CNS-ST 2.2: SATELLITES AND FIBER OPTICS SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS 1.

What are the two types of communications satellite Passive and active A typical satellite communications operational link consists of a satellite and what other two components? Earth terminals What areas of the earth are not normally covered by satellites? Extreme polar regions Satellite orientation in space is important for what two reasons? To allow maximum solar exposure to the sun and satellite antenna exposure to earth terminals What types of antennas are generally used at earth terminals? Large, high-gain parabolic antennas Why do earth terminals require highly sensitive receivers? To overcome satellite transmitter low power and permit extraction of the desired information from the received signal Why is satellite acquisition and tracking important? To ensure earth terminal antennas are always pointed towards the satellite What are the two limitations to an active satellite communications system? Satellite down-link transmitter and up-link receiver sensitivity If the line-of-sight distance for an optical beam is 12 km, what would is be, approximately, for a microwave beam? 16 km The power in the downlink signal from a typical communications satellite is in the range of _____ per transponder. 10 to 250 watts The power level for an earth station to transmit to a satellite is in the order of: 10^3 watts Ku-band antennas can be _____ than C-band antennas. Smaller A geosynchronous orbit is about _____ km above the earth. 35,780 A Global Positioning System (GPS) or NAVSTAR is MEO

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GPS or NAVSTAR height is 9500 miles An antennas angular direction between east and west? Azimuth An antennas vertical angle with respect to the earths surface. Elevation An antennas angle by which it is offset from the earths axis Declination In geostationary satellites, station-keeping means: Adjusting the orbits A reduction of TWT power for linearity is called: Backoff The frequency bands used by Ku-band satellites are: 12 GHz and 14 GHz Satellite operating at 27 30 GHz Ka-band The law that states that a satellite will orbit a primary body following an elliptical path. 1st Law of Kepler Keplers 2nd law is known as Law of areas Keplers 3rd law is also known as Harmonic law Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite orbits around the earth at a height of 370 miles Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellite orbits around the earth at a height approximately _____. 6000 miles to 12,000 miles Geosynchronous satellites are highaltitude earth-orbit satellites with heights about _____. 22,300 miles or 36,000 km Iridium is a LEOSAT that has a height of approximately 480 miles MEO frequency band is 1.2 -1.66 GHz All satellites rotate around the earth in an orbit that forms a plane that passes through the center of gravity of earth called Geocenter The point on the surface of the earth directly below the satellite Subsatellite point (SSP) The minimum acceptance angle of elevation 5 degrees

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The spatial separation of a satellite is between _____. 3 degrees to 6 degrees Antenna used with a rotating satellite whose main beam is continuously adjusted so that it will illuminate a given area on the earths surface Despun Satellites radiation pattern that typically target up to 20% of the Earths surface Hemispherical beams The radiation pattern that has a satellites antenna beamwidth of 17 degrees and are capable of covering approximately 42% of the earths surface Earth or global beams Geostats has an earth coverage of approximately 42.5% LNA stands for: Low-noise amplifier LNA in satellite transponder commonly used Tunnel system

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A receiving antenna with a gain of 40 dBi looks at at a sky with a noise temperature of 15K. The loss between the antenna and the LNA input, due to the feedhorn, is 0.4 dB, and the LNA has a noise temperature of 40K. Calculate G/T. 20.6 dB

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A receiver has a noise figure of 1.5 dB. Find its equivalent noise temperature. 119K

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SATELLITE 41. Find the velocity of a satellite in a circular orbit (a) 500 km above the earths surface (b) 36,000 km above the earths surface (approximately the height of geosynchronous satellite). (a) 7.6 km/s (b) 3.07 km/s 48.

The receiving installation whose G/T was found to be 20.6 dB is used as a ground terminal to receive a signal from a satellite at a distance of 38,000 km. the satellite has transmitter power of 50 watts and an antenna gain of 30 dBi. Assume losses between the satellite transmitter and its antenna is negligible. The frequency is 12 GHz. Calculate the carrier-to-noise ratio at the receiver, for a bandwidth of 1 MHz. 30.6 dB

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Calculate the angle of declination for an antenna using a polar mount at latitude of 45 degrees. 6.81 degrees 49.

