and other three degenerates. The functional megaspore developed into the female gametophyte. Female gametophyte is known as the embryo sac. Development of embryo sac from a single megaspore is called

asmonosporic type of embryo sac.

The nucleus of the functional megaspore divided by mitotic division to form two nuclei which move to the opposite pole, 2-nucleated embryo sac.

Two successive mitotic division leads to formation of 4-nucleate and later 8nucleate stages of the embryo sac.

All mitotic divisions are free nuclear type; karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis.

Six of the eight nuclei are surrounded by cell walls and organized into cells. Three cells are grouped together at the micropylar end, constitute

the egg apparatus.

The egg apparatus, in turn consists of two synergids and one egg cell.

Synergids have special filiform apparatus, which play an important role in guiding the entry of pollen tube into the synergids.

Three cells arranged towards chalazal end are called antipodal cells. The large central cell has two polar nuclei. A typical angiosperm embryo sac at maturity is 8- nucleated and 7-celled.

Pollination:

Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a pistil is termed as pollination.

Both male and female gametes are non-motile.

Kinds of pollination: Autogamy:

Pollination within same flower. In open and exposed anthers and stigma autogamy is rare. Viola, Oxalis and Commelina produce two types of flowers:
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Chasmogamous: exposed anther and stigma Cleistogamous: closed anther and stigma.

Cleistogamous flower is invariably autogamous and assured seed set even in the absence of the pollinator.

Geitonogamy:

Pollination between two flowers of the same plant. Pollination by pollinating agent. Genetically similar to the autogamy.

Xenogamy:

Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of different plant. It is commonly called as cross-pollination.

It brings genetically different types of pollen grains to the stigma.

Agents of pollination:

Plant use two abiotic agent i.e. wind and water for pollination. One biotic agent for pollination such as animals. Majority of plant use biotic agent for pollination. Few plant use abiotic pollinating agent.

Anemophily:

Pollinating agent is wind. Plants produces enormous amount of pollen when compared to the number of ovules available for pollination to compensate the uncertainties of pollination.

Flowers with well exposed stamens. Large feathery stigma to trap air-borne pollen grains. Most wind pollinated flower contains single ovule in one ovary and numerous flower packed into an inflorescence e.g. corn cob.

Pollen grains are light and non-sticky.

Hydrophily:

Pollination by abiotic agent like water. This type of pollination is very rare, about 30 genera, mostly monocot. Vallisneria, Hydrilla and Zostera are the common example for Hydrophily. All aquatic plants are not Hydrophily. Pollen grains released into the surface of water and carried to the stigma by air current as in Vallisneria.

In sea grass the flowers remained submerged. Pollen grains are long, ribbon like and carried passively inside the water Pollen grains are protected from wetting by mucilaginous covering.

Pollination by biotic agent:

Majority of flowering plants use a range of animals as pollinating agents. Among the animal, insect particularly bees are the dominant biotic agents for pollination.

Insect pollinating flowers are very large, colorful, fragrant and rich in nectar. Small flowers present in cluster to make them conspicuous. Flower pollinated by flies and beetles secrete foul odours. Nectar and pollen grains are the usual floral rewards for insects. In some species floral rewards are in providing safe places to lay eggs: e.g. Amorphophallus.

A species of moth and Yucca plant cannot complete their life cycle without each other. The moth deposits its eggs in the locule of the ovary and the flower in turn get pollinated by the moth.

Many insects may consume pollen or nectar without bring about pollination. Such floral visitors are referred aspollen/nectar robbers.

Outbreeding Devices:

Majority of

the

flowering plants

produce

hermaphrodite

flower

and

undergo autogamy.

Continuous autogamy or self-pollination results in inbreeding depression. Flowering plants have developed many devices to avoid self pollination and to encourage cross-pollination. Such devices are called Outbreeding devices.
o o o o o

Pollen released and stigma receptivity is not synchronized. Spatial separation of anthers and stigmas Anther and stigma are placed at different positions. Self incompatibility. Production of unisexual flowers.

Pollen pistil Interaction:

All the events from pollen deposition on the stigma until pollen tubes enter the ovule are together referred aspollen-pistil interaction.

Pollination does not guarantee the transfer of the right type of pollen grain to the right type of stigma.

