SCIENCE

AND

LETTERS

IN

THE

MIDDLE

AGES,

AND

AT

THE

PERIOD

OF

THE

RENAISSANCE.

SCIENCE

AND
IN

LITERATURE

THE

MIDDLE
AND
AT THE PERIOD

AGES,
OF

THE

RENAISSANCE.

,Bv

PAUL

LACROIX

Jacob), (Bibliophile
CURATOR OF THE IMPERIAL LIBRARY
OF

THE

ARSENAt,

PARIS.

!lln"tratcb

tuith

UPWARDS

OF

FOUR

HUNDRED

ENGRAVINGS

ON

WOOD.

LONDON

BICKERS

AND

SON,

i,

LEICESTHR

SOLARH

CB

LIU

1*77

PREFACE.

'ITH is

this

new

and

last

volume,
interest

the

subject
than that

of

which of the

not

less

replete

with

three
work

preceding
upon the

volumes,
Middle

we

bring
and
the

to

close

our

Ages
of fifth
the

Renaissance. the

In

the

beginning
of the

Middle
the

Ages,

at

commencement

century,
;

Barbarians

made

an

inroad

upon

the

old

world

their few

renewed the succeeded of

sions invaGreek

crushed and Roman The

out,

in

the

course

of

years,

civilisation

and

everywhere
Christ and the
was

darkness
alone

to

light.
this

religion
invasion,
from

of

Jesus

capable

resisting
with the

barbarian

and

science face It
that

literature,

together
refuge
were

arts,
churches
.

disappeared
and

the

of

earth,
that

taking

in

the

the
and

monasteries. it thence

was

there

they
when

preserved Christianity
before

as

sacred

deposit,
pagan

was

they
and

emerged
centuries
had been

had

renovated

society.
was

But

centuries
what

elapsed
at

the
of the

sum

of

human

knowledge
A
new

equal
moreover,

to

it

the

fall

Roman

empire.

society,
it resumed
of the

was

needed

for and

the

new

efforts

of

human

intelligence
under the

as

its

rights.
and of

Schools
the

universities

were

founded

auspices
literature

clergy
enabled

religious
from which their made
zeal

corporations,
tomb.

and

thus

science

and

were

to

emerge

Europe,
unmade

amidst

the

tumultuous

conflicts

of

the

policy
of

and

kingdoms,

witnessed

general

revival

scholastic

poets,

orators,

vi

PREFACE.

novelists, and

writers

increased
and

in numbers

and

grew

in

favour;
and

savants,

chemists philosophers,
travellers breath works
was

alchemists, mathematicians
awakened,
and
so

astronbmers, the
and modern

and

were naturalists,

to

speak,.by

life-giving
admirable

of the
on

Middle

Ages;

great scientific discoveries

that the

every
a

showed subject imaginable

inferior
to

geniusof
had

society

not

whit

that

of

antiquity. Printing was

invented, and

with work

that brilliant of social in

the discovery,

Middle way

Ages, which
for

accomplished their
scattered

renovation, made

the Renaissance, which

abroad

and profusionthe prolific

brilliant creations of Art, Science,and

Literature. Such before

our

is the

grand
in

and
a

which imposing picture

concise

we

have

attempted to bring
to

readers
not

form, limiting ourselves

into the

narrative
of

and and

and description, historical himself

course, to

plunging
The

imaginary regions

theory

discussion.

impartial and
his

truth-lovinghistorian
as a

confines
matter

and narrative, themselves should

not

though

personalopinionsmust,
whether of facts,
them upon

of
or

show

in his narrative seek

to

given

in detail

he abridged,

force

his readers
The
to

by systematic historyof
excesses

violence and
Middle

by

efforts of than

demonstration. philosophical
any other
to

the of

Ages has, more

period, given rise

these

conflicting opinions. According Ages

and is bad and

some,

everything relatingto

the

Middle

blameworthy
are

is according to others,everything
to

admirable
extreme
our

good.
we

We

not

concerned
our

pronounce in all

between

these two

opinions ;
readers
was can

have

written for

narrative

and truth, and sincerity

judge
us.

themselves.

Moreover,
this

the
as

greater part
to

of

our

work
we

done

for

With

respect

to

volume,
our

the

precedingones,
Middle

have and work which

simply analyzed several chaptersof

the of and Renaissance," completing,
our

first book, "The

cases

Ages

in

some

amending,the
same

collective

former

and collaborateurs,

adding

at the

time
were

to this

work,

is

now

the chapters which appreciated, deservedly of which the is

a

wanting, and

the absence It is
none

showed

that it honour

was

imperfect.
us

less a

high

for

to

have
to

had

the

planning of

this

work,

which of

left incomplete, and unfortunately which literary enterprise obtained Our the

have

superintendedthe
honourable Ferdinand
ragement, encou-

execution

the most dear

and who died while

almost

unanimous upon

praise.
struck

friend

Sere,
the

engaged

had it,

rightvein
to be

with

regard to

illustration of this

book, magnificent

in which

were

reproduced so

many

PREFACE.

vii

unpublishedrecords
times, and
before
we we

of

the

art

of

drawing.
courage

But

we

have

fallen upon
we

evil

after had

expending much

and
and

perseverance,

had upon

to

stop

completed our
so

programme,

terminate
"

work

which
and

had

spent
"

many

years of labour. volumes

Thus

The

Middle

Ages

the

Renaissance I have

had

only five
an

instead

of six.

written

new absolutely

work, availing myself, however, of the

was

work, original
the
new

which
now

remains

as

it

before.
same

The

four

volumes

of which
and the
more

work

consists are, at the five volumes of the

time, less
one.

extensive few the

complete than

the

first

Very

of

wood

engravings which
With works my have have

illustrate these four volumes

appeared in
I have

first work.

regard to the text, in compilingwhich

former have

made
are

free

use

of the

of my

collaborateurs
not

(sofew of whom, alas !

alive to receive works

"

thanks),I

scrupledto avail myselfof

first
"

the excellent

which which
to

of the appeared since the publication enabled

me

Middle

Ages,

and

to recast

certain parts altogether

I have

of this book.

Thus,

speak only of
and

the

present volume,

revised the
on

chapters on Philosophy by history

of
and

after the valuable Universities,

Ch.

treatises

philosophyand

M. M. the

Jourdain

the

chapter

on

Romances,
Gaston

after the Paris and

latest researches Leon Gautier

;

Paulin

Paris and the works

of MM.

chapter on

Popular Songs,after the report of M. Ampere

Societies. information the credit If I have which lies with
a

to the

Committee work my
some

of the Learned of the fresh

succeeded have

in

bringing into my
in abundance
not

derived
But

from

temporaries, con-

them. of

it must and

be

that forgotten

each

of my

chaptersforms
made

sort

monograph,
or even

that this

monograph

has

often been
I could

the

subjectof
a

one,

of several

treatises. special in
at

only make

and succinct, many

often

incomplete, summary
subjects ;
but I have

compiling
all events
Firminminute if

this book, which

conformed
as

comprisesso

different

to nearlyas possible
me

the instructions of the late M.

of profoundand display

Didot, who
erudition

urged

to

"

leave to others the

; content

yourselfwith

being

an

and, intelligent, ingenious,

make
are

an possible,

agreeable interpreter ; try

greatest successes

to

yourselfread
less

and

stood under-

by everybody. The by vulgarisers."

achieved

by

savants

than

PAUL

LACROIX

(Bibliophile Jacob).

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS.

noi

UNIVERSITIES,
Legend
of

SCHOOLS,
the foundation Cloisters. The the four of the

STUDENTS
Paris of and

University
the the and
name

by

Charlemagne.
"

The
"

Schools

of of

the the

Notre-Daine

"

Origin
Nations The its of

University.
Faculties.
"

The The

organization
Rector and the

University."
officers of

four the Its

other of the

University.
Its
power

"

great
decadence. the Rue

little

messengers. role. The

"

"

Privileges
of

University.
Universities.

and Schools Their

"

"

political

"

Creation

provincial
"

"

Great

du Their

Fouarre. Festivals.
"

Paris The Lendit

Colleges.
Fair.
"

lence Turbu-

of Universities.

the

Students."

Games.
"

Foreign

PHILOSOPHIC
Annihilation,
"

SCIENCES
of the

41

Pagan

Philosophy.
Isidore
"

New
"

Christian Seville.
"

Philosophy.
Bede,
"

"

Martianus and Realism of de Raban and

Capella.
Maurus. nalism. Nomiand Albertus William
The
"

Boethius John

and Scotus

Cassiodorus.

of

Alcuin,
"

"

Erigcna.
of de Thomas Decadence the

"

Origin
"

of

Scholasticism. and St. The St. Anselm.

Gerbert. William

"

Beranger
Gilbert
"

Tours. la

Roscelin Porree and

"

Chumpeaux
Bene.
"

AbelarJ.

Bernard.
"

Amaury
and the and P. Ramus.

Magnus
of Ockham.

and

St.

Aquinas.
of

Franciscans

Dominicans.
"

"

"

Scho'asticism.
The
"

"

Platonists Schools.
"

Aristotelians.

[Philosophy

of

Renaissance.

Lutheran

"

Montaigne.

MATHEMATICAL

SCIENCES

77

Ancient

Systems
Pappus,

of

the and

Planetary
Gerbert.
"

World. Suhools of

"

Ptolemy Bagdad.
Researches and
of
"

and

Aristarchus

of School

Samoa. in

"

Boethius,

Mathematical of
Thomas

Spain,
Bacon of of

Italy, England,
and Master

and Pierre.

France.

"

Astronomical

the

Arabs.

"

Roger
"

Albertus
"

Magnus protectors Principal

"

St. the

Aquinas.
Sciences.
in

Progress King

Mathematics.
"

Popes

and Corvinus."

Kings

Exact

"The

Hungary,
"

Matthias

Works
Brahe

composed
and

the

Fifteenth

Century.

Pic

Mirandola.

"

Peter

Ramus.

Tycho

Copernicus.

NATURAL
Natural
in the

SCIENCES
Sciences time of in

105

Antiquity."
"

Their Tlie Abbess

Decadence Monk of Strabus.

in

the

Middle

Ages."
Gardens.

Rural

Economy
aided of

Charlemagne.
"

Botanical
"

"

Botany
"

by

Medicine.

Hildegnrde,

Bingen.

Peter
"

of

Crescentiis.

Vincent

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS.

FACIE

Beauvais. Naturalist Sixteenth G.

"

Fables

and
"

Popular
Aristotle

Errors.

"

Jean

Dondi.

"

Bartholomew
honour.
" "

Glanvil. in

"

Travellers.

and

Pliny
of

restored in

to

Gardens

the
"

Century.
"

"

The

Conquests of Science
"

Travel.
"

Bernard and

Palissy. Engravers
of

Agricola.

Conrad

Gesner.

Methods

Botany.

Painters

Natural

History.
134
after the death Talismans Arab
"

MEDICAL
Decline

SCIENCES
of Medicine
"

of

Hippocrates.
"

The

School

of Galen.

"

The
"

School Female
"

of Alexandria. Doctors."
The

and
"

Orisons
The

against Illness." Monastic

of
"

Medicine.

The

Schools.

Schools

Naples, Monte

Casino, and
the
"

Salerno. East.'
"

Hospitallers. The
of of

School

of Cordova.'
"

Epidemics coming from

of

The
as

appearance

Surgery. Military

The

Schools

Montpellier and Paris.

"

Lanfranc
"

upholder
the

Surgery." College
and the

of St. Cosmo Medical

at Paris.
"

Guy
Occult

de Chauliac. Sciences

Rivalry of
"

Surgeons
of

Barbers.

"

Police.
"

The

in Medicine.

Kivalry
"

the

Surgeons and
"

the Doctors.
Pare.

The

Doctors

in the Sixteenth

Century.

Andrew

Vesalius.

Ambroise

CHEMISTRY
Diocletian
"

AND
burns
one

ALCHEMY
the Books of the
of

..174
"

Chemistry.
"

Huroun Rhazes.
" "

Al-Raschid

protects the Sacred

in honour

Art.
the the Lulli.

Geber,
Saracens.
" "

first Chemists.

Chemistry
and
of
"

amongst
Morienus

Avicenna, Serapion, Magnus

Dreamers.
the
"

Mesue.

Albucasis
"

Averroes."
"

Solitary.Albertus
"

and

Gerbert.

Vincent

Beauvais.

Raymond
"

The

or Lullists,
"

Arnauld Fifteenth
"

de Villeneuve. J. Century.."

Roger Bacon.

Invention
"

of

Spectacles.-Alchemy in
of
the

B.
"

Porta, the Italian.

Conrad Gesner.
"

Origin

Rosicrucians.
"

"

Paracelsus. Nicholas

George Agricola.
"

Cornelius

Agrippa.

The

Story of

Flamel.

Alchemy

engendersMetallurgy.

'

THE
The

OCCULT

SCIENCES
of

200

Origin

Magic." The
of Occult Practices
"

Savants Sciences.
"

and

Philosophers reputed to
"

be and

Magicians.
"

Different

Forms
"

Oneiromancy.
"

Oneirocritics
"

Diviners.

"

Necromancy.
"

of the
and

Necromancers. other the kinds Saints.

Astrology.
"

Celebrated The

Astrologers.
Art and and
"

Chiromancy. Aeromancy
Art. Pacts
"

of Divination.
"

Angelic
and

the Notorious Evil

Genii.
"

The
with
"

Spellsof
Demons. Talismans Evil
"

Magic.

"

The
"

Evocation Formula

of Good

Celebrated and

Magicians.
"

Circles.

Incense "The
and

and

Perfumes.

Images.

The

tormenting

of Wax The

Images.

The Sagittarii." The Spirits."

Eye." Magic Alchemy." Cabalism."

The Sabbath." A Trial for

Fairies,Elfs,

"Were-wolves."

Sorcery.

POPULAR

BELIEFS
from

28?
Paganism.
"

Superstitionsderived
Barbatorii." "Festival the

Saturnalia The

of

the

Ancients.
or

"

Festival the Fools' The

of

the

Ft stival of the Deacons." of the Ass." and

the

Libertyof December,
Feast of the Mire of the

Feast. of of

The

Sens

Ritual."

Innocents." Sotte."The The

Moneys
Folk

Innocents
The

Fools."

Brotherhood

Mere

Dijon."
"The

Serpent, or the Devil."

and

Purgatory of
and

St. Patrick." The

"

Wandering

Jew.

Antichrist
and
"

the

End
"

of the World." Dreams

Prophecies of the Sibyls, of Spectres

and

Merlin,

of Nostradamus. Talismans.

Visions.

Apparitions.

Prodigies.

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS.

xi

MM

GEOGRAPHICAL
Latin and Greek

SCIENCE Geographers.
" "

.-.

265
of the Roman World. and
"

Measurement of

Voyages
"

of

Hip-

palus and
and

Diogenes.

Marinus
"

Tyre, Pomponius Mela,

Invasions.
"

Ptolemy.

Coloured

Itineraries. Figurative

Barbarian
to

Stephen of Byzantium." Geographical

"

Ignorance from Magnus.

" "

the Sixth

the Tenth

Century.
"

Charlemagne and
Peter and

Albertus Bacon.
L-

Dicuil.

"

Geography amongst the Arabs.

"

Master

Roger
"

Vincent

of Beauvais.
"

Asiatic Travellers Mauro.

"

in
"

the Thirteenth First Editions

Century. Portuguese
of

Navigation.

The

Planisphere of Fra

Ptolemy.
"

Maritime

in the Fifteenth VjA"~Expeditions

Columbus Century. Christopher

and

Amerigo Vespucci.

"Spanish, Dutch, and FrenchJTravellers, "c., in the Sixteenth HERALDIC

The fabled

Century.
296

SCIENCE

Originof
and

Armorial

Bearings.
"

Heraldic

Science

duringthe
and

Feudal
"

Period.

"

The

First Armorial

Bearings in
Divisions
on

the Eleventh the Shield.

"

and

Twelfth of Arms

Centuries.

The
"

Meaning
Heraldic of the

of the Colours

Kings

Heralds. The

Fishes." Plants,Flowers, Figures."Quadrupeds,Birds, Fleur-de-lis." Emblematic Arms." Prevalence and of Armorial

Fruits."

Legend

Bearingsin
Traders' of

the Thirteenth

Century." Helmets Usurpersof

Armorial

and 'Crests." Mottoes

Emblems."

Sign-boards."

Decadence Bearings."

of the Science

Heraldry.

PROVERBS

"

825
all Nations.
" "

of Proverbs amongst Antiquity Marcoul.

"

Proverbs Rural
"

in the Middle

Ages.
" "

Solomon Guillaume

and de

The
"

Proverbs. Philosophers' of the

and

Vulgar Proverbs.
"

Tignonville.Proverb^
"Proverbs in Works Proverbs."

Villeins.
"

Dit de French

Historical 1'Apostoile." Proverbs de in the Sixteenth Bourbon's

Proverbs.

of Prose The

and

Verse.

"

Century.
of

"Foreign
Proverbs.

Use

of Proverbs."

Constable

Collection

LANGUAGES
The

845
"

Originof Languages. Decadence

Rustic
"

of the Latin

Language.
"

The

Celtic and Teutonic

"

Language. Common of the French Language. The Oath of Louis the Conqueror."The Oc and Oil Languages."
"

Languages." The

Neo-Latin the German Poem Rose."

Dialects. in 842.
"

First Evidences Laws of William Chanson de

of Boethius."
"

The
"

"

Roland."

"

Fabliaux.
"

"

The
"

"Romance of and

of the Flemish Villon.

"

Villehardonin.
"

The la

Sire de
"

Joinville. Froissart.
"Cent Marot Nouvelles and Rabelais.

Influence

Writers. Hellenism

Antoine and

de

Sale.
"

The

nouvelles"
"

Italianism.

Clement

Ronsard, Montaigne,and Malherbe. 863

ROMANCES

Origin of
Savants

the Name
as

Romance.

"

Greek

and
"

Latin These

Romances. Romances

"

The
were

Discussion

of the of The

to the first French

and

Romances.
"

the Emanation and

"

Popular Songs
Three
of

Latin

Chronicles.

Ancient

Romances
"

in Prose

Rhyme.

"

the

of the Chansont de Gette. (Metres) Jugglers. Assemblies and Troin-eurt." The

"

Materes

Their
"

Classification.

Manuscripts Progress
Tristan.
"

Chanson
"

de Roland."" Romances.
"

of Romancerie

(Ballad Songs) during the Crusades.

Merlin." The

Breton

Launcelot."

Holy
the

Grail."

Decadence

of Romances

in the Fourteenth of the teenth Fif-

Century."Remodelling of Century."Romance

Early

Short Romances Romances.^^he The "Amadis."

Abroad."

Xll

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS.

PAGE

POPULAR
Definition

SONGS
.

:
.
.

and Classification of the Franks."

Popular Song." Songs of the Germans,

are

the

Gauls, the

Goths, and
the
most

They
The

collected

by order
of

of

Charlemagne." Vestiges of
down
to

Ancient

Songs."

Historical

Songs

FranceThe

the

Sixteenth
and

Century." Romanesque
Canticles."
"

Songs." Religious Songs."

"

Christmas Music of the

Carols

the

Legendary Songs. Songs.

"

Domestic of of

Songs.
"

"

The

Popular Songs.
the Meister"

Provincial
"

The

Songs

Germany.

The

Minnesingers

and

singers. The
of

Songs of England,

Scotland,and

of Northern

Countries.

The

Songs

Greece, of Italy,and of Spain. POETEY

of Latin

NATIONAL
i

421

Decadence

Poetry."Originsof Vulgar Poetry." Troubadours,

Thibaud The
"
"

Trouveres, and
de France." The
"

Jugglers."
"

Rutebeuf." of the
"

of

Navarre

and

his
The

School."
Romance

Marie

Romance

Renard."" Dante.

G'uyotBible.""
Romancero."
"

of the Rose.""
"

Minnesingers.
English
Villon.
"

The

The Alain

Meistersingers. Chartier, Charles

of

Petrarch.

Poets

; Chaucer.

"

Eustache
"

Deschamps,
of the
"

d'Orleans,
Latin
"

Chambers
"

of Rhetoric. of

Poets

Court

Burgundy."
and his Northern

Modern School.

Poetry. Epic
Poems

The
;

Poems

Chivalry in Italy. Clement

"

Marot of the

The
"

Tasso, Camoens.
his School.
"

Poets

of

Germany

and

Countries.

Ronsard

and

Poetry under, the Valois

MEMOIRS
The Last Latin
"

Kings.
455
and Greek of the
"

CHRONICLES,
First Historians

HISTORIES,
of the

Church."

Historians.
"

"

Latin
"

Chronicles: Monastic Historians

the

Marius, Cassiodorus, Jornandes.

Chronicles.
"

Gregory
Eighth
to

Tours.

Fredegaire. Century.
Chronicles
" "

Chronicles
"

from

the of

Eleventh Latin

of the Crusades. of St. Denis. The

" "

Historians
in-

Foreign

Countries.

of

Abbey
"

Chronicles
"

Rhyme."

Early French
"

Chronicles.
"

Ville-

hardouin.
"

Sire de Joinville. French of the and

Chronicles

of St. Denis.

Froissart.
"

Monstrelet.

Chastellain. Chroniclers Private France

Translations Fifteenth Lives

of the Ancient
"

Historians.

Library of Charles V.
of

"

Century.
of Illustrious

Historians Men."

of the Court

Burgundy.
Histories

"

Chronicles

Personal

Memoirs."

of

in the Sixteenth

Century.
488
.

THE

DRAMA
of Disappearance the Ancient Theatre."
"

First Latin

Essays of
Drama

the Christian
"

Theatre." The
"

Pious
of

in Representations Adam. Passion since

"

the Churches.

The

of Hfosvitha. in

Mystery

The in

Great Paris.
"

Mysteries." Progress of the Theatre

Public

Europe.
of Farce
in

Brothers Louis.
"

of the

Representations. The
"

Mystery
The

St.

Comedy
The of

the Thirteenth
"

Century."
sans

Jean

de

la Halle." Theatre
in

de Pathelin."

Bazoche. the

The

Eufants

Souci."

The

Spain and

Italy.
"

Creation

Literary Theatre, in
RELIGIOUS
Genius

the Sixteenth

Century,in France.
519

CIVIL
The
in

AND

ORATORY
of the Gauls." The

Oratorical
the

Origin of
and St.

the French

Bar." and

Christian

Oratory
"

First of the Louis

Centuries." Crusades." Political

Gallo-Roman St. Bernard

Oratory."Preachers
Charles VI."

Missionaries.

Orators under
of the

Bar at the Dominic"jCl"leadings

XL"

Oratoryunder
of the

Popular Preachers."

Orators

Reformation." States-General."

Orators

League." Parliamentary Harangues."

Oratory

in the

Military Oratory.

TABLE

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS.

ENGRAVINGS.

Abduction of Helen, The Alchemist, The, sifter Vriese

,,

515
229 185

Alfonso

X., the Wise,

King of Castile
from
a

466
....

Antichrist,Ueign of

257

German

Apocalypse,Miniature
upon the

Commentary
224,
-J.jii 525
. .

"

Alexander

Laboratory of an doing Battle with

three Horna Battle with

197 the Beast with 278 White Lions 279

Apostleof
Arc Arms
"

Preaching of Christianity, Compartment X., King of Castile of Brittany

of A rragon

an

with

Double

99 306 318 309 305 323

"

doing

of Alfonso Anne

,,

"

with Men engaged in Combat having Horses' Heads with Pigs. engaged in Combat the Dragons fighting

204 207
.

Catherine
,,
"

Emanuel,

"

11"), 117

King of Portugal France, Fifteenth Century

XIV

EN.GRA

VINOS.

Page Arms
,,

1'llt'O

of

Godfrey Henry
those Joan John

do V.

Bouillon of

307

Binding of
of
a

Durand's

"

Rational*.;,"Fragment
:

England
do

joined
Valois

to 487
...

of Catherine

Boethius

takes

Counsel

of Dame

Philosophy
125 313

of Arc

310

"

II., King I., King

of France
of

305 305 315 311

.....

Martin
"

Mary Tudor, Queen Orsini Family

Paul
" ,,

Arragon of England...
'.
.

Page in Manuscript of the Century Bourbon, Due de, armed Cap-a-pie Brunehaut superintending the making of led from the City the Seven Roads which
Border of
a

Fifteenth

III

808 305 305 306

of

Piccolomini Kichard Robert

Family
de-Lion
.

Buffoon
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274
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Coeur

"

Anjou, King of Naples William, Prince of Orange Astronomer and Cosmographist, German with Magic Figures Astronomy, A Lesson in
"

of

306 98
. .

"

playing the Bagpipe Burgundy Cross,Origin of the Calendar of a Book of Hours,"

"

from
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the

92

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Cancionero," The,
Baena in
a

of

Juan

Alfonso

de 444

87
.209

with
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the

Three Poem

Fates entitled
"

Carol

Burgundy Patois,with
Bell

Music
....

408 184 441 141

Author, The, of the

Debat de la Noire
the

Le 439

Casting
Castle 183 Cathedral

et de la Tannee"

of

Loves, The
of Cordova

Bacon,
Ballad
the

Alchemist himself
upon

Singer accompanying
Violin
of Amiens

Celtic Monument
411

137
85 Mere Folle 247 169

Centaur, The
Chariot Charlatan
of the

Banner
"

Butchers

'

320 158 158 320

'.

"

Apothecaries of Caen Apothecaries of St. LG

Bethune Bordeaux Tailors

performing an Operation Charlemagne, Conquest of Jerusalem

Coronation
,,

by

463
.

of

461 208

"

"

"

,,

Upholsterers Calais Innkeepers Corporation of Apothecaiies

the Mayenne Corporation of

320 320

Vision
"

of

Charles
"

VII.

in

entering Rouen out to besiegethe Town setting

of Harfleur

477

173

479

,,

Physicians
."

at

Vigiles de
167

467, 470

Amiens
"

Chartier, Alain, comforted

Chest of Carved Wood

by Hope
of the
;

438

Corporation of Physicians in Mayenne

of Corporation

the

Fourteenth 503

167 167 167

"

Century
Chevalier the Christina de Pisan

"

Physicians at Vire

Delibere,"

Miniature

from

"

"

Corporation of Surgeons at Caen Corporation of Surgeons at Le

Mans

393, 509,

513

being urged
of the

to write

167 of

Book
"

of Ethics

359 67 458

..

Corporation
Saintes Douai

Surgeons

at

167
321 321
"..

City of God," Miniature Clovis,Equestrian Statue

made

of

,,

Shoemakers

Comb

of Carved

Wood,

of the

teenth Fif340 368 356

. .

"

Lyons Tinmen
Paris Founders
Pin and
..

"

321 321 321 320 320 321

"

Needle

Makers

St. Lo
"

Blacksmiths

St. Lo
" "

Dyers
Cobblers Slaters
from displayed

Century Compiler, A Conflagrationof the Bel-Acceuil Prison Copyist writing upon Vellum of the English Nation Counter-Seal
"

391 4

St. Omer
Tours

Faculty of
Paris
French

Medicine,
150

"

Banners
the

and

Coate-of-Arms

Nation Nation
....

"

Heralds' in

Lodge
the

312
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Normandy
Picardy
Rheims

5 5
6
...

Bas-relief Poor Battle Beadles Mousson Betrothal

of

Church

of St. Julian

the
"

Nation

23
"

Beggars and
of
the

Peasants of Pont-a-

75
,,

University. University of Paris

of

56
. .

University
between

Court 1(33 Cure

Jester,A through the Intercession

331
a

Healing
14-1 71

Interview
and

the

Arclidukr 473

Maximilian

Mary

of

Burgundy

I lame

Spirit Philosophy

ENGRA

VINGS.

Page Dante's Death Device

" "

Divina

Commcdia,"
Battles de' Medicis

Fragmant

of

358 486

Instruments

of Mathematical
..................

Precision

for 96
65

over presiding

executing Portraits
Italian Doctors

of Catherine Charles Charles

'.-,.. 317
316 316 33?

........................

IX., King of France..:.

V Gueux of France of France of
....

"

Jerusalem, Coronation
the

of

Charlemagne
of
..........

in 373 387

"

Flemish

City of

..........................

"

"

"

FrancoisI.,King Henry III., King Henry VII., King

Jean
sans

332 316 316

. .

Joseph of Arimathea, Death Joshua, King David, and

..............................

Judas

Macca366

England
of

"

Peur,

Duke

gundy Bur337 Khan of

Tartary,Coronation
Anna
..........................

of the
......

465 301 389

LeoX
"

316 '332

King of

XII., King of France " Louis, Duke of Orleans (H06) Devil, Angel enchainingthe The, attemptingto seize a Magician
Louis
.
.

Knight, Arming Languages, The

Launcelot Le Feron and

of

....................

337
222

Institution Guinivere

of

..........

348 385

"

223
289

................

Discoveryof
Doctor
,,

San

Domingo
..

presenting a
II
...........................

Work

to

King
319 146

Death

153

Henry

639 Flemish, haranguing the People 157 House, Interior of a 221 Dragons 342, 343 Drawings of Proverbs, Adages',"c Doctor's Dream Druids
;;.,,S-""l"m
.,.

Leper House Lequeux, Jean, Messenger in the Diocese

..........................

of
14

Luon

................................

of Childeric .'

."

261 202

External View of Leyden University, Left Hand, and their Horoscopic Lines on
....

38

Denominations
"

......................

215 et de

Livre

de Faits d'Armes from the

Chevalerie," 483,
..........

Envoys

rrum

471

Miniatures

..............

484 1 80

Rings Equatorial Esua, the God

Fantastic of Nature and

."

101

Lulli, Raymond, Mandeville, John

The

Alchemist

107

de, taking leave of King

285

Forms

Figur.es seen

in the 217 the the

608

Edwardlll

.........................

Sky
farce First

Century de Patkelin, Wood Engravings of Apostles, Mksionary Preaching of

Maximus, Arrival
at

in the Sixteenth

Man-dog,

Man-wolf, Man-bull, and Fragment of

of Sardinia of

Man233

pig
Map
"

................................

629 273 60

of Gaul, Island Island

"

..............

271
269

Fleet of

Cologne of the
Memmi
.

..............

Fresco, Fragment of,by Simone Furnace, Retorts, Slills,and Apparatus

Taprobana
..................

............

287 267
119 383

Distillery
"

Roman

World

193

"

195 293 175

252

Galley of
Gallic

the Sixteenth

Century

Vulcan, The Gargouille,The Geber, The Alchemist

World, The Mark, King, stabbing Tristan Man Marriage of a Young

Marine
....................

............

and

an

Old
226

Woman Mathematician 178 and 475

213
....

............................

Monks

81
.................. ....................

"

of the Kings of France England," Fragment of the Genethliac,or AstrologicalHoroscope of God

Genealogy

creatingthe World by Compass Latine," by ./Elius Donatus, Specimen of a Page of the Gregory the Great sending Missionaries to
"Grainmaire

109

Melusine, The Fay into a Student, meets Merlin, transformed Viviana the Fairy Metals, Colours, and Furs interpreted by the Engravers of the Middle Ages
.................... ......

263

386

297
182

Miner
349

................................

Minnesingers
Mint 627
"

..........................

416

of the Fifteenth Officerofthe

England Hermes,
Horace's The

Century
....................

186
..........

187
.

Alchemist

176
422

Poems
in the

Hotel-Dieu, A Ward Hour of Death, The

Initial

148 64

chanting the Litanies for the Dead. engaged in Agriculture " born from the Deluge Monsters
Monks
..........
..........

264 112 251 198

Morienus, The Alchemist Mosque of Cordova

Mountebank
ofa Seller of

................

433

....................

designedby

Pen Precision for

Drugs, The

Stage
SH 417

Instrument

of Mathematical

................................
...................

designingObjectsin Perspective

97

Musicians, German

XVI

ENGRA

VINGS.

Page Narcissus Natural

at the Fountain 356
..............

Portraits

"

Sciences,The, in the
..........................

Presence

of 73

Ponthus

de

Thyard

453 452 452

Philosophy
Back Noah's
for Ark
an

Eemy
Eonsard

Belleau

Navigators who

have

mistaken
..................

"Whale's
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Island

277
"
'

S.innazar

"

445 541

HI
............................

Savonarola

Seguier, P
'

547 545
103

Sixtus Quintus
231 164

Old-maid

Witch

........................

Operator, An
Order of St.

..........................

Dominic, The

Glories of the

535
. .

Tycho Prague University, Eector

Precious
"

Brahe

of the of the
.

35 188
.