If a satellite has a total transmitter power (Pt) of 1000 W, determine the energy per bit (Eb) for a transmission rate of 50 Mbps. -47 dBW/bps or -47 dbJ

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Calculate the length of the path to a geosynchronous satellite from an earth station where the angle of elevation is 30 degrees. 39 x 10^3 km

For an equivalent noise bandwidth of 10 MHz and a total noise power of 0.00276 pW, determine the noise density and equivalent noise temperature. 276 x 10^-23 W/Hz or -205.6 dBW/Hz A typical TVRO installation for use with C-band satellite (downlink at approximately 4 GHz) has a diameter of about 3 m and an efficiency of about 55%. Calculate its gain and beamwidth. G = 39 dB, beamwidth = 1.75 degrees

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A satellite transmitter operates at a 4 GHz with a transmitter power of 7W and an antenna gain of 40 dBi. The receiver has antenna gain of 30 dBi and the path length is 40,000 km. Calculate the signal strength at the receiver. -88 dBm

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For an earth station transmitter with an antenna output power of 40dB (10000 W), a back-off loss of 3dB, a

total branching and feeder loss of 3dB, and a transmitter antenna gain of 40dB, determine the EIRP 74 dBW FIBER OPTIC CONCEPTS 52. 53. Fiber optics is coined by NS Kapany What are three means of producing light? Mechanical, electrical and chemical What is the smallest unit of radiant energy? A photon What unit is used to measure the different wavelengths of light? Angstrom unit What are the three primary colors of light? Red, green and blue What are the three secondary colors of light? Magenta, yellow and cyan A substance that transmits light but through which an object cannot be seen clearly is known as what kind of substance? Translucent What type of wave motion is represented by motion of water? Transverse-wave motion A substance that transmits almost all of the light waves falling upon it is known as what type of substance? Transparent A substance that is unable to transmit any light waves is known as what type of substance? Opaque What is the law of reflection The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection When a wave is reflected from a surface, energy is reflected. When is the reflection of energy greatest? When the wave is nearly parallel to the reflecting surface When is the reflection energy the least? When the wave is perpendicular to the reflecting surface Light waves obey what law? The law of reflection A light wave enters a sheet of glass at a perfect right angle to the surface. Is the majority of the wave reflected, refracted, transmitted or absorbed?

Transmitted 67. When light strikes a white piece of paper, the light is reflected in all directions. What do you call this scattering of light Diffusion What is the basic optical-material property relevant to optical fiber light transmission? The index of refraction What name is given to the angle where total internal reflection occurs? Critical angle of incidence List the three parts of optical fiber Core, cladding and coating or buffer Light transmission along an optical fiber is described by two theories. Which theory is used to approximate light acceptance and guiding properties of an optical fiber? The ray theory Light rays that passes thru the longitudinal axis at the fiber core are called meridional rays Meridional rays are classified as either bound or unbound rays. Bound rays propagate through the fiber according to what property? Total internal reflection What mechanisms in fiber waveguides weaken and distort the optical signals? Scattering, absorption and dispersion How can loss be reduced during construction (or fabrication) of optical fibers? By removing the impurities from the optical fiber What fiber property does numerical aperture (NA) measure? NA measures the light-gathering ability of the optical fiber Skew rays and meridional rays define different acceptance angles. Which acceptance angle is larger, the skew ray angle or the meridional ray angle? Skew ray angle The mode theory uses electromagnetic wave behavior to describe the propagation of light along the fiber. What is the set of guided electromagnetic waves called? Modes of fiber Modes that are bound at one wavelength may not exist at longer wavelengths. What is the wavelength at which a mode ceases to be bound is called?