The pistil has the ability to recognize the pollen whether it is compatible or incompatible.

If it is right type the stigma allow the pollen to germinate. If it is wrong type the stigma rejects the pollen, preventing germination. The ability of the pistil to recognize the pollen by continuous dialogue mediated by chemical like Boron, Inositol and sucrose level.

Following compatible pollination, the pollen grain produce pollen tube through one of the germ pore.

Content of the pollen grain move into the pollen tube. Pollen tube grows through the tissues of the stigma and style and reaches the ovary.

If the pollen grain is in 2-celled stage the generative cell divides and forms two male gametes inside the pollen tube.

If the pollen grain is in 3- cell stage the pollen tube carry two male gametes from the beginning.

Pollen tube enters into the ovule through micropyle and then into the embryo sac through synergids guided by filiform apparatus.

Artificial hybridization:

One of the major approaches of crop improvement programme. Only desired pollen grain used for pollination. Stigma is protected from contamination (from unwanted pollen grain). Removal of anthers from the flower bud before the anther dehisces is called emasculation.

Emasculated flowers covered by bag generally made up of butter paper, to prevent contamination of its stigma with unwanted pollen. This step is called bagging.

If the female flower is unisexual there is no need of emasculation.

Double fertilization:

After entering one of the synergids, the pollen tube releases two male gametes into the cytoplasm of the synergids.

Syngamy: one of the male gamete fused with egg cell, to form a diploid zygote. Two polar nuclei of central cell fused to form a diploid secondary nucleus. Triple fusion: The second male gamete fused with the secondary nucleus to form a triploid primary endosperm nucleus.

Since two type of fusion, syngamy and triple fusion take place in the embryo sac the phenomenon is termed asdouble fertilization.

The central cell after triple fusion becomes primary endosperm cell and developed into the endosperm.

The zygote developed into an embryo.

POST- FERTILIZATION : STRUCTURE AND EVENTS Events of endosperm and embryo development, maturation of ovule into seed and ovary into fruit, are collectively termed aspost-fertilization events. Endosperm:

Development of endosperm takes place before the embryo development. Primary endosperm cell divides repeatedly to form a triploid endosperm. Cells are filled with reserve food material and are used for the nutrition of the developing embryo.

PEN undergoes successive nuclear division to give rise to free nuclei. This is called free-nuclear endosperm.

Subsequently cell wall formation takes place and become cellular endosperm.

The coconut water is free nuclear endosperm and the white kernel is the cellular endosperm.

Endosperm may be consumed completely during embryo developed or it may be consumed during germination of seed.

Embryo:

Zygote formed and placed at the micropylar end of the embryo sac. Zygote starts its development only after some amount of endosperm formed. Embryo development takes place in following stages:
o o o o

Proembryo Globular stage Heart shaped Matured embryo.

Dicot embryo:

typical

dicotyledonous embryo consists

of

an embryonal

axis and

two cotyledons.

Embryonal axis above the cotyledon is the epicotyls. Terminal part of the epicotyls is the plumule (gives rise to the shoot). Embryonal axis below the cotyledon is the hypocotyl. The terminal part of the hypocotyl is called the radicle (root tip). The root tip is covered by the root cap.

Monocot embryo:

Possesses only one cotyledon In grass family the cotyledon is called scutellum. Scutellum situated towards one side of the embryonal axis. Radicle and the root cap enclosed by a sheath called coleorhiza. The portion of the embryonal axis above level of attachment of scutellum is called epicotyls.

Epicotyl has the shoot apex or plumule enclosed by hollow foliar structure called coleoptile.

Seed is the final product of the sexual reproduction. Seed consists of seed coat, cotyledon and an embryo axis. Cotyledon stores the reserve food material for development and germination. Matured seed without endosperm called non-albuminous. (Ground nut) A part of the endosperm retained in matured seed is Albuminous. Remainants of nucellus in the matured seed is called perisperm. E.g. black peeper, beet.

The wall of the ovary develops into the wall of fruit called pericarp. Fruit developed from the ovary is called true fruit. In apple, strawberry, cashew, the thalamus contributes in the fruit formation is called false fruit.

Fruit developed without fertilization is called Parthenocarpic fruits.

APOMIXIS AND POLYEMBRYONY.

