Developing a quantum theory of gravity

Kyle Byrne
Abstract The ultimate goal in modern physics is to design a unied theory, describing everything we see through one set of rules. One of the nal obstacles in this is to combine two of the greatest discoveries in 20th century physics, quantum mechanics, which describes the smallest particles and how they interact, and general relativity, which looks at the warping of space-time to describe gravity. So far quantum mechanics has been able to describe three of the four fundamental forces leaving only gravity, and so it is believed that by nding a quantum theory of gravity by unifying both quantum mechanics and general relativity we will be able to complete the standard model of particle physics and join all 4 forces under one all-encompassing theory. The fundamental way these two theories work is quite opposing; quantum mechanics works by probabilities and uncertainties whereas general relativity is a very denite geometric description, and so it isnt a surprise that as of now the two are incompatible.

Introduction

In this report I hope to explain some of the incompatibilities between general relativity and quantum mechanics; I wish to further present one of the leading theories being investigated as a possible solution to the conundrum of how the standard model can bring together these two partial theories.

Fundamentals of The Standard Model

The standard model is concerned with explaining how the most fundamental particles interact, governed by the four fundamental forces of nature. Originally developed in the 1970s, the standard model has been able to explain most experimental results we have thrown at it and make many predictions about natural phenomena.

2.1

Matter Particles

In the standard model, particles which make up matter are known as Fermions, these Fermions exist in two types: Quarks and Leptons. From these two families any composite particle in the universe can be created. The Fermions that must bind together are part of the Quark family and those which can exist independently are called Leptons. For the purpose of this report we need not go any further into Fermions as it is more the next type of particle we are concerned with.

2.2

Force Carriers

The four fundamental forces in the universe are: The strong force The weak force The electromagnetic force The gravitational force Each of these forces work over a dierent range with diering strengths, as the name suggests the strongest force is the strong force however it works only over a very short range, at a subatomic level. Like the strong force, the weak force also only works at a subatomic range but contrasting the name is in fact only the third weakest of the forces. The weakest force which works over an innite range is gravity, and nally the electromagnetic force is the second strongest force and also has innite range. So far the standard model has been able to show that three of these forces result form the exchange of force-carrier particles known as Bosons. Particles of matter transfer energy by trading Bosons between them, each force has its own Boson associated with it. The strong force is carried by the Gluon, the weak force by the W and Z Bosons and the electromagnetic force by the photon. So far, gravity is the only force yet to be described through the interaction of a force-carrier which is why the standard model is incomplete; in some theories,

such as string theory, it is predicted a particle called the graviton exists which acts as the boson for the gravitational force. [8]

(1)

Incompatibilities between General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics

One of the initial problems when trying to unite General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics is the fact that they both primarily operate on dierent domains. Quantum Mechanics operates on a subatomic level whereas, in contrast, relativity works on a large scale; its eects are often ignored on a scale more familiar to us. With this, when we try and push general relativity past its large-scale bounds to smaller objects it begins to break down, one of the most well-known examples is the start of the universe: the big bang. This can be shown mathematically in the Friedmann equation, derived by Alexander Friedmann from Einsteins original eld equations of gravitation to describe the expansion of space. [4] To simplify slightly for this report we will model the universe as at then we can describe the Hubble parameter (this concept will be explored further when I talk about loop quantum gravity) as 8G 3 Where H is the Hubble parameter, G is the gravitational constant = 6.671011 and is the density of the universe. Density is dened as = m v and so we can see that as the mass of the universe is constant due to the rst law of thermodynamics, the conservation of energy (as energy and mass are linked by Einsteins mass energy equivalence this results in a universal conservation of mass). It is apparent that as the volume of the universe decreases increases, in fact m lim == v 0 v we can then derive that 8G lim = H2 = v 0 3 H2 = 3