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Cutoff wavelength 92. 80. What type of optical fiber operates below cutoff wavelength? Multimode fiber The fibers normalized frequency (V) determines how many modes a fiber can support. As the value of V increases, will the number of modes supported by the fiber increase or decrease? Increase The number of modes propagated in a multimode fiber depends on the core size and numerical aperture (NA). If the core size and the NA decrease, will the number of modes propagated increase of decrease? Decrease What is the main loss mechanism between ultraviolet and infrared absorption regions? Rayleigh scattering Name the two types of intramodal, or chromatic, dispersion. Material dispersion and waveguide dispersion 97. 85. Which dispersion mechanism (material or waveguide) is a function of the sine of the fibers core relative to the waveguide operation? Waveguide dispersion 98. 86. Modes of light pulse that enter the fiber at one time exit the fiber at different times. This condition causes the light pulse to spread. What is this condition called? Modal dispersion The reflective index of a fiber core is uniform and undergoes an abrupt change at the core-cladding boundary. Is this fiber a step-index or graded-index fiber? Step-index What happens to the fundamental mode as the operating wavelength becomes longer than the single mode cutoff wavelength? The fundamental mode becomes increasingly lossy Give two reasons why optical fiber manufacturers depart from the traditional circular core cladding, low-loss glass fiber design? To increase performance and reduce cost Why do cable manufactures introduce a controlled twist to the stacked ribbons during the cabling process? To minimize fiber stress when the cable is bent 104. 91. Which fiber optic component (splice, connector, or coupler) makes a permanent connection in a distributed system? Splice 93. What are the main causes of coupling loss? Poor fiber end preparation and poor fiber alignment When the axes of two connected fibers are no longer in parallel, the two connected fibers are in what kind of misalignment? Angular misalignment Which are more sensitive to alignment errors, single mode or multimode fibers? Single mode Quality fiber-end preparation is essential for proper system operation. What property must an optical fiber-end face have to ensure proper fiber connection? Be flat, smooth, and perpendicular to the fiber axis What is the basic fiber cleaving technique for preparing optical fibers for coupling? Score-and-break Fiber splicing is divided into two broad categories that describe the techniques used for fiber splicing. What are they? Mechanical and fusion splicing What fiber property directly affects splice-loss in fusion splicing? The angles and quality of the two fiber-end faces What is a short discharge of electric current that prepares the fiber ends for fusion is called? Prefusion Do small core distortions formed by arc fusions self-alignment mechanism have more of an affect on light propagating through multimode or single mode fibers? Single mode fibers Which is the more critical parameter in maintaining total insertion loss below the required level, fiber alignment of fiber mismatch? Fiber alignment Fiber optic connectors can reduce system performance by increasing what two types of noise? Modal and reflection Which type of fiber optic connector (butt-jointed or expanded beam) brings the prepared ends of two optical fibers into contact? Butt-jointed connectors Is coupling loss from fiber separation and lateral misalignment more critical in expanded beam or butt-jointed connectors? Butt-jointed connectors

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Is coupling loss from angular misalignment more critical in expanded beam or butt-jointed connectors? Expanded beam connectors Which type of optical splitter (Ycoupler or T-coupler) splits only a small amount of power from the input fiber to one of the output fibers? T-coupler What two properties of the launch condition may affect multimode fiber attenuation measurements? Launch spot size and angular distribution Does underfilling a multimode optical fiber excite mainly highorder of low-order modes? Low-order modes A mode filter is a device that attenuates specific modes propagating in the core of an optical fiber. What mode propagating along single mode fibers do mode filters eliminate? Second-order mode What are the two most common types of mode filters? Free-form loop and mandrel wrap The cutoff wavelength of matchedclad and depressed-clad single mode fibers varies according to the fibers radius of curvature and length. The cutoff wavelength of which single mode fiber type is more sensitive to length? Depressed-clad What determines the range of wavelengths over which meaningful data is obtained for calculating the chromatic dispersion? The wavelength range of the optical source(s) used Near-filed power distributions describe the emitted power per unit are in the near-field region. Describe the near-field region. The near-field region is the region close to the fiber0end face How is the core diameter defined? The core diameter is define as the diameter at which the near-filed intensity is 2.5 percent of the maximum intensity Far-field power distributions describe the emitted power per unit area as a function of angle theta in the far-field region. Describe the far-field region. The far-field region is the region far from the fiber-end face Will fiber coupling loss generally increase of decrease if the mode field diameter of a single mode fiber is decreased?