Apomixis is very common in Asteraceae and grasses. Seeds are produced without fertilization. Apomixis is a type of asexual reproduction which mimics the sexual reproduction. Diploid egg cell is formed without meiosis and develops into seed without fertilization.

In Citrusand Mango the nucellar cells starts dividing, protrude into the embryo sac and develop into embryo.

Ovule having more than one embryo is termed as polyembryony. Hybrid plants are developed by apomixis to maintain the genetic identity.

HUMAN REPRODUCTION

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM.

Located in the pelvis region. Male reproductive system includes

A pair of testes. Accessory ducts. Accessory glands. External genitalia

Testes:

Located outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called scrotum. Scrotum provides low temperature required for spermatogenesis. Each testis is about 4 to 5 cm length and 2 to 3 cm width. Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules. Each lobule contains one to three seminiferous tubules. Seminiferous tubules lined by male germ cells and Sertoli cells. Male germ cell undergoes meiosis and produce sperm. Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the germ cell and the sperm. In between the seminiferous tubule there is interstitial cell or Leydig cell. Leydig cells produce testicular hormones called androgen (testosterone).

Accessory ducts:

Includes rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis and vas deferens. Seminiferous tubules open into vasa efferentia through rete testis. The vasa efferentia leaves the testis and open into epididymis. The epididymis leads to vas deferens that ascends to the abdomen through inguinal canal and loops over the urinary bladder.

Vas deferens receives a duct from seminal vesicle and opens into the urethra as the ejaculatory duct.

Urethra originates from the urinary bladder and extends through the penis to its external opening called urethral meatus.

Accessory glands:

Includes
o o o

Paired seminal vesicle A prostate gland Paired bulbourethral gland.

Secretion of these glands constitutes the seminal plasma. Seminal plasma rich in fructose, calcium, and certain enzyme. Secretion of bulbo-urethral glands helps in lubrication of penis.

External genitalia:

Penis is the external genitalia. It is made of special tissue that helps in erection of the penis to facilitate insemination.

The enlarged end of penis is called glans penis. Glans penis is covered by a loose fold of skin called foreskin.

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Located in the pelvic region of the female. The female reproductive system includes:
o o o o o o

A pair of ovaries A pair of oviduct. Uterus Cervix Vagina External genitalia.

A pair of mammary gland.

Ovaries:

It is the primary female sex organs that produce the female gamete (ovum). It also produces several steroid hormones. The ovaries located in the lower abdomen. Each ovary is about 2-4 cm in length. Connected to the pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments. Each ovary is covered by thin epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma The ovarian stroma has two zones

A peripheral cortex. An inner medulla.

Oviduct:

Oviducts, uterus and vagina constitute the female accessory ducts. Each fallopian tube is about 10-12 cm long and extends from the periphery of each ovary to the uterus.

Close

to

the

ovary

the

oviduct

has

funnel

shaped

structure

called infundibulum?

The

edges

of

the

infundibulum

possess

finger-like

projections

called fimbriae, which helps in collection of the ovum after ovulation.

The infundibulum leads to a wider part of the oviduct called ampulla. The last part of the oviduct is called isthmus which joined to uterus.

Uterus:

It is single and is called womb. It is inverted pear shaped. Attached the pelvic wall by ligaments. The uterus opens into vagina through a narrow cervix. The lumen of cervix is called cervical canal.

Cervical canal along with vagina form the birth canal. The wall of the uterus has three layers of tissues
o o o

Perimetrium: external thin membranous. Myometrium: middle thick layer of smooth muscles Endometrium: inner glandular layer.

Endometrium undergoes cyclical changes during menstrual cycle. Myometrium exhibits strong contraction during delivery of the baby.

External genitalia:

It includes following structure:

Mons Pubis: cushion of fatty covered by skin and pubic hair. Labia majora: fleshy folds of tissue which extends down from the mons pubis and surrounds the vaginal opening.

o o

Labia minora: are paired folds of tissue under the labia majora. Hymen: the opening of vagina is often covered partially by a membrane called hymen.

Clitoris: a tiny finger-like structure lies at the upper junction of two labia minora above the urethral opening.