Metals, The
"

Extraction of

Foundry
:

189 219

Paracelsus,The Pegasus
Perseus and

Alchemist

191
..............

Prince

of Darkness
"

435
..............................

Printers' Marks

Andromeda of

83
................

Berton, Barthelemy
Bonhomme,
Mace
de

130 259 341 132 344 511 264

Personification

Music, The
intrusts the

413
............

Philip the
his Son Phoenix

Good
to

Education
......

of
."

Brie, Jehan
401 133

Georges risingfrom his

......................

Chastelain
Ashes

Estienne, Charles

............

Fezandat, Michel Dru, Pierre Morrhy, Gerard St. Denis, Jehan Tory, Geoffrey Verard, Antoine
Procession of the Boeuf Gras Le

The Physician,
Plan

139, 155
281
..........

of Clermont

en

Beauvaisis
The
................

Planetary Systems,

79
52
..........

102 362 395 239 244 245 31 94

Plenary Court
Poem

of Dame

Justice

of Eschenbach, Fragment by Wolfram of,with the Notation of the Thirteenth Century Poetical and Musical Congress at Wartburg
...... . ......................

431

"

Prose
"

of the
"

Ass," plain
set to Music

in 1207

429
..............................

Provost

of

Servants Paris,

of

apologizing the,

Poetry and
Portraits
:
"

Music

......................

397

Ptolemy'sSystem
Quadrant, Small

Abbatia, Bernard
Ariosto Baif Claude Clement
............................

......

.-...........

104

99

447
452

..............................

Receptionof

Doctor
,

17 Ancient

of France
.........
........

170
58

IV

.......................

Eepreseutative Characters Theatre, from Terence

Riddle dame River taken
"

of the

489"491,
de

493, 495

Commines, Philippe de Cujas,J Daurat, J Despence, Claude

........................... .........................

..............

485 548 452 544 452 546

from

the

"

Heures

Nostre341 123

..................

Fishing Robert, King, Responses

Eobert
le in

composing
Latin forced

Sequences
to

and
353

Du

Bellay

........................

Dumesnil, B Dumoulin, C
Erasmus

.......................

Diable

declare

his
499

.......................

547 74
546

Identity
Sacred
St.

..........................

Faye, J

...........................

Oratory

537
59
,

Froissart
...........................

478
518 533 549 532 548 159
..........

Augustine
of Assisi

Gamier, Eobert

....................

St. Bonaventure St. Francis St. Germain St. James

the of St. Jerome
a

61 the

Gregory
Henri
III

IX
.......................
........ .................

talking to
the Pre

Birds
. .

113 63

des Pres and

Elder

aux-Clercs ments Enchant-

Honorius

III
.......................

combating the
Cardinals

Hospital,M. de
Innocent Jodelle
..................

1'
..................

Magician
two of to Matins

235 521 19

IV
.......................

and

452

St. Louis,

Lemaitre, G Lorraine,Cardinal de Marguerite of Valois Marot, Clement

.......................

547
..............

544 451 510 546

France, going St. Mark The, Venice Library, St. Patrick,The Purgatory of
St. Peter
as

King

371
253

................

Pope, Imaginary Election

of
a

of.
.

367
24

....................

School, Interior
,,

Pibrac
............................

of Mendicant

Monks,

A Dame

Pithou
............................

548

Schoolmaster, The, from the

Macabre

28

SCIENCE

AND

LETTERS

THE

MIDDLE
AXD AT THR

AGES,

PERIOD

OF

THE

RENAISSANCE.

UNIVERSITIES,
4

SCHOOLS,
Paris
name

STUDENTS.

Legend
I)ame
"

of the

foundation
"

of

fhe

University by Charlemagne. Unieeriity.

" "

"

The

Schools

of

the

Nolre"

Cloisters. Nations
and

Origin
the
four

of the

The and of

organization of the University.

the the other
officers
"

The
"

four The

Faculties.

The
"

Rector

of

the Its

University.
power Schools and of its the
"

great
"

and Its

the' lifctlemessengers.

Privileges
of
"

University.
"

decadence. Rue du

political role.
"

"

Creation

provincial Universiliea.
of
the

Great
"

Fouarre.
"

TJie

Paris

Colleges.
Fair.
"

Turbulence Universities.

Students.

Their

Games.

Their

Festivals.

The

I"ndit

Foreign

[HE

schools

of Marseilles, Autun,

Naibonne,
which,
to

Lyons,
under
the

Bordeaux,
the Roman
of

and

Toulouse,

dominion,

had, thanks

names

their famous
as

professors and
Petronius
the and

pupils,such

the

poets

Ausonius, Trogus
the
orators

Pompeius
and

historian, "c.,
flected re-

Salvian
much

Cesareus,
upon the
a

so

credit of than

Gaul, hud, in
Christian
mere

the

sixth
to

century
be of
more

era,

ceased The the land. allowed when The

souvenir.

reign

Dagobert
of the

witnessed (G-'JH)

extinction

ancient
human

genius of

the had

clergy, who
l""

remained
be
to
vast

the sole

of depositaries turn,
a

knowledge,
of

themselves

enveloped,
work
to

in their about bis

in the
sort

gloom

ignorance,
tion regenera-

Charlemagne

set

bring By
B

of the

intellectual

throughout

his

empire.

orders

Anglo-Saxon

monk

UNIVERSITIES,

S'CHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

Alcuiii and under their

some

learned

foreignclerks were
he created
a

summoned

to

the court.
own

It

was

that supervision he made

within

the. walls of his

at

palacean
which

academy, to which
he
was was

and pointof belonging, mode of

the had

of sittings become

sometimes remodelled
;

present. The
the Latin

which writing, had been

illegible,
barbaric the

tongue, which

replacedby
were

idioms, resumed

its

place;

the ancient

which manuscripts,

lying in
thus

monasteries,were
of sciences and So it
was

revised letters

and

with recopied
to flourish

great
anew

care

and

the teaching

began

in the ecclesiastical schools.

that, long after the death

which
was

of the

great Emperor, the

was

literary
the of

renaissance

attributed,to him, and

him

which

perpetuated by
founder

legendsof
the

the

time, also acquired for

even

the title of patron and forehead upon of St. him

: University

to

the

present day the

Charlemagne

remains of
"

crowned
our

with

the

aureole literary

conferred

by

the

tude grati-

ancestors.
a days," says Nicholas Gilles,

In

those

chronicler

of the

fifteenth
of the

tury, cen-

paraphrasinga
of St.

passage

from in

the

Carlovingianchronicle
from Ireland
two

Monk of the
to

Gall,

"there

arrived
very

France

Scotch

monks

and great erudition, cities and

men. saintly

They preached and proclaimedin knowledge

told asked
to the
to

in the fields that

to

they had
This'
was

and whoso sell,

wished

purchase it came
had them

them.

who Emperor Charlemagne,

if it
was

brought before him,

to

and

them

true

that the it to

they had
grace of

knowledge
God, and
wished and teach
was

sell, to which

they repliedthat they had

to

it

by

that

they had
The

come

France

to lend

it and

to

teach

all who

to

learn.

Emperor

asked for

them

what

remuneration
more

they expected,
a

they repliedthat they asked

in, and

nothing

than the

fitting place to
heard this he for the

subsistence for their bodies.

retained that them
one

Whenhim until

Emperor
to

very He

and joyful, then

with of

he had
should be

set out

war.

ordered

them, Clement,
that intelligent proper

remain

in

Paris,
be

that children
sent to

of all ranks, the most and

could

found, should in, and

him,

provided
should

him

with

schools to teach
gave

ordered

that

their

wants

be

ministered
came

to, and

them

great privileges,
of the

and rights, the from

liberties ; and

therefrom
was

the first institution whither it had

body

of

of Paris,which University Athens." Such

are

at

Rome,

been

transferred

the facts which that is to

were

taken generally the learned

as

undeniable Etienne

for

more

than

eight centuries;

say, until

Pasquier (1564),

r.A7i7/A'.s7///--.v,

defending

with

ardour, but

'at

the

same

time with

the impartiality, with

am

-it 'in

of privileges

the

Universityof Paris, had

Duchesne
It must and be

proved, ill concert

Loisel the

advocate
no as

nnd

Andre

the historian, iliat tlicv glorioustraditions had

real foundation. Du

said,vhowever, that
did

such
to

savants distinguished

Cangc, Mabillon,
the

G'revier

their best

revive

the

legendary
it became

origin of
clear that

University; but,
or

all

questionsof patriotismapart,
of

the academic

scholastic establishments

like Charlemagne;

Fig. 1.-

Grand

d by Initial, design?
one

pen

(end of Fifteenth

Century), representingTypea of
Nation.

Students, in

of the

Manuscript Registers of the German

UniversityArchives.
many

other creations of his universal

that the under

did genius,

not

survive the indomitable

came

will of their founder, and

and The

famous

schools of Paris
influence

ence into exist-

developedthemselves

the immediate
be

of the Church. the

or

etymologyof
in

the word
the

must itiurrrsifi/

sought in
reunion

Latin

word

which, Hi'iri'rxifiis,
persons. schools of

Middle
and

a Ages, signified

category of
name

Thus,

in

the

acts

ordinances

in published
was,

the

of

the

Paris, the

form

employed generally

"Noverit

universitas

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

MTDENTS.

vestra

"

and

this formula, which all the is easy

appliedto

all the

also figured at protocols, and

the

heading of
It

diplomas issued by
to

the the

masters

addressed

to

the

students.

understand

that

word

inticersitft*, gradually

Fig. 2."

Seal of the French

Nation

'

Fig.

4.

"

Seal of the

English Nation

(Fourteenth Century).

(Fourteenth Century).

Fig. 3.

"

Counter-Seal

of the French

Nation

Fig. 5.

"

Counter-Seal

of the

English Nation

(Fourteenth Century).
From the Collection Sigillographic

(Fourteenth Century).
in.the National Archives.

assuming a
or University

specialor
whole

limited

meaning,

was

taken finally

to

mean

the

body

of students, then

the establishment

itself to which which

was

these

students

the large quarter and, lastly, belonged,

them
on

of the town of the Seine.

almost

reserved for exclusively

the left bank

I '.\7 / V/A'.v/ //A'. v,

.s t

'//' """/

Sn

'DENTS.

The
buck

annals
1o

of

the

of I'nivorsity
of

Paris

cannot,

however,

be traced further

than

th.- l.-rtmvs

l.'otor Abelard, that

great and

popularl.-arh.-r

Fig. 6.

"

Seal of the

Normandy" Nation

Fig. 8.-

Seal of the

Picardy Nation

Century). (Fo'uiteenth

Century). (Fourteenth

Fie. 7." Counter-Seal ot the Nation

Normandy
v

Via

9."

Counter-Seal of the Picardy

.,,"", Centur) ). (Fourteenth
_

(Fourteenth Century).
From the

Nation
the

Collection in Sigillographic

National Archives.

who

has

left

so

deep

an

behind impression
to Paris
to

him.

When

the

young

and

unfortunate

,nne profe-OT

for the first time

the

to complete h" (1057)

studies,the school

was

stillso

beneath speak,

wing of the

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

was

in

the

cloisters of Notre-Dame
and Anselm he of

that whose

those

giftedmasters,
he their
at

William

of

Champeaux
both of whom

Laon,

lessons

first received, but

taught surpassed, eventually

of the
matters

pupils. Fifty
of and

years

later there

came

the dawn the

for Henry II.,King University, in

England,
Thomas

proposed
a

to
to

submit

dispute between

himself

Becket

the arbitrament

of the schools for

of the various

nr/fio"K

studying at

Paris.

This

proof of

esteem

the scholars

of Paris

says

great deal for

Fig. Fig.
10."

11."

Counter-Seal

of the

Seal of the Rheims

University (1568).
in the National

Rheims

University(1568).

From

the

Collection Sigillographic

Archives.

the reputationwhich

the

cosmopolitan must University

but

have
In

enjoyedat
year be

that
a

period,not
charter from almost
the

only

in

France,

throughoutEurope. Bethesy,in
the whose which

the may

1200

PhilipAugustus,dated
foundation
of the
on

discovered
us

of privileges under
a

shows University,

this

institution

being carried

head

immunity from

the interference
that of all

of the its members. and

law ordinary in Lastly,

is

solemnlyguaranteed, togetherwith
out

1260, the University body stands

organized, fully

having attained

its complete development.

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STL'DENTS.

the

French

nation.

The

English nation,
that

which

was

subdivided all the

into

two

tribes,that of islanders and

and
eastern

of continentals,embraced the

northern when

parts of

Europe beyond

frontiers of

France.

But

Fig.

14.

"

School

of Mendicant
in the

Monks:

Birching.
"

Miniature

of the

Manuscript

Xo.

21,2*52

Burgundy

Library,

Brussels

(FiftoonthCentury).

the

two

peoplesseparatedfrom
the
name

each

other had which

by
got

the
to

channel be
an

became

violent

and antagonists, execration for

of the

England
nation

object of general
a

Frenchmen,

for

more

than

century

had

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUD"\

rs.

borne in the

it became

the German
after

nation,and
the
return

this is the of Charles

only name

made

use

of

public documents
The

VII. to Paris in 1437

1). (Fig.

Normandy
it was

nation had

only one
the

with the tribe, corresponding

province after which

hand, Laon,
The had and

called ; while

Picardynation,on

the other

the five,representing

five dioceses of

Beauvais, Noyon, Amiens,

Terouanne, otherwise called des Morins.

constituted together
was

four nations
a

at

first the

University of Studies,
order of the

but afterwards

fresh division

to the established, according

studies of each

nation,and

the

Faculties

came

into existence. in the

From

that

time forward, the distinction of nations

a

onlyexisted
from

of Arts, Faculty

denomination

which

comprisedgrammar,
the schools.

and philosophy,
at

the humanities

as

they were

taught in

Looked

another
to

point of view,
say, say, grammar,

the

liberal arts, so

called,comprisedthe trivium, that is

the

rhetoric,and

dialectics;v and

quadrifium, that

is

to

arithmetic,

geography,music, and astronomy.

When,
Middle taken
we

consider

the

held by the Church position

in

society duringthe
should have been

that religious instruction Ages, it is not surprising in hand

at once^

and
some

have time

become

the

of object

that special faculty, orders

were

of

Theology. When,
and

the mendicant later,

masters

founded those of

by St. Dominic

St.

the ancient Fran"ois,

of

and theology

the Faculty of Arts refused at first to have but the

to

to anything

do with the new-comers;

they were
useful the In

compelledto

do

so

by

St. Louis

and

Pope Alexander
soon repelled

IV., and
turned

of co-operation
to the

the allies whom the

it had

at first

and profit 1151

a

glory of

Faculty of Theology(Fig. 14).

united
under the

clerk

from

Bologna,called Gratian, having

recent

title of Decree which

gave

the ancient and

whole

decisions of the ecclesiasticalauthorities,

comprised the
his

canonical

Pope Eugene jurisprudence,

ordered

III.

approvalto
Such branch
of the

this
was

and compilation,
the

it to be
the

taughtthroughout
Decree, which
the
same was

Christendom.
at first but
a

originof the Facultyof Faculty of Theology.

of the

At about
at

period

the

Pandects
a

discovered Emperor Justinianus,

source

Amalfi, in Calabria,
which had

added

very

valuable

of documents
than the

to

the

study of law,
Code,
labours the

hitherto laws and

no possessed
"

other bases
"

Theodosian
The

barbarous consults Juris-

of the Kings of capitularies

a new

France.

of the
the

everywhere received
of Paris ; but

in impetus,and especially
was

University
civil law

it notwithstanding

not
c

until much

later

that

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

came

to

rank

beside

canon

law.

Several
even

popes,

considering profane or
issued

secular

and useless, as jurisprudence students

the
to
were

opposed to ecclesiastical law,

learn

bulls in which It

to enjoined

only canon

law.

is towards appears

close have

of the

twelfth
in the

century, also, that the

study of
to

medicine

begun

lay schools of Paris.

alone

Up

that

period the clerks,and learningto

art;
but pursue
course

who the clergy, especially

possessedsufficient
of the
even

the of

study of medicine, had

time ecclesiastical

been

the sole masters and

in

hampered discipline

Fig.

15.

"

Seal of the four Nations Paris National

or

Faculty
The

of Arts

(Sixteenth Century).
of Medals.

Library.

Cabinet

put
was,

ban

upon

the

as study of it,

it had

done

upon
a

that

of civil law. of Medicine

was

It

therefore, only
at

after

great difficulties that

It is true make that

Faculty
"

founded

the
"

University.
could
not

medicine progress the

to

science of facts and

the of prejudices

observations
every and The

well the

much

amidst

kind, and
the

under

blind which

authorityof
so

the formalities, categories, the

empiric methods Faculty

long clung
not, in
and

University teaching.
to

Paris

of Medicine schools

could

these

circumstances, hope

dethrone

the famous the medical

of Salerno of

which Montpellier, it had been

preserved the
to the

of deposit

knowledge

as antiquity

transmitted

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS,

1 1

Middle
at the

Ages by

the Greeks

and
to

the Arabs.

The

three

ne\\

faculties created

continued University

their be' .subordinate, notwithstanding

gradual
nations,

development,to the Facultyof Arts

of which
this last-mentioned

(Fig.15) ;

the

body of
it

the four
a

consisted,assured faculty
of certain
each

clear preponderance, each

with
nation

the maintenance
a

essential
dean.

prerogatives.Thus
The mode

elected

proctor, and

facultya

of election

Fig. 16.

"

Rector Dieu
"

and

Doctor

of the

Universityof

Paris.

"

After

Miniature

of the

"

Cit" de

(Fifteenth Century). Manuscript of

the Paris National

Library.

for the
nations. of

proctors and
The

their term

of

office varied, however, with

different

Faculty of Arts had four proctors (Fig.15). The

ite

Faculty
other

Theology,besides
a

dean,

who
was

was

the senior doctor, chose

administer dean had the

every

year

whose syndic,

business

it

to

business of the private

in the by seniority

company.

The

Decree the

Facultyhad only a Faculty of

Medicine

selected
a

grade of doctor,and

dean

elected every

year

12

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

from of

amongst

the

doctors the

in

practice.

Deans the
own

and

proctors,to
The

the

number of

seven,

formed

higher tribunal
clear

of

University.
upon

Faculty
;

Arts

had, therefore,a
assumed
head

majorityof

its

this tribunal

it

had,

moreover,
or

for

itself the

exclusive
he

right of nominating
was

the

rector

supreme

of the The

and University,

bound the

to be
care

member

of the

faculty(Fig. 16).
the

Faculty of

Arts

also had the

of the
or

archives,

management

of the

Pre-aux-Clercs, and
chosen did not

nomination

presentation

of all the

not Universityofficials

by

vote. office for

more

the Originally

elected

rector

hold

than

six weeks,

Fig. 17.

"

Master

Jean

de

Vandeuil, Proctor

of the 11

Picardy Nation
"

(Fifteenth Century).

Miniature

of the

Manuscript

No. Register,

(1476' 83). University Archives.

but in the towards

not at
were

thirteenth

century

the

period was

extended
came

to

three months, and held in fact,if

the close of the fifteenth for right,

a

century the post

The

to be

in

twelvemonth.

proctors of the nations (Fig.17) were

so

firstinvested with the

caused in this

right of choosingthe rector, but

that
a

many four

scandals

connection

the

nations

nominated
to make
a

special

electors, who, before proceedingto

and useful
to the

selection, swore

choice honourable

University.
office conferred
all the upon

The
a

rector,whose

him

high prerogatives, exercised recognisedno

as authority

sovereign jurisdiction over

and schools,

SCHOOLS,

STUDEX/S.

to superior to

his the

own

within

the

precinctsof
took rank

the with

University. Often
the

moned sum-

King's Council, he
at all

Bishop
to

of Paris

and

with

the Parliament

publicceremonials.

He

gave

all the students,

Fig. 18.

"

Swiss

Courier.

"

After

Statue

preserved in the Town

Hall at Bale

(Fifteenth Century).

and the

also to the tutors, the of privileges

"

letters

or

diplomaswhich
them

conferred

upon

them

their
matter

grade,and
to

he received from

their oath of attain

"
"

passive
the

obedience,

no

what

dignity they might

an

oath

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

breaking of
the

which the

entailed

very

serious his

consequences.

He

appointedto

all

offices of
were

University ; by
a

accession to, and

he

his

of, the resignation

addition his
to

post
the

celebrated

to which procession,

invited,in

all

communities the religious Universityofficials,

In

residingwithin
Jouvenel
the des

diction. juriswhen

1412, according to
from procession be

the the

chronicler

Ursins,

there

was

solemn
war

Universityto
so

Abbey

of St. Denis head

to pray

that

might

averted, the cortege was

long

that the

of

Fig. 19.

"

University Beadle.
Miniature of the

"

Jean

Lequeux, Messenger of Guise

11
"

en

Thierache, Diocese

of Laon.

Manuscript Eegister,No.

(1476 83). UniversityArchives.

the

entered St. Denis, procession

the Rue
rector

while

the

rector

was

still at the

Mathurins

in Monastery,

St.
came

Jacques.
the who also called proctor,promoter, syndic,
was or

Next

to the

rator-fiscal, procuof the the

and and University,

it
who

was

he could

in

the general manager reality

alone, in

certain

circumstances,counterbalance

preponderance of
The
treasurer

the rector. had the control

were

of

the

revenue

and
revenues

expenditure of

the

University. The

expenses

and large,

the

comprised, apart

,6

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

merely

formed

part

of their temporary the

functions.

These

titles were

quite

distinct and
were

independent of
to

or scholastic titles, grades,

which degrees, the thirteenth

:

only

be

-by acquired
that there

examination.
were

Previously to
the

century, it is certain

only two degreesin Anybody

could open
Thus

body University
had the amount

that of the students and

that of the masters.

to face
an

who
a

of

knowledge
be

or

hardihood
that

audience

school,and
Abelard of
was

it is to

remarked with

daring often

had

its reward.
own

often

taunted

having dubbed
after the
had

himself of his foundation

to

master authority

theology.
three

Immediately degrees which

derived its word
name

of in

the
turn.

Universitythere
The from theologists,

were

students

pass

that of bachelor, first, the Latin

according to indirectly,
and' (rod,
so,

several

baculum

by extension, any
were

weapon

held

in the

hand), out

of allusion to the different exercises which education Arts.

laureat of the young

the

prelude to
were

the

military
of

nobility. The
well studied
his

first bachelors

the

Bachelors

After

having
an

trivium, the
had
to

candidate

for the

baccaupon
were

underwent

examination,
dialectics.
'

and

enter

into arguments
"

gramma.r,
called
came
"

rhetoric, and

These

arguments
Lent.

disputesthey

took well out

placeat

Christmas

and the 2nd.

during
treble
of

The

candidate, if he
of

of them, obtained of his rank

;

1st. privilege,
at

wearing
masses

the the his

round nations

hat, a
;

mark

being present
is to
a

the

of

3rd.

of

commencing
direction
same

in the

arts, that

say, of
master.

teachingin
The

turn, under
who
was

the the

and

of superintendence student and

bachelor,

at
on

time

both

teacher, explained Aristotle's

moral

treatises
and
seem

natural philosophy,metaphysics,and logic,

he

philosophy;
now

when
so

believed
us,

that he

he

had

mastered the

all these

which subjects,
a

far behind

appliedto
second

ecclesiastical authorities for

at first

license.

The the

this right of conferring

degree was University

of St.

shared

by

Bishop of

Paris and

the Abbot

Genevieve,
it
was

as

spiritual sovereigns
to exclusively

of the scholastic Chancellor The

came

territory ; but
as

afterwards

accorded

the

of

Notre-Dame,
soon

of delegate he had been

the

bishop.
of

as licentiate,

as

approved

by

the Church, from

them

again
the

up

before

the masters

of the the

Faculty of Arts, to
and other

obtain

third gave

of degree,consisting him the title of Master

cap

of insignia

the

order, which

of Arts. called
to

In in
a

the

so higher faculties,

because

the

Faculty of
of

Arts

served,
and

manner,

as

an

introduction

the

Faculties

Theologv, Decree,

VNIVERSfTIES,

SCHOOLS,

S7'ri)I-:\TS.

"7

was Medicine, the procedure or

much

the

same,

exceptingthat
had

the third
a

grade long

which degree,

was

only conferred

after the candidate

sustained

-3

I "8

.9 -a

II

15
"s

"

and

difficult thesis in

was public,

more

by accompanied specially

the title of

doctor

(Fig.20).
of Paris, like University

The

all the
u

institutions destined to last and

to

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

succeed,was
Crown.

placed beneath
Thus the of generous the

the

of fostering protection assistance

the

Church power The

and and

the the See

of
never

the

temporal
failed
it.

tutelaryinfluence
loved and

spiritual power

Holy

encouraged in

the

Universitythe eloquentvoice by
and

of France, which,
the service

since the

reign of Clovis,converted
faith all the of forces France for
reserve

St. Clotilde,had influence of her

were

placed at
national

of the Catholic

genius and

character.
the

The

Kings
was, ji

equally
their

well

disposed towards
a source

which University,
'

the of

capitalof
eminent

kingdom,

of

wealth
a

and of

of

honour,
and

statesmen

for their

council,
Thus

nursery

clever

youths distinguished temporal,each

and in their

for
own

their
way,

diplomacy.
vied in

and sovereigns, spiritual favours showed benefits The many upon this

showering

fruitful grave

which, nevertheless, powerful institution,

reverse

in itself,

certain it

circumstances, the august protectors.

with

of

gratefulfor

the

heaped

upon

by

its

history of tragic,which

Paris

teems

some episodes,

curious, and

only
of

too

denote

the' turbulent

and

seditious tendencies

the

Universitystudents.
of the
sort

These

headstrong and undisciplined youlhs took

tage advan-

of

which inviolability and religious

set

they owed
to

to

the

blind

and

generous of disorder.

affection of
The when the

their

lay patrons
the students

gratifytheir
an

love

itself University of its

means

example

of disobedience The sity Univer-

smallest

was prerogatives

called

in

question.
as

possessed three
du

of

protesting against, or,

any

its

historian, Egasse
the
once

Boulay, puts it, of remedying

was

infraction
power,

of its

privileges.If
the
matter
at

violation
to

committed
as

by

the

secular

it referred from

the

King,
was

its

emanated jurisdiction

direct

the

Crown.

If

the

infraction
to

committed

by

the

ecclesiastical its
own

the University sent authority, often

Rome

an

of embassy,consisting
a

doctors, who
whose

found

in the in
an

successor

of St. Peter of
a

former

comrade,
as a

associations had the

inclined him

favour oath of

to which, University

graduate,he
to

formerlytaken

If the fidelity.

Pope

refused

comply

with

request addressed
Church
a

to him

by

the

the University, Its last This

meant

latter appealed to the universal

resource
was

and

to

the

future

council.

what

may

be

called

University
lectures.
in the
pended. sus-

excommunication.
The
masters

general stoppage

of all studies from

and

and The

doctors

in

theology abstained

preaching

churches.

intellectual, moral, and

life religious and

of the

was capital

If the crisis

the doctors, lasted, regents,

bachelors

of the

four

('XH'ERSfTIES,

SCHOOLS,

STl'/"f:.\ '/

.V

'9

faculties closed their schools,and

with the of them
;i

threatened and

to

emigrate in
formed

body, taking
of

whole

army

of ushers

who clients,

nearlya third

of population

Paris.

No

power

existed in the thirteenth century

capable

holding out long againstthis silent and inflexible protest.

Thus,
of in

1221, the University, having to complain

of

some

undue

cise exer-

authority by the Bishop of Paris, closed

circumstances, four years

its schools

for six months.

was

In

similar
own

later,the Papal Legate

students, who
if he had wounded
not

assailed

in

his

house

by

band

of armed-

several of his

retinue, and would

have

maltreated

him

avoided

capture.

At

Fig. 21."

St.

Louis, King of France, going

par

to

SLttins
sur son

ht

the

Cordeliers The

Church,

Paris, "ung

estudiant
the

mesprison

lui

tumba the

son

orinal

chief."
en

ing King, instead of punish"

student,gave
of

him

prebendary of
to

St.

Quentin,

Vermandois,
of

because

he

was

in the habit

gettingup

at this hour

study."" Miniature

Manuscript

of the Fifteenth

Century. Burgundy Library,Brussels.

the

close of the

Carnival
her
son,

of

1228, Queen

Blanche, who
severe

was

Regent during
the and

the

minorityof
who,
shed
romonst

Louis

IX., inflicted
of drink, had

punishment upon
great disorder
The

students

under in

the influence the

committed

had the

blood
ranees

Faubourg of St. Marcel.

it in and
an

finding University,
to

which
the years

consequence
masters to

addressed their

the

King of

no

dismissed effect,

students under

homes, respective
consented
to

left the the

capitalfor

two

interdict,and

only

resume

20

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

normal

course

of it had

teaching after haying

demanded
at first

wrung

from

the

Crown

the

tion repara-

which It must, victories

as

(Fig.21).
the

however, be admitted
these
at the cost

that
own

University could only

with the much time

earn

such

of its

and privileges, and the

a

injury to
that the

itself; for the

schools
at
were

masters,

scattered

here

there

during

closed, often

in co-operated had taken up

foundation

of rural

universities

the

places where permanently.

they

temporary residence,and
disturbance lost
no

settled
were

there taken

Moreover, these
other

periodsof

and time

strife in the
a

advantage of by
in

teachingbodies, who
who of

opening
spiritual
or an

and schools,
or

creatingchairs, and
favour

often obtained

through
either

temporal authoritythe
the

being admitted,
It
was

by
that

bull in

ordinance, into

University itself.
Louis

in this way been their

1257

the the

Dominicans, supportedby
popes, who had been their

IX., who

had

pupil,and
the

by

comrades,

forced

their way
the

through
and the

breach

into the which

was

Universityof Paris, and

excited.
'

this in It
was

spiteof
the
same

distrust that cap

animosity University
Brother the

their doctrines open and

in

way

compelledto Aquinas

its .ranks to, and Brother

confer who

the doctor's
were

upon,

Thomas

Bonaventura,
far of
more

the

of lights
one

sophic philoof of

schools, but
St.

who other

remained
to

attached, the

to the

Order

Dominic,

the

that
sort

St.

Francis,
and
was

than

to

the

Faculty

Theology. by
and the

Moreover, the
the

of moral

political omnipotence acquired

not

in University
to

Middle the

Ages
course

the

same

at

every

epoch,
the

it is easy

in recognise

of its

historydifferent phases, in
various

process In the

of which
first
was

its character, and Paris

tendencies
were

underwent but As

modifications. of the

period the

schools

the emanation
the

Church,
more

which and
more

graduallybecoming secularised.
it got stable, 1200
to be
more

institution other

became

in

harmony
a

with

establishments.

In

the year
one

PhilipAugustus
endowed with of

issued

charter,uniting the Universityinto

body, and

the multitude very valuable

were

of students

gathered togetherfrom
From popes this and of laborious

all and

parts

of the world
mass

privileges.

intellectual

students

recruited
a

several
vast

cardinals,a
men

great

many

archbishops or
other

bishops,and

number

of

the

in highestability
to the

professions throughoutthe thirteenth century.

century
From the and authority 1297
to

Up
the

middle

of the fourteenth
to

importance of
it
was

Universitycontinued
aid to

increase.

1304

of material
In

Philippele

Bel

in his

strugglewith

Pope

Boniface

VIII.

1316,

UfTTVEXS/T/ES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

at

the death
a

of Louis
way

X.,

and

'in 1328, at

the death

of

Charles

IV.,

its vote venting pre-

went

long
the

towards

securing the triumph

from

of the Salic

law,
of
an

and

government of France
of the

into the hands falling of the its the

English
"

prince.

Councillor

kings,instructor
the Gauls
"

the University people,

Council ///*"piTiiidiiciit and credit, Then

as

of

pursued
it reached and

high

mission

with

great

this

was

the

period when

apogee

of its

splendour. recognised
of

it

was

that

all its members, from

it
was

masters
"

pupilsalike,were
the

inviolable, exempt
kind. V. Then

and all tolls, subsidies, imposts,

service military

every Charles

that,
the
the

to

complete

measure

of its honours,
it
never

conferred

upon

the proud title, which University

let

drop, of
But

Eldest the

Daughter of
its

Kings.

period of

decadence

was

soon

about

to

begin.
In
1380

Venality,
the

and sophistry, of the

took party spirit of

of possession
the

its leaders. several

gold
in

house of

Burgundy
doctors*
was'

was

stipend of
In

creatures political

the

ranks

the

in

theology.