This value of is what is known as a singularity, as we believe that doesnt exist in nature it suggests that there must be some missing part to the theory we have developed.[6] This only seems to happen with General relativity at the scales where Quantum mechanics operates. When volumes take these values of virtually 0 the problems come about due to the uncertainty principle, this is fundamental to quantum mechanics and says that we can never be certain of the exact position of anything. By this it would be impossible to t anything, not the mass of our sun let alone the mass of the entire universe into a single point, as predicted by general relativity in the big bang or in a black hole[5] . General relativity is a classical theory, this means it describes the universe exactly, as a series of numbers, a continuous distribution - where space-time is innitely dividable, no matter how close you get. It then says that this distribution is entirely governed by the motion of energy and mass. Quantum mechanics on the other hand says that interactions are done by the exchange of particles, e.g. photons or gluonsx. This dierence in the way the two types of theories work is still something we arent entirely sure how to solve, gravity says the world is determinisitic whereas quantum mechanics says everything is simply ruled by chance. Even though quantum mechanics works on very small scales it still has a limit, known as the planck length, approximately 1035 m. On a scale smaller than this, physicists are unsure about how anything works, when we do calculations below this point we start hitting into innities everywhere. This problem is solved through a process called renormalisation, which is essentially setting a lower bound for carrying out calculations. This works in all other forces as we are only ever working with two energies usually, so a constant can be applied to keep us above the limit, however it seems this process wouldnt work with gravity as it doesnt eect a certain class of things, it seems to aect everything and so those innite energies that pop up below the planck length will mean a dierent curvature of space time itself, and so cannot be as easily ignored.[2][7]

Loop Quantum Gravity as a possible solution

Loop quantum gravity is the theory proposed by the those from a GeneralRelativity background, it says that instead of the continuous nature of spacetime suggested by relativity, it is in fact made from some discrete unit. The best analogy Ive seen was made by Martin Bojowald who said in LQG, the universe is analogous to a sponge, in the way a sponge can hold a maximum amount of water before it starts to repel it - it has a maximum density. Through LQG, the universe also has a maximum density and as the universe reaches this density the nite space will become lled and will begin to repel any excess energy. This maximum density of each nite unit will sum to give the entire universe a maximum or critical density, c . Physicists studying loop quantum gravity have used this idea of a critical density to create quantum analogues to the original equations derived from General Relativity. One of the more interesting predictions from LQG comes from the alternative to the equation we looked at earlier 8G H2 = 3

The LQG alternative is H2 = In this way

8G (1 ) 3 c )=0 c

lim (1

and so
c

lim H 2 = 0

So instead of the innity we had earlier we now have a 0 value pop out, if we actually look at what H is it becomes clear this is far more likely than having any . H is what is known as the Hubble Parameter = a a where a is the scale factor of the universe and so a is the derivative of this scale factor , or the rate of change. As this then becomes 0 we get a stationary point in the scale factor, a change of direction. This leads to a theory where instead of the big bang what actually happened was a big bounce, LQG theorists believe that the universe began at an innite size in a phase of contracting rather than the expansion we see now, it then, after contracting, reached its critical density c when the direction of scale changed to expansion - the phase we are now seeing. It is this idea of a critical density which LQG theorists hope will solve some of the incompatibilities between Quantum mechanics and General relativity, especially the renormalisation problem we see as we get close to the planck length. It is believed that this theorised repulsive force which comes about as the discrete units of space time reach their critical density will stop innities from appearing in the calculation.[1][3]

Conclusion

Whilst everything said in LQG makes sense some, it is believed by some that it is simply some aesthetic maths bodged together to try and overcome the problem, it is dicult to actually nd any evidence for this idea of a discrete space-time due to limitations in sensor technology. I believe that when we do eventually come to some unied theory will assimilate in itself ideas from both Loop Quantum Gravity as to how singularities from general-relativity will be removed in the real world , but will pick up ideas from the other most popular theory currently being proposed , string theory which will better concern interactions which lead to Gravity.

Bibliography

1. Before the big bang , Loop quantum gravity explained - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IVphIW1jS - This video has had its content checked by physicists at 2 separate universities and is primarily an interview with the pioneer of loop quantum gravity so seems reliable 2. Why cant Einstein and quantum mechanics get along -http://io9.com/whycant-einstein-and-quantum-mechanics-get-along-799561829 - This article is a response by Dr.Dave Goldberg, a Dr of physics to a question on ask a physicst 3. Theorists apply loop quantum gravity to black holes - http://phys.org/news/201305-theorists-loop-quantum-gravity-theory.html - The fact this article is from a website primarily for physics articles makes it seem reliable. 4. Friedmann equations - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedmann equations - The information given on this article has been crosschecked with other sources so can be assumed reliable. 5. Relativity in the micro world- http://www.einstein-online.info/elementary/quantum/special - This site is run by the Max Planck institute for gravitational physics, can be assumed reliable. 6. Gravitational singularities - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational singularity - The information used from this article is widely known and agreed upon other sites. 7. Gravitational waves and quantum gravity - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dGHTQAmCDhs - This video is a segment from a series of university lectures on cosmology so should have been peer reviewed. 8. The standard model - https://home.web.cern.ch/about/physics/standardmodel - CERN most pioneering physicists in the world, can be assumed right.