Mammary glands:

Mammary gland consists of glandular tissue and fat. Glandular tissue of each breast divided into 15-20 mammary lobes. Mammary lobes contain cluster of cells called alveoli. The cells of alveoli secrete milk, stored in the lumen of alveoli. The alveoli open into mammary tubules. The tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct. Several mammary ducts join to form a wider mammary ampulla. Mammary ampulla connected to lactiferous duct, through which milk is sucked out.

GAMETOGENESIS: (formation of gametes) Spermatogenesis:

Formation of sperm from the germ cell in the testes is spermatogenesis. The process begins at puberty. Spermatogonia present in the lining of seminiferous tubules undergo mitotic division to increase their number.

Each spermatogonium is diploid (2n) which contain 46 chromosomes. Innermost layer of spermatogonial becomes larger called primary spermatocyte. Primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis-I to form two equal haploid (n) secondary spermatocytes (n).

Each

secondary

spermatocyte

undergoes

meiosis-II

to

form

two

equal,

haploid spermatids.

Each primary spermatocyte produces four spermatids. Spermatids transformed into spermatozoa (sperms) by the process

called spermiogenesis.

The sperm head embedded in the Sertoli cell. Release of sperm from the seminiferous tubule is called spermiation.

Hormonal control of spermatogenesis:

This process is initiated at puberty due to secretion of gonadotrophins releasing hormone (GnRH)

GnRH secreted form hypothalamus and stimulate anterior pituitary to secrete two gonadotrophins.
o o

Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle stimulating Hormone (FSH)

LH acts on Leydig cells and stimulates synthesis of androgens. Androgen stimulates spermatogenesis. FSH acts on Sertoli cells and stimulates spermatogenesis in other ways.

Structure of sperm:

Ultrastructure of sperm consists of a head, neck, a middle piece and a tail. Whole body of sperm surrounded by plasma membrane. The sperm head contain an elongated haploid nucleus. Above the nucleus a cap like structure present called acrosome. The acrosome contains enzymes which help in fertilization of ovum. The middle piece contains mitochondria, which provide energy for movement of tail that facilitate sperm motility.

Human male ejaculates 200-300 million sperms during coitus. 60 percent must have normal shape and size and 40 percent of them must show vigorous motility.

Sperm released from seminiferous tubules enters into accessory ducts. On their way fluids from seminal vesicle and prostate gland added which collectively called as Semen.

The function of male accessory ducts and glands are maintained by testicular hormone androgen.

Oogenesis:

Formation of a mature female gamete or ovum is called oogenesis. Oogenesis starts during embryonic stage, 25th week of the fetal age. Germinal epithelium of ovary divided mitotically to produce millions of gamete mother cell or oogonia.

No oogonia formed or added after birth. Oogonia enters into meiosis-I and proceeds upto diakinesis of Prophase-I and get suspended, at this stage called primary Oocytes.

Each primary oocyte surrounded by layers of granulose cells and then called primary follicle.

At puberty only 60,000 to 80,000 primary oocytes are left in each ovary. After puberty primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and a new theca to form secondary follicles.

The secondary follicle transformed into tertiary follicle, characterized by a fluid filled cavity called antrum.

The theca layers organized into an inner theca interna and outer theca externa. During the growth of primary follicle into tertiary follicle during puberty, the primary oocyte restarts its first meiotic division and completes it within tertiary follicle resulting two unequal haploid cells.
o o

Large haploid cell is called secondary oocyte. A tiny cell called first polar body.

The secondary oocyte retains bulk of the nutrient rich cytoplasm of primary oocyte. The tertiary follicle having secondary oocyte further changes into Graafian follicle. The secondary oocyte surrounded by a new membrane, zona pellucida. The secondary oocyte undergoes second meiotic division continued upto metaphaseII and get suspended until entry of sperm.

At this stage Graafian follicle releases secondary oocyte from the ovary by the process called ovulation.

On entry of a sperm into the secondary oocytes stimulates it to complete meiosis-II and there is formation of a haploidovum and a second polar body (n).

Menstrual cycle:

Reproductive cycle of female primates is called menstrual cycle. The first menstruation begins at puberty is called Menarche. Menstrual cycle repeated at an average interval of 28/29 days. One ovum is released in the middle of each menstrual cycle.

Menstrual cycle has following phases: Menstrual phase:

1st phase of menstrual cycle. Menstrual flow occurs. Lasts for 3-5 days. Breakdown of endometrial lining and blood vessel. Mucus and blood comes out through vagina. It occurs only when ovum released but no fertilization.