1407
and

the

Duke
Jean

of

Orleans,

brother up the

of the

King,

waylaidand
the whose

murdered,

Master

Petit took

murderers' the

part, in

and pulpit,

assassination. political justified

the

Then
so

came

English,to
as

yoke part of
a

submitted University of

with

much

cowardice

to

provoke, with
condemned
not

sort

complacent fanaticism,
Joan

the

sentence iniquitous

which

the

heroic
in

of Arc

to

the

stake.
(

and. punishment were Reprisals inflicted the

first blow

long
this

them. overtaking

King
his the

VII. 'liarles

upon

ancient
seems

which institution,
as

had royalpredecessors

and protected,

it almost its ancient

if he

punished

for University

not

having sustained
only did
he

for patriotism and reputation

the

good
new

sense.

Not in

and recognise
"

confirm

existence of several
demand be

universities

the

provinces(Figs.10

the 13), but, rejecting

of the

Paris

which University,
its

insisted that
be

its

only

tribunal

should

the

King's Council, ordered Fifty-five years

the many

disputesto

judged by reign of

the Parliament the

(1445).
wishes of

later,Louis
convoked

XII., taking into

consideration

States-General
of the

during
the

the

Charles

VIII.,
of

curtailed

of privileges

University; and, by
of jurisdiction
as

his edict
common

August
The
to

"'}Jst, 1498,

brought it

within
to

the

the

law.
resort

attempted University
traditional
sermons

and, resist,
rector

in

its the

palmy days, to
schools to the
be

its
no

practices. The
to

ordered churches
;
a

closed,and
from

be

preached
his

in the

but bad

King,

absent

the

received capital,

eldest

daughter with

grace.

Upon

his return,

22

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

escorted

by

his

militaryhousehold,
of the

all

fully armed,

he

rode
to

through
bridle

the
to

University quarter
hear the

city without
had

condescending
come

draw

harangue
officers and

of the rector, who students. The

out

to

meet

him, followed by
and this
was

all the

University gave
time be the

way,

her

last attempt to maintain The

by

force her feudal

from this

prerogatives.
to centre

Universityceased Printing
of
was

of intellectual diffused the

domination.
instruments

invented

about in

this

time,

and The

study

and

knowledge

all directions. and the

Reformation
established the ference. preRome

of self-examination, the liberty proclaimed under the

"

free schools obtained

new

doctrines religious
'

throughout Europe
exclusive
source

Paris

ceased

to

be

the

of

science,but
its

remained
its and

the

sole focus

of divine
to

light.

The

Universitylost
upon

unity and

strengthwhen
the Crown.

it ceased

lean

for support exclusively

the Church

Having
underwent

thus up
to

rapidlyreviewed
the sixteenth

the

vicissitudes

which
necessary

the
to

University
notice the

'century,it becomes

various, scholastic establishments constituted altogether,

the

which, affiliated to it,or

the educational

independent of
system
in

it

of totality

schools

during the
When

Middle Abelard

Ages.
came

to

Paris

in

1107

he

found

two

masters

of

great

who reputation, cathedral.

cloisters of that peaux upon found Abelard It

gave
was

their lessons far from

where

in the

Bishop'shouse, by
at

the

side of the
to

not

this house, and Canon Fulbert

the his

very

entrance

the

Notre-Dame,
first

and years

pupil

Heloise

lived,

opened

his school.

few

William later,

of ChamSt.

his archdeaconship, and resigned the

a

withdrew the

to the

prioryof
the the

Victor,
to

left bank
new

of the

Seine, outside

walls

of

city,in
school

order

school the

there. the
he
was

Abelard, expelled from

which

he

occupiedin
St.

near city,

residence,took refuge upon episcopal

followed

Mount

Genevieve,

whither

by

his

pupils. Notwithstanding, being short

parts.
took
was

the cathedral the enclosure of artiens close

to

schools of the

and continuing to increase,

were city,

of

room

within

divided

into

two

The up
a

one,

consisting
quarters
of the

of Arts),crossed (students
the Church of St. Julian

the the The It the

and bridge,

their branch their the

Poor,

which

MetropolitanCathedral
under which the
a

(Fig. 22).
Notre-Dame.

retained theologians
was

residence elements
In
a

walls

of

in

this way

that
to

century later constituted

University began

collect.

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

a sort represented

of

school,any general
to public

one

who

had

obtained
him.

license hired sity the Univer-

room,

and

invited

the
was

take

lessons

from
the became

Thus

quarter, which

afterwards schools.
take in the It

called
soon

"Latin

became quarter,"
to
once

peopled with
or

masters

and
to

necessary
were

erect

hotels
to

private dwellings
very the

students, who
money
name

at

eager
was

learn, and

providedwith scantily
under colleges,

(Fig. 23).
were

This in

the

origin of days

Paris

which

founded,

the

early
gious reli-

of the
orders

various establishments, University, studied

at the expense of the

in which

aspirantsfor
to

monastic

orders

which

they

Pig. 23.

"

Interior

of

School.

"

After

Design

of the Sixteenth
on

Century.
"

National

Library.

Cabinet

of

Designs (Old Masters)

created

Wood.

belonged. laymen,
to
use

Private

charitysoon
of

collegesof
the

similar
were

kind

for

veritable

houses

refuge,in
one

which

students bread

provided, body
and

the

appositeexpression of
This the double character

founder, with
and liberality of these the

for the is
a

the

mind. in and

of

devotion

prominent
were

feature founded

primitiveconstitution by pious persons

Such
were,

establishments, which
view
of the assisting

endowed

with

tion educathe

of the poor. Bons the Enfants

in the

thirteenth
of the Bons Ecoliers

of century, the Colleges Enfants St. Victor

St. Honore

and (1208), du

(1248),

Collegesof St. Catherine

Valdes

(1229),and

of Premontre

r.v/rA'A'.s7/-//:.v,

sci/ooi.s,

\TCDI-:.\TS.

the College of the and, oldest of all, ),the Treasurer's College (f268),

Ki-litern,which

dates from
can

the firsthalf of the twelfth be

century.
more

Nothing, however,

imagined more

and pitiable

of deserving
under

sympathy
control of devoted with

than
a

these
or

collegesof the Middle

few a priiin'/Kil, education of
a

Ages,
as

in

which,
as

the

regent

masters,
dozen
or

poor

their scholars,
shared
to
or

themselves
their soul

to the

so

of students, who
money

them
and

scanty pittance. With

enough scarcely
do
some

keep
else

body
to

together, they were

In

to compelled

menial
we

work,

appeal to public charity. dittycalled

"

the fourteenth

century, as

learn from
the Bons

the

Crieries de Paris," the

St. Honore,

scholars of the
about

of College

Enfants, in the Rue

their hands
to

wandered
"

the streets, and, holdingout

the

exclaimed passers-by,

"

Lea Du

Bons

Enfanta

orrez

crier : (hear)

pain 1. ..." this woe-stricken

Some
endowed the

few
with

were colleges

better off than

house, for,being

fixed
the

revenues

and enriched by by their founders, encouraged continued

in existence until

clergy and

and great, they prospered

the Revolution. The owed its

one

which

long remained

the

most

famous
the

of all,the learned
in his

Sorbonne, Sorbon,

name

and its

of originto the liberality

of privations every

Robert

who, after having undergone

the and chaplain confessor

kind

became youth,
in 1250
use

of

Louis

IX.

By letters patent

the of

for the to this foundation, granted saintly King, himself contributing

the future
a college

house

and

stables

situated adjoining,

in the Rue
or

Coupe-

Gueule, in front of the ruins of the palaceof the Thermae,

This
was college

of the Caesars.

destined specially
their arts
to

for

certain number
up

of

who, needyyouths,

after having taken

lore. and It is needless

degree,gave themselves
our

to the

study of sacred

remind

readers that the Sorbonne, rebuilt, enlarged,

it
a

endowed richly
at

to by Cardinal Richelieu, who bequeathed

part of

his

property,became
Created upon

last the seat of the

Faculty of Theology.
Sorbon's
in the

the

model
men

of Robert
of mark

foundation,
Church
or

great

many

instituted by colleges, erected "in

as

either

in

were society,

if

by mugic"

no

less than

sixtywere

built between extended

down

1137

and

1360
an

all parts of the

University quarter, which

summit of Mount
B

in the
to

shape of

amphitheatrefrom

the

Genevieve

the Seine, and

26

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

which

also
La

spread along
Tournelle

the

then
is for in
now

deserted
the

banks

of

the

stream,

from

the

bridge of
Two

to what

bridge of

the Saints-Peres. first is the de

of these

call colleges
was

notice. special
1304

The

College of
wife

Navarre, which
of

founded
This

by Queen
to

Jeanne receive

Navarre,

Philippele

Bel.

constructed college,
of arts,

seventy students, of twenty

and

whom grammar,

thirty were
soon

students
a

twenty of theology, and

of for
a

of
the The

became

model it had

for establishments

similar four

kind,

high reputationwhich
its Universitydeposited
was

acquired endured
archives in the
of the the

centuries.
the

valuable

chapelof

which college,
The
sons

dedicated

to St.

Louis, the
even

ancestor

royal founders.

of in

the this the

highest families,and
learned
terms retreat

princes of
of
a

reigninghouse,

received

the

elements

classical education,and
was

moreover,

by

of

the may

charter, the
be

King
as

the

first bursar
most

of the

Navarre tions institu-

which College,

considered also the

one

one

of the the

aristocratic and

of that time, and

the least strict. The

in which

rules

were regulations

College de Montaigu,
Mount St.
a

established
was

at

later

date

in

the than

Rue that

des of

Sept-Voies, upon
Navarre,
founded
terms

Genevieve,
very

less scarcely
one.

famous it upon
or was

but

its 'the

is history

different

Though Montaigu,
twelve

originally
such

by
that

wealthy

Parisian livres

family

of

liberal

an

income

of ten

to (equivalent

fifteen of each

pounds
student,

in sterling it
was
so

the present

day) was
the

secured

for the maintenance

the

badly managed by
sols in

regents that

total
at

revenue

of the

college
At
one

fell to eleven this

gold,equivalentto

about the the

an

"40 hands ancient

the

present

time.

period(1483) the college passed into

most

of Jean

Standonck,
Son
a

of the
a

characters original

amongst
with

schoolmasters.
to

of

Mechlin

tailor, arrivingin
and received
out

Paris

ardent the ends

desire

obtain

liberal

education,
whose

of

charity by
and

Abbey
of

of

St. Genevieve,
Jean

he repaidby doing odds hospitality

work,
and

Standonck,
rose

being
from
master.

endowed
the

with

an

uncommon

degree of
to

energy

perseverance,

condition Selected

of

servant

that
to

of

pupil,and
the and

became eventually the the

by

his in

fellows

manage

affairs of
in

Montaigu
house,
in

he College,

succeeded fresh debt. his

restoringorder

economy

foundingtwelve
any
new

and bursarships, But

a

meeting
effected

all expenses, all these

without

ring incur-

he

only

improvements by compelling them

to

imposingupon

students

very

austere

regime, and

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

'

lead

life

as

full

of

privationsas

his
a

own

had

been.

Arduous

study,
the

frequent fasts,a

meagre of the
:

.and pittance,

such rigid discipline,

"

became

condition proverbial
in their Latin
motto
a

Montaigu

students

condition

wittily expressed
acttti

MOM

acutus, ingenium acutttm, drntrs

and

(a sharpAttired

pointed mountain,
in
at
were a

mind, sharp-pointed
in

sharp-pointed teeth).
surmounted

cape the
to

of

coarse

cloth,closed
were

front,and
pattrren

by

hood

fastening they

back, they
be
seen

called

the

capettcs of

Montaigu, and
their

with their share,conformably daily fetching the Carthusians of

statutes, of
to

the

bread

which
and

of the Rue whom

the

d'Enfer

distributed

the poor.
a

Erasmus

Rabelais, both

learnt

at by personalexperience,

few

of the hardships interval, years'

Montaigu regime,have immortalised,each

;
on

after his of
his

own

fashion,their melancholy collegerecollections

his maledictions and

the first in the

one

ingenious colloquies, by pouring

the

inhuman

treatment,
which had

unhealthy lodging,the

unwholesome
a

insufficient

food

injured his seriously

the mouth of his mock

health while
heroes many

student
a

there ; the

second
about

by
the

in putting

epigram stinging

de pouillcric. rolltge

Independently of
France,
as

the

and University

of the
the

there colleges,

also existed in of
little

in

all Christendom

during
to

Middle and

Ages,

several kinds

schools, some
xrhools,or

elementary, open
schools,as
.

both
was

sexes,

termed generally them

was

French
a

all that

taught in

reading and
music
Latin
;

with writing,

few
for

rudiments

of the

vulgar tongue

and

sacred the the

the

others, reserved

boys, and

called the

great school*,or
to

schools
were

(Fig.24).
in most
cases

Both
under

of these

attached schools,generally
a

churches,

the control of
This

to responsible superintendent single

the

bishop

of

the diocese.

called superintendent, each scholar

a

either rector

or

master head-

received of schools,
two

from

fixed annual
into

fee, payablein
two

instalments,and
was

sum, supplementary

also divided
the used

parts, one
the

of which hands

set

apart for the

the

repair of
other
was

building,and
for the

placed in

of the
were

provost, while

purchase of birches, (Fig. 25).

or

which schools

kept

in

hand

by

the

head-porteror
whom
their

bircher

These

only

received

free scholars had

at their

parents
of them

took relatives underthe patronage

to board.

They

most disposal,

under
the

of
a

some

privatefounder,
number of

if not
or

under

the

auspices of
were

chapter, parochial
to

certain

purses
some

which grfidn'fii'x,

given

the

needy
render.

students in return

for

small services which

they were

to required

28

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

Thus, for instance, in the schools

of the of any

at

so Troyes, the primiticcs,

called because
the
out

earlymorning
fees,in
twice
a

work

they had

to

do, were
to

exempted
clean and

from

payment

return

-for which

they had

sweep

rooms the school-

week.
from
an

We Charles

learn

inventory of

the silver
an

plateof

Marie

d'Anjou, wife
are

of

VII., for the years

used

1454-55"

inventory in which

mentioned what
were

the school books

by Charles, Duke

of Berry, their second

son"

Tig.

24.

"

The

Schoolmaster, from

the

Danse

macabre,Guyot Marchant

edition

(U90).

the

works

used These

for the

elementary
which Louis had

classes

previouslyto
used for

the the

invention
education
a

of
of

printing.
the

books,

alreadybeen
are :

Dauphin,
the

afterwards

XI.,

1st, an
to

A, B,

C ;

2nd,
;

psalter,

called
or

Seven

Psalms, which

children of the

had

by get, by

heart

3rd, a Donat,
a

treatise of the

eight parts
century
;

discourse

^Elius

Donatus,
grammar

marian gram-

of the fourth the

cases

4th, an
verbs

Accident, another
;

of treating

and in

conjugationsof
with
a

5th,

Cafo,

collection
to

of

moral

distichs

Latin,

French

translation, attributed

Valerius

Cato,

r\/rt-:K\rTiES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

poet and Doctrinal,

grammarian
or

mentioned!

very

favourablyby Suetonius; 6th,

the made

Latin
of the

grammar,

taken

from

great work
into Leonine
as syllable)

of

Priscianus,a

grammarian

fourth

century, and
with

verse
a

(the last
to

of each syllable memory, teacher

line

rhyming
de

the middle
in

help

the

by

Alexander"

Ville-Dieu, who

1209

was

distinguished
also

in the Paris

schools. for
were primary instruction,

These
to

works, although intended

meant

give

the

pupils some general

use

elementaryknowledge of
during
the Middle

the Latin
at
once

tongue, which,
the
common

in

almost the

Ages, was
was

language
idiom

of

and Church, of letters,

of

sciences,and

the

Fig.

25."

The

Schoolmaster, after

Drawing by Soquand (1528).

amongst
was

all Christian

nations.

This

will

explainhow
It

it

was

that

Latin

not

onlytaught,but spoken,to
the

the exclusion of the

vulgar tongue, in the

was

the colleges, and Universities,

when
new

schools. principal
the

not

until later,

the

modern

had spirit

propagated amongst
translate

people a multitude

of

ideas and

sentiments between

difficult to
the

into Latin, that the literally the

strugglebegan
"

language of

the ancients and

livingtongues
of the

long

and

eventful

which, after heroic struggle,

efforts in favour

beautiful

language immortalised
in Latin
note

by

the

of the ancient classic masterpieces the list of dead

ended writers, It is

being finally relegatedto

what efforts
were

languages.

to interesting

made

by
the

the

Universityof Paris,
even

by

the

of imposition

fines and

punishments, in

and fifteenth,

up

to

3o

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

the

beginning of
the

the seventeenth

century,

to

repel the invasion

them when

of

French,
from of two reached

which home. kinds

scholars

naturallybrought with
a

they

arrived
use

It is true of Latin
:

that

passed in 1434, regulation,

Latin, which
every

allowed

the

the congruous Latin

student the other

out

who

had

his doctrinal, or which students

used syntax,'

andexclusively; each and

incongruous Latin,
in the

were

to speak amongst permitted

even

elementary
was

classes.

French,

in

conversation private

of school hours,

prohibited. generally
But the

Latin

tongue,

limited,

so

to
renown

speak,

to

the
at

domain the

of

the

University,recovered
Renaissance,
the

all its credit

and

when,
Rome
were

epoch of the
more

literarymasterpiecesof
commented
of
new on

once

sought
learned,
with
and

after, studied, and

circulated enthusiasm in
a

with and

ardent

emulation

by

the

number all

revised
Then and the of

editions,and
was

welcomed
of mark

by
as

Europe. literary

it

that

men

genius, such
and colloquies
more

Erasmus,

Melancthon,
made age

Mathurin

Cordier, composed
of the

which dialogues,
to

language

Augustan
V.

age But

familiar

the

youth

of the

Francois

I. and
not

Charles

these it is

efforts, though
a

successful

for the

time, were
of the

long triumphant, and

of

singularand

fact significant
one

that

books
was

study published
in French, in "A viz.

at this

period the only

which

has

survived

written
at

the

Cinlite puerile et honnete, which

more

first

appeared

Poitiers

1559, with
mirror
in

the title, far which But and

to appropriate

the

character of the

book,

of

the young

may

learn of

good moralityand
in the

the decencies
are

of life."
now

if the books since in

study used

ancient schools
case

out

of kinds

date

long

such forgotten,

is not young

the
men

with
to

the

different
a

of

recreation from
a course

which of

boys

and

used

indulge as
The

relaxation of

study often abstract

and

always severe.

Garyantna
us

Rabelais, and
a

the familiar which

; as,
are

of dialogues

Mathurin

Cordier, enable
some cases

to

frame

list of games
names

still played,though in

under

slightly

different

for

the ball,prisoner instance, 's-base, leap-frog, quoits,

or

of wood, clicquette (pieces

to make

shords, which
and

were

beaten

one

againstanother

them

bat ninepins, ring),

trap,spinningtops and whipping-tops,

fhefossette, or
even,

pitch-farthing (which was

or

formerly played

with

nuts),odd

or

cards, draughts,tennis,heads
were

"c. tails, tip-cat,

of children and but scholars, bad

These
too

the

peaceable

games

they were reputation

tame

for the turbulent

tastes

of the older

students,whose

32

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

condition, in the institution, were

effects of
a

twelfth

and

thirteenth and
a

centuries,when

the

police,as
still felt

an

hardly known,

when

public morality
students

the in

long years

of decadence, of
upon and
own as

of population

penned

up

which territory

they looked
of manhood

freehold, consisting, as

they did, of
various

youths on

the verge

of

full-grownmen,
When

to belonging

and nationalities, that

a

left to their of
arts

passions.
be the

it is further the age

remembered of one-and-

degree
and
one

could

not

obtained
age that and of

before

twenty,

of

theology till case),no danger for

more

thirty-five (aftereight years'

this

study

'in the

latter
even a

wonder

turbulent

quarter

was

nuisance,and
The

the honest
once

peacefulinhabitants

of Paris.

whole

citywas

than

disturbed, and
of the

gered, public safetyendanstudents.

most

by

the

aggressiveand
quarrels and

habits disorderly

Not futile

day

passed without
The

fights, arisingout
the students

of

the each and

causes.

which insulting epithets the which antipathies

to them
;

applied to

other the

show,

over, more-

prevailed amongst them,

The
were

coarseness

which

was

common

all.

English had proud

the and

the

of being cowards reputation

;

and

drunkards

the

French

effeminate boastful

the and

Germans deceitful

dirty,
;

gluttonous,and Burgundiaus
house-burners With all

ill-tempered ;
and
so

Normans Flemish

the and

brutal
; and

stupid;

the

bloodthirsty, vagabond,

forth person

for the rest. of

a

this,the
his

clerk

(a title appertainingto
the
to
canons

every

student

who

had

obtained
;

license) was,
upon and
a

according to
student
was

of the
a

Church,
which

inviolable
entailed This wonder

to

lay

hands

commit could

crime

excommunication,

which

the

Pope

alone of the

absolve

(Fig.26).
it is
no

will

explain the audacityand

the
a

arrogance for the

students, and
minute
these

that

civil authorities were,

loss

all the
excesses

most

precautions,

at continually

how
and

to

repress

of

riotous in every

youths,
kind
of

who, going about day

and disorder, did not

night
any

in armed

bands, indulged

stop at
of the

crime.
to
a

The

establishment
this

led colleges the

decided took

change

for

the

better.

to Previously

happy

innovation

students
to

advantage of
number of

the most

trifling or religious
which
were

literary occurrence
with
no

increase

the

festivals,

celebrated scholastic
for
a

lack

of

dancing, masquerades, banquets,"c.

reduced
to two

All

these

were rejoicings one carousal),

afterwards
at
at

refreshment*
at the
a

(daysintended
the

the which

the beginning, the candidates

other

end

of

public examinations,

period

elected

captain

r.V/CA'A'.sTT/A'.V, SF/fOOLS,

ST(~/"/:.\

/s.

33

from

amongst themselves, and

This such
a was

to

f"te in honour

of the patron saint of each in honour

of

nation.

exclusive

of the great festivals celebrated

such and
The

patron of the Universitycorporation.

first been

University,after having at Holy Virgin,patroness

placedbeneath
and of the

the

ship guardianother dis-

of the
and whose

of the

Church upon

cityof Paris,

image is to

be traced at every

epoch

the seals and

Fig. 27."
Martin whom

The

legend of

St.

Nicholas, after
lower

the

Bourgea

stained

glass of Fathers

Cahier

and

(Thirteenth Century). The

an

part refers
and

to the

popularstory of
a

the three students whom

a sum

innkeeperand
life again. At for the

his wife the

assassinated
same

put
is
seen

into

salt-tub, and

the

saint

brought to
sufficient

top the

saint whom

bringingby night
was

of money

dowry

of three poor

maidens

their father

unable

to

providefor.

tinctive

emblems

of the
to

schools, had

adopted as
was

patrons and

protectors
A

several
Becket

saints of
the

whom

specialhomage
St.

rendered, viz. St. Thomas

and St. Andrew.

Canterbury,

Cosmo,

St. Adrian,

wards After-

only saints
The

feted

were

St. Nicholas

and

St. Catherine

27),the (Fig.

one

patron

of the clerks, the

other

of young

but especially peoplegenerally, When the

wars

of

girls.

nations also had

the

their

patrons. special
St. Thomas of

with

the

lessened English

of popularity

Canterbury,the

nation of

34

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

France the

invoked

by preferenceSt.
One tribe

William

of

Bourges, an
honoured

ancient
St.

pupil of

University. Bishop
of

of the
the

Picardy nation
other

Firmin, the

first

Amiens,

while

tribe

feted
was

St. Piat,

Bishop

of

Tournay.

The

patron
The

saint

of the of

Normandy England,

nation after

St. Remain,

bishop Archits

of Rouen.
seal the

nation
the made

having stamped
of

upon

image of Edmund
and of St.

Martyr, Bishop
a

Norwich,
the who

and

of St. of

Catherine

Martin,

point, when
of
St.

it became

nation
was

Germany,
upon
as

the celebrating of the

festival

Charlemagne,

looked

the founder

clergythroughout Christendom.
therefore,very
numerous

The

patron festivals
the students

were,

in the

of University studies
to

Paris, and

were

always ready to interrupttheir

were

take

part

in the

solemnities

which

held generally
at

in

the

famous

Pre-auxdes St.

Clercs, their veritable domain, beginning Pro's,and

the

Faubourg
are

St. Germain
now

extending down
and the Rue

to

the

Seine, all along what

the Rue

Dominique
Of

de 1'Universite.
at

all the festivals the Lendit

which

the

students

took upon

part in
as

body, the

most

popular was
for
their

which fair,

they looked
back

instituted

expressly
of the

amusement,

though

it dates

beyond

the

foundation

Universityitself.
The

Paris Cathedral,

having

received
the

from

in Constantinople

1109

some

authentic of
the

fragments

of the cross, could

not

Bishop, in compliance with

room

the wishes where

populationwho

find them where

in

the

Cathedral,

the
his vast

relics had
to clergy,
concourse

carried hpen deposited, the of It is

in

great pomp,
was room

accompanied by enough
for the adore

plainof

St.

Denis,

there
to

worshippers who
a

assembled

contemplate and

these

relics. Dame renewed

well-ascertained

fact that the schools

same

of the cloister of Notreand

a

took
at

part in the procession. The

stated upon 12th the

ceremony
of time,

procession were
or

periods ; and,
very

in the

course

market

fair

was

established year,
on

the of

spot consecrated
the

by

the

religious ceremony.

Every
the Lendit

the

June,

day

after the feast of St. Barnabas,

say,

(or
It

rather

Indict, that

is to

the

day appointed)fair
"

was

opened.
in the

was

also called the feast of the

parchment (seethe volume,

in the

Arts

Middle

Ages," chapterParchment, Paper). Early

students, attired
St. in his in their
to

morning
at

of that the

day,

the

best,assembled
the
rector

on

horseback

top

of Mount

Genevieve,

accompany

of the

who, University, proceeded

on a

arrayed

scarlet cloak, and

wearing

his

doctor's

cap,

Fig. 28."

Hector

of the

Prague
From

University
an

and

Scholars

of the

different

Nations

who

studied

in the

same

Univcroity.

ancient

Picture

still possessed

by

the

Prague

University.

36

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

mule
to

or

hackney,
St.

and

accompanied by
the

the

and deans, proctors, for the the sale of

myrmidons,
was

the

plain of

Denis, where
The

market

parchment
to

already opened.
aside
as

rector, upon
as

reaching
be

fair, caused
the

be

put
the

much year,

parchment
and received

would
the

by required
a

University for equivalentto

their

coming
in the

from

sellers

donation

"100

present day.
of

After

this the the

students

alightedfrom
to

horses,
selves themnot
a

and, instead
at

forming part of
This blood decrees
were

back procession
to

Paris, amused
disorder, and

the

-fair.

invariablyled

riot and from

year

passed without
century, the

being spilt. Thus,

of Parliament

teenth the fifteenth to the sixarms or

the carrying of against renewed and

sticks,decrees
to testify
a

which

being continually
the evil and
to

always neglected,
of

the it.

gravityof
At

the
was

obstacles in the way transferred

from the

putting
the

stop

to

last,in 1566, the fair

at about

plainto
to

town

of St.

Denis, and
in

the

same

period paper
The

began

supersede getting

parchment
a

even

publicdocuments.
fair,and
fell

ceased rector, therefore, had

no

supply

of it at the Lendit

the

students

further

pretext to
of the

attend

this

fair, which

soon

into

disuse.
was

By
the

the

beginning

seventeenth
the rector

left of it century the only vestige

which generalholdiday the first

granted to

the

students

of

the

University upon

Monday

after the feast of St. Barnabas.

The inventors

clerks and

students

of Paris and

were

also the

actors in,if principal

not

the

of, certain

ridiculous

burlesqueceremonies
tolerated of the

which, commenced
the
name

in the Church, Feasts of the

and, after having been

the Ass, and

by it,under

of the

Fusans, of

Innocents, were
the

only suppressed
Popular
were so

by

the action

of the Church

itself (seein this volume

and absurd in
course

chapter on

These Superstitions).

singular

buffooneries,which
of time, succeeded
the

popular amongst
sober

the

students,were,
as

by

more

such recreations,

theatrical

within representations

colleges, opento Our

air games,

periodicalexcursions
and Our

to the

country, as, Fields,or

for the

instance,those

Lady

of the Vines in Vallet the

Lady
a

of the
tree

Mai/ excursion,which
the
to

terminated

planting of

in full bloom it took many the

before
years French

rector's efface the

gate.
old

But,

as

de Viriville and

remarks,

traditions sixteenth in
a manner

of violence

for insubordination,
the students

chroniclers

of the

century represent
that

of their the limits

time of

as

amusing

themselves pace
or

generallyexceeded regard

propriety.

To

the

streets

at

night,without

for the

of tranquillity

the citizens

for the

i:\ir

I'RSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

37

Fig. 29.-Seal

of the

University of Oxford.

Fig. 30."

Seal of the

of Cambridge. University

Fig. 31."

Seal of Bulliol

ColleRe Fig.
32."

Oxford. 1269), (founded

Seal of the

University of Prague.

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

modesty
the of

of their wives the

and

to daughters,

belabour

the watchmen

and the

throw

sergeants into
the

Seine,were

deeds of

of valour

recorded

in the

souvenirs and

and University,

long

talked

by

the

pupils of

Navarre

Montaigu Colleges.
The Parisian
a

student
at

of

the

Middle
he
soon

Ages
became the

was,

as

peculiartype, essentially
in all the towns He
was,

first, though
founded

naturalised

where

Universitywas

after

twelfth

century.

perhaps,the

Fig.

33."

External

View

of

founded Leyden University, in

the work

in

1575

by

William

of Nassau.

From alma

contemporary Drawing
Academia

entitled,"Illustrium

Holland!*, etc.,ordinum

Leydensis

"

(Lugd. Batav., 1614, in quarto).

and pedant in Italy, greatest gossip where in

the

of Bologna,founded University
at

1158,

soon

led to the

creation Pisa and

of Universities Students in

Naples (1224),Padua
this

Rome (1228), became

which still
were

(1245),and
more

(1333).

of the

stamp

naturally

arrogant
in

quarrelsome
at

Germanic

Universities

founded

succession

berg Prague (1348),Cologne (1385),Heidel-

and Leipsic(1409). (1386),

The

English students Spanish students

Valladolid

at Oxford

(1200) and

Cambridge (1257) were

of

less

noisy;

the

in the Universities

Valencia

(1209), Salamanca

(1250), and

(1246)

were

more

40

UNIVERSITIES,

SCHOOLS,

STUDENTS.

pompous Lisbon

and
.

austere

the

Portuguese proud
and vain

students

at

Coimbra

(1279)
at

and

(1290)
and Bale

were

more

the

Swiss

students

Geneva

(1368) formality,

(1459)
the

appear students

to

have

been

rather

torpid
and

and

full

of

while

Dutch

at

Louvain

(1426)
work.
But

Leyden
the Paris

(1575)
student

were

remarkable

for

their

close

application
he remained

to

hardly companion

changed
that

in

any

respect
has

the

same

gay his

and

mirthful

Rabelais

depicted

in

the

Panurge

of

"Pantagruel."

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

Annihilation Boethius Scotus Tours. and

"

of and

the

Pngan

Philosophy.
"

"

New

Christian
"

Philosophy.
Alcuin,
Realism and and and and

"

Martianus Raban Maurns.

CapelU.
"

"

Cassiodorus.

Isidore

of

Seville.

Bede,
"

John of

Erigena.
Roscelin Bernard.
and

"

Origin
and
"

of

Scholasticism.
"

"

Gerhert. of

Nominalism."
"

Be de

ranger la

St. Anselm.

William Bene.
"

Champeaux Magnus
of of Ockham. the

Abelard. St.

Gilbert

Porree The

St.

Amaury
tho

de

"

Alhertus

Thomas of The

Aquinas.

"

Franciscans Platonists P.
K
UMHS.

Dominicans. The

William

"

Decadence

Scho'asticism.

"

and

Aristotelians.

"

Philosophy

Renaissance.

"

Lutheran

Schools.

"

"

Montaigne.