Increase 117. In multimode fibers, how do fiber joints increase fiber attenuation following the joint? By disturbing the fibers mode power distribution (MPD) Reflectance is given as what ration? The ratio of reflected optical power to incident optical power When is an OTDR recommended for conducting field measurements on installed optical fibers or links? When installed optical fiber cables or links are 50 meters or more in length An OTDR measure the fraction of light that is reflected back from the fiber or link under test. What causes light to be reflected back into the OTDR? Rayleigh scattering and Fresnel reflection What is a temporary or permanent local deviation of the OTDR signal in the upward of downward direction called? A point defect Why is dead-zone fiber placed between the test fiber and OTDR when conducting attenuation measurements? To reduce the effect of the initial reflection at the OTDR The amount of backscattered optical power at each point depends on what two properties? Forward optical power and backscatter capture coefficient

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OPTICAL SOURCES AND FIBER OPTIC TRANSMITTERS 124. Semiconductor LEDs emit incoherent light. Define incoherent light. Light waves that lack a fixed-phase relationship What are the two most common semiconductor materials used in electronic and electro-optic devices? Silicon and gallium arsenide Describe the stimulated emission. A photon initially produced by a spontaneous emission in the active region interacts with the laser material to produce additional photons What are the three basic LED types? Surface-emitting LEDs (SLEDs) edgeemitting LEDs (ELEDs) and super luminescent diodes (SLDs) Which types of LEDs are the preferred optical sources for shortdistance, low-data-rate fiber optic systems? SLEDs and ELEDs

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What are facets? Cut or polished surfaces at each end of the narrow active region of an ELED What is the lowest current at which stimulated emission exceeds spontaneous emission in a semiconductor laser called? Threshold current Which type of optical source usually lacks reflective facets and in some cases is designed to suppress reflections back into the active region? LED How does the source drive circuit intensity modulate the source? By varying the current through the source What is a prebias? A current applied in the laser off state just less than the threshold current What are the two types of output interfaces for fiber optic transmitters? Optical connectors and optical fiber pigtails What type of source is typically used in low-data-rate digital applications? LED Why would a laser diode be used in a low-data-rate digital application? When extremely high transmitter output powers are required What type of source is generally used in high-data-rate digital applications? Laser diode

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Define responsivity. The ratio of the optical detectors output photocurrent in amperes to the incident optical power in watts How are PIN photodiodes usually biased? Reverse-biased What is the dark current? The leakage current that continues to flow through a photodetector when there is no incident light Will dark current increase or decrease as the temperature of the photodiode increases? Increase Should the capacitance of the photodetector be kept small or large to prevent the RC time constant from limiting the response time? Small Trade-offs between competing effects are necessary for high speed response. Which competing effect (fast transit time, low capacitance, or high quantum efficiency) requires a thin active area? Fast Transit time Why is detector saturation not generally a problem in fiber optic communications systems? Because fiber optic communications systems operate at low optical power levels How can the gain of an APD be increased? By increasing the reverse-bias voltage List the key operational parameters used to define receiver performance. Receiver sensitivity, bandwidth, and dynamic range List the main types of receiver noise. Thermal noise, dark current noise, and quantum noise What is the main factor that determines receiver sensitivity? Noise For a reduction in thermal noise, should the value of the detectors load resistor be increased or decreased? Increased What are two types of noise that manifest themselves as shot noise? Dark current and quantum noise What are the two basic types of preamplifiers used in fiber optic receivers? The high-impedance amplifier and the transimpedance amplifier

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OPTICAL DETECTORS AND FIBE OPTIC RECEIVERS 138. Which performance parameter is the minimum amount of optical power required to achieve a specific biterror rate (BER) in digital systems or a given signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in analog systems? Receiver sensitivity List the two principal optical detectors used in fiber optic systems. The semiconductor positiveintrinsic-negative (PIN) photodiode and avalanche photodiode (APD) What are the four most common materials used in semiconductor detector fabrication? Silicon, gallium arsenide, germanium and indium phosphide What is a photocurrent? The current produced when photons are incident on the detector active area 151.