Lack of menstruation is the indication of pregnancy.

Follicular phase:

Menstrual phase followed by follicular phase. Primary follicle becomes Graafian follicle. Regeneration and proliferation of uterine endometrium. LH and FSH level increases gradually in follicular phase. Level of estrogen increases as it is secreted from growing follicle. It lasts for 5-13 days.

Ovulatory phase:

FSH and LH attain peak level in this period (14th day). This is called LH surge, which induces rupture of Graafian follicle and release of ovum from the ovary called ovulation.

Luteal phase:

Remaining part of Graafian follicle transformed into corpus luteum. Coupus luteum produces large amount of progesterone. Progesterone maintains the uterine endometrium, and prepares it for implantation.

Thickness of uterine endometrium increase in many folds, due to proliferation.

If there is fertilization, corpus luteum grows further and pregnancy continued, menstrual cycle stopped.

In the absence of fertilization corpus luteum degenerates. Disintegration of endometrium leading to menstruation. Menstrual cycle ceases around 50 years of age, called menopause.

FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION:

During copulation (coitus) semen is released by the penis into the vagina is called insemination.

The motile sperm swim rapidly, pass through cervix, uterus and finally reach the junction of isthmus and ampulla (ammpullary-isthmic junction).

The ovum released from the ovary also transported to ampullary isthmic junction where fertilization takes place. Fertilization only takes place if both sperm and ovum reach ampullary isthmic junction simultaneously.

The process of fusion of a sperm and ovum is called fertilization. Acrosome of sperm secretes enzymes helps in penetration into the ovum. Once a sperm comes contact with the zona pellucida of ovum and induces the changes in the membrane that blocks the entry of additional sperms.

That ensures monospermy and prevents polyspermy. Only one sperm fertilize with one ovum. Entry of sperm into the ovum induces the ovum to complete its second meiotic division of secondary oocyte.

Meiosis-II is also unequal cytokinesis resulting production of one large ovum (ootid) and one small second polar body.

Haploid nucleus of sperm fused with the haploid nucleus of ovum to form a diploid zygote.

Sex determination:

Sex of a baby has been decided during fertilization and in the zygote. Sex is determined by the sex-chromosomes present in gametes. Human female contain two XX chromosomes. Human male contain XY chromosomes. All the female gametes produced with only X chromosome. Sperms produced by male, 50% with X and 50 % with Y chromosome. After fertilization zygote either carries XX or XY chromosomes. Zygote with XX chromosomes develop into female and with XY chromosome develops into male.

Cleavage:

Repeated mitotic division of the zygote without growth resulting a multicellular ball like embryo is called cleavage.

Cleavage starts soon after fertilization. Daughter cells produced during cleavage are called blastomeres. The product of cleavage is called Morula, which is 8 to 16 celled. The morula continues to divide and grow and transformed into blastocyst. The blastomeres in blastocyst arranged into an outer layer called trophoblast and an inner mass of cells attached to trophoblast called inner cell mass.

Trophoblast cells attached to the endometrium helps development of placenta. Inner cell mass gets differentiated into the embryo. After attachment the uterine cells divide rapidly and cover the blastocyst. Blastocyst completely embedded in the uterine endometrium. This is

called implantation. Pregnancy and embryonic development:

After implantation, finger like projections appears on the trophoblast called chorionic villi.

Chorionic villi surrounded by uterine tissue and maternal blood. Temporary association between the fetal tissue (chorionic villi) and maternal tissue (uterine endometrium) is calledplacenta.

Function of placenta:

The embryo connected to the placenta by umbilical cord, which transports substances to and from the embryo.

Facilitate transport of oxygen and nutrient from mother to embryo. Removes CO2 and waste material from the embryo. Acts as endocrine gland and produces several hormones like:
o o

Human chorionic gonadotrophins (hCG) Human placental lactogen (hPL)

o o o

Estrogen. Progesterone Relaxin produced from the ovary in the later stage of pregnancy.

Embryonic development:

After implantation the inner cell mass of blastocyst differentiated into an outer layer called ectoderm and an inner layer called endoderm.