HE

love

of
to

knowledge,
all
men.

says

Aristotle,
the

is
to

natural which

It

is
of

passion
were

the and

wise
which

men

antiquity
the

slaves,
in
our

still inflames

learned
of

own

day.
of

It all

is the

source

all

science
an

and

philosophy.
of love

From what
is

etymological
?

point
is the

view,
of

philosophy
The
ardour
not

It

knowledge.
the

Middle of

Ages, religious
without

notwithstanding
faith
at

that
;

period, during
fervour which with is

were

philosophy
for

for
the

that
of

period,
to

memorable the

belief,
in

the

human

heart

was

not

insensible

noble

passion
Men

innate
more
or

it of less

knowing
to

and

understanding
the

all and

things.
hence offers when
to

sought
the who

'success
the

discover
of the

truth,
Middle

resulted
those

various

aspects which
In schools all in the of

philosophy
centuries

the

Ages
era,

study
of

it. the

first

of

Christian cultivation
the

the

traditions
was

antiquity
few,
and

seem

lost, the
with them

of of

science their

abandoned

by

save

even

whole

philosophy
a

consisted

few

ill-defined
to

aphorisms.
obtain the

They
of
G

were

succeeded

by

few

bold

thinkers,
forth the

who,

anxious

credit

being

thought

masters,

put

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

most root

daring statements,
a

some

wholesome thirteenth

and

others

dangerous, which
us

took of the

little later ; and

the

century shows barbarism, and

of the
faith

the thinkers

Middle

with Ages grapplingvigorously reconciled the

a graduallyattaining

philosophy which
But this

verities in

and

rational

tions. concep-

was, philosophy

turn,

attacked

by daring innovators,

Fig.

35.

"

Boetiiius

takes

counsel

of de

Dame

Philosophy.
"

Miniature
the

of

the

"Consolation

of

Boethius," Translation
of M. Ambroise

of Jean

Meung, Manuscript of

Fifteenth

Century." Lihrary

Firmin-Didot.

and,

well

founded

as

it was,

could

not

resist their
came

onslaught. Men's
the the

minds

became

very

new agitated,

systems
so we

into

existence, and
no

Christian

faith grew

weaker

and

find

ourselves
Leo X.

longer

in

century of

St. Louis, but Such

are

in that of Francois the

I. and

principal phases through

which

philosophy passed during

rilll.OSOPHU

'

S(

'11 "-". \v

'"S.

43

the and the the

long periodwhich
ended
most

li '^aii

with

the lust tumults

of the harhariun Its

invasion,
for

with

tlu- Hen

lisviuce in 'the sixteenth

to

century.

is history

part difficult
our

Mudy,
of many

and

always

very

dry; yet
of
we

it has been made

subjectin

day

works, the

best

which, despite its

shall borrow

numerous

defects,is that of M. Huureau, from

which

largely,

ourselves also of the valuable availing

researches of M.

Charles Jourdain, the

feftconfr teaSB"i Jiutt Cjfcdtttmmct

Fig. 36.
Jean
"

The

Wheel

of Fortune.

"

Miniature

from the

"

Consolation

of

Boethius," Translation
Firmin-Pidot.

of

de

Moung, Manuscript

of the Fifteenth

Century." Library of

II. Ambroise

editor of Abelard's

works,

and

the historian of the

of philosophy

St. Thomas

Aquinas.

Amongst
all,Martianus
the

the Christian writers

the ruins of

who

a preserved

few

remnants

of ancient

amidst learning

the Roman

empire must

be

mentioned, first of
of

and poet of philosopher Capella,

sort

the fifth century, the author and in verse, which

was

"Satyricon,"a

of

in prose encyi-lop:edia

long

44

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

adopted

in

the

schools

of the

Middle the
seven

Ages

as

the
arts

poetic summary
"

of the

teachingwhich

it attributes to

liberal and

grammar, This for

dialectics,
great work,

rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy,

which is
more

music.

remarkable be looked of the dawn

for upon

wit
as

and

imagination than

learning and
"

good
first

taste, may

the final flicker of ancient

thought

as

the

glimmer

of modern

thought.
Martianus death
on

Almost
.

contemporaneous
minister

with

Capella by
order and

comes

the

patrician
the in

Boethius,
learned

of Theodoric, put to
Aristotle's

of his author

master,
of
a

of interpreter in verse,

treatises

Logic,

work

prose and 35 A and

which
which and

" Of the Consolation he entitled,

of

Philosophy" (Figs.
of the Middle
was

36),and

was

one

of the most
at

popularbooks
the court

Ages.
Cassio-

contemporary
famous

friend

of Boethius

of Theodoric for ancient

dorus, also
of which
in

for his

learningand
which
of

for his fondness

more

works, copies
instrumental
was

he had

made,
the
on

and

he,

than

any

one

else, was

preserving for
of
on a

benefit

future

generations. Cassiodorus
on

the

author work

treatise

the Mind,

another

the

Seven
a

Liberal very

Arts, a great
tion contribu-

Divine

and Institutions,
his time. and

letters which

form

valuable

to the

of history

A in

century

after Boethius

the part Cassiodorus,

which

they had played

first

fell in Spain to Italy of

Isidore of Seville, who,

at discouraged

by

the difficulties

study,obtained
of his time
on
"

by

force

of perseverance

the foremost

placeamongst
In addition

the writers
to

for the extent and

a

and

varietyof
the

his works.

Commentaries
a

Holy Writ,
De

History of

VisigothKings, he
the

has

left

great work,

or Originibus,

the

in Etymologies," of

twenty

volumes

composing which

he

sums

up

the elements and

natural theology, jurisprudence,

history, mechanics, agriculture,

In
another

the liberal arts.

to

part of Europe, Ireland, converted

Christianity by
culture. literary

St.

Patrick, became
many

rapidly covered
which

with

monasteries, as
remnants
was

densely populated as
In

towns, and
the he of

still retained of Jarrow

some

of

England, at
Bede
;

monastery

(Durham),

educated he
was

the venerable

there

lived,taught,and
a

died

(735), justas
him various
to at

completing the
which

commentary
are

Psalm, leaving behind

as an

works, amongst
science. the

several It
was

treatises useful
in
an

introduction

the

study of
that

English monastery,
of the assistants

too,

York,

Alcuin,
to

most

energetic and
the condition

learned of

employed by Charlemagne
up. The books which

improve
left

his schools, was

brought

he has

SCIENCES.

45

behind does

him
not

are

instinct with
the

the noblest enthusiasm liberal upon

for

which philosophy,
which

he
he

separate from
which he

arts, but
as

the

importance of

foresees,and

looks

the

best

preparationfor the study of

divinity.
The work

of Alcuin
of Mainz the

was

continued in 856.
.

Raban by his disciple, He

contributed
a

Maurus, who
of

died the

Archbishop

to

the first progress

for glossary

vulgar tongue by
of the Old and

compositionof
Testament.

Latin-Teuton The
voluminous upon

all the

books works

New

collection of his
a Scriptures,

togetherwith comprises,
the
"

commentaries

the Sacred
upon

treatise upon

Instruction
an all,

of Clerks," another

the

"

Calculation
he

of

Time," and, above

"

in twenty books, which encyclopaedia

in which
men,

entitled,

On

the Universe," and

he treats

of God, successively

of the Divine

of Persons, of the angels, A Raban

man

and

of the other creatures.

possessingmore

but original

less solid and

or

reliable

than qualities

was

the Irish John, surnamed Charles

in who the

Scotus

Erigena, who
the
masters

figuredin the
of the
was

reign of
School
and
mazes

Bold

(Fig. 37) amongst

in the

Palace
subtle in the
founding con-

founded

Paris
was

by Charlemagne.
well versed

Scotus,whose
Greek

talent

hardy,and
of
a

language, got lost

faith

which philosophy with the is

a

Compromised the

verities of the

by

them

hallucinations of the school of Alexandria. pantheistic treatise upon

;

His

work principal

the

"

Division of Natures," in which derived the world

and

he

teaches and

that the creation is eternal

it of his
own

that God

from

himself,
must

formed

substance ; that the Creator

one

the creature
; that

not,

be regarded as objects distinct from therefore, exists in God "c. and

name

another

the creature

and

that

God, by

an

ineffable marvel, is created

were

in the creature,

No

wonder in the

that these

strange doctrines
the Middle

anathematized few
was

by

the

Church,
The

that

earlypart of
but
a

Ages they had

and celebrity,

adepts.

of John

Scotus had
need
to

momentary

soon

forgotten.
Heiric
and
were

There
Remi of

is no

dwell

upon

several other

masters,

such

as

Auxerre,

whom

has almost posteritv But

a

much forgotten,

as

they

thoughtof by
that remarkable centurv,
mixed up

their
man,
at

contemporaries.

few

words

are

essential about

Gerbert, born in Auvergne in the first half of the tenth

Aurillac

educated
in

by the

monks the

of the
events

Abbey of
which

St.

G^raud,

the

course

of his life in
of the

agitatedFrance,
in turn in man, schoolthe year

councillor Germany, and Italy,

Emperors of Germany,
and

diplomatist, Archbishop of Rheims

Ravenna,

Pope

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

Fig. 37." Count

a

Vivien, Titular
in his

Abbot

of St.

Martin
on

of Tours,

dedicating

to Charles

the nobles

Bold and from

Bible

written
The the

Abbey.
before

Charles

is seated escorted
of the

his throne, surrounded

by

his

guards.
"Charles

Abbot Bold's

comes

him,

by

ten

r'ght and priests,

left." Miniature

Bible," Manuscript

Fifteenth

Century." National

Library, Paris.

1000, and, amidst sciences, a

inventor of

the

cares

of

public life, finding time

versed clock. in mathematics The

to

cultivate the
and physics,

well gifteddialectician,
an

and

hydraulicorgan

and

learningand

good

fortune

48

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

close of the

eleventh

century,

an

when extraordinary importance, that

canon

of that

Compiegne, Roscelin,maintained generalideas, or

that the itnirersafs, as

all

is reality then

in

the

individual
no

they were

have called,

real

object;

they are

mere purely verbal abstractions,

words, noniinn; opponents,

who

whence attributed

the term
to

nominalism

applied to
a

this doctrine. of the the

His

the

universal?

certain amount
the in

were reality,

called realists.

Roscelin,applying
Divine power

his

theory to

dogma of
common

Trinity, argued
resemblance
so or

that the three

Persons,
and

having only
constitute

identityof
Gods.

will,

three

distinct

beings,and,
the
name

to

speak,three
the

St. Anselm
of the the had
two

in protested,

of the

Church, against this interpretation

Condemned in 1092 which

dogma,

of which

it

was

negation.
;

by
he

Council raised camps

of Soissons, Roscelin
was

retracted
a

but

the

discussion
was

destined upon the

to
one

last

long

time.

The

school

divided of

into
the

side the

nominalists

who,
to

in
avow

presence their

anathema upon St. the

launched
other Odo last the

dared against Roscelin, scarcely

opinions ;

the of

realists, amongst Cambrai,

Hildebert died in

whom

may

be

mentioned, besides
William of Chamin 1120,

Anselm,
The

of Lavardin, and

peaux.

mentioned,

who

Bishop

of Chalons-sur-Marne of The He

expounded
Notre-

doctrine
at

of realism

the schools

Paris, at the cloister of

Dame,

and the

the

Abbey
of the

of

St. Victor.

original part
that
are

of
as

his the

teachingwas
universal modalities upon the is the
or

theory

universal.

maintained

primitivesubstance
of

individuals properlyso called,

merely

fashions

being,who unique
a

manifest

themselves, soon

to

disappear,
sequences con-

surface of his

of the

and

indivisible

subject. Pressing the

have been he

system

little further,he would

"

brought
was

to

deny
the less

human

and personality his

liberty an

error

from
of

which

saved
none

by
the

sincerityof

religiousfaith.
as

William of natural

Champeaux

recognisedreason
Bernard Divine of

the

arbiter that

philosophy,and
an

his

disciple,
of the

Chartres,declared

human

thought is

emanation

thought.
had
at first

Pierre Abelard
but
course

followed

the lessons and

on

of William

of

Champeaux,
in
a

he

afterwards
of
"

declared

againsthim
he commenced

the his

realist doctors
own

public
any first
to

philosophywhich
sine magistro, as
was so

account, without
From hearers outdid his the very

patronage
his
success

his rivals thousands embrace

tauntinglysaid.
of enthusiastic He

great that
and

assembled

listen to his arguments

his doctrine.

predecessors

PHFLOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

49

in
his

boldness subtlety, hearers with

was

of
;

thought,and
uiid his

in eloquence especially ;
was

he

carried all
form
name

him

system, which
in the

but

another

of
of

nominalism,

accepted generally
consists

and schools,

received the
are

It Conceptumalism,

in the argument
mere

that the universals

neither would the these

asserted by the realists, nor realities, as

have but it,

words, as

the nominalists

conceptionsof
that

the

which, having observed intelligence,

have
to
to
one

resemblance
resemblances

several
a

individuals
which
;

another,

resumes

in

notion

it extends

all these individuals.

There

exist

only in
is in

nature

individuals individuals
is the from

the

of generalqualities themselves only reality

possess them
;

the

which

but, in

presence
to

of
one

individual

there objects,
extracts

thoughtwhich
them

their relations perceives

in and
common

another, which other,and

which

what
notion

they have
of kind

with
in
a

each

thus

engenders the

species ;

word,

the universals. If Abelard had

confined

hiniself

to
censure

propoundingthis theory,he
of the Church
he

would of the

have, in all probability, escaped the

troubles of his

and

some

after-life.
to the

But,

like

Roscelin,
the

claimed the

to

apply
his

his

doctrine philosophic

of interpretation condemned the

mystery of

Trinity. Like days,

Roscelin, he
repentant and
While
other in

failed,was

by
of in
to

two

councils,and

ended

submissive,at
was

Abbey

Cluny.
the

Abelard who

going astray

paths

of

periloustheology,
carried away
Gilbert de

masters

believed themselves
upon the
same

be wiser than One of

he was,

their

turn, struck
was

shoal.

them,

la

Porree,
boldness been
an

at

first well

received
was

by

the

the Church, for,notwithstanding of bishopric the Poitiers.

of his ardent

he doctrine,

raised to the

He

had

adversary of the opinions of

the realists.
His from

but nominalists,

without

himself openly for declaring

realism consisted in
the moment

supposing
been
;

that if

"

the

generation of things began

that the breath of

the Creator altered in

thus the

forms produced motion, the primordial their

nature

have not, however, second

by

the

new

act

which of the

producedthe
and

forms

primitive and

real substances

air, of fire,of water, of the

are,
ever

earth, of
themselves
born

of corporeity, "c., have humanity,

been,

will be

in
or
"

permanent, immovable, separate from

which communicate
to

the subaltern substances

to

forms,

the

essence

the

sentient

phenomena
The

(Fig. 38). According

of principle the
common

Gilbert, it
"

is form

which

gives being.
or species

essence

that
H

is to say, of the

kind

"

will

/'////. osoi'lin

'

.SY "/ A'.vr

'/.A

not

In-

;i

negation,

like

the

hut ;in ni/it-t/i/t'"-rn,,;*,

affirmation,like

the

J5ut gradually far-seeing minds, alarmed '"niifdftiiih/.

by

the

noveltyof these

theories,
upon Mpeaoe
must

grew

apprehensive
Gilbert the de

as

to

the consequences had

not

which
to

they might
declare
that

have
the

the

faith.

la Porree
of

hesitated

being, in
be

order

above generation,

the substance,the Diriiiity

something superiorto the individual of the Divine

system, who,

in

Fig.
"

39.

"

The de

Tree

of

Beings and

of Substances. from Latin

"

Fac-simile

of
at

Wood

Engraving
1514.

of

the

Cuer

Philosophic,"translated
Printed
at

into de la

French,

the

le Bel, request of Philippe

King

of France.

Paris for Julian

in Garde, bookseller,

human author

language,
of
to

is called God.

This declaration

caused

great scandal Persons, and

and (1148),
not

the
was

it

was

accused
before which
an

of

blasphemy againstthe Divine

at

cited

appear

ecclesiastical tribunal sustained

Rheims
He

answer

the accusation his

was

by

St. Bernard.

only expressed
he

regret

at

having unwittingly propagated perilousdoctrines, but

and

retracted

them

abjured

his

errors.

St. Bernard

insisted

that

these

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

doctrines inasmuch In

should
as

be

that they solemnly condemned, declaring have troubled innocent of consciences

were

culpable,

they might
the

(Fig.39).
entail upon Paris
"

of spite

which perils the

the abuse

reasoningmight
was

the

faith,Peter,
furnished

surnamed

Lombard,

who

Bishop

of

in

1159,

abundant

material

for his controversy in his book

Les

Sentences,"

Fig.
"

40.

"

Plenary
"

Court

of
the

Dame

Justice.
are

"

An

Allegory referring to
"

Book

V.

of Aristotle's
"

Ethics."

Upon

pendants
"

inscribed
"

Fortitude,"

"

Private

Justice,"

Legal

Justice," Mansuetudo,"
Miniature of
a

Eutrepelie,"
the Fourteenth

Distributive
"

Justice," "Commutative

Justice.""

Manuscript of

Century. Burgundy Library, Brussels.

vast

collection of extracts

from

the

writingsof

the fathers author

on

the

principal
the
name

pointsof metaphysicsand Christian morality. The

of Maitre and John
no

obtained

and des Sentences,

his work

became

the basis of had

teaching, theological
so

other of

work, perhaps,except the

Louis le Jeune

Bible, has

many
to

interpreters.
of bishopric

whom Salisbury,

in 1176, raised,

the

PHtLOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

S3

-.

Chartres,
and had
a

had

attended

in

his

youth
to

all the

masters principal

of his time,
of refined

not

attached

himself

any

of their schools. of
ho antiquity,

A
no

man

mind,
the

giftedwriter,a great
of the

admirer

had

inclination for
was

subtleties frigid
a

of logicians

his

day,and though he
from opposition

animated

by
the
were

faith,he sincerely religious

inclined towards
a

in philosophy. scepticism
two

The

abuses of dialectics encountered

of

fierce

monks
of

of

Abbey

St. Victor, Hugh, and the both

both Richard, his disciple,

to
a

whom

familiar with

and, profane sciences,

the declared raises

certain

extent, friends of
and speculations,

but philosophy,
of partisans than

adversaries
us

of less

arid

that method

which

to God

by

the

of light love.

the mind
were,

by

that of the heart, less

by

reason

than

by

faith and

They

in the twelfth
At

of Catholic mysticism. century, the representatives

that time, however, Christian

Europe

had

not

got beyond the logical

"

works
"

of Aristotle ; but at the close of the twelfth

century the

the Physics," westward.

and Metaphysics,"

the "Ethics

"'of that

travelled great philosopher in Latin which

They found
from

their way

into the Catholic Universities from the Arabic To

translations, some
had

the Greek
in

text, others
Mahometan from

version

long been
be added
ance appear-

employed
of East

the

schools.
of Arab

these translations must The unlooked-for Greece

men

the commentaries

the pens
of

writers.

these monuments
a

the

philosophical genius of
men's minds.

and

of the

made

profound impression upon

as

Some their
errors

lost their

heads, such
number

Amaury

de

Bene, David
the

of Dinant, and
of their

a great disciples,

of whom caused

perishedat
in the ranks
to

stake,victims

and

of the alarm

they had
more

of Christian

society.Others,more
to turn to

circumspect, religion
the

attached

tradition,endeavoured

the

profit of
had

these treatises and

commentaries, hitherto unknown,

which
in them
set to

enriched which
to

literature of the West. Church

was

They sought
to

to

discover

truths work

the

accustomed

teach, and

which

they

advocate

first of 40). The "Physics"and "Metaphysics," (Fig.

all proscribed, gradually

became, for the

source

most

pious of

of assiduous the doctors,subjects

a

study and

the

from

which

they drew
the

part of their doctrines.

died in 1245,
was

Alexander
one

of Hales,
most

surnamed

the

Doctor, who Irrefutable

of the

able
of

of interpreters

philosophyof
studied the

Aristotle.

After
the his

him,

William

Auvergne,who
Alexandria
and

had

of philosophers

Neo-Platonist

school of
in

the Arab
erroneous

employed philosophers,
consequences

erudition theological

combating the

which

the modern

of partisans

these

54

Plfl/. O SOPH

1C

SCIENCES.

Fig. 41.
the

"

The Dead

Hour
in
a

of

Death.

"

Allegoric Miniature
"

placed
of the

at

the

beginning of the Service

for

"Liber

Horarum."

Manuscript

Fifteenth

Century.
"

The

Library of

11. Ambroise
The

Firmin-Didot.
the

sinner,at
to

point of death, with late,to

them
the

his sins
of

staringhim

in the

face,turns

away

from
his He

them

but listen, him

too of

advice

his

good angel

; his

black with conscience,

reminds faults, remains

"who

all, and hell, a

remorse

suspended between
his

monster

a serpent vomiting flames and

like

is

devouring

his heart. and

awaiting

bis prey,

God,

with

right hand

threatens

him

with

his

and justice,

with

his left expresses

his desire

to show

mercy.

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

of the Dominicans
His

at

Cologne,where
him the

he

opened a
him

fresh

course

of
when

teaching.
he died in

surnamed contemporaries
he aged eighty-seven,

Universal Doctor; countless

and

1280,
branch
on

left behind

works

upon

every

of human

learning" amongst others, some

of Aristotle. has

voluminous

commentaries

all the books

Albertus

Magnus
to the

erroneouslybeen

classed amongst
in favour the

the realists ; he

belonged rather
of Abelard upon

nominalists, having declared

which questions principal
the considering
as

of the doctrine

the

excited and of

controversy of

the schools. he looked upon

Thus, far from

them
as

kinds

substances, as species

essential modes,

manners

being inherent

in

the

Fig.

42."

Seal of the

Faculty of Theology

Fig. 43.

"

Counter-Seal

of the

University

of Paris

(Fourteenth Century). He

of Paris

(Fourteenth Century). of the

substance the

of individuals.
are

denned, after

the

fashion
;

nominalists,
say, the
never

things which

the

object of empiricalresearch
up upon the with
at the

that

is to
was

beings which
or persecuted,

togethermake
even

universe.

Albertus

Magnus

looked
to

because suspicion, limits

of his doctrines ; he

had

the

good
and

sense

stop short

beyond
it the
was

which

lay heresy.
follow allow

His up
to

doubts the be

indecision and
to

began

at

the

pointwhere
which

dangerous to
will not

argument,

resolve

problems

Church

approached except by
These of

the foot of faith.

problems
Albertus

the

great

St. Thomas
so

Aquinas,the pupil
to

and

porary contem-

Magnus, brought,

speak, within

the

limits

of

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

S7

from orthodoxy,and, starting their This and of ultimate method

at

well-understood

deduced principles,
his

from

them

consequences him
to

by
range him

the
his

of superiority

dialectical in

method.

enabled
same

opinionsand judgments taking a single step

"

order, logical

the

time
"

saved

from

in the direction

heresy.
with

His

Somme

de

Theologie

and

his

"

Somme

contre

les Gentils The

"

rank and

the most

remarkable

of productions

human

genius.
maintained

precision

surety with
the
mazes

which

the author

of these

two
are

works

his balance

amidst Thomas from he

of the
was

involved questions
at

somethingmarvellous.
the

St.

Aquinas
which

born

Naples in 1227,
and

upon

of Aquino, territory
years

he derived studies

his name,
at
to

he

was

only thirteen Naples.

The

of age

when

completed his

the

school of

PreachingBrothers
efforts of
make

of that
his

cityinduced

him
was

the join their order, notwithstanding noble After

and
to influential,

family, which

both

him
sent

adopt

or judicial

diplomaticcareer.
afterwards Thomas
was

taking
he

the

vows,

he

was

first to

Paris,and

to

Cologne,where
of
and
a

attended

the

lectures of Albertus

Magnus.
and
"

pensiveand
dispute.
master

little, dreamy disposition, talking

nicknamed fellow-pupils
one

avoiding argument
ox

His
had

him

the

Dumb

of

Sicily."

His

day
of
a

occasion
numerous

to

questionhim
audience, and

upon Thomas

several intricate matters

in the

presence

Aquinas answered

him

with remarkable
the

boldness

and

accuracy.

Albert,

turning with delight towards

the able
ox,
answers

audience, which
"

had You
his

listened in silence to call Thomas

a

of the young will

come

Neapolitan,said,
the eager

dumb

but
over

the

day

when

lowings of
to

doctrine

will be
to

heard

all and St
.

the world." became but

a

Thomas,
student

learn

and

study,returned
Friars

Paris,

again

in the house

of the Dominican years he

was

in the Rue
to

Jacques ;

at

the

of expiration whom

three

recalled
four

Cologne
sciences the house

by

his esteemed

master, with
in

he studied for another

years

of all

kinds,sacred science
of his order St. in

particular.In 1248,
Thomas

when

Albertus
to

became the

Provincial
in the Rue and
on

Germany,
he

returned
so

Paris,to
many

Jacques
that he
"

where

had

alreadylearnt

useful
a

lessons,

it

was

there

completed

his

studies by theological

commentary
he

Pierre Lombard's he

Sentences."

After

beingreceived Doctor,
the lucidity

began

his

in which lessons,

developed with
became

marvellous

various

parts of

his

"

Sum

of

which Theology,"

the basis of his for many

great reputation. He
years, and he
wrote

continued without

his

teaching to large audiences

a

intermission

vast

number

of

treatises, forming altogether theological

58

PHILOSOPHIC

SCJEXCKS.

eighteenfolio
her
sons,

volumes.
was

The of

of University
to
own

Paris him

had
as

adopted him
such. But

as

one

of
of

and

proud

being able
anxious IV. he
to

Charles

Anjou, King
and

of

Naples,was Pope

placehim

at the head

of that University,

induced

Clement

(Fig.44) to
was

recall him

to

Italy.

Thomas

obeyed,for Aquinas reluctantly

premature
take infirmities. The

in

health,and declining
he had

afflicted with

frequentjourneys which
Church added
to

been

obligedto
on

in the interests

of the

his

and fatigues,

while

his

Fig.

44.

"

Portrait of Clement

IV.

"

Fresco

Painting, on
Walls
at Rome

gold ground,

in

Mosaic,

in

the

Basilica of St. Paul-without-the-

Century). (Thirteenth

way
near

to the

Council

of
a

Lyons, in 1274,
Cistercian

he

was

compelledto break
he

the
a

journey days'

Terracina,at
the age

monastery, where

died, after

few

at illness,

of

forty-eight.
the Church him

Thomas

Aquinas, whom

afterwards
in the
the

placedamongst
schools.
He

her
was

saints,
called
the

left the
the

behind highestreputation St.

Paris

Second

Augustine, the Angel of

In his fact,
was

Schools, the

Angelic Doctor,
most

Doctor

of Doctors.

the

only theologytaught in
century.

of the

Catholic schools

to subsequently

the thirteenth

Fig.45

"

St.

Augustine,Bishop of Hippo, wearing the dress of by monks righthand

n

his order under

his

episcopal
"ternum.

cape, surrounded in holding

non

to whom

he is givingthe books of prayer. which

At his feet is Aristotle, mnndum

esse

his

pendant upon
finem."
a

"Dicimus is written,

haliere

principium, ncque
"

Aristotle declares the

of matter, a doctrine eternity

"

refuted

hy St. Augustine.

From

Picture in the

Campana

Museum.

Italian School of the

Fifteenth CVntiirv.

60

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

However,
and

the

scholastic

had spirit

not

quenched

the ardour
more

for

research,
than
one

St. Thomas, The

notwithstandinghis
it disputetook place, of St. Dominic the enemy
to

immense

had authority, the

opponent.
between

is true, upon

ground of philosophy,
Alhertus the

the Orders

and

St. Francis.

Magnus, by
the of

declaringhimself
Franciscans, who
Hales. camp
not

of the
the

had realists, their

excited

of hostility

adhered
out

opinionof
his
at

first doctor, Alexander

St. Thomas,

of

respect for
he in
was

master,

Albert,
with

had

joined the
and could

of the nominalists, but

follow Albert his the Great

often

variance

them,

all his conclusions

the natural

of doctrine.
had

Thus,

withstandin not-

deep study of
for the
was a

he sciences,

less inclination discussion

were

for

physicsthan relatingto
When it

and metaphysics,

his favourite

of subjects

those
acts.

its functions, and substance, its faculties, spiritual

its

questionof explainingthe

nature

of

ideas,he inclined

towards
he held

realism.
that

A
are

of St. Augustine, and, through him, of Plato, disciple distinct

ideas

forms, which
to

exist in permanency entities

and the

in the Divine

intellect ;
a

they
which

are,

according

him,
of the

substantial external

forming part

of

world

is the

pattern

intellectual world

45). (Fig.
The
earnest

doctrine philosophical until after his

of St. Thomas the

Aquinas

was

not

attacked while he
cause was

in

death, though
and

questionswere
had

mooted

alive. the

Henry

of

Ghent the

Roger

Bacon

warmly espoused the

of
at

of
pure

Franciscans

and

doctrine

of Alexander
who
more

Hales, which
about the
same

was

realism. St. Thomas

St. Bonaventure

(Fig.46),
waged
Order
war

died

time

as

Aquinas,
He

had

against rationalism
he had

than
certain

nalism. nomi-

belonged to the
hearers

of St. Francis, and

the schools
to the
not

mystic
The

tendencies,urging his
detractors of who
was

to avoid

and

despisescience.
of

philosophy ranged
a

themselves
this
was

banner the

John

of

Wales,
in their

also

Franciscan

and

only defection
at

ranks, for Richard Paris,but he

the Franciscan
on.

of Middleton
a

professednominalism
William

the

of University

met

stout

adversaryin

of Lamarre,
And
so

who

advocated

doctrine

againstthe Dominicans.
doctrine

the
was

strugglewent
his

The

best supporter of the

of St. Thomas

pupil and

fellow-countryman, EgidioColonna, who

the

acquired in

this his

war

of the schools

curious
to

nickname
him

of

Doctor
of

fundamcntanm,
laid the

partisans having
of

ascribed science.

the honour

having

foundation

nominalist

/'////. OSOPH/C

SC/XXTKs.

61

The

Franciscans got the best of the

celebrated
masters

under dispute,

the

of one leadership

of the most

of his time, the formidable

opponent

of the

Fig. 46."

St.

Bonaventure."

From

Fresco

Painting by

John

of

Florence, in the Chapel of

Nicholas

V. at the Vatican

Century). (Fifteenth

school of St. Thomas.

the HtibtlcDoctor, and

This whom

was

the

doughtyDuns

Scotus, who

was

surnamod the Torch,

the Franciscans

called the

Column,

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

the in

Star ever-shining

of Science.
some,

lie

was

born

in 1274, in the British others

;

Isles

"

England accordingto
is,as
his
name

in Ireland he
was

according to
Scotch.

but the

the probability

that implies,

Tie donned and

garb

of

St. Francis
at

before

going to study at

Morton

Oxford, College,
But he his
soon

his talents of

first lay in the direction the

of mathematics.
he him
at

filled the chair thousands

philosophyin
of

where college
to

had

completed
He

and classes, studied

pupils assembled
his
to

hear

(Fig* 47).
the

theology,and
the Franciscans He

obtained
sent

doctor's

degree

Paris, and

superiorof

him

Cologne, where earlyage

he of

taught both

theology and

philosophy.
him
an enormous

died
mass

in 1308, at the of

leavingbehind thirty-four,
were

which treatises, philosophical

not

collated

till the

seventeenth

century, when
Albertus of

they were Magnus

had

folio publishedin twenty-five

volumes. fundamental found in basis

sought in

natural that

the philosophy it
was

knowledge, and
Duns Scotus

St. Thomas endeavoured

thought
to

to

be

theology,
to

while

trace

it back
as

to

logic. According
Ilaureau

him,

is syllogism from
was

the sole rule of

certainty. But,
is full of

M.

remarks, starting

this very

the journey principle,

perils. ])uns

Scotus,

in

fact,

near

fallinginto them,

and
was,

only escaped by taking refuge behind

nevertheless,a
in dialectics In his
to

the of

qujbbles of sophistry. He
and piety, it was from his

firm he

believer
was

and

full

ardour

that

led to the

uphold
distinct various this all time distinct
own-

the most
nature

extreme

views

of the he

realists. endeavoured in
or

researches
extract
to

into

of every

compound,
he upon found
matter

from
same

it the

which qualities way he looked

or

inherent

adherent

the

subject.In
from separated
at

separatedfrom separatedfrom
Each of

all form, form certain

matter,
united

merely matter
certain made and

forms, and

the

same

to

others.
to

these
a

notions, each
nature, such
as an

of

these

he conceptions, It
was

correspond with

existence these that

of its

to

obscure

lucubrations intangible

scholasticism and which

devoted
were

voluminous

treatises,which
conversation

led

to

passionatediscussion,
the students while

the main and

of subject down

amongst

they were

pacing up
The other

the Pre-aux-Clercs of St. Thomas centuries

was

(Fig.47).
Duns Scotus domain

champions
for several of Hales

and the

waged
of
as

war

againsteach
abstractions. his

in

vague

obscure

Alexander

supersededby
Francois de

Duns

Scotus,

representedby
the

and followers, viz. disciples Antonio Doctor),

Mayronis (surnamcd
I'ietro

Enlightened
The

Andrea,

John

Bassolius,and

d'Aquila (Fig.48).