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Which preamplifier design (highimpedance or transimpedance) provides improvements in bandwidth and greater dynamic range with some degradation in sensitivity from an increase in noise? Transimpedance For what types of applications are APDs generally used? For high-data-rate applications and for low- or moderate-data-rate applications where receivers with extremely low sensitivities are required What type of modulation do most analog fiber optic communications systems use? Intensity modulation What two analyses are performed to determine if a link design is viable? Power budget and risetime budget Optical fibers or cables should never be bent at a radius of curvature smaller than a certain value. Identify this radius of curvature. Minimum bend radius In fiber optics, the main disadvantage of plastic over glass fiber is high attenuation The wavelength of visible spectrum is within the range of 0.4 to 0.8 microns Range of frequency used for fiber optic (FO) system is 100 1000 THz The bending of light rays due to change in velocity as a result of traveling from one medium to the other. Refraction What is the infrared range used for fiber optics in Angstrom? 7,000 to 12,000 In fiber optic system, the core of PCs fiber is Glass What is the primary specification of a fiber cable usually expressed as the loss in dB/km? Attenuation What is the most widely used light generator in fiber optic system? Injection laser diode A more widely used and most sensitive photosensor is _____. Avalanche photodiode Attenuation null is fiber optic occurs at what wavelength? 1.3 microns

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1 angstrom is equal to how many microns? 0.0001 microns 1 angstrom is equal to how many nanometers? 10 ns A measure of quality of a fiber optic system. Maximum distance between repeaters The average maximum distance between repeaters in a fiber optic system. 10 - 30 km Fiber optics performance is usually indicated by product of bit rate and distance The external incident angle for which light will propagate in the fiber is known as _____. Acceptance angle In fiber optics, the dominant loss mechanisms in silica fiber are _____. Absorption and Rayleigh Scattering Loss Rayleigh Scattering Loss at 8020 nm has a typical value of _____. 2.5 dB Loss due to valence electron: UV absorption Laser used in fiber optic communications. Semiconductor laser What is the maximum data rate for fiber optics? 10 Gbps What is the typical bandwidth of the single-mode step-index fiber? 50 to 100 GHz/km What is the achievable rate of single-mode step-index fiber as used in digital communication? 2 Gigabytes What is the typical margin of safety in dB used in preparing the power budget for fiber-optic system? 5 10 dB

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FIBER OPTIC PROBLEMS 185. A fiber has an index of refraction of 1.6 for the core and 1.4 for the cladding. Calculate: (a) critical angle (b) angle of refraction for angle of incidence of 30 degrees (c) angle of refraction for angle of incidence of 70 degrees. (a) 61 degrees (b) 34.8 degrees (c) 70 degrees

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Calculae the numerical aperture and the maximum angle of acceptance for the fiber that has an index of refraction of 1.6 for the core and 1.4 for the cladding. N.A. = 0.775 / 50.8 degrees

connector losses at the two ends is 4 dB. Calculate the available system margin. 7.01 dB 194. A 45 km length of fiber must not lengthen pulses by more than 100 ns. Find the maximum permissible value for the pulse spreading contrast. 2.22 ns/km A fiber is rated as having a bandwidth-distance product of 500 MHz-km. Find its dispersion in ns/km, and the rise time of a pulse in a 5 km length of this cable. 5 ns

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A single-mode fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.15. what is the maximum core diameter it could have for use with infrared light with a wavelength of 820 nm? 4.2 um

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An optical fiber has a bandwidthdistance product of 500 MHz-km. if a bandwidth of 85 MHz is required for a particular mode of transmission, what is the maximum distance that can be used between repeaters? 5.88 km

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The fiber has zero dispersion at a wavelength of 1310 nm and has a zero-dispersion slope of 0.05 ps(nm2-km). calculate the total dispersion of 50 km of this fiber when it is used with a source having a linewidth of 2 nm at a wavelength of 1550 nm. 949 ps

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Find the bandwidth and bandwidth distance product for the fiber with total dispersion of 949 ps and a total length of 50km. B = 526.8 MHz, Bandwidth-Distance product = 26.3 GHz-km

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Find the energy in electronvolts, in one photon at a wavelength of 1 um. E = 1.24 eV

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A typical photodiode has an input optical power of 500 nW. Calculate the diode current. 150 nA

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A fiber optic link extends for 40 km. The laser diode emitter has an output power of 1.5 mW, and the receiver requires a signal strength of -25 dBm for a satisfactory signal-to-noise ratio. The fiber is available in lengths of 2.5 km and can be spliced with a loss of 0.25 dB per slice. The fiber has a loss of 0.3 dB/km. The total of all the