Mesoderm differentiated in-between ectoderm and endoderm. The inner cell mass thus called stem cells, having potency to produce all types of cell, tissues and organs by differentiation.

Organogenesis:

Formation of different organs in the embryo is called organogenesis. Human pregnancy lasts for 9 months. After one month of pregnancy heart is formed in the embryo. By the end of 2nd month the foetus develops limbs and digits. By the end of 12 weeks (first trimester) most of organ system is formed (limbs and external genitalia are well developed).

First movement of foetus and appearance of hairs observed in 5th month. By the end of 24th week (2nd trimesters) the body is covered with fine hairs, eye-lids separate, and eyelashes are formed.

By the end of 9 months the foetus is fully developed and is ready for delivery.

PARTURATION AND LACTATION:

The period of pregnancy is called gestation period. (9 months). Ejection or expulsion or delivery of foetus is called parturition. Parturition is due to vigorous contraction of uterine Myometrium. The signal of parturition is originated from the fully developed foetus and the placenta which induces mild contraction of uterus called fetal ejection reflex.

Fetal ejection reflex triggers the release of Oxytocin from pituitary.

Oxytocin induces stronger contraction of uterine endometrium. Stimulatory reflex continues stronger contraction leads to expulsion. After delivery the placenta is also expelled out of the uterus.

Lactation:

The mammary gland of the female more differentiated during pregnancy, Mammary gland starts producing milk towards the end of the pregnancy. Process of milk production in mammary gland is called lactation. Milk produced during initial days of lactation is called colostrum. Colostrum contains several antibodies which provide immunity to the new born baby.

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH PROBLEM AND STRATERIES:

The programme family planning initiated in 1951. Reproductive and child health care (ACH) Sexually transmitted diseases (STD). Amniocentesis: A fetal sex determination test based on the chromosomal pattern in the amniotic fluid surrounding the developing embryo. Saheli an oral contraceptive for female, developed by CDRI.

POPULATION EXPLOSION AND BIRTH CONTROL:

Increased health facilities, better living conditions are the cause of population explosion.

Out of 6 billion world population 1 billion are Indians. Rapid decline in death rate, maternal mortalility rate (MMR) and infant mortality rate (IMR) are major cause of population growth.

Indian population growth rate is around 1.7 percent.

Characteristics of ideal contraceptive.

User friendly. Easily available. Effective Nor or least side effects. No way interferes with sexual drive.

BIRTH CONTROL METHODS: Natural methods:

work on the principle of avoiding chances of ovum and sperms meeting. Periodic abstinence:

Avoid or abstain from coitus form day 10 to 17 of the menstrual cycle when ovulation could be expected.

Chance of fertilization is very high in this period. It is called fertile period.

Withdrawal or coitus interruption:

The male partner withdraws his penis from the vagina just before ejaculation, so as to avoid insemination into the vagina.

Lactational amenorrhea:

No menstruation during lactation period. Chance of fertilization is nil. It is effective upto six month.

Barrier methods:

Principle of working: prevents physical meeting of sperm and ovum. Such methods available both for male and female.

Condoms:

Barriers made of thin rubber/latex sheath. Used to cover the penis in male or vagina and cervix in the female. Used just before coitus so that semen not entered into the female reproductive tract.

Male and female condoms are disposable. Prevents AIDS and STDs.

Diaphragm, cervical caps and vaults:

Barriers made of rubber. Inserted into the female reproductive tract to cover the cervix. Prevents conception by blocking the entry of sperm through cervix. They are reusable.

Intra Uterine Devices:

These devices are only used by female. Inserted by doctor or by expert nurses in the uterus through vagina. Non-medicated IUDs e.g. Lippes loop. Copper releasing IUDs (CuT, Cu7, Multiload 375) Hormone releasing IUDs (Progestasert, LNG-20)

Principle of working:

Increase phagocytosis of sperm within the uterus. Cu ion released suppresses sperm motility and fertilizing capacity of sperm. Hormone releasing IUDs make the uterus unsuitable for implantation and the cervix hostile to the sperm.

Oral contraceptives:

This methods used by female only. Used in the form of tablets hence popularly called pills. Pills contain progestogens or progestogen-estrogen combination. Pills have to be taken daily for a period of 21 days. Started within first five days of menstruation. Pills are very effective with lesser side effect. Saheli- a non steroidal preparation used as oral contraceptive pills.