64

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

Dominicans and their

did

not

give

up
"

the In

contest, and
order
"

St. Thomas

had

many of

fervent

eloquent successors.
cause,"
St. says M.

to

avoid

being
were

accused

betraying
to

Haureau,
and all

all Franciscans

obliged
Scotus. for

declare few

against

Thomas,
were

Dominicans
as

against

Duns

The

exceptions

denounced in the

schismatics. Paris

Thus,

instance, Pierre
was,

(PAuriol, surnamed

University of
of the mercy

the Eloquent Doctor,

A dialectician in his of the

although
rank,
and he

Franciscan, one
attacked without the

nominalists.

first

psychologicalrealism

St.

Thomas,
This

did

not

spare

natural

the image-ideasof species, the

school.

fierce caused
to

controversy, which
great excitement

attacked indirectly in the ranks

dpctrine of Duns
of whom

Scotus,

of the

most realists,

belonged
of Durand

the Order St.

of Franciscans. called the he

was

Upon
Very
a

the other Resolute

hand, the secession

de

Pourcain,

Doctor, who,
and M.

while the

professing
doctrines
"

forgotthat philosophy,
Duns

Dominican

upheld

of this
to

Scotus, was
of

gain to

the Franciscans.
one

Haureau in
; the

says,

From

epoch, the 'fact

belongingto
to

order particular
sect philosophical

religionceased
ties of

obedience imply implicit

were

any the

one

discipline

loosened,and though
the

two

schools still existed,each

own

individual took

up

positionwhich
from

seemed
once

best in his
more,

eyes."
the next
town

It was"

England,
of

that in

came

of celebrity which of his

at

ticism. scholastook his

William
name,
was a

Ockham,

born

the

from

he

pupil of Duns
his

Scotus, and
with
more

proved worthy
Dominican
scope the

great master, Guildford,

his doctrine he of

After

having passed

youth
he

the

Friars

repaired to Paris, where

nominalism.
but At

found
had him

for

expounding
doctrines
camp. that His William
was

first he

upheld

realist

of

his

master,

the force of in the

logicdrove
words

into the

opposite
who says

system is best
of

described

of M.

Haureau,

Ockham,

by

an

of the faculty of knowledge, analysis saw

we

that it

seconded

by
we

the call

which intuitive,

call

and perception,
two

by

the

abstractive,which
the

abstraction.
the the view of

With

these

energiescorrespond
us,

simple

ideas

which which

tangible objects affords

and

the

compound
William

ideas
of

forms by comparison,by intelligence

abstraction.

Ockham gence intellia

further demonstrated
in its
error manner

that the realists, having misapprehended human

of

being

and

its

manner

of

action,had

fallen is the
can

into
name

found pro-

in their definition of Divine

God Intelligence. his works

;

of the

mystery

everybody

can

see

and

judge

nobody

appreciate

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

the nature
error

of God.

Realism, therefore, has committed

to

grave

and

dangerous imagined

in

attempting
before

explainthe'
St.

nature

of

Divine

ideas.

God

the world
to

it: creating

has Augusti7ie

stated this ; but

is it necessary

go

any

further?

Why

peoplethe thought
? To

of God

with

element*, and
with all these upon

and inti'lliijibles, spiritualatoms

credit God

himself

does imaginarythings, his

not

this

of imply the placing

limits and
same

bounds

to the Him, by analogy, omnipotent will,and submitting

conditions

Fig. 48."

Italian Doctors

(Fifteenth Century)."Miniature
"

of

"

The

Life of St. Catherine

of

Sienna."

Manuscript in the Paris National

Library.

as

his creatures

Is it

becoming to
things,but

reduce

the

nature
reason,

of God

to

tion concepof

derived from

formed experience,

by
not

human

a sum representing

abstract from qualities inasmuch

as

definingthe pure

essence

of God,

that

essence mysterious

escapes
was

by
the

its very

nature

gations all the investiof "William of

of intuitive energy

Such

thesis principal

Ockham,

who

was

the most

of interpreter thorough-going

nominalism

during

the Middle

Ages,

66

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

This formidable the

great doctor

was

not

attacked

by

the

Sorbonne, though he had

the

many
to

adversaries,but his attitude towards

Papacy,

with

reference
him
out

disputebetween
and

Philippele
vengeance
was

Bel

and

Boniface

VIII., marked
Rome. de lie had

for with

the resentment the French

of the

Court

of

sided

king, and
he

well seconded
his

by

Michael

General Ceseiie,

of the XXII. in his

Franciscans, when
and the

continued
The

John attacks against aggressive the

Papal

power.

Pope

resented
of

attack, not
he the

so

much

individual
of Ockham

as capacity

in that of Vicar de Cesene

to

Christ, and
where

summoned

William fixed
two

and

Michael
the

Avignon,
of
were an

Holy

See had
The

its residence

during

establishment

antipope at

Rome.

Franciscans, having obeyed the order,

fair to result in summary

cast into

and prison,

their trial bid

to

punishment ; but they managed

received
on

to escape

Aigues-

Mprtes,where
Welcomed The doctors

theywere

board

vessel

belongingto

Louis of Bavaria.
his dominions. and schools, Walter the

by him, they ended

doctrine of AVilliam
who of

their

within days in obscurity survived few

him in the

Ockham

endeavoured

to

oppose

it had

followers.
to

Burleigh
cause

his himself, notwithstanding

courageous

endeavours
The Their

revive
were

the

of

realism, could
the most
numerous

not

secure

any the most

attention. zealous.

nominalists
masters
were

everywhere
doctors,
as

and

esteemed
; such

and evangelic doughty dialecticians,

zealous

party
and

leaders

Robert Most
renown.

Holcot, Thomas
them
were

of

Strasburg,Jean
their

Buridan,

Pierre

d'Ailly.
and

of

and professors, all these de

teachingacquiredthem
doctrines

influence

Above
Jean

discordant

there

rose

the venerable

voice

of

Charlier

Gerson, Chancellor
abuses
use

of the
"

University of Paris, who,

Let
us

testing pro-

the against

of dialectics, said, of Reason

the aid of

put

an

end

to

frivolous

disputes ;
which need

let

us

make

in solely Faith.

order to arrive at the

truth,
we

it cannot

do without and if
some

It is the rule of Faith minds still

that

follow,

refractoryor
us

stubborn

cling to

the

of philosophy, let quibbles in the bosom of the

deploretheir beingled astray,and humbly

far from the

seek
life."

Church,
one

schools, peace,

light,and

This

touching appeal,by

who
return

well deserved
to

the title of

and Evangelical

Very Christian Doctor,for

an

mystic theology(Fig.49)
the young from

did

not

find in

echo

in many of

minds

it did not

prevent
the

being led

away

the heat But

were

and dialectics,

sidingwith

of logic. philosophers

all these

systems, springing from

logicpursued
ruin

to

its final

limits,

destined to fall of themselves,involving in their

that of

nearly all

m"

'

ii;. I!). of

"

Miniature Fifteenth

of

the

"City
St.

of

God,"

by

St.

Augustine,
The
"

translated
upper

by

Raoul

de

Presles. the
are

"

Manuscript
who

the

Century.
received exercise into of
one

Genevieve
;

Library.
seven

enclosure

represents
those who

saints

have
selves, them-

been

already
by
the

heaven Christian
or

the

lower for
seven

enclosures

represent kingdom,
or

who
are

preparing

virtues,
of the

the

heavenly
sins.

excluding

themselves

from

it

by committing

other

capital

68

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

their
of

champions.

The

triumph
was no

of nominalism
so

completed
the

the

discomfiture

which scholasticism,
was

longer

popular in

and Universities, be added that

which the

being gradually

confined to the cloisters.

was

It may

between struggle

the rival schools

to this

much
was

abated

by

the

discoveryof
of the

printing; for,owing
ancient

invention, which
been

called divine,the works

for the of oral of teaching These the

which philosophy,

had

used

as

texts

became professors,

multiplied amongst

the friends

science.
to take

printed
the

books, making
lessons which

their way had

were everywhere, come previously

calculated
to

placeof

students

learn As

at the Universities

famous

for. the

of ability
"

their masters
the invention

of dialectics.
of

M.

Haureau learnt the

very

justly

observes,

Before
one

students printing, became

lessons of
to

science from
school students
masters

master, and

nearlyalways
common

his

: partisans

quit one

for
were

another

requiredno

degree of

courage.

But

afterwards of ten in

enabled, before making

time." of These
masters

their choice, to the books

weigh

the merits

at

-a

were

issued from

the presses

every The

country

Europe (Fig.51).
the Renaissance
was

of philosophy

coming just

into existence
the Turks,

when

the

Greeks, fugitive
into

after the

by capture of Constantinople
works

imported

Italymanuscripts containingthe
school. These

of Plato
it
was

and

of

of philosophers had been

the Alexandrian and

works, which

believed

lost,

of which

only a
than

vague

recollection had

been

were preservedby tradition,

even more

welcomed enthusiasm

in the

middle the of
was

of the books

fifteenth century with Aristotle

had been the in

respect and

of

the

twelfth of

century.
the
more

The

comparison
schools
too

ancient
not
to

philosophy with
the

scholasticism which latter,

Plato

modern
narrow,

advantage
The

of the

seemed gave
new a

too

obscure, and

too

servile. and

writingsof

better

idea of the many minds in

opinionsof
which
were

Heraclitus eager

Pythagoras,and
off all and bon"}s, them

opened
to

vistas to

to shake

emerge last four

from
or

the five

paths

which

theologyhad
of

been

guiding

for the

centuries

(Fig.50).
period
two

This between Theodoros

of
was

renovation philosophical

began by

sharp

discussion and

Grecian
:

of Constantinople, Gemistes philosophers the

a

Plethoii

de Gaza

first

fanatical

partisanof

the Alexandrian The and old the the

school

Plotinus,the
dead
;

second

faithful votary of Aristotle.

it the had formerly
new

scholasticism

the chairs tenanted

which

at

Florence

great

cities

of

were Italy

by

doctors,who

expounded

of principles

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

69

Plato

and

Aristotle.

The

names

talked

of

in

the

schools
A

were

those

of

Ermolao

Barbara,

Angelo Politien, and

to to

Lorenzo

Valla. these

student of Louvain, masters, and

in of

came Rudolph Agricola,

take

lessons from

illustrious In

returned
these
were

to

Flanders

propagate their doctrines.

the ancient

as Spain,

France,

doctrines, taken
hailed with
arrest

from

of Greece philosophers The

and

Egypt,
was

unanimous
this
stream

enthusiasm.
of novelties

University of
the

Paris

to powerless

which

Italian Renaissance

Fig.

50."

Bachelors

of

the

Faculty of Theology, and

Medicine of

Professors

of the

Faculties

of

and Theology, Jurisprudence, the Funeral of

of Pont-a-Mousson." at the University

From National

Henry
Cabinet

II., Duke
of

Lorraine, by Claude

de

la Ruelle."

Library, Paris.

Engravings.

poured

upon

the

West.

There

was

an

end

to

schools

and

to

discipline;

license, anarchy,and confusion

reignedsupreme.
de Cusa

Upon
far

the

one

hand, Nicholas
in the

declared
of

with

Pythagoras that
he
went
so

knowledge
as

is hidden

notion mysterious
Essence the other
as an

numbers, and
centre

to

represent the Divine

are

harmonious

in which

all

differences

blended.
a

Upon

hand, Marsilius Ficinus, who

under colour of

died in

1499, founded

Platonist

academy, and,

the Holy explaining

7o

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

he worshipped exclusively his Gospels, the the infant sciences

divine

Plato.

Then, again,we

have
all

prodigy,Jean
known
at

Pic de la Mirandola, who, after

having

studied

that
"

time, and
De omni
re

after

having, at

the age
to

of three-andreconcile the

twenty, argued

the thesis

endeavoured scibili," the

philosophy of

Aristotle

and
was

Plato
the

by

aid of wild
a new

cabalistic and
school
consummate to

logical astro-

evocations.

This

origin of
were,
no

of

cabalists,
men

magicians, and
those learning,

astrologers.They
Germans
and Italians and

doubt,

of
to

(Fig.52), who
arcana

sought
of

bring
Thus,

the

light of day
Reuchlin
Venice

the

material in his

immaterial

nature.

Jean of

associated held and that

cabalism writings

and

scholasticism.
of

George

in the

mysteriesof generationand

life substance

is the is

unique
no

absolute

being,the only God.

of

Paracelsus,who Th.cophrast.us mixing

other

than
two

Philip Bombastes
medical

nohenhehn,
that

metaphysics willi
he made

physicslike
of principle

substances,affirmed
has life, united the

God, of whom
and vain the soul

the

universal
was a

body
these

by

an

animal
the

fluid.

There

wide

interval

between

musings

and

safe

doctrine of St. Thomas

Aristotle still had

Aquinas, or
followers

the dialectical abstractions

of Duns

Scotus.
to

who

alleged that they remained

of the time in carried them died

faithful
over

his doctrine, but

the

general tendency
of

the

precipice. Peter
announced that

Pomponacius
he
took

Mantua upon

(born

1462,

in
a

1526)
very the

his stand

but peripateticism,
or

he

raised admitted the the

dangerous question by inquiringwhether

of principle the
reason

not

Aristotle in of

of immortality and
reverse

the

soul.

He

concluded
the silence

negative,
master

adding
this

that

faith must
was

supplement
taken
any

in

respect. This

not

account

of

by

his

adversaries,
denounced
use

who
him

reproached him,
as a

the other

one

side with side with advance

and outraging Aristotle, made

a

heretic of

the

having
an

treacherous

of the

doctrines

to peripateticism

abominable

heresy.
went
more

Pomponacius
or

had, notwithstanding, many

in the
occult of
to

devoted
in

who followers,

less astray

sciences

or

scholasticism, amongst
Caesar

them

being Augustine

Niphus
As ardent

Calabria,and

Julius

of Scaliger
of its de

Padua. for it several in of

the aberration scholasticism, Such

were

opponents obtained
Tio, surnamed

champions.
who
;

Thomas
after

Cajetan, bom philosophy

devoted
more nor

1469,

became
his

cardinal,

having professed the

of

St. Thomas

pupil,Lconicus
restoration of pure

Thomsons

Venice,
was

who

all his

energies

to

the

which logic,

neither

less

72

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

unity of
the

substance

and

the

unity of
real

motion.

He

was

accused
was

of

being

an

but atheist,

he dissembled died
at Rome

his

opinionsso

well that he

pensionedby

Pope, and
This
same

and selling elixirs. drawing horoscopes (1576),

school

naturallyproduced

several

lunatics

and

victims

of

hallucination,some
latter

and incliningto pantheism,

others

to

the scepticism,

having
with of the

studied
a

medicine
know

and

the

former define

scholasticism before
the
essence

they were
and the

smitten
essence

desire to
soul.

and

to

of been

God

Andrew
was,

Cesalpinof Arezzo,
upon

who

had

physicianto

Pope
even

Clement
of

VIII.,

good grounds, suspectedof pantheism,and

with Averroes that God
was

atheism, for having

cause as

maintained of all

not
errors

so

much

the

the

substance he

things. Notwithstanding the

died
a a

contained
at
was

in his in

works,
But than

and escapedall persecution, the

Christian

death

Rome

1603.

unhappy

Jordano

Bruno,

Dominican
more

monk,

less fortunate

Andrew

Cesalpin.
a

Possessed

of talents

prolific
his

than

endowed judicious,
to

with
of

brilliant

and imagination, who

to

carrying

confidence
denounced

the

point

presumption, Bruno,
about

had be

already been

for the boldness

of his systems, was

when he

proceededagainst
He wandered

by
from

the

ecclesiastical authorities

fled into and

Naples.

city to cityduring twenty

several

years,

printedat London, Paris, and

which
His he attacked both the

Frankfort Catholic

in treatises, philosophical the

dogma

and

doctrine

of Aristotle.
to return to to

boldness

proved

fatal to

him, and, having the imprudence

him He
to be
was

Italy,the
stake
as

caused Inquisition
a

tried,and arrested,
at Rome

condemned

the

relapsedheretic.

burnt

in 1600. of Aristotle
was

"While the doctrine of

the

supreme the

in North

the Italy, Plato and

schools
to

kingdom

of

Naples

accorded
but whether

to preference

the
or

Alexandrian
it Aristotle, Thus the Telesio

philosophers ;
was none

under which

the

auspices of

Plato

the

less

pantheism
chair
a

reigned everywhere
;

alike.

was

pantheistin
was

his

at Cosenza

who Patrizzi,
came

occupied

chair

at

Ferrara,

not

only

but pantheist, Rome.

to

professthis
of Plato

pagan
and

doctrine

in the very
as a

of University

The

great names

Aristotle

served
not

cloak for the tendencies itself called upon

to

of their defend
Platonist

The interpreters. the Church

did Inquisition for the science,

consider

against
no

of the Aristotelist and apostles

of the heretical innovators.

philosophyhad

part in the
It
was

schemes necessary,

however,

to

select

for philosophy

the Lutheran

schools.

/'////. osor/f/"

"

s"

'//-:\CES.

Tlmt

of

Plato

was

rejected ;
himself

and

Mclancthon the

obtained

the

adoption

of in

tlial ol Aristotle, mid with conformity

prepared,for

of philosophyand teaching

Aristotelian favour.

several elementary works principles, Erasmus

which
a

were

received with
with

merited

53),who (Fig.
the

remained
of

Catholic and for

Lutheran
the of the

tendencies, also
translation Bale

followed

example

Mclanethon,

undertook

of several
But aim
near

them treatises of Aristotle, revising of philosophy

the

use

school. another

the when

Aristotle took

another The

direction and
Flemish Justus

attained

carried into the Netherlands.

in

born Lipsius,

Brussels

1547, followed

in

the wake

of

Fig. 52.

"

The

Natural
to

Sciences

in the presence Gorman

of

Philosophy.
"

Fac-simile "Consolation

of

Wood

Engraving

attributed

Holbein

in the

Translation

of the

of

Philosophy,"by

Boethius, Augsburg Edition, 1537, in folio.

the Stoics, appliedtheir moral

and did
not

to philosophy

the

theories of

pcripatetieisin,

separate theology from

were

philosophy. Gaspard Scioppius and

*

Thomas

Gataker

his

disciples. principal
in

France
been

also had

her

share

these

innovations. philosophical
the

She had of the

But

the first home

of scholasticism, but
had caused
an

civil and

wars religious

sixteenth

century
more

almost

total

of study. suspension born in

Pierre llamus,
set to work to

commonly
(lie

called La

Ramee,

Picardy in 1515,
Aristotle, and

revive

condemning teaching of philosophy,

74

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

recommending

his

pupils to

read

Plato. of

lie

endeavoured

to

make

logic
he very

generallycomprehensibleby freeing it
made ingeniously the maxims of He
use

and sophistical verbiage, in the minds

a

of this

new

logicto
for the

inculcate he
was

of his with his

pupils

the
was

Reformation,
cited before

Calvinist
for

fanatical

tendencies.
but opinions,

parliament, not

religious
his trial

for his

and though blasphemiesagainst peripatclicism,

Fig. 53.

"

Portrait of Erasmus, National

after

Wood

Engraving of the Sixteenth

Cabinet of

Century.

Library,Paris.

Designs.

was

not

of

an

character, he inquisitorial
at

was

condemned,

deprived of
the

his

chair professor's His

saw

the

Royal College,and compelled to

de

leave

country.
others who in the

implacableenemies, Antonio
in him

and Govea, Jacques Charpentier, the detractor of Aristotle.

to

less the
the

Huguenot
of the

than small

Ramus,
lecture

had

become

chief

school

of Ramists, went

.sv

-H:\CES.

75

towns

OH

the

bunks
\v;is

of the

Rhine.

After
of

three

years'exile

he

returned His

to

France,and
enemy,

included

in the

massacre

St. Bartholomew.

personal

of Jacques Cliarpentier,
at

Clerniojit accused
of

(in the Oise),professorof mathematics

the

\v;is Royal College,

having had

him

massacred

by his

pupilsduringthat

terrible

night.
of

the efforts Plato, notwithstanding

Ramus,

had

not

many
to

followers in

the

of Paris, where University

to

scholasticism

endeavoured

regain its sway.

his

Aristotle continued

be the

favourite of the

school,and

philosophical

r-

Fig.

54.

"

Battle of les vices

Beggars
Be

and

Peasants les
uns

over
aux

Barrel
autres

of Wine
pour

in the
"

Chapter headed,
Miniature

"

ment Com-

combiittirent

les vivres."

of the "Roi

Modus.""

Manuscript of

the Fifteenth

Century." Burgundy Library,Brussels.

predominance
ordinances.

was

fostered
the
true

by

the

decrees

of

the

Parliament
the in

and

the

royal

But

French and

spiritwas
renewed,
to

less in than

direction of the

study

of

even logic,

reformed
a

moral

philosophy, (Fig. 54).

founder

when especially
at Montaigne,

it had

tendency

be

and sceptical
was,
so

sarcastic
to

the close of

the fifteenth century,

denies
nor

speak,the

of this

which philosophy,
in

neither makes

affirms all

which anything,
He
was

callseverything
born
at

and question,

lightof

subjects.

the

PHILOSOPHIC

SCIENCES.

Chateau

de he

Montaigne, in
attended been

the

Perigord, upon
to have

the

28th

of

February,
he

1533. be
own

Though

all the

classes at the

Collegeof Bordeaux,
become
a

may his

said to have
way

and self-taught, with

in philosopher

through

his intercourse

the

and poets, historians,

of philosophers
he would In

antiquity.
not

He

in delighted
over

the works

of Seneca
monarch
"

and

Plutarch, but

"bite

his nails

the Aristotle,
his immortal
"

of modern

doctrine."

when after-years,
the against
"

he wrote

declared he unhesitatingly Essays," kind of doctrinal

dialectics of the schools

"

against every
our

teaching.
be, even
use or

It is
men

he writes, pitiable,"
of

that in
and I

century philosophy should

name,

for

vain a intelligence, in the

a

fantastic

which

is without

value

in

opinion or

fact.
cause.

believe that
a

sophistry, by choking
to

up

the

approaches to it,is
to

It is

great mistake

depict it
frowns, and
was

as

sible inaccesfearful to

children,of

forbiddingcountenance,
be
de
more

full of

look

at.

Nothing 'can
Michael
"

I cheerful, sprightly,

almost the in
some

saying

frolicsome,"
of the libertines

in Montaigne inaugurated
"

France

philosophy
respects
his Pantu-

that is to say, of the free-thinkers Francois

different

from

that which

Rabelais
John and

professed, fifty years before,in

as a

works, gruelic
the
"

and

which

Calvin denounced

pagan

doctrine, accusing
M.

libertines of atheism the last word

impiety.

"Scepticism,"writes
favour
of the

Haureau,
almost

had

in this

propagandain
the the

and sprightly away

frolicsome

philosophy ;

and

young,

only

too

led easily
new

by

such

remarks, gladly left,under

guidanceof

this

teacher, the
to turn

arduous

paths of study to eyebrows of

the

revel in the intercourse

of poets, and

the

melancholy

into logicians

derision."

Fig.

55.

"

Seal of the

Faculty of Theology,

Fig. 56.

"

Seal of the

Faculty of Law,

Prague.

Prague.

MATHEMATICAL

SCIENCES.

Ancient

Systems Pappus,
and

of

the

Planetary
Schools

World." of

Ptolemy

and

Aristarchus School in

of

Samos."

Boethius,

and

Gerbert."

Bagdad."
of

Mathematical the Arabs.

Spain, Italy, England,

and Master Pierre." and

France."

Astronomical
and Exact in the St.

Researches
Thomas

"

Roger
of

Bacon

Alhertus

Magnus
of

Aquinas."
"The

Progress
of

Mathematics." Matthias Peter

Popes
Corvinus." Ramus."

Kings

protectors
Works and

the

Sciences.
Fifteenth

King
Pic

Hungary,
Mirandola."

Principal Tycho
Brahe

composed Copernicus.

Century."

proof

of in
to

the
the

forward Middle
a

state

of
it

the

exact

sciences sufficient Gothic

Ages,
Roman

would
or

be

instance

basilica

cathedral. of mathematical
of

What

immensity
calculations
;

and what

depth

knowledge
what have builders stones,
in

geometry,
and

statics, and
in the

optics ;
must

experience
been in

skill

execution architects and

possessed by
hewing,

and the
in the

carving,
them
to

fitting heights, forming

raising

great
in

constructing
many

enormous

towers

and

gigantic belfries,
others

arches,
and

some

heavy
the

and

massive,
of

light

and

airy,

in

bining com-

neutralising
other
up
to

thrust
very

these summit

arches of made

which
the

interlace all
as

and
if

hide
the of

each
most

the science
in

edifice herself

"

complicated
no

had
the way the

humbly
of

the !

servant

art,
From

placing
the
were

obstacle

its free

development
and

commencement not

of
the

Middle of

Ages
and the

henceforward,
as

mat

hematics individual

so

much

object
in

special
shade

public teaching
cloisters traditions
or

of

and of

solitary study,
artisans who

either

the

of

amidst of their

associations

zealously

preserved

the

predecessors.
In
the

University

centres,

as

in

the

Arab

and

Jewish

schools

which

had

78

MATHEMATICAL

SCIENCES.

so

much

science importance,practical Thus the

was

made generally of the the

subordinate
formulae

to

speculativescience.

theory

calculus, the

of

the projections of lines through space, algebra,

were

problems of triangulation,
that

by preferenceapplied to
mathematics
It
was as were

astronomical

so observations,

the transcendental

from astronomy. always inseparable Claudius

follows

that the

Ptolemaous, a system
bases world in of
"

Greek

or

nomer, Egyptian astro"

constituted

mundane
one

Cosmography
and

written

in

Greek,

which

became

of the
"

mathematical is divided ethereal

east

astronomical
vast

science in the Middle

the
one

Ages

"

The

into two

regions ;
the

ethereal, the other

which skies

elementary.

The

regionbegins with
to west

first mover, hours

; ten

its journeyfrom accomplishes

in participate this

in

twenty-four

motion,

and the
was

their
seven

comprisesthe totality planets." According

the first four

double
to
mover

heaven, the firmament, and crystalline

double
heaven crystalline The and

Ptolemaeus, the
and of the

placed between

firmament.

elementary region,comprising the

the The in the
was

elements and
was

fire, air,water,
the

earth,reignedbeneath
of the
moon.

of cavity

the

sky,

subject to
of earth and

influence

terrestrial
centre

globe,

composed
and
was

water, existed motionless the element

of

the world, fire.

surrounded

by

of air,in which

mingled
all the

that of

This Some

system
them did

was

not, however,
their

adopted by exclusively
the
centre

philosophers.
of who

of

accorded
not

preferenceto
earth
around in

system
of the
was

of Aristarchus

Samos,

who

place the

the

world,

and

attributed to it
amidst of the

rotary motion
the

the sun,

which

less suspended motionto

and planets

planetary circles.
is nearest took

According
sun,

Aristarchus
motion

Samos, Mercury,the planetwhich

it in three

the
seven

completed his
months
the
own sun

around
execute

months, whilst Venus earth,apart from

second

and
in

half

to

hers.

The
a

its motion

round its of

the

space

of of

year, effected

motion, revolving upon

axis,in
and

the space The about

twenty-fourhours, thus
motion of the
moon

causing the
around

succession
earth
was

day

night.

monthly

the

accomplished in
two

twenty-seven days.
his revolution round

The
the

fourth

Mars, planet,

took

years

to

accomplish
twelve

sun*;Jupiter,much

farther

distant, took

years, and The and

Saturn of

thirty. Ptolemy eventuallytriumphed

century Great,
the who the loved
over

system

that

of Aristarchus, favourite
and

at the

close of the fifth of Theodoric

great Boethius
and

(Fig.57),the

minister

patronisedliterature

80

MATHEMATICAL

SCIENCES.

the Greek
close

mathematicians.
the

Pappus, one

of the most
his

celebrated, who,
collections, was

at the
not

of

fourth

century, formed

mathematical The
was

translated

into Latin

until the Renaissance.

influence of Boethius
not

upon him"

the progress
and

of the exact than

two

sciences in centuries

Europe

destined

to survive

for

more

mathematics

were

appliedonly to
to

ture, architecthe
most

and hydraulics, absurd notions

were

celestial

with regard cosmography,

which

entertained.
was

However, science
and

in the schools of Alexandria stillworthily represented

Constantinople.
and Eutocius

Two

geometers

belonging to them,
in

Anthemius

of

Tralles

of Ascalon, flourished
himself
more

the

reign of

Justinian
the

(527"
of

565).

The

former, busying
to

with especially

problems
at

mechanics, contributed
and

the erection of the

basilica of St.
an

Sophia

stantinople Conthe and

obtained

great
on

renown

as

architect

and

sculptor ;

latter, by

his commentaries

the mathematical
of

writingsof

Archimedes

Apolloniusof Perga,made
But

them

and general utility. practical

extreme

it

was

in the East, and the

in the very

East, that

the

pursuitof

mathematics, applied to

study

of astronomy, had

acquiredthe greatest
drew eclipses, formed
a

impetus.

In

China
the

the

Mandarin the

Yhiang

noted

the

up
new

pf catalogue
calendar. In

stars, marked
the sacred be

and degreesof longitude,

India

first astronomical book of

tables

were

established

by

aid of

the

Send-hind, the

the

Brahmins.

The

Caliph Al-Mansour
his

ordered the

these tables to Haroun

translated

into Arabic. himself with

the

Following
protector of

example,
matical matheof the

Caliph

Alraschid

constituted
so

the

which sciences, his

fitted in

well

genius and

tendencies

people:

he had

the books

of Euclid, Diophantus,Ptolemy, Pliny, and

and

best mathematicians, astronomers,

translated antiquity, of

cosmographers of
the

Greek

and

Latin

into Arabic
an

and

Syriac. Under
of

Caliphs the
came

school

Bagdad

attracted

immense
and

number

students,who
were

to

learn the

exact

sciences.

Geometry

astronomy
to the

taught concurrentlywith
which
even

medicine.

It is true

that,owing

from prejudices
powers

the

most

eminent

in science

were

all subject, sidereal

the

of calculation
in

were

employed

in the measurement action of the

moon

of the upon

and conjunctions,

the stating precisely

the human

body

and

upon

the fecundation sciences

of germs.
the
were

From

Asia

Minor, Greece, and

Egypt, the
Jewish

exact

passed to they

Arab

schools of

Spain
much

at

and Cordova, Seville,

Granada,

where

cultivated with

success.

Many

and rabbis,physicians,

astro-

MA

THEMA

TICAL

SCIENCES.

81

nomors

addicted in
a

to the

art

of divination, to
to

and astrology,

even

to

magic,
in

contributed

largodegree
but

the scientific and

were

intellectual movement conceal

their Hebrew

the

Iberian

peninsula ;
Arab

they

obliged to

under origin

pseudonyms.
he
found

when Charlemagne,
exact

instituted his
a

palatine academy, did

the
same as footing

not

omit

the

which sciences,

placeupon

the

speculative

and sciences, literature, ranked with natural

the arts.

Astronomers

and

naturally geometricians
Irish
man

philosophers, musicians, and

poets. The

of

Fig.

fi8.
"

Mathematician
a

Monks;
of the

one

teaching the Globe, the other copying a Manuscript.

"

After

Miniature

Romance

of

the

"

Image

of the

World."

"

Manuscript

of

the

Thirteenth

Paris. Century." National Library,

letters, Dungal, was

selected

by
the

the

great Emperor
of the

to

superintendthe
to collate

necessitated by investigations
annals Ruban At
a

reform
he
was

and calendar,

the

of celestial phenomena, and Maur.

assisted by Alcuin, Amalaire, and

the death of
at

Charlemagne,the
court,
seemed
set

exact
to

which sciences, shrink into

had

flourished for the

brief space

his

the

seclusion of

monasteries

58). Dungal (Fig.

his
M

pupilsthe example

of retirement,

MATHEMATICAL

SCIEATCES.

as

lie became

monk

at the

Abbey
almost

of St. made
at

Denis,
a

where

he

died the

in 829.
exact

The

Order

of St. Benedict
were

had

monopoly of
of Mount
at

sciences,

which
of St.

held

in

high

honour

the

Abbeys

Cassini,in Italy ;
;

Martin,
;
were

at Tours

(France);
;

of St.
of

Arnulph,

Metz

of St. "c.

Gall, in
It
was

Switzerland
there erected that
so

of Prum, in Bavaria formed

the

Canterbury,in England,
ecclesiastical

able architects and

engineerswho
most

many

magnificentedifices throughout Europe, and

lives to
a

of

whom,

their dedicating

work
names

of faith and
to

pious devotion,have, through

condemned humility,

their
at

oblivion.

Gerbert, born
into time
a

Aurillac that

about
was

930, and
one

admitted
monks

while

very devoted

young

monastery of
the

town,
he

of those

who

their
temporaries con-

to

sciences ; but
as

himself distinguished extensiveness of his

the

from

amongst
the he

his

much

by

the
to

learningas by

practical
contrived

direction
to

which
from
to

he gave
them.

his labours

by

that applications and of

extract
went

astronomer, geometrician, Linguist, mathematical

studies
at the

mechanist,
Cordova Otho and III.

he

complete his
thence

schools the

Toledo,
conceived been

and
a

repairedto Germany,
He

where
see

Emperor

great likingfor him.

of

held the
was

of

Ravenna, after having

under

Archbishop

Rheirns, and
was,

elected

Pope

the

title of
of his of of

II. Sylvester

Gerbert
was

the beyond question,

use

first mathematician and the from

as

day.

He

it

who
we

the popularised still

of

numerals very

system
that

numbering
which of it
are

which Romans

employ
but

"

system

different
to
was

the

made

use,

attributed falsely
of Boethius. but
to

the Arabs,

traces

to be

found

in the works

It

not, however, to the

use

introduction his universal

of Arab

figuresinto Europe,
Gerbert

the

which
his

he made

of the

that learning, he

owed
his the
own

his

fame.

During

stay at

imperialcourt
works,
a

fabricated

with

hands, amongst
of which
to

other
was

curious

clock

worked
star.

by
His
numerous

water, and
inventions

movement

regulated
upon
extant
as a

by

the

polar
and

caused

him

be

looked remain

sorcerer,

of his
on

scientific works

all that

are

several His

treatises

Geometry and Cosmography.

friend,Adelbold,
the learned of
a

pupil and
under

native

of

Liege, after studying

as earlycelebrity

the the

sciences there

Heriger,acquired an
of

brilliant rival of Fulbert

Chartres,and
him
to

Abbou,
as

Abbot

of

Fleury.
or

The

Emperor Henry
and
was

II. attached

his household

chancellor
to

secretary,
Utrecht.

loath to

lose his

services

by raising him

the

see

of

.i/./ THKM.

i TIC.

\ i.

.SY

v/v'.vc /:.v.

"

Adelbold, like Gcrbert,

a

was

accused several

of

magic, and
churches
the

though
with

he

did

not

make

cluck,

ho

constructed it
was no

splendid owing
'o

truly
the

marvellous

and rapidity, this accusation left

doubt

of jealousy

masons

that which

was

made
a

against him.
on

The

only
to

scientific work

Adelbold The

was

treatise

the Globe, dedicated

and

II. Pope Sylvester itself felt in

to

salutaryinfluence
world
at

of Gerbert

Adelbold
1000

made
A.D.,

the the

Catholic

the

approach

of the year

which, owing

Fig. 59."

Perseus

and

Andromeda." Fixarum."
"

After

Miniature
"

of the

Fourteenth

Century, "Liber

do

Locis

Stellarum

Spanish Manuscript.

In the Arsenal

Library,Paris.

superstitious ignoranceof
destined
to

the

was people,

looked

forward
two

to

with

dread

as

usher

in the the

reign

of Antichrist.

These

illustrious savants
in advance

protested against
the
end and eclipses of the world.

threat which
of

of the
were

millennium, and
considered
to

announced

comets

be sinister presages

of the

Instead that

and admiring their their learning recognising

genius, people believed

of spirits evil.

they were

holdingcriminal

intercourse

with the

84

MATHEMATICAL

SCIENCES.

The the

exact

sciences continued
Eastern

to be

taught and
the Arabs

to

make

progress

amongst
was

Greeks, the

and peoples,

hi

Spain.

Astronomy
the wise
men

still the Islam years

were

favourite

science in the
up

Mussulman astronomical
Table
;

and schools, tables. Aben and

of

always drawing
his life upon his

Al-Battany spent fifty

of

Sabean

Byhan (died in 941),

Aboul-Waffa

Mohammed of the tenth

in 989), Absoufy al-Saghany (died

(atthe

end

and century),

the most

celebrated

of

all

these

philosophers,
different

Aly

ben

Abdel-Rhaman,

spent

their whole

existence in

drawing up
of the motion

astronomical

according to the laws tables, calculating

was

of the
than of

stars,for astronomy
observation.
with the The

at

that time
schools and

science

rather and of

of calculation
not

Spanish
of

59 (Figs. the
not
so

60) were

behindhand the

academy

Bagdad

school
numerous

Alexandria, although
in the eleventh Arab
as

scientific celebrities in them

had
were

were

they

been

in

the

tenth
:

century.
as

The ben

most

famous

of these

savants
was

Spanish Jews

such
a

Soliman

Gavirol than
same

(diedin 1070),who
was as a

not

less

as distinguished

poet and
at

moralist

he

mathematician,
up
a

and

Abraham

ben

Chija, who
which
were

about
in

the

period drew
for
more

Celestial

Cosmography
The rabbis

was

held

high repute
for

than and

six centuries. astronomical

who

most

famous
as

their mathematical

works,
all
more

written
or

in

Arabic, such
with

Ibn-Zarcali,Abraham
and from
no

Arzachel, Aben-Ezra,

less

mingled

the theorems

calculations which
the Talmud.
more

they took

from

the exact

sciences fanciful deductions those

Astronomy in
to

days was

very

often

than

astrology ;
a

that is

say, the

art

of

drawing horoscopesand
stars

making predictions by
relations of the
much addicted
means

study of
The

the

of position

the

and

of the

mutual

planets.

Eastern

Persians,Arabs, Jews, were peoples,

endeavoured
and
to

to these

practices.
junctions, con-

They
fate

ascertain

the

future

by

of the
heavens

celestial
not

believed

that
the
was

they

could

read all

in

the

only

the

of

empires, but

destiny of
his book

human

beings.

This

so-called the

doctrine philosophical

inaugurated in
on

the Great

ninth

century by
He

Arab

Albumazar, astrologer
that the appearance of

in

the

Conjunctions.

asserted with the

the

prophets and

of

had religions
to
;

coincided
the
a

conjunctionsof Jupiterwith

the

planets. Thus, according

the Christian

him,

conjunction of given time, the

total downfall it
was

Mercury produced
the Moon with A

law

but, in

of conjunction of all

Jupiterwould
as

bring about
this,as insane

the
as

beliefs. religious

doctrine such

impious,

JA

1 THEM

A TIC

A L

SCIENCES.

naturallyexcited
forbidden Catholic

the

of reprobation

the

Church. condemned
this

Judicial

was astrology

in all Christian

and countries,

by the Holy See.

chimerical

The

professors very
to
was astrology

properly denounced

science, as

opening a path
While

fatalism of the most

as prohibited

reckless and
an

kind. culpable the Church

seven was

and occult science,

one

it, anathematizing astronomy

which
were

took

her

place as
a

of the years,

liberal arts the

taught,for
When the

more

than

thousand Paris
was

at

school
upon

of
the

Alexandria.

of University

being

formed

Fig. 60.

"

The

Centaur.

"

After
"

Miniature

of the Fourteenth
"

Century,"

Liber

de Locis Stellarum

Fixarum."

Spanish Manuscript.

Arsenal

Library,Paris.

model
included which

of

that
in the

celebrated

school, astronomy,
formed

as

matter

of
of

course,

was

which qiinilririiini, consisted of

the

second
and

order

and study,
But the

further

arithmetic, geometry,

music.

representinghigher education,was f/iini/ririii"i,

number

followed

by

very the

limited

of students, most

of

them

not

gettingfurther
or

than

trivium,
grammar,

which

comprised only the primary sciences

dialectics.

the

humanities,

and rhetoric,

86

MATHEMATICAL

SCIENCES.

The and close

same

was

the

case

in all the
more

schools of Europe
to

but

those of
towards

Italy
the

England
of the

accorded

time At of

mathematical
learned

sciences

twelfth

century.
as

Pisa, a

mathematician, Leonardo
from his

Fibonacci, better
the East the

known

Leo

Pisa, brought back

Gerbcrt
had and

journey to
pagated pro-

algebraicnotation

which

invented, or
Fibonacci the
use

rather

in
credited method this

Europe, two

centuries

previously ;

has

often

been

with
in

the introduction

of Arab

and figures
the
not

of the abbreviative Oxford

lengthy
was

calculations.
another like

Amongst

at professors

about

periodthere
not

mathematician

less remarkable, who,

though

he had

travelled

Fibonacci,had
was

the talent to discover all the formulae surnamed

of the exact
master

sciences.
friend

This

Eobert,
and

Grossetete,who

was

the

and

of Adam
in

of Marisco

of the celebrated

Roger

Bacon.
him in

Roger Bacon,
the most the with known
were

all his allusions He

most

to Robert
as

Grossetete,speaks of
one

terms. respectful

describes him
eminent and
men

of the most

enlightened,

best

informed,

and

of

his

day

as

fullyconversant
then
but

all
; at

even languages,
as

Greek

Hebrew,
Latin

which

were

little

very

dissatisfied with
used in and the

the

translations

of Aristotle which
the

that

time

Universities,and

with endeavouring,
ones

assistance of his friends

love and of

to provide better pupils,

as

as

allyingthe

science to that
as was

of letters ;
in possible of
a

being as day
;
as

much the

versed

in mathematics

astronomy
and
as

his

of interpreter

Aristotle's
It may be

logic ;

the

author

treatise upon
to these

the Celestial Globe.

mentioned, also, that,in addition

and

uncommon

of philosopher qualities

savant, Robert
Raised
to

Grossetete
the

possessedsincere pietyand
of

deep theological
in

learning.
behind

see episcopal

Lincoln

(he died

1253),he
of

left the

him

still extant, letters,

which

contain which

unequivocal proof
he
was

of sincerity
as an

his devotion
enemy.

to

the

Papacy, of

represented falsely

open

Adam

de the

Marisco

like belonged, of his

Robert in

Grosstete,to
in
a

the

Church.

He

passed
but

greater part

days

England,
in him of the

Franciscan of

monastery,

the life of the cloister did not almost

deaden
as

the love

science.

Roger
one

Bacon
the

always speaks of him,

his age
"

Bishop

of

Lincoln, as
and

of

of lights But

as

master

in grammar,

mathematics,
the

astronomy.

it was,

above

the all, which

name,

the

and learning,

geniusof Roger
of history the

Bacon

(born

in

1214)

predominated

in the
as

scientific combated

thirteenth

century.

The

often school itself,

he

its views, gave

88

MATHEMATICAL

SCIENCES.

urging
method

so

many

minds

to

the

study of nature,
nature

and

to

the

experimental
Whilst of
to

without

which
was

the

of mysteries

remain

unfathomable. the

St. Thomas

Aquinas
and

devoting to Christian theologyall glow of

his

resources

his dialectics natural

all the

Eoger piety,

Bacon

applied himself
to

attention philosophyand mathematics, paying special he looked upon

as

the

study of
of

which languages,
the natural But
a

connected closely

with

the

progress

sciences
too

(Fig.61).
to these to

exclusive devotion

his

favourite

studies
upon

led eventually all methods

at

Roger
except

Bacon his
own.

astray, and

he

came

look

with
after

contempt
his

to Paris Upon repairing

residence

Oxford, he

attacked unhesitatingly
the
masters

the

accusing system of teaching in the Universities,

of

and

either professors
to

ignorance

or

bad

faith ;

and, though
upon the

himself

belonging
and

the Order
in

of

St. Francis, he
he in did

declared
not

war

Franciscans the learned

Dominicans
had

France, whom
him

consider
such
as

equal to
Robert of

friends he
of of
"

left behind

England,
and,

Lincoln, William
whom he

Sherwood, John
as

of London,
"

above

the all,
more

person than

spoke

Master all the and

Nicholas.

Experience
the school
are

is worth
not to be

he Aristotle," with
a

said ;

of metaphysics
;
a

compared
Albert beware
are

little grammar

mathematics
who

Alexander fatal

of Hales
;
our

and
us

presumptuous

schoolmen

exercise

influence

let

of

and let us complete for ourselves to it, becoming subject is

as scarcely yet begun."

education,which

From

this time

he

appliedhimself

to

the

study of
Platonist

four

ancient

languages,
He
was

and higher mathematics, astronomy, optics,

philosophy.
French

assisted in his studies

by

man

of he

incomparable genius, a
as

savant
or

belonging to Picardy, whom

and MfKjistcr Peregrinus, who
name

always speaks of
be

Magister

Petrus

would

unknown absolutely
"

if his illustrious
"

pupil had
Minus,"

not

handed

his

down, in his

Opus Tertium
Petrus

and
a

his

"

Opus

to the

admiration
his

of

posterity. Magister
whom he

led upon

life, solitary
as

of avoidingthe society

fellow-men,
the

looked

mad,
to

or

as

sophists incapableof enduring

the secrets the celestial of nature
; ;

light of

truth ; he

endeavoured
the

trate pene-

he observed

the stars,and upon science

arms

sought out

causes

of

phenomena
of

he
;

imposed
he

the task of

multiplyingthe
of
war

metamorphoses
gave
same a

matter

invented

and
;

instruments lie

he the
to

and useful application to alchemy practical time

to

paid attention
he

at

agronomy,

surveying, and

architecture, and

sought

MATHEMATICAL
~\
extract

SCfEXCES.

89

from

the

devices

of

sorcerers

and
a

magicians whatever

experimental
deserved the

science could
surname

discover
his

therein.
him
to

In

word, Magistcr Petrus

which
a

pupilgave

of J/.v///.sV/r EsjMviineiiforum.

Such

guide was
him,

invaluable
for in
most

Roger

Bacon

in the wonderful

inventions
was

attributed to
doubtless

of his researches of

and

experiments he
His

assisted
"

by

the

advice

MagisterPetrus.
to what
a

works,

more

his particularly

show Opus Maju.-s,"

heighthe

elevated science,

the experimental for substituting

the scientificmethod.

It is easy to understand

how
came

the invention

of

"c., gunpowder, telescopes, magnifying glasses,

He

to be

attributed to him.

merely put
of

into execution,as had

it would
the
structed con-

appear,

the

scientific discoveries
of refraction and the

his

master, who

observed who

phenomenon
a

of properties

the loadstone,and
the

movable

sphere which

reproducedall
to

motions
as

of the

stars.

Roger
1269

Bacon

also devoted

his attention

and philosophy, 62 (Figs.

"

as early

the year

he proposed the reform

the attitude which

of the calendar

67).
his criticisms
many

But upon

he had assumed, and

his

the

of severity
him

the

most

illustrious of

made contemporaries,

bitter

enemies.
11is principal adversaries monks of the Franciscan
"

or

his rivals rather, perhaps,

"

were,

like

himself,

Order.

He

was

denounced

to
was

his

as being superiors

of heresy in guilty

his

and of science, teaching

he with

confined

in

prison
latter,
were

where
most

he

could

not

have

any the

communication
same

his

pupils.

The

of whom

to belonged
or

order, and religious

as

all of whom

famous

astronomers

mathematicians, such
nicknamed Baconthorp, his
cause

Thomas

Bungey,
of

Jean

de

Paris, John
did not He
"

Bacon

or

the

Prince

Averroists,

venture

to espouse

for fear of

beinginvolved
he had

in his

disgrace.
his

had, however, a friend in Clement

was,

IV.,
at

to whom

dedicated

Opus Majus,"and
was

by

his

order,set

But, at liberty.
with
He

the death

of that

he pontiff,
he and and
was

again imprisonedand
use

treated

still greater

for severity,
to revise

refused the

of

materials. writing
contains
more

managed, however,
the

his "Opus Majus,"which perfect

the substance of his doctrine,

than with original,

he wrote
"

two

epitomes of it,far
Minus
"

advanced
Both

of the titles

Opus

and

"

Opus

Tertium."
not

of these books, though

they long remained

persecutionto which
not

unpublished, were
their author
was

the notwithstanding destroyed, it is

but during his lifetime, subjected the

N

many

years

since

they

first

saw

light.

This

man

of

genius,who

9o

MA

THEM

A TIC

A L

SCIENCES.

Fig.

62."

The

Burgher

in Winter.

Fig. 63."

The

Sower.

Fig. 64.

"

Lovers

in

Springtide.

ig. 65."

The

Sheep Sheurer.

Fig.
Miniatures

66."

Ride

in Summer.

Fig. 67." The

of Hours.

Reaper.

from

the

Calendar

of

"Book

Sixteenth

"-Manuscript Century.

of

the

beginning

of

the

.i/,i Tfjr.MA

TIC

A i.

.SY v/:.vr

'/us.

had

received the title of Admirable

the
men

Doctor, died
'

about been

1294, almost
able
to

forgotten

by

of

that
the

without generation,

having
he

realise that

regenerationof
life. It should

scientific school which

had
become

made
a

the

objectof

his

be added, however, that he had and the Aristotelism

dupe
he

to the

Arabism
all

of Albumazar the wild The appears sullen

of Averroes, and

that

in acquiesced

and alchemy. of astrology conceptions

Oxford
to have

school,
been

to

which

the

illustrious

Roger

Bacon

belonged,
a

the cradle of the

which, Englishscepticism,
the

after

long and

to opposition

teachingof

Catholic

terminated dogma, finally

Bacon
were

in the most
more or

uncompromisingheresy.
less of

The

of contemporaries
became

all of

sceptics.

John he

who Basingstoke, died made the

Archdeacon

London

and

where of Leicester,

in 1252, entered upon

a

scholasticism

with much

mistrust

and his

doubt. works

He upon

journeyinto Greece, to givethe

and
there
to

excited agitation

by
to

Bible, time to cool down, and sciences,

used
to

devoted

himself
the

the

study

of

'the

exact

brought back

England
Another
had

and ciphers which figures

the

the Greeks

numerals. signify

pupil of

Oxford

school,John
astronomer
or

of

Holywood, called Sacrobosco,

he
came

alreadya reputationas
the

when cosmographist he

to

study at
with Mundi

of Paris, where University He

was an

afterwards

taught

mathematics

great success.

composed a
imitation

treatise on
and in
a

the Celestial Globe

of

(" De Sphaera
and

"),which
continued

abridgment

Ptolemy's book, Europe

be for

which

to be

classic work
He

all the schools of considered

to

more

than three
upon and the

centuries.

also left

work

of great value

Reckoning
on

of Time

(" De Anni
Like
most

Ratione

"),a

treatise upon of his

Astrolabe,
also

another

Algorithms.
future

mathematicians

day, he

the sought to predict

The very

and

to draw

horoscopes.
that

school of

Canterbury, less impulsive than

the exact may sciences be under

of Oxford,

pursued

the study of steadily

the

of superintendence

eminent

prelates, amongst
of Abbot

whom

mentioned

Thomas

Bradwardin,
Richard of the the

Archbishop
Walinford,
fourteenth discoveries

Canterbury,
of

surnamed who
at

the
were

Profound Doctor, and

the first mathematicians
was period,

St. Albans,

century.
of
a

Denmark,
astronomer,

the

same

in rejoicing
new

learned
of
a

De

Duco, author

of

Ecclesiastical

Computation and
All

valuable treatise upon

the Calendar.
were

the

greatest astronomical
even

discoveries

effected in the

East,

Persia, Arabia, and

in

the

provincesof

Lebanon.

Nassir-Eddin,

MATHEMATICAL

SCIENCES.

Persian, invented
and he

some

ingenious instruments
the
state
not

for

mathematical
a

calculations,
of

collected,under
upon the

title of of the

"

Ilkhanian and the the them

even

Tables,"
course

number the

daily
The

observations Armenian described

sky

of

stars.

Ezenkansti them in

only
and

observed

celestial in his in

phenomena,
poetry.

but

he

verse,

celebrated followers

Astronomy
where

comprised
Aboul-Kalan

studious
wrote

and his book

zealous
on
"

Morocco,

Aly

Beginnings and Endings," supplementingthe

with
the most minute
savants

compared

results of the

observations telescopic
thirteenth

calculations, of

lint,from

close of the

century, the

Italy had

Fig.

68.

"

Astronomer

accused
"

of

Sorcery, holding
in
a
"

Disc of

with

Magic

Figures.
"

CapitalLetter
Anibroise

Book

Jurisprudence."
In Ihe

Manuscript
M.

of theThirteenth

Century.

Lihraryof

Firmin-Didot.

devoted
exact

themselves sciences
was

by preferenceto mathematics, though

too

the

study of
who from

the had the who the

to

often
some

suspected of
in difficulty of

heresy. Campano,
defending
himself

translated

Euclid, had

and suspicions

denunciations and

the

while theologians,
at

Pietro

d'Abano,
had victim

professed medicine
misfortune
to

astronomy
the
errors

the
of

University of Padua,
and
to fall
a

lean

towards of

Averroism,
to

astrology.Accused
punishment by
before the sentence

sorcery,
or (1316),

and

condemned

the
"

stake, he

escapedthat
which
"

suicide
was

else died The

suddenly

it is not

known

executed.

mathematicians principal

belonged to

MATH-EM

ATICAL

SCIENCES.

93

"

the

school

of

Florence.

Dugomari,
the

called

Paul of the

the

Geometer,

and

Abbaco
none

contributed their

to simultaneously

progress

exact

but sciences,

of

pupilswere

capableof taking their place.

were

Mathematics

but

little cultivated Jean of the de

in

France, though
a

in the fourteenth

century may
restorer

be the of

mentioned
science

whom Lignieres, Jean valuable des

chronicler calls "the

of

stars," and

Murs,
on

canon

of

the

Cathedral Bonnet de

Paris, who
a

compiled some heightof

to

works

Arithmetic.
an

Lates,
for

in Provence, physician the

conceived
the
sun

the
the

idea of
stars

nomical astro-

ring
This

measuring

and

(Fig.68).
errors

mathematician

however, failed,
his

guard

himself

from did the

the
not

of him
so

contemporary
from

science, and

weighty study of astronomy

upon the

save

based making predictions

conjunctionsof

planetsand

forth,

During
were

the Italian

Renaissance.

mathematics
fifteenth

were

not

and they neglected,

at

taught

with

success

the during'
more

century

Rome,
were

Naples,
at

Padua, Bologna, Pisa, and

time and
no

at especially

Florence.

They
of doubt

that

almost

entirelyextricated
noble

from in

the
the

dangerous
fatal

illusions of

astrology,
heresy.
of the

longer involved
were

minds

paths

and

They

moreover', by professed,
were

some

of the

doctors principal the

Church, and
the

in

certain

degree

honoured

by
one

direct

of protection

Holy See, when

of his

^35neas
was

SylviusPiccolomini,
elected

of the

first mathematicians II.

century,
Pius
of

Pope, with
of

the

title of

Pius

(1458
"

1464). study
Cusa,
was

Pope
that

II.

was

man

generallearning,but
same

his favourite
Nicholas de

cosmography.

At

the

time,

Cardinal

his
at

rival in

learning, found
of Rome,
he
to

time, while
write
works
on

his diplomatic fulfilling

functions and

the Court
in

Mathematics, Geometry,

Astronomy,
the
sun,

which

maintained
in

the system of the earth's rotation

two

around centuries The

to

and

admitted

of worlds, the plurality principle

before Galileo.

example

of Pius

II. induced It
was

his

successors,

Paul

II. and

Sixtus
to

IV.,
the

favour

the exact

sciences.

Sixtus

IV.

who

summoned

Rome

celebrated had
most

Konigsberg
recommended

astronomer,
to

Johann Cardinal

called Regiomontanus, who Miiller, Bessarion.

been

him
G.

by

Regiomontanus, the
a

celebrated

pupil of
he

Purbach, had
Cardinal
at

alreadyobtained
Bessarion
Padua in that

great reputation
The
course

in of

whither Italy,

accompanied
he

1463. year

astronomy

which

commenced

in

attracted

an

94

MA

THEM

TIC

A L

SCIENC

A'.V.

enormous

audience. of

He

afterwards

became

astronomer-royalto
he
to
was

Matthias imable
to Rome.
to

Corvinus, King

Hungary.
of

for him, But, unfortunately Sixtus

resist the entreaties

Pope

IV., who

induced

him

come

Fig. 69.

"

Ptolemy'sSystem, explained by Engraving

of the

Johann
.
.

called Jliiller, de

Regiomontanus.
"

Fac-simile
H.

of

Wood

"Epitome

Johannes

Monte

Regio

"

(Basilese, ap.

Petri,

1543, in folio).

It is

believed generally
do with of

that the envy his premature age, he had

and death

revenge in
a

of his

scientificrivals had
he died
at

somethingto
under

1476. number

Although
of

fortyyears

written

astronomical

and

96

MATHEMATICAL

SCIENCES.

always accompaniedby
dictated health The where the

his

Grunpek, physician, paid

more

whose
to

were prescriptions

by

the

stars, and

who

heed

the

than politics

to

the

of his august master.

exact

sciences

still found and the

home, however,
had and formed
a

in

Italy at Florence,
school, arid
the result of
a

Buonencontro

Alberti
to arts

numerous

of mathematics application

industry

was

Fig.

"0.

"

Instruments

of Mathematical

Precision

for

executing Portraits.
Libri M.

"

Fac-siinile of

Wood
offi-

Engraving

by

Albert

Diirer,

"

Institutionum

Geometricarum

Quatuor"

ex (Parisiis,

cina Christian!

In the Library of Wecheli, 1535, in folio)."

Ambroise

Firmin-Didot, Paris.

serious the

and

solid

course

of

teaching.
from
to

At

the for

end

of the

fifteenth century
who take
;

astronomer

Pozzo

Toscanelli

traced his

Christopher Columbus,
route coasts

derived
across

material the
ocean

assistance in order
was

the teaching, the

-western

which
of the when

he must Indies he wrote

reach

the his

mathematician

Paccioli

animated

by

Christian

faith

and great cosrnographical

work philosophical

"De entitled,

Divina

Propor-

.VA

rifEMATICAL

SCIENCES.

97

"

tione;

and

the great Michael him the

as

surrounded by a Angelo,

group of younger

artists,

wlio looked upon of

the regenerator of modem

art, sought in the science

architecture and
was

mathematics Michael

most

wonderful Leonardo

secrets

of

sculpture.

Like

Angelo and day

71).
who
was

da Vinci, there

not

single great

artist of that
70 (Figs. and

not, in addition,a

consummate

mathematician

The

mathematicians, it is true, did

not

all

into artists, notwithdevelop

Fig. 71."
of
a

Instrument Wood

of Mathematical from

Precision

for

Objectsin Perspective."Fac-simile designing

Work,
"

Engraving
ex (Parisiis,

Albert

Durer's

Institutionum
in

Geometrical-urn the

Libri

Quatuor" M. Ambroise

officina Christian!

Wecheli, 1535,

In folio)."

Library of

Paris. Firmin-Didot,

standingthe general tendencywhich

Ferrara Alumno remained
works

led

them

to

cultivate

the arts.

At
to
;

and cosmographist, upon

were

devoted

part of his life

Fabrica

voluminous composing
at
"

celestial mechanics
not

("De

Mundi")

Perugiathe Dantes, who

Divine

of the

same

familyas

the writer of the

works
;

Comedy," devoted
Egnazio Dante, who
Tavole
"

their time to

purelymathematical

and

one

of them,

collated in his repertoryof the "Scienze

Sciences
o

Mathe-

nuitice in

(the Mathematical

in Tables) all the

problems

MATHEMATICAL

SCIENCES.

resolved "marked
"

by
with

his

constructed predecessors,

an

immense

table,upon

which

were

the equinoxesand great precision

as

the solstices. of spirit and West the nation

In

Spain, long

in

Portugal, where
and
to

the

adventurous the East

favoured
exact
to

sea

voyages

to expeditious

Indies,the

sciences contributed
and

the

progress A

of

in regard especially navigation, Abraham which

was

hydrography

astronomy.
Lisbon
a

Portuguese Jew,

ben

Samuel

Zacuth, published at

perpetualalmanac,

afterwards

Fig. 72."

German

Astronomer

and

Cosmographist.
"

Fac-simile
J. Amman.

of

Wood

Engraving

of

the

Sixteenth

Century, hy

completed and perfected by publishedsome England

movement
or

Alfonso

of

Cordova,
tables.
were

Seville

who physician,

also

excellent and

astronomical

Germany (Fig. 72)

the
savants

not

behindhand
two

in

this

forward

of the

science ; but

of these

countries the
a

belonged more
and

less to
means

school sceptical in all their

or an

which

brought

about

Reformation,
scientific

found

works, however

excellent

from

point of
It

view,

pretext
been

opportunityfor attacking the

that of mathematics
were

Catholic

religion.

might

have

supposed

offensive
same

weapons it would

placed in
be

the hands

of blind

sectaries

heresy.

At

the

time

unjust

MA

///AM/.

TICAL

SCIENCES.

99

to

underestimate

the
so

the importance.of
works
on

labours of
of

Batecumbe, an Englishman,

who

composed
an

many

astronomy ;
the

Peyrbaeh,an Austrian, who

of

conceived

ingenioustheory of
described
the

planets; or

Gaspard Peucer,

Saxon,

who

motion

of

the stars,and

represented for the first

time the true But

up

of configuration be

the earth. science

of

it may

said that all the book of Pic

the Middle
"

Ages
re

is summed

in the memorable

Mirandola,

De

omni

which scibili,"

Fig. 73."

Arc

with

Double

Compartment
Distances

for

Fig. 74."
a

Small

Quadrant,

or

Quarter

of

measuring
Stars. Fac-simile of

the Shortest

of the

in Circle,

Copper

GUt.

Copper Engravings
Mechanica"

in

the

Work,

"Tychonis

Brahe

Astronomic

Instauratre

apud (Noribergae,

Levinum

Hulsium, 1602, in folio).

contains
at

nine
this

hundred

of propositions embracing the totality Pic

to

human years

ledge knowof age

epoch.

Mirandola in

was

but

nine-and-twenty
nine
hundred

when

ho

undertook
one

sustain

public these

propositions
scientific mathematical
to

againstany
and and up

who

would

accept the immense

in which,
a as

of this responsibility be the supposed,

one
came

oratorical

tournament,

may

astronomical
the but glove,

sciences held Pic

largeplace.
book,

No

forward

pick
was

Mirandola's

submitted

to

censure, pontifical

,oo

MATHEMATICAL

SCIENCES.

condemned which bastard Aristotle Bacon the

as

heretical with
had

regard to
which

number the the

was

of

in dealing with points,

a

writer of

openly declared

himself linked
He he

of Averroism, partisan of principles

not

kind
to

scholasticism

Plato

and

the

vagariesof
d'Abano
a

Albumazar. had

as persecuted,

Roger
to

and

Pietro

been, but
in

submitted voluntarily
the

himself

exile,and

found*

peacefulasylum
which
he had

France, under

protectionof

the

Universityof Paris, in
and
even

studied previously

the

higher sciences,

cabalism.

Averroisro, with
to

its attendant schools of

as

of astrologyand mysteries

magic,

tinued con-

reign in

the

Italyand
as

of

Germany, making

its baneful

influence
centre
was

felt in the exact the

well

in the

sciences. speculative
The

Its

principal
of

Universityof
had it
was

Padua. his that

career

illustrious Jerome
of

Cardan

Pavia

(diedin 1576)
at

begun
then

matics by teaching matheprofessor

a new

Milan, and

he

invented

mode the

of

resolving
sciences So it
was

algebraic equations.
soon

But
a

his

and for astrology passion

occult

dragged

him

into

vicious of

circle of wild

crazes

and

visions.
in

with

Cornelius

Agrippa

Netteshcim

(born

at

Cologne

1486),

with

TheophrastusBombastes,
about

surnamed

Paracelsus been
two

(born at Einsiedlen, in

land, Switzer-

1493), who
two

would

have

two great philosophers, not

great
be in

and physicians, and astrologers

great mathematicians, if they had

;

to preferred

cabalists
the

but,

as

it was,

they lived

in

poverty, and
at

died

misery, one

at

Grenoble

Hospital (1535),the
dreamer, who, lika
like

other

the

Hospital of

Salzburg (1541).
a man

Another

Agrippa

and

Paracelsus,was

of universal
courts

attainments,and who,

them,

visited all the Universities

and
as

of

Europe, Lucilio Vanini,

and

born

in the

kingdom
and
came

of
to

Naples, lived
a

wretched

precariousa
As M.

life has

as

they did,

still God

more

miserable

end. his

Cousin

remarked,
of of

Vanini He

had
was

no

other

than
an

Nature,

and

moralitywas
the
more

that 9th

Epicurus.
the

burnt

alive, as

at Toulouse, atheist, upon

February, 1619.
and astrologers
sorcerers,

France

was,

however,

for hospitable
La

though

the celebrated

Pierre

Ramee,

surnamed

Ramus,

of Principal

the

of Presles, at Paris,where College in

he himself

taught philosophyand

matics mathe-

1545, opened
But

an

eloquent campaign against the extravagances of

Ramus
was one

astrology (Fig.79).
and and his

of the

of apostles

the

Reformation,
of madmen

philosophic reasoningwas
who dishonoured

no

match

for the allied forces Cosmo

impostors

true

science.

Ruggieri, whom

MA

/"///"".]/. i TH

: 1 1.

si

-//:\"

v;.v.

101

Catherine
of

de' Medicis
more

broughtto
four

France

as

not was astrologer-royal,

capable
at

doing

than
over

compiling prophetical almanacs, reigns.

As
to

and

yet his credit

surnamed
never

court

extended

Pierre

de

Nostredame,

Nostradamus,
studied purpose
were

who

set up
or

for astronomer

and

though physician,
the

he had
stars

either medicine of

astronomy, he merely observed

and his

for the

therefrom, making predictions

to

mathematical
He
was

calculations

confined

the

compositionof horoscopes.

in great favour

Fig. 75.

"

Astronomical

Sextant

for

76.

"

RingJ Equatorial
Circles. Aslronomiae
in

or

measuring Distances.
Fac-simile of

Copper Engravings
Mechanica"

in the

Book, "Tychonis Brahe

Levinum

Instaurata;

apnd (Noribergse,

Hulsium, 1602,

folio).

with

Charles
the

IX. and

the

Queen-mother, who
from died He in did the

loaded
court

him

with

but presents,
at

he had

prudence to withdraw
he

and

live in retirement him

a

Salon, in Provence, where

1566, leaving behind

not

great
work,

reputationand
but

large fortune.
collections of
verse,

leave any

astronomical

merely

some

and unintelligible receipts pharmaceutical written in

a

in rhymed prophecies To discover

and

mysticand

barbarous

tongue.
was

the true

science of astronomy

in the sixteenth century, it

102

MA

THEM

A TIC

A L

SCIENCES.

necessary
"

to

go, not

to

France, but
returned the

to

Poland, where

Nicholas

Copernicus,
at

born

at

Thorn, in 1473, had

without

home, after

mathematics professing
the

Rome,
would
set

awaking
of the
Writ.

of susceptibilities of
once

Roman

clergy, who
the facts he
was

not

admit
in

utterance

any

scientific idea
at

contrary to

forth

Holy
a

But,
he threw and

settled off the

Frauenburg,where
imposed upon
that the him he

appointed to
fear with

canonry,

reserve

by

the

of ecclesiastical censure,

declared unhesitatingly

accepted,

the system certain rectifications,

formerly taught by

of philosophers

ENS

EIQ

NEmOY'M

OlSMHE-V.

Fig. 77.
of

"

Marque
St.

of Jehan

St.

Denis, Bookseller

at

Paris, Rue

Neui've
in

Nostre-Dame,

at

the

Sign

Nicholas:

"Petit
use

Compost
of

en

fra^oys"
who
of

(jrinted

1530, small

octavo).
a

"The

present book,
easy process
to the order

for the for

simple

persons
course
"

do not
sun

understand and
moon,

Latin, contains
and festivals,

small

and

understanding the
'

the

time

according

of the

Latin

Compost.'

ancient Greece, according to

around upon the sun, its
own

which

the

planetsrevolved,
two

from
one

east to west, of rotation

while the earth

other
some

described

distinct motions, around

the
sun.

axis,the
for

of circumvolution time before

Copernicus,
which
was

however, waited
attacked violently of

publishingthis system,
he took the

by

the defenders Paul III. his

of biblical lore,and

precaution
Cseleslive did not

to Pope dedicating

book,

"De

Revolutionibus
of his

Orbium
He

tibus," in which

he had

expounded

the whole

system.

104

MATHEMATICAL

SCIENCES.

victim He had

in

many

instances in

to the

errors

of

and astrology,

even

of cabali"m.

laboured

all the

observatories
for him

of

Germany
the

and

Sweden,
of

when
near

the

King

of Denmark
a

constructed

upon

island

Haven,
years, them

Copenhagen,

in which, magnificentobservatory, of the

for seventeen
to connect

lowed he folwith

the motions the system which

planetsand
conceived
to to

the stars, in order

he had

those replace
the

of

Ptolemy
was

and

Copernicus
in the the

(Figs. 73
centre

"

76). According
world, and

his
sun

system
and
moon

earth

motionless

of the
five

the

revolved But

around

it, while

other the him

around planetsgravitated of

the

sun.

to Tycho Brahe, acceding

was

pressinginvitation
to

the

Emperor Rudolph II.,who

order
to

anxious

to

get
was

his court, turned and

in astrologer, in the him

a

obtain

the

pension which
He died
at

paid him,
in

lost himself

vagariesof

cabalism.

Prague
very

1601,

leavingbehind
those

which European, reputation,

his works,

inferior
And and

to

of

Copernicus, scarcely justified.

yet Copernicus and

be and said in their
were

Tycho

Brahe

were

the creators
a

of true

astronomy,

it may

praise that,at
alone
at

time like

when

necromancers, astrologers,

diviners John of
era

in

favour,
of

Cosmo

Ruggieri

at

the

French

court, and
and

Dee
the

the

court astronomer

Queen
and and

Elizabeth, the
the Danish
route

tions observa-

systems
new

Polish

astronomer

inaugurateda
afterwards
and

in the scientific with

so

world,
renown,

opened the

which

A\;I-

followed,and
As has

much

by Galileo, Keppler, Huygeus,

Dr. Hoefer,
a
"

Xewton.

been

remarked

by

the learned "What

Copernicus
!
"

begat Keppler, and Keppler begat Xewton.

XVLLA DIB"

tree genealogical

S I

L I X

Fig. 79.

"

Portrait of the
"

of

Bernard

Abb"tia, Astronomer
sur

to

the

King.
roy

"

Fac-simile

of
et

AVood

ing Engrav-

Prognostication

le manage

de

Henry,

de

Xavarre,
Latin
is

de

Marguerite de
"

France"

Guillaume (Paris,
"

de

Xyverd, 1572, small

no

octavo)." The
"

motto,
no

Vulla
u

dies
not

sine lines,"

signifies There's
stars."

life without

an

ending," or

There

day

whL-h

regulated by the

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

Natural time

Sciences of

in

Antiquity."
The of Jean

Their Monk

Decadence Strabus." Peter

in

the

Middle

Age*"

Rural

Economy
aided BeauvaU."

in

the

Charlemagne."

Botanical of

Gardens." Vincent

Botany
of

by

cine." MediFables

Hildegarde,
and

Abbess

Bingen."
Dondi.
to
"

Cresceutiis." Glauvil. in
the

Popular
and in

Errors."

Bartholomew Gardens G.

"Naturalist

Traveller*." The

Aristotle
of

Pliny
Travel."

restored Bernard of

honour."

Sixteenth Conrad

Century."
Gesner."

Conquest*
of

Science Paiutcrs

Palissy."
Natural

Agricolu."

Methods

Botany.

"

and

Engravers

History.

HE

great
"contains
seven

work
in

of
its the of
one

Pliny

the

Elder,
and

which

hundred and

thirtyof all
to

books

sum

substance
with

the
.

knowledge
and

antiquity

regard

arts

sciences, is unquestionably
but it is also which and

replete
of

with
extreme

erudition,
confusion
of

typical

the
iii

then

prevailed

the The

domain

natural
to

physical sciences.
and

tendency
of
of

sophistry

paradox, changed
and

the the

subtleties direction closed

labours of and under Aristotle the

dialectics, had
scientific
vistas in

studies,
which

abruptly
admirable

broad

the
it

opened

to

the which of

human all the and the

mind,
the

teaching
religious
of

to

study
made

directly
divine,

materially
the

Nature,
form
of

ancient
and of

had

manifold
observation

gods
the

goddesses
causes

paganism
to

(Fig. 80).
become arid
to

The
;

facts and

search
were

seemed before

have

useless

the

marvellous and

strange
were

preferred
without With

simple
them
to

logical
the
test

truth of

prevalent opinions
or

accepted

putting regard
of

criticism elements the of

the the

control
three

of

experience.
as

the

theory plants,
wildest

of and

the

and
most

reigns,
and

to

the

history

minerals,
to

animals,

absurd

extravagant
had become

fables, allied
current.

the

conceptions

popular

credulity,

Pliny,

106

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

however, whose

statements

were

often

adduced

in had

support of them,
watched
to

was

not

merely

an

observant he died
a

compiler of
victim
to

facts ; he

and

studied

for

himself, and

science,in attempting
which

contemplate too
cities of

the great eruption of Vesuvius, closely and Herculaneum When remained been- left without from These the

destroyedthe

Pompeii

(H.C. 79).
Iloman for decadence
set

in,

the

natural
at

sciences, which
same

had

motionless

four

were centuries,
"

the

point as they had

collected

by

Claudius cohesion Greek

JElianus, who, in his

the vague and
or erroneous

History of Animals,"
notions

any various

which
are no

he had

gathered

Latin

authors

whose been

works

longer extant.
lative specuwere

almost sciences,

abandoned, had
the

relegated, togetherwith
the and sophists,

philosophy, amongst merely interpreted by

a

misty conceptionsof
as

few

such rhetoricians,

and Nemesianus, Calpurnius, the ideas of pagan

Ausonius, who. translated

as

in their and

descriptive poems
nature.

antiquity
in

to

the which

phenomena
treat

products of
any

Pliny

is

always cited

works world.

of incidentally

facts the

appertainingto the physical

to the

Moreover, in these times, from

to

fourth

eighth century, so

unfavourable

whether writers, science,

or historians, philosophers, physicians,

merely

treated

of

material

things from
animals
;

utilitarian

point
to

of

view

they

and spoke of minerals, plants, their from solely in

was

without

reference and could

their

tion, organiza-

shape,or
the

their

physiognomy
view
as

they examined
use

them appreciated be made of them them

point of

to

the

best

that

industryor
to

social life ; and

the

only scientificclassification they gave

or

placethem

in the Hexameron, of Moses

theoryof

the six

days of

the

creation,

accordingto

the Genesis

(Fig.81).
not
we

Charlemagne himself, notwithstandinghis great genius,does

to

seem

have it

taken
was

any

interest

in

the
course

study
of

of

natural the

and history, Palace

a

know
The

that

not
was

included

in the

study at

School.

Emperor
of view
;

doubtless the with

care

familiar with

all wild

animals, from
the

hunting point
of

with and
to

domesticated

animals,

from

point of view

rural

economy, attention

plants in

connection and

with

for he paid great agriculture,

the

of his lands
upon the

gardens.

Thus,

in his

he Capitularies,

stress lays special

good

kinds
a

and of fruits, vegetables,

grain for

the
sent

use

of the

table,and

scarcely gave
and Greece.

placefor
It
was

the this

exotic

"c., vegetables,
that
a

to him

from

Spain

at

epoch
with
no

monk

in

the monastery

of St. Gall, Walafrid

Straba, described

little accuracy,

.V.I //'A1.

1/.

SCIENCES.

.07

in

Latin with

poem his be
a own

entitled

"

Hortulus,"
Another Marer

the

which vegetables almost

he

had

vated cultiand poem had This

hands.

poet,

his contemporary,
a

believed
upon the

to

Frenchman,
and virtue
as

Kloridus, also composed

which

similar

culture

of herbs, amongst
effective

certain

nlaBMB

already been

remarked

most

for
most

curing various
of the

diseases.
was

culture of medicinal

herbs

took

placein

monasteries,and

the

Fig. 80.

"

Esus, the

great God
at

of

Nature

among

the of

Gauls,

worshipped
in

in

the

Forests.

"

Celtic

Monument

discovered

Paris, under

the Choir

Notre-Dame,

1771, and

preserved in the

Cluny

Museum.

originof

those

botanical

gardens which
the tenth
it
was

afterwards

contributed

so

much

to

the progress

of medicine. from
the

(See below, chapteron

to

Medical

Sciences.)
sciences
were

Though

eighth
the
to

century the natural

not

neglectedin altogether
who
as

West,
embrace the

the

same

with

Eastern

peoples,

sought not
to

so

much

the vast

of physical knowledge totality

themselves perfect

in

study

of materia

mcdica, for all the sciences

,o8

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

led

up

to

medicine.
a

During

the
was

prosperous founded from works

reign
at

of

Al-Mansour,
which

in the
a

eighth century, refuge for

were

large school
when

Bagdad,
and

became There the

two
use

the

sciences into and

at

exiled

Athens of

Alexandria. and

translated
Greece

Syriac the
whom and

Aristotle in turn The

Galen,

of lights

of Rome, Granada
the

the Arabs

translated

for the

of their schools

Cordova.

legendary caliph,Ilaroun
his and predecessor,

Alraschid, followed
still
more

example

of Al-Mansour,
savants.

showed obedient

towards generosity carried traditions, the

the love

His
so

son,

Al-Mamoun,
as

to these

of science
order
to

far

to declare
to

war

upon Asia

the
.

Emperor
not

of

in Constantinople, several Greek

compel
also
some

him

send

into

Minor

only
arts

savants,

but

ancient

manuscripts

to relating

and had

sciences. before

.The Arabs
and of made materia
some

this cultivated botanical

in

several branches

of natural

history,
domain
as

valuable medica.
were

discoveries, thereby enlargingthe

Thus,

place

of

the

violent
Arab
:

such purgatives, doctors

a

which hellebore, the

resorted previously of

to, the

recommended

moderate

use

cassia,senna,
were

and

tamarinds from

quantity of plants

useful for medicinal

Rhazes. and added

purposes

brought

India, Persia, and

commentated discovered

Syriaby
and

-At
to

the

same

time
a

Serapion the
of description and

younger the

Dioscorides,

that

work

newly

plants ;

Avicenna
of Re

scoured

Bactriana

Sogdiana

in search

of medicines, and
on

cially espe-

vegetable preparations. Mesue

several times

wrote

his treatise
into

Medicine
used
as a

(" De
manual

Medica"), which,
up

translated

Latin, was

in all the schools disorder

were

to the

Renaissance.

But, apart from

the materia the

or

medica,

and

confusion

prevailedin
Aristotle's

the works
"

composed by

Arabs, who
"

not

acquaintedwith
"

History of Animals,"

the

History

of

Hants

and by Theophrastus,

whose
mass

translations of, and

of
nonsense,

commentaries
the
most

upon,

Plinyand

Dioscorides

are

and

for

part

tmintelligible.
Constantine
upon the materia

of Africa

first introduced
but in his
own

into

Europe

certain

Arab

works
a

medica,

works, though they give proof of

is easy
to
see

certain

in practical experience medicine, it in matters

nature.

that he
a

was

not

well
in

informed
his he

of

and detail,

this because

there

was

want

of method

study of ranged

Thus,
a

in

medicines dividing of scale

into

four

distinct of

classes,
relative

them

upon

sort
same

according to
natural

their

degree
were

At activity.

about

the

period the

sciences

represented

.SY '/A'.Vr/;.s.

109

with
a

no

little ('chit in the East of

by.several
into
at

Arab Asia

such botanists,
to ;

as

Ebn-Taitor,

native

Malaga,
minister

who of

travelled the

study plantspreviouslyto
author Alxlallatif, of of
a

becoming
very

Caliph
the

Cairo

and

accurate

of description
a

plants and
several

animals

Egypt, who,
errors

in the

dissection
had the made
more

of

mummy, of

corrected

important

which

Galen

in matters remarkable bodies. Thus

osteology.This knowledge of
the law of Mahomet
of such

human

anatomy is all

because
a

forbids dissection absolutely

as

of dead

great part

science

there

then

was

in the

Fig. 81." God

creating

the

World

by Compass." Miniature

frtm

Brimetto

Latini's

"

Tresor."

Manuscript

of the Fifteenth

Century.
"

In

the Arsenal

Library,Paris.

world

came

from directly
It
was

the

Arabs, and Gerbert,

who

from especially

the

of caliphate

Cordova.

there and

that

became,
the

in turn,
name

Archbishop of
II. Sylvester he of

Rheims,

of

Ravenna,

afterwards
his

Pope, under

of

(999),repairedto
claim natural the

increase of

alreadylarge store
into forth
a

of

and learning, first elements

may
the

honour

having imported
of Cremona
is
sets

Italy the
the facts poem

sciences.
with which John

Otho
he

to medicinal relating

plants

acquainted in
summarised,

learned

of fifteen hundred

lines ; and

of Milan

also

in verse,

all the medical

botany

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

of his century devoid of

in the

"

Code from

of
a

the

School

of

Salerno," a
of

work

which which

is not is very

importance

hygienic point

view, but

imperfectin Although Spain, it

was

its treatment the

not

of the natural
science emanated

sciences. from chiefly the Saracen the schools in

lightof

extinguishedwhen

the
was

empire
once

of
more

Caliphs was
threatened

thrown, over-

and

when

reviving civilisation
The

with

an

invasion

of barbarism.
arts

Jewish

nation

picked up
them between

the scattered the various

fragments
countries of real

of the sacred of

of science, and the rabbis

divided
some

Europe, where

for

time

preserved the monopoly

favourites
at

learning. Physiciansfor
and sovereigns,
even

the most

part, often
had

and

advisers

of their

of popes,

they

chairs
a new

the mode

of Bologna, Colleges of

Milan,
"

and

Naples, and
"

they

substituted

teaching for
the
"

the

Etymologicon
the

of

Isidore

which of Seville, The

were

had

been, since

seventh

century,

basis

of

scientific studies.

natural

sciences

amongst
this the

others, zoology, mineralogy,and

botany
"

doubtless
but

in represented of in
a

abridged dictionaryof
remote

human
was

attainments,
unable

Isidore
save

Seville,at

epoch when

he wrote,
want

to treat

them

and superficial

fashion,for illogical
The progress

of sufficient sciences

experienceand
was

observation

(Fig.82).
the twelfth those

of the natural

not

very

rapidduring
several
no one

century, but

there

in might alreadybe perceived, observation

writings on
had

a subjects, tendency to

of facts, though
herself.

yet

conceived
to

the the

simple idea

of

Nature interrogating

Botany
was

continued

have all of

preferenceof earlyobservers, and Amongst investigation.

medicine

the

of starting-point best summary

scientific the

the works

which
to
"

givethe

opinions and
or

of science,as principles
must

minerals, and plants,

Jardin de

animals,

useful

noxious,

be

mentioned
as a

the very

Sante," compiled by
to receipts

Hildegarde,Abbess
used
was

of

Biugen,

valuable many

collection of
other abbesses

be

in much

cases

of

illness.
to the

Hildegarde,like
study
of

of her

time,

addicted

to everythingrelating

the art of their

healing;

she cultivated

herself
a

many

medicinal many

and plants,

ascertained and

respective possessed

properties. Thus
not

great

monasteries also

(Fig.83)

convents

only

botanical

gardens, but preservedby

collections of
processes

minerals, shells, fossils,

This
was

herbs, and
the

animals
those

various

of desiccation.
vast
same

originof

of encyclopasdise
errors,

the Middle

Ages,
at

compilations, descriptive
time with replete

full of curious and

popular

it is true, but have been

the

details,which interesting

publishedin

every

language

NA

TL *RA L

SCIENCES.

since and

the

twelfth

century, and
text,
are

which,
in the Most

with

engravings that
without

often

explain
ever

complete the
the
to

buried

great libraries

having

obtained
as

honours the
nature

of

print.
of

of these works of

contain
as

tions singularrevelausage and perties pro-

plantsand

stones,

to

the

of and special

as simples,

to

the

of hygienicqualities written treatises,

various

foods, "c.

Several

less voluminous alone be

by

certain

doctors

of the twelfth

century,
these de

were

printedat
mentioned
et
a

the close of the

fifteenth century.
"

Amongst
sive

latter may

moral

poem
was

entitled, Auti-Claudianus, composed

or 1'Isle,

Officio viri boni

which perfecti,"
celebrated Alain

at

the

close

of the the

twelfth

century by

the

de

de

Lille, called

Fig.

83.

"

Monks

engaged

in

Agriculture. Capital Latter

"

in

the

"

Livre

do

Jurisprudence."
Paris.

Manuscript

of the Thirteenth

Century.
"

In M.

Ambroise

Firmin-Didot's

Library,

Universal

Doctor, and
number and but

which

contains, with
remarks this
on

general
natural who

table

of

arts

and

sciences, a
The

of very

sensible

history.
had the
a

savants
were

of philosophers
commentators

epoch

taste

for

natural

sciences

and

but compilers,
were

thirteenth the Crusades

century
and
a

produced observers,the

first of whom took

was

those and

whom hitherto

passionfor
where
as

Eastern

travel

into distant

unexplored lands,

everythingthey saw they no

doubt
were,

strange and
from

unknown. voyages,

Observations,imperfect
in which the

resulted

these

curiosity
and the

was

continually being
sciences

stimulated

by

the

sight of

novel

objects ;

natural

profited largelyby

the

whether expeditions,

compolitical,

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

"3

mercial, or
Mendicant

what

not, which

were

undertaken

in

Asia

and

Africa.
and

The

Orders, Franciscans
the Church these

and

Grey Friars, Dominicans

as

Preaching
in A
a

Brothers, whom
no

sent

forth

her

contributed representatives,

small

degree to
de Piano

triumphs of

natural

history(Fig.84).
upon
a

Grey
Tartar

Friar,John

sent by the Pope Carpini,

mission

to

Fig. 84."

St. Francis

of Assisi
In

talking to the Birds."

the

Miniature

from

Psalter of the Thirteenth

Century."

Library of M.

Ambroise

Finnin-Didot, Paris.

chief

was (1246),

the first Christian who another

into penetrated

the

savage

regions
sent

beyond the Caspian Sea;

St. Louis
to

Grey Friar, Guillaume

wrote Asiatic chief,
a

Picard,

by

the

residence

of another

detailed account and Mongolia,

of his voyage
Guillaume de

(1253);

Pierre

Ascelin, sent
sent

by

the

Pope
the

into

Rubruquis,also
alike monks of

by

St. Louis

into

depthsof Tartary
travellers,in

(1253),were

the

Franciscan
Q

Order.

These

,,4

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

did their journeys, relating the way of

not

merely
stones to

record
;

what

struck back

them
to

the

most

in

animals, and plants,

they brought
serve

mens Europe speciherent anything inco-

which
or

might

be

of

use

science,and

to

correct most

in exaggerated the

what

they had

written.

The
the

celebrated who

Indian

explorer of
more

thirteenth
years left
a

century,
then

Marco unknown

Polo,

Venetian,
who

passed

than
as

twenty
has he

in those very

lands, and
of heard.

penetratedas
the

far
course

China,
of which

curious

account
saw or

his

long journeys,in

relates all that he

Natural

historyoccupies ignorance and

largeplacein

his

story, which

but

too

often

testifies to his

credulity. (See below, chapteron

The materia
most

GeographicalSciences.)
of that

prominent
were :

botanists

period,always in regard
and

to

the

medica,
one

two

Englishmen,

Gilbert other de

Hernicus

Arviell, who

the travelled, and who prepare had

through Eiirope,the
on

through Asia, to study plants

Cordo,
called Simon of Genoa,

treatises
a

botany ;

Simon

undertaken
to

herborising expeditioninto

the

pelago islands of the Archithe Greek and Canon Arab of

and

from and who, borrowing largely Sicily,

Botanic

writers,compiled a

Dictionary ;

and

Jean his

de

St. Amand, in

Tournay,
and
a

who
a

to proceeded experimentally

discoveries

therapeutics,
of properties these

devoted

remarkable of

work

to

the research
the most
was

of the medicinal
and

certain

number of the

simples.

But

learned de in

experiencedof

botanists born
at

thirteenth in 1230,
a

century
man

Peter both

Crescenzi,or

de Crescentiis, and

Bologna
a

of mark

regardto
authors

birth

fortune, who,
of the
piled com-

who

had

for agricultureand great predilection

own

horticulture,and
and those

adding
Middle
a

to his

observations
written about

all that

the

ancient

Ages
sort

had of

the

of vegetableproductions
"

nature,

called agronomical encyclopaedia with great work, replete

was

Opus

Ruralium

Commoand

dorum." excellent

This

information,
into

advice, judicious

practicalnotions,

translated of

several

languages, and
called
"

into French, by especially Proufnts Peter

order

King

Charles

V.,

and

Livre

des

champestreset
de

ruraux." treated but

one

Crescenzi

side of natural

but history, and

three

of de

his contemporaries,Vincent

of Beauvais, Albertus

Magnus,
in
a

Arnaud

Villeneuve,entered
which embraced

upon

the

study of They

this
were,

science in

of spirit

observation

all its aspects.

alchemists, fact, astrologers,

Vincent of Beauvais,

and theologians,
a

physiciansfirst ;
monk,
who had

naturalists translated

afterwards.

Dominican

the story of the voyage

of John

NA

TURAL

SCIENCES.

"5

de

Piano

Carpini

in he

Great

Tartary,became
upon
as

enamoured

of

tin.-. "lis|imt

which expeditions,
of

looked

of confirmatory

the

strangest tales

related by Pliny. antiquity

enormous

These
"

fables

he

consequentlyembodied

in his of
.was

the encyclopaedia,

Speculum Naturale,"not

omitting any mandragora

capable
a

the

errors superstitious
same

of his time.

According to him,
the

the

of the

shape
an

as

the human
and

body ;
the

winged dragon was

the
and

of
sort

off flying

with

ox,

devouringit in mid-air;
to

Scythian lamb,

of

was animal-plant,

attached

ground by

stem

by

roots

and

Fig. 86.

"
"

How of
a

Alexander

fought the

Dragons

and

speciesof
1 1,040.
"

Beast In the

called

Scorpion."
"

Miniature Brussels.

Manuscriptof

the Thirteenth

Century,No.

Burgundy Library,

the tree of the harems

the weeping-tree, or life, was

of the East.

to be

found, like

in allegory, living

Vincent

of Beauvais
old

related wonderful
the tenderness the

stories about of the

the basilisk serpent, towards her that young,

repeatedthe
spoke

legendof

pelican

of the

of flight never-ending trees, when black natural

and phoenix, the

declared water,

in Scotland

the fruits of certain

of the

they fall into

divers.

produce black ducks

speciestermed
that

(See the
still

chapter on
in its

This shows Popular Superstititiu.) the

was history

in infancy

reign of
the

St. Louis

85, 87, and 95). (Figs.

de

Albertus

Magnus,

illustrious Albert

Bollstadt,was

not, perhiips,

n6

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

more

learned
not to

than have
a

Vincent been

of

Beauvais, but
the

he

was

greater

and logician, with the

ought

to subjected

insult of

being credited
of the Great

authorshipof
and
were

wretched
similar read

rhapsody called

the "Secrets

Albert,"
"

of several
even more

which, though equallyunworthy of him, productions,

some

than

of the most

learned

books

which

he

did really

write. had
were

But,

in response

to the

of aspirations

science

in the Middle and

Ages, he

written

treatises upon

the

of plants, stones, properties

animals, which
charlatans.

afterwards
de been
a

disfigured and

misrepresented by

shameless

Arnaud
seems,

Villeneuve,whose

learninghas, without
of Albertus

sufficient had his

to

grounds

as

it the

compared

to

that

Magnus,

submit, like
He

to latter,

blundering and
of

unfair

of interpretation in that of

doctrines.

had
to

studied

in the schools the

Italyand

Montpellierbefore coming
and

teach, in

Universityof Paris, medicine

was

botany, philosophyand
in natural immense which

astrology.

This

the

first time

that

lessons

historywere
number the of

with taught concurrently

hearers lent still

theologyand

medicine.
these

The

to greater notoriety most

lessons,in

professor
were

boldlydeclared
be

that the

solemn

mysteriesof

the Catholic

faith

to

and of natural history explained by the teachings

experimentalphysics.
excited
not

Scientific teachingso
of the

opposed to

the

dogmas

of the Church
was

the alarm

and Arnaud Inquisition,

of

de Villeneuve It
was

accused,

of

impietyor

but heresy, of Charles

sorcery and

magic.
of

only through the special protection

that Sicily, tribunal

of

Anjou, King

Naples

and

he
the

was

enabled

to

leave he
as

France

without
a

appearing before the

the de
court

of

and Inquisition, retained

sought

refuge at

of

this

French
at

who prince,

him

physician. Arnaud
had

Villeneuve

found

Naples

and he

Palermo, where
would
have

he

established his residence, greater facilities than for

to

enjoyed

elsewhere
appears

completinghis
been
at

studies

in

natural
at

for this science history,

court

have

favoured specially that of the

the

of

the

kings of the
After
the

house

of

Anjou, as
himself

kings of the house of Arragon. quittedthe

Sicilian
attached
more

Vespers,Arnaud
for the

de Villeneuve
rest

service of Charles

II.,and II.,who,

of his life to the court

of Frederick the

than a-ny other This

into

sovereignof his time, favoured

the Two he went Sicilieshad
to

study of

the natural
"

sciences. translated the rarest

"

king of
Latin
;

Aristotle's
in

"History of Animals

great expense
from

forming a
and the

collection of
;

animals
on

for his

royal menagerie
he found

Asia

Africa

and

the

Treatise

which Falconry,"

time, amidst

anxieties political

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

1.7

of

his

reign,to

compose

himself, shows
of prey.

that

he

was

very

well

versed

in

to everythingrelating

birds

The the
were

study of
of

natural
the the

sciences had

become

more

generaland complete by
from be
nature

beginning
not

fourteenth

century, though observations

the ancient
The

yet given

preference over
authors.

to descriptions

found
its

in the Greek, Arab

name a

Latin, and Arab

of recognising under difficulty

also led
to

plant described by

Dioscorides

endless

confusion.

Thus,

for

instance, Matthew

of Mantua, Sylvaticus

who

possessed a superb

botanical
names

garden
his

at

Salerno, had

in great difficulty

putting

the

right
he hence

to

plants and
was

their specific ascertaining qualities ; for, though

knew

Greek, he

ignorant

both

of

Arabic

and

Hebrew,

and

Fig. 86.""

How of

Alexander
a

fought the Dragons with

Sheep's Horns
1

upon

their

Foreheads.""

Miniature Brussels.

Manuscript of the Thirteenth

Century,No.

1,040." In the

Burgundy Library,

arose

the
the

absurd

errors

in his nomenclature.
;

The

writings of
the
same

Dino

del and But

Garbo,

Florentine

of

John

Ardern

of Newark,

Englishman ;
reasons.

of several other botanists

James

were

almost
dall'

valueless for

the

Dondi middle

and of the
at

his son,

John

who worked Orologio,

at
a

in concert

about

the

fourteenth

century
studied

Codex perfected the native

of the materia

medica,
have

lived

Bologna, and

only

which plants,
on

they

described with
in

and great precision

accuracy

in their book

Simples,

written

Latin, with the title of "Liber

as

de Medicamentis

and Simplicibus,"

translated into Italian

to

the

"

Herbolario
very

Vulgare."
much who
better

Another known,

book, inferio
was

the

above

in

every

respect,but
an

that

Bartholomew

Glanvil,

English monk,

for compiled,

the benefit of

n8

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

the

wealthy,
a

an

of encyclopaedia of worthless "Liber

natural

history,filled
This

with

popular
written
a

stories and Latin

"

mass

erudition.
de

singular work,
"

in

it

was

styled the
late
as

Rerum" Proprietatibus
;

had

great

so reputation

the sixteenth

century

it

was

translated into French

"

by

Brother

Jean the

Corbichon, under

the

amphibologicaltitle of
and it
was one

des Proprietaire
most

choses," at

request of King Charles V.,

different

of the works

publishedin frequently
A of like honour
was

languages when
treatises which the

was printing

first invented.

reserved imitated and

for the after

Albert

of

Saxony, Bishop
Aristotle and
of

Halberstadt,had

analogous treatises of
the
more or

Albertus

Magnus,

which

enumerated and

less
In

problematical
the fifteenth this
was

propertiesof plants,minerals,
century
a

animals
of
a

(Fig. 88).
the natural

lightshone
the
the
art

upon

the

darkness

and sciences,

lightwas given
very
to

of

by designing,
A

which German

preciseand
of the the idea

unvarying form

described. objects
'

Rhine of
to

whose provinces, work of

name

has

been

conceived forgotten,
with entitled

executinga

natural

embellished history,

intended paintings
"Das de Buch der

illustrate the writer's

in
"

This descriptions.

book,
of

N"atur,"was
Latin

an reality

abridgedtranslation
Natura
"

Martin
a

Cantimpre's
various

work,

De

Rcrum

but

it contained

of description in their him such the the the and

animals, trees, and

were colouring

shrubs,
true

which represented by figures,

to nature.

drawing

and

very
one

This
on

book

earned

that great celebrity

it

was

of

the

first books

natural

which history

printing-press multiplied throughout

first edition handmaiden
to

Germany
Wood combined notions of

as

early as

1475, when
henceforward the

appeared
of mind

at

Augsburg. they

engraving was
in

and printing,
some

offering to
natural
the

eyes

the

elementary
from its mysterious made its

the

sciences.

Printing, which,
sack

driven

sanctuary by
way,

siege and

of

Mayence (1462),had
into the

with

its the

typographers and

engravers,

great cities of Italy,

stimulated

and rivalryof philologists

savants

in

bringing to lightthe

literary productionsof
Dioscorides, and,
and editors. of As

ancient

Greece

and
once

Rome. found

Aristotle, Theophrastus, translators, commentators,

Venice
an

still more,

Pliny,at
the year

earlyas
the

1468 the
a new

John

Spire published at

edition Arnold corrected

a

Pliny ;

following year

German

Sweynheim printers,
in revised folio,

and and

Pannartz, publishedat Rome

also edition,

by

the

Andrew, Bishop of great philologist,

Aleria.

Two

years

wards afteredition

French

settled at Venice, Nicholas Jenson, publishedan printer

120

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

The

numerous

treatises and how

largeworks eagerly this

on

natural
was

printedin history
studied. Those
to

the

fifteenth century show Albertus

had
an

science him
or

of

Magnus, whether
immense
"

written by really
The

only attributed

him,

circulation.

compilationof encyclopaedic

Bartholomew and

Glanvil,
errors,
was

De

Rerum," Proprietatibus
times

notwithstandingits deficiencies
and
to

ten reprinted

in Latin

in

French,

while

it

was

being

translated into
at

English,Spanish,and Dutch,
Haarlem. Libri The

appear

almost

simultaneously
Crescenzi of

London,

Tolosa, and
Commodorum
or

excellent

work

of Peter
the honour

(" Ruralium

XII."),which
before
the

ohtained
close of

passing

through fifteen
was

twenty
into

editions

the fifteenth century,

did

also translated

several

languages. These

large folios

not, of

~M

11
Fig. 88." The

-% cljtctt DC roer eftcue bcfteen la met quifa nourzfffbn / prtntetTueIntcrtcc t en tnet*naige en loraec come mig

JL-A^oiffoiictuafuttmetovdEmie bede*
Sea-Dog." Fac-similo
in of
a

Wood the

Engraving

in the

"

Dyalogue

des

Creatures

'

(Gouda,Gerart Leeii,1482,

In folio)."

Library of 11. AnVbroise

Firmin-Didot, Paris.

course,
was

reach the

to country-people,

whom

some

knowledge they had

of the

of natural

history

indispensable ; and
was tradition,

this

knowledge, which
the

acquiredby practice
calendars wood

and the

popularised by
books

miniatures

placed in engravings,
trated also illusis the

of frontispieces also ornamented in

a

of devotion
calendars.

(Fig.89), and by
The
most
same

which

these

were subjects

quantity of almanacs,
des

the

celebrated

of

which

"

Compost
The

et Kalendrier

Bergers."
a

usefulness of

platesin
no

book upon

upon

natural

historywas

so

generally
some

(Fig.90) that recognised

which engravings,
nature.
were

book

botany appearedwithout
may well be

wood
true to

not

always,as
a

supposed,very
Arndes

It

was

at this

periodthat

Lubeck

burgomaster called

went

\.\TCKAL

121

to

Palestine, taking with

grow in the

him

draftsman
But text
as

who the

was

to

sketch

for him he

the

plantswhich
back
were

Levant.
any

drawings which

brought

not

accompanied by

a description, Mayoiice doctor,one

tuivfJi ftwttf/ftc
a*
Fig.
89."

Miniature Sheep-shearing."
to Estienne

from

the

"Three

Ages

of

Han,"

unpublished

Poem

attributed
In

Porchier." Ambroise

Manuscript of the latter part of the Fifteenth Firmin-Didot,

Paris.

Century."

the

Library of M.

John

de Cuba,
;

was

intrusted with
in this way
were

writing the

text

after the botanical works

ancient

of the Arabs

and

at great cost, the perpetuated,

i22

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

errors

which
be said wood in

hampered
that
some

the very

development

of science.
on

At

the

same

time

it

must

books interesting

Herbalism,

enriched and

with

handsome
"

were engravings,

publishedat Mayence, Passau,

"

Louvain

some

Latin, and

others

in German

before

the

great works

of Arndes

and

John

de Cuba

appeared at

Lubeck

in 1492.

At
the

Venice, too, were

Arab

with being printed

marvellous

the rapidity and

works

of

ancient
treated

Avicenna, Avenzoar, Averroes, physicians,

Mesue,

who

of natural served all his

to

historyin
excite
A

its relation to medicine

and

these had

tions publicacopied

only Pliny with

took

against the Arabists,who hostility

learned

errors.

of Ferrara, Nicholas Leoniceno, professor

this
he

opportunity of attackingthe
said,
"

Arabic
the

school

and

its

admirers,

of

whom

These

people never

saw

plants of
of
a

which

they speak ;
whose

they

steal their

from descriptions
distort
:

the

works led to

precedingauthors,
of

meaning they

often

this has

veritable chaos
the

erroneous

denominations, the confusion being further increased by

In descriptions." the this

inaccuracyof

the

literary war,
at history

which
the time

showed when

how

very

was imperfect

knowledge

of natural

Pliny'swork
was

was

being so
the brated cele-

widelydisseminated
great
Roman

by

the

Leoniceno printing-press,
this he
was

unjust towards
the of

and naturalist,

made in

to
a

comprehend by reply in
in favour

Venetian
The
a

humanist,

Ermolao

Barbaro,

Pliny.

in correction latter,
book
"

of the

faults to be found

Pliny'swork, published
that writer's in

entitled
was

"

Plinianae," but Castigationes

"Natural

History
works

for the time discredited in most this discredit, which

of the schools

Italy.
for the Venetian of
the

Taking advantage of
of

increased

the demand

Aristotle, and Dioscorides, the Aldi, skilful Theophrastus,

the
and original

printers, brought out

Greek naturalists.

hitherto himself
were so

unpublished

texts

Aldus

Manutius

had

revised, after the ancient

these priceless manuscripts, works, lovers of works

upon

which

anxiously scanned
same

by

the

antiquity.They published at
natural

about

the

time

other modern

history, amongst
a

them

being several
after the Greek
French
"

treatises of
authors.

Georges study

Valla upon
of

and plants,

Botanic

Lexicon

The A
new

botany was

also in great favour

amongst 1495,
wood

savants.

Parisian herbal

Pierre Caron, published, about printer, illustrated dictionary,

extracted and

a L'Arbolayre,"

with

great many

engravings;

and

this

work,

from

the medical

treatises of Avicenna, Rhazes, Constantino, Isaac, the title of

"

Plateaire, was

with reprinted,

Grand

Herbier

en

Fra^ois,"

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

by

six

or

eightParis publishers. Botany

.

seemed

to

hold

the

first

place in
in

natural 1492

and history,
a

the

of discovery
the
at

America

Columbus by Christopher

gave

fresh

impetusto
were

study of
first the

the flora of that

great continent.
but importation,

The
it
was

preciousmetals
soon

only

articles of
be

found

that

the materia

medica

might

increased by greatly

the

vegetablegrowth

of the New
men

"World, and the disinterested love of science

cross

induced
and

several learned

to

the

ocean.

German, Italian,
with zeal to

Spanish,

Portuguesenaturalists applied themselves

examining and

Fig.

90.

"

River

Fishing.
"

Fac-eimile

of

Wood

Engraving folio).

in

Latin

Edition

of

Pliny

1584, in (Frankfort,

testingthe

numerous

productionsof
the marvels

this

newly

discovered

land.

Other
their

naturalists, passing by
attention
to

of the American
more

continent,devoted
purpose than and

Asia, which
done. In

they explored to
presence of
a

their predecessors

had the

nature
were

new absolutely

unknown,
ing the teach-

first naturalists who of the

visited America

to obliged
own

abandon
direct

past,and
This

relyupon brought

the results of their

a

and

personal
Travels

observations.

about

complete revolution historybecame

in science.

reallyuseful
surnamed the

for purposes

of natural

general. Jean
and the three

Le'on,

African,

visited

Egypt, Arabia, Armenia, presentedby

Persia,noting

with

great

care

the various

characteristics

kingdoms.

,24

NATURAL

SCfEXCXS.

Peter

Martyr (PietroMartire
upon the

while d'Anghiera),
in

on

diplomaticmission

in

the East, verified

spot,book
;

hand, the
a

statements

of Aristotle,

Theophrastus,and
in Poland surnamed
to

Dioscorides
and

John
;

Manardi,

doctor the

of

Ferrara,
Amiens

borised her-

Hungary
all

and

Jacques Dubois,

doctor,
order

travelled Sylvius,

through France, Germany,

and

Italyin

study nature.
.

Gradually
fruits.

the

taste

for

scientific travel

became

general,arid

bore

its

natural

Valuable

collections of natural
animals and fruit

history were

formed, exotic
became
a

plantswere

and acclimatised,
; to

domesticated.

Horticulture added

science practical and it

was a

kitchen

gardens were

pleasure-grounds;
the "herbaceous The

Metz

Master priest,
secret

Francois, who
has

invented

the ingraftment," culture had its

of which

only recentlybeen development

;

recovered.
to

of many

new

plants gave
in most had of the the

still further

botany, which
of Ferrara,

chairs special
and The Padua

leadingUniversities
of

and

those

Bologna,
Brasavola.
extend

advantage
were

being

filled main

by

Ghini

and
to

best

botanists

the

doctors,whose
and

objectwas

the domain in Latin

of the and

materia

medica,

who

all

publishedlargebooks
Brtmfels, of Mayence,

written
his
son
"

with replete
"

engravings:

Otho

Herbarum

Vivas Icones
became
one

(1530-36);

Euricius

whose Cordus, of Cologne, in

Valerino
"

of the

greatest botanists

Germany,
his here
"

his

"

Botano-

logicum

(1534);
"

and

Leonard
be
more

Fuchs,

Bavarian,
enumerate

Commentarii all the works the

Insignes (1542).
on

It would

impossibleto

natural

on history,

botany

which particularly,
in

appeared during
and

first half

of

the

sixteenth
the

century

Germany, Holland,
new

Italy, and
however,
to

which
be West

to testify

vigorous growth
countless of

of the

science.

It must,

said

that, out
in

of the search

cosmopolitantravellers only,Gonzales
for
a

who

went

the

Indies back

fortune,one

Fernandes work

of
on

Oviedo,
natural
"

brought

with him
work in

the materials
"

important really

history.This

he entitled and folio), and

La

Historia
a

general y
very America.

natural de las Indias

of description

1535, (Seville,

it contains

accurate

the

animals, trees, shrubs, France, whose

plantsof
enriched

Southern
so

artists had with

many

and religious manuscripts liturgical

(Fig. 91)
very

and paintings of flowers,birds, butterflies,

insects,
Estienne,

readilytook
and

part in the

study

of natural

history.

Charles

anatomist of

one botanist,

of the most conferred

members distinguished
so

of the the

family
of

Parisian

printerswhich

much

renown

upon

name

NA

TURAL

.SY'/A'.Vf V/.s.

"25

Kstienne, composed
on

several

short

treatises
and
cabulary vo-

agronomy,

horticulture, botany,
'his

which, together with sylviculture,

of natural

history, were
various
one,

quently fre-

reprinted.
afterwards

These

treatises,
a

collected into entitled

"

constituted

great
which

work his

Praedium

Rusticum,"

son-in-law, Lie'baut, popularised,

into

it translating

'French,
the
"

with

several

and additions,

it calling

Maison

Rusin

tique." Gardening, became

France,
some

the

fashion
to

and
new

every

one

was

anxious flower

sess pos-

plant

or

some

brought

from
at out

great distance.
and

The

royal gardens
were

Fontainebleau
at

Chambord
and made

laid
of

great expense,
as

models

what,

it

was

then

considered, kitchen,
to be.

and fruit,

flower
of

gardens ought

The
out

gardens
under of

the Chateau

d'Alen9on,laid

the

instructions of

Marguerite,sister
More-

Fran9ois I.,were

famous. specially

WM
m
Fig.
91."

Border

of

Pago in Manuscript of Library of

the

Fifteenth

Century,

"

Vie

de St. J"r9me.""

In

the

SI. Ambroise

Firmin-Didot,

Paris.

26

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

over,

and prelates, nobles princes

:

and

seemed plebeians,

to take

an

interest in
the attractions

horticulture
of

the

greaterwas

the greater seemed agitation, political de Chatillon

was

country life. Cardinal

had and

at magnificent plantations

Maillezais,of which
his

place he
him

bishop ;
kinds

Francois and

Rabelais, during

stay

at

Rome,

sent

various first

of seeds
became du

plants which
The

were

imported leading

into

France of deserve

for the this

time, and

indigenous.
and

two

statesmen

period,Cardinal
in the and

Bellay

Cardinal

de

Lorraine,

also the

mention

historyof
sought
and

gardening,for
from
at

they
of
de At of

encouraged
state,,the
one

pursuitof botany,
the

repose

the

cares

at

Abbey of St. Maur,

time

the other
the
trees

the Chateau flowers.

those

Meudon,
this

where

they passed their

were
no

amidst

and

period there
in

public botanical gardens

of Pisa
and Florence in

in

France, like

Passau Dean

Bavaria, and
Paris
"

though Italy,

Jean

Ruel,
his

of the

Faculty and
Natura the

physician to Fra^ois I.,explained in

"

valuable of

work,

De
a

Stirpium

1536, (Paris,

in

the necessity folio),

creatingsuch
The
era

garden for

medicine. teachingof practical

of Transatlantic fruitful
one,

voyages, which the maritime

followed the voyages of

of America, discovery

was

very

and

discoveryand conquest
closer to

were

succeeded

by scientific voyages.
were

Distant

lands, drawn

Europe
first and the into
was

by

the ties of commerce,

opened
from

for the researches of science.

The East due

to

facts of natural

collected history, and left us

the

beyond
China

the

seas,

both

from

West, from
Jesuits,who
which also
the

Mexico
have

Brazil
true

as

from

and

Japan, were
of the

and

accounts interesting

countries

they carried
the

standard

of

Christianity.Valuable
in

information

given by
ambassador

diplomaticagents
of of three

countries. foreign
in

Busbecq, who
took

was

German

emperors

Turkey,

with

him

the

learned

naturalist

Sienna, Andrew

to Mattioli, at

assist him
as

in his botanical his

researches.

French Pelicier,
learned

ambassador Rondelet

Venice, had
Cardinal

secretaryand

physicianthe

Guillaume

; and

du

sador ambasBellay,

of Francois in
a

I. to the

Holy See, attached

has
not

to his suite the

us

great

Rabelais he may the other

similar

who, however, capacity,

travels in
on

left

any

of the works

have

composed during his

Italy. Guillaume

Rondelet, on

hand, published several works

naturalist Tournoii
means

Ornithology and Ichthyology. A French

Belon, who

still

more

Pierre celebrated, of his

accompanied suppliedby
where he

Cardinal with

de the

in several

missions,was diplomatic
and

him

of

in Palestine, travelling Egypt,

Arabia,

completed and

iz8

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

Thevet

and

Pierre

Grilles ; with
;

the

leading naturalists, such

as

as

Eondelet,

Belon, and

Aldrovandus

with

the greatest botanists, such

Rainbert

Dalechamp,
The
were

Maranda,
books

Adam

Lonicer, and
may,

Dodoens,
upon

surnamed
as

Dodonajus.
store

of Gesner

therefore,be
discoveries

looked

the

in which

all deposited

the facts and show

in natural

history duringhis day.

want
ception con-

Gesner's works
of classification of that the

that at this militated

the period science, notwithstanding harmonious

a

which work

againstan
had
mass

and advanced
to
a

complete
stage.

of

nature,
the

reached of

very

All

remained

was

to

submit

information

philosophicand
which
Gesner

methodical

classification. Thus, in that part of his great work

animals different

publishedhimself,after ranging the

names

with alphabetically,

their Latin
them

followed

by

those

used

in

languages, he

describes

their origin, their varieties, their habits,their diseases, minutely, indicating their in in utility
to

domestic

economy, the different

medicine, and industry,

passages which he less

arts,and

quoting,
from

reference
and

each,

had erudite

extracted than

ancient

modern

authors.

Belon, although

Gesner,
in
some

attempted to
cases

class the birds

according to

their instinctive
;

habits, and
no

accordingto
his
most

their external

appearance

but

he

had

settled

system,
the

and

ingenious suggestionsfailed
of natural
Gesner the

to

bring to
of

his

knowledge

unvaryingorder
even

laws in the formation

and

species. Rondelet
to

went
parative com-

further

than

Belon,

as

he

attempted
of

ascertain he

by
did

anatomy
succeed
was

and analogies

differences

but species, in

not

in

a establishing general and

plan systematic
other

zoology. Botany
for history, but plants, advanced the
was

much
not

further

advanced

than the of

the

branches

of natural

Gesner the

only discovered
researches the

elements
a

for the classification of of excellent

botanists embraced

conscientious
and

number
a

further

further

frontiers of henceforward

science which
the the method books

whole the

world. vegetable

Though

of observation of the

only one
were

admitted

in scientific matters, and

ancient

naturalists

translated

commentated,
full
a

and

Aristotle, Theophrastus,Dioscorides,

and

Pliny recovered
There
was,

authority.
man

however,
of all
were

of

genius who, knowing nothing of

Greek

or

Latin, and

devoid

regulareducation, discovered
centuries

the fundamental and later,

bases
as

of nature, which

only recognisedthree

who,

far

back

as

the sixteenth

century, established the principles upon

natural

which

repose in

geology, physics,and

history.

This

was

humble

labourer

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

izg

called Bernard Perigord,

at

who, Palissy,

the age

of

left his fivc-and-twenty,

he had
a

native

where village,

been

'

earn-

ing
start

scanty livingas
on a

potter, and
in hand

i'd

journey,staff

and

wallet

on

back, through France,

ferent difHolland, practising
trades
"

Germany,

and

manual

at

one

time
and
at

at another glazier,

geometer,
Wherever

another
he

designer.
the

he went
trict, dis-

studied

topography of the

the
the and
course

of the ground, irregularities of the streams,

the

mines,

the natural

and 'speproductions cialities

of the country. He the inhabitants

as

questioned
acquired by

to

the

which objects
so

and attracted his attention, for the

himself

scientific education
own

sole force of his

five years of he
"

intelligence.
the his

After
course

wandering, in
learnt,to
.use

of which

own

expression, science
returned home

with

the

teeth," he
in

and

settled

Saintonge. While
of surveyor
to

continuinghis
on glass, painter

trade

and

he

sought

discover

the

secret

of

making enamelled
similar
to

pottery (Fig. 92),

which

that
so

Italy

factured manu-

with
was

much

and which skill,

at every court

much

in

favour

in

worked Europe. Palissy for ten

or

at this scheme

twelve years
enamel

ing before discover-

the coloured
to cover

which
He

he

quired re-

the whom

pottery.
he had

thus
. ,

Fig. 02.-Table
the

Ornament,

from

the Palace

of

Bishop of Lieieux."
Achille Jubinal.

Enamelled

Pottery

equalledthose
and

copied,

of the sixteenth of M.

("ntu^._in

the Election

he

soon

them by making surpassed

s

i3o

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

vases

and

dishes

which

were

decorated

with

of flowers, herbs, shells, figures

was

and .insects, when of des the it

whose reptiles.Palissy, the

earthenware

very under

highlyesteemed
the

appeared at
of

French

court,
and

placed himself
obtained the the
on

protection
"Inventeur

Constable

Montmorency,
roi."

title of
"

du figulines rustiques

(See in

volume

Arts," chapter on

Ceramics.)
He
.

was

summoned him
a

to

Paris

by

order

of

the

King,

and

Catherine It
was

de' then

Medicis that and

gave

workshop
a course

in the of

gardens of

the Tuileries.

he described, in his theories

on

the public lectures,

result of his discoveries

"

natural

history. Referring to this,he wrote,

dis-

Fig. 93."

Mark

of

Barthelemy Berton, printer at Kochelle, upon

Bernard

the in

Title-page of the 1563, small

"

Discourg

admirables," by

published Palissy,

at La

Rochelle

quarto.

at played placards

the

comers

of the streets, in order

to

assemble
in three other

the

most

learned

and others,promising to explain to physicians in

them and

lectures And
those
no one

all that I knew in order

most

regard to fountains,stones, metals, might

consist

bodies.

that

the audience
to

only of

the in my

most

learned and

anxious

instruct themselves, I stated

placardsthat
this I did to well that

would could any

be admitted be advanced

except
in

on

payment
my

of

crown

; and

see

what

to opposition

views, knowing

if I made do

false statements

they
any

would

be caught up." infallibly

as particulars

We

not,

unfortunately, possess
most thirty-two

further

to these

conferences

at which to many

honourable and

learned

persons

took

part, in addition

.V.l/TA'AL

SCIENCES.

'3'

others
wore

not
not

so

however, distinguished. Palissy,

asserts

that

his

once

questioned. He
success,

repeatedhis
1580 he

lectures

every

year, from

1575.
was,

with
no

increased
resume

and
his

in

his great work, published

"

which

doubt, a

of

public lectures,entitled

Admirable

Discourses,"

"c.

(seeFig.93).

Fig.94."
middle Jean

The
of

Vegetable Kingdom."
the

Mark

of Guillaume

Merlin, Bookseller

at

Paris,

in

the

Sixteenth

Century.-The design

mark of this typographical

is attributed

Cousin.

It

is

only

since He

time Palissy's

that the
"

geologyhas obtained
fish discovered petrified rocks
tinwere

recognised
in the and views
i

place in
had been

science. born

stated that
at
a

there

time

when

the

only water
these

mud.
wer

whirl,

(MMM

with ximultni.-ously potriticd

fish;" but

'32

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

not

generallyrecognisedas
two
or

true

until years the he

the

time

of Cuvier

and

Brongniart.
in which and he

Palissywas

three

hundred when
;

in advance fossils
were

of the formed

epoch
men

lived, for he
kinds

asserted that
did the
not

certain due
to

of animals

exist
of

between distinguished
he

the water the

;
or

and crytallization of affinity

water

vegetation ;
of stones

laid down
metals

laws

of the

salts in the

development

and

he

investigated

of the originof clouds, of springs, and of

of mineral earthquakes,

springwaters,
natural Yet

potable waters

he

started,in fact, the great questionsof

of agronomy.

and philosophy,of organic chemistry,of mineralogy,

Fig.

94"."

Mark

of Charles

Estienne, Printer
"Prsedium

at

Paris,in the First Edition

"

of his Work

entitled

Kustioum."

(Seepage 125.)

Bernard
was

exercised Palissy looked upon

as more

little influence than

a

upon

the science of his

day, and

he

not

skilful potter.
was

It is true
to

that this

wars periodof civil and religious

not
"

very

able favour-

the silent meditations

"

of

but science,
was

the naturalists
in the

more

especially

the

botanists

careless

as

to what

going on
outside

political world, saw

nothingand
Towards discovered

heard the the

nothing of
close

what

passed

their studies
were

(Fig. 94).
savants

of the

sixteenth
to

century
the

there

two

who

true

as principles

classification

of

plants. Matthias

Lobel, born
settled in

at Lille in

1538, but who,

of all

after several them

mosses

long botanical expeditions,

into
"

England, first
the umbelliferous

arranged
the

families
and

"

such the

as

the mint

grasses, the tribe and

and orchids,the palm tribe,

compared

plants. Andrew

of botanyat professor Cesalpin,

NATURAL

SCIENCES.

133

"

Pisa, compared

the

process

of

generationin
stamen, divided

animals

to

the

seed

of

plants,

distinguishingmale yielded seed

male of
as

plants by their
He
further

and

considering the plants which

into fifteen

female.

plants

classes, with
the honour

and

female

genders
the
very

in each. first

To

Cesalpin,therefore, belongs
a

having invented
was

system of botany,
the

branch
and

of natural
progress

history
of which
over

which
were

studied

and eagerly, the

numerous

development

materiallyassisted by

exploringexpeditionsall

the

globe (Fig. Q4a).

How

important
the
two

were

these

conquests of
six hundred

science wood

may in

be

gathered by
"

examining

thousand written

plates
notes

the

Histoire

generate des Plantes,"

champ,
and

in French, after the

five hundred

of

Jacques Daletreatise and

with

the

two

thousand

plates in

the

botanical

of the Alsatian

Jacques-Theodore Tabernsoniontanus,
1588-90. At that

written for

in German, volumes

published
abundant
Dr.

in

time

the

rage
to

was

bulky

in regard illustrations, especially Hernandez

was

natural

history; and yet, when

whom
he

Francis
as

ordered in
one

by Philip II., to
volume all the
not

had

been

acting
mineral

physician,to collect

and animal, vegetable,

productions of Mexico,
would
cost

he

could

find

during

his he

lifetime
had had

publisher who painted at

on a

engrave

the twelve
ducats.

hundred The

figureswhich

of

sixty thousand
Theodore

engravingsand publications
his
the
sons

natural
had
more

which history
success

de
came

Bry and
out

executed

at

fort Frankknown

when

they

in

collection splendid

to

the "Grands bibliographists as

et

Petits

Voyages."

Fig. 95."

The

Phoenix Latin

risingfrom
Edition of

his

Ashes."

Fac-simile

of

Wood

Engraving

in the

Pliny (Frankfort. 1602,

in

folio).

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

Decline

of

Medicine

after Talismans

the and The

death Orisons Schools

of

Hippocrates.
against

"

The

School Monastic

of

Galen.
"

The Female
"

School Doctors.

of

Alexandria. The
The
"

Illness.
"

Medicine. and Salerno. The

as

"

"

Arab School

Schools. of

of

"

Naples,

Monte from Paris.

"

Casino,
the East. Lanfranc

"

The

Hospitallers.
of

Cordova. Schools

"

Epidemics Montpellier
"

coming
and Chauliac.

"

appearance

Military
"

Surgery.

The
"

of at

upholder

of and

Surgery.
the
Barhers. and

College
"

of

St.

Cosmo

Paris. Occult in the

Guy

de

"

Rivalry
"

of

the

Surgeons
of
the

Medical

Police." The Doctors

The

Sciences

in

Medicine. Andrew

Rivalry
Vesalius.

Surgeons
Pare.

the

Doctors.

Sixteenth

"

Century."

"

Ambroise

HRISTIANITY,
exercised the
a

as

might
immediate and

be

expected,
influence science sick of the
to

great

and

npon
medicine.

practice
Christ of and

the
the

healing

by

laying
the blind

on

hands,

restoring
the and lame

sight
to

making
to

walk the

by
dead

an

appeal
to

God,
name

raising
the world best

life
to

in

the

of
the the

Father,
that

seemed
prayer

intimate faith

to

and human

were

remedies

against
Medicine and its
to

ills. the
art

indispensable
the death and
too

accompaniment,
of

of

surgery, due real

went, underto

subsequently
rival Men
sects

Hippocrates,
without

transformations

the

of

dogmatism
but and

empiricism, hampered

making
or

any

progress. such
as

of

intelligence,
of

by scepticism Ephesus,
medicine
to

materialism,
a new

Themison

Laodicea
which made of
account

Soranus
the

of of

founded
rest

doctrine

called and

Methodism,
mutual which

science

upon another.

the

analogous
This

relations took of

the of

organic
anatomical and and

affections'

one

doctrine,
or

no

studies,
"

admitted
to

only
the of

two

principles
and

causes

illness,
of the

strictum tissues

laxttm the

that

is

say,

contraction
treatment
was

the either

relaxation

invariable

course

i36

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

to

inflammations,loss
of sympathies,
to

of

blood, intermittent fevers

his system of

antipathies
less to

"and

indications and

counter-indications, appertainnot
and therapeutics,

physiologythan
was

pathologyand

show

how

superiorhe

to his

and predecessors. contemporaries

Yet, after his death, the doctrines

of

Hippocrates again obtained

seem

lence, prevato

though
of spiritualism these theories

the the

materialist tendencies
Christian

to

be

directly opposed
did
not

the

faith.

The

however, latter,
;

disown
were

in the

science medico-philosophic

and

the
to

earlymonks,
transcribe the
the vast up and and The

who

of physicians
of

body

as

well

as

of the

mind, began

aphorisms
a

the principal treatises Hippocrates,

of Galen, and
had taken

repertory of

Greek

Coelius Aurelianus, who physician, of the methodists.

had teaching
no

commentated

all

the books

In other

these
sources

times of trouble
of

uncertainty, professional
cities of Athens,
attracted
a

knowledge.
of

Rome,

and

Alexandria
of

still had

schools

philosophy which
any
one was

motley crowd
Greek upon
or

and professors Gaul

or

students,and
Christian
was or

admitted, whether

Arab,

Roman,

Jew

for the

only restriction
the

complete freedom

of instruction
not

that

the laws the that

of the state and

or

should prevailingreligion To
this may be traced

be

attacked

by

teachers

their
was

pupils.

in the
Eastern

philosophy of
reveries and
most

day,

as

it

called,a
pagan

strange amalgamation of
and superstitions Christian

of traditions, scriptural
men intelligent

legends. The

of that

time

and believed that "famine, death,foul air,

epidemicsare
the lower and the

caused

by
the

evil

spirits,

who, enveloped in
to which

cloud, flit through

of regions incense

atmosphere,
up
to

they are

attracted But them for the

by

the

blood

offered

the
not to

false divinities. exist.

It is to

odour that
are

of the
due

these sacrifices, the

would spirits attributed

alone

wonderful

cures

^Esculapius" (Fig.96).
When
not

these

ideas

were

held
common

by

the most should

talented
have

men

of the time, it is
relief for

that astonishing

the

herd

sought
to

bodily placing

ills in

of magic and piety, practices having

in certain
as

recourse

talismans,and
cabalistic

confidence implicit

and words, formulae,figures,

the signs, obtain

effect of which

was,

they believed,to

exorcise

the

evil

and spirits

the assistance of the As the

good spirits. Serapis were

of the fourth
to the

temples of ^Esculapius, Hygeia, and

were

closed

"

and

these divinities

altogether neglectedby
its churches and

the end

century"
received

Christianity opened

its monasteries

sick,who

M/-:DICA

i.

SCII-:.\CES.

'37

there

the gratuitously

best attention that

still very charity,

devoid of science,

but animated
\v;mts

by

the

both

of the which
so

could offer precepts of the gospel, ministered Were body and the soul* treated that
was

to the to.

indigent. The
The first

Irjx-r-

houses, in
which
were

were

not

but only leprosy,

the

other

skin diseases

frequentat

day, were

erected close to the church. with

the Christian
as

The
it had

hydropathictreatment, which
been with
the Hebrew

in accordance

became faith,

generalunder

the combined
mineral of the

influence of
sources

religious symbolism and

fountains
were

hygienicprinciples. Many
lost the

and

which, though they had

the

patronage

local divinities,
the

not

less crowded

at

fixed

epochs,were

placed beneath

tutelary

Fig. 96.

"

Celtic Monument several

discovered

at

Paris,beneath

the

Choir

of

Notre-Damo, in 1711. -iEsculapius.)

(Accordingto

the bas-relief archusologists, representsthe

Gallic

protection of
action in the In
of any

various
cure

to whom saints,

popularopinion attributed
the

special
that

of diseases.
the fifth

the

of beginning which
was

century

of medicine, like practice

to

surgery,

not

yet a distinct branch, continued

were even women

be

free,without
who, like the
no

authorisation
of the

being required. There

Gauls, treated
the
at

Druidesses

sick.

Charmem,

unconscious,
means

doubt,

of the occult forces which

to cure,
or

they set

work, proceededby

of

magnetism
were

at all events

to

relieve,neuralgic pains; country bone-setters

fractures