Principle of working:

Inhibit ovulation. Inhibit implantation.

Alter the quality of cervical mucus to prevent/retard entry of sperms.

Injections or implants:

Progestogens alone or in combination with estrogen used as injections or implants under the skin by female.

Mode of action is similar as in pills It is very effective for long periods.

Emergency contraceptives:

These methods are used within 72 hours of coitus, rape or casual unprotected intercourse.

Administration of progestogens or progestogen-estrogen combination. Use of IUDs.

Surgical methods:

It is also called as sterilization method. Advised to both male and female partner. Permanent or terminal method to prevent pregnancy. Sterilization process in male is called vasectomy, Sterilization process in female is called Tubectomy In vasectomy, a small part of the vas deferens is removed or tied up. In Tubectomy a small part of the fallopian tube is removed. Reversibility is very poor.

MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY:

Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is called medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or induced abortion.

MTP has significant role in decreasing population. It accounts for 1/5th of the total number of conceived pregnancies. Legal restriction only to reduce female foeticide.

This method is safe within 1st trimester.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES:

Diseases or infections which are transmitted through sexual intercourse. Also known as Venereal diseases (VD) or reproductive tract infections (RTIs) Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Genital herpes, chlamydiasis, genital warts, trichomoniasis, hepatitis-B and HIV are some common STDs.

Except hepatitis-B, genital herpes and HIV infections, others are curable.

Symptoms:

Itching, fluid discharge, slight pain, swelling in the genital region. STDs remain asymptomatic in female and remain undetected for long. In the later stage it may leads to Pelvic inflammatory diseases (PID), abortion, still births, ectopic pregnancy, infertility or even cancer in RT.

Preventions:

Avoid sex with unknown partners/ multiple partners. Always use condoms during coitus. In case of doubt, consult with a qualified doctor for early detection. Get complete treatment if diagnosed with disease.

INFERTILITY:

The couple unable to produce children inspite of unprotected sex. The reason of infertility may be:o o o o o o

physical, congenital, diseases, drugs, immunological or Even psychological.

Problems of infertility may be in male or female. Infertility clinic can diagnose and correct the cause of infertility. In case there no corrections are possible, some special technologies used to have children called assisted reproductive technologies. (ART)

Assisted reproductive technologies: (a) In vitro fertilization:

Fertilization outside the body in the laboratory. Condition created in laboratory similar to the body.

(b) Embryo transfer:

Popularly known as test tube baby programme. Ova from the wife/donor and sperm from the husband/donor are collected and induced to form zygote under simulated conditions in the laboratory.

The zygote or early embryos (with upto 8 blastomeres) could be transferred into the fallopian tube.

ZIFT- Zygote intra fallopian transfer. IUT- Intra Uterine transfer (embryo with more than 8 blastomeres). Further development taken place within the female body. Embryo formed by in-vivo fertilization can also be transfer to assist those female who cannot conceive.

(c) Gamete intra fallopian transfer- GIFT

Transfer of ovum collected from the donor into the fallopian tube of another female who cannot produce it.

Such female can provide suitable environment for fertilization and development.

(d) Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI):

The sperm is directly injected into the ovum.

After in vitro fertilization either ZIFT or embryo transfer technique is followed.

(e) Artificial insemination (AI)

Semen is collected either from the husband or donor is artificially introduced into vagina or into the uterus (IUI-intra uterine insemination) of the female.

Such technology is useful in cases either the male partner unable to inseminate the female or very low sperm counts in the ejaculates.

Abbreviation: IUCD: Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device RCH: Reproductive and Child Health care STD: Sexually Transmitted Disease HIV: human Immuno deficiency virus. AIDS: Acquired immuno deficiency syndrome CDRI: Central Drug Research Institute MMR: Maternal Mortality Rate IMR: Infant mortality rate. MTP: Medical Termination of Pregnancy VD: Venereal Disease RTI: Reproductive Tract Infection PID: Pelvic Inflammatory Disease ART: Assisted Reproductive Technologies

IVF: In Vitro Fertilisation ZIFT: Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer AI: Artificial insemination IUI: Interna uterine insemination. ET: Embryo transfer. IUT: intra uterine transfer. ICSI: Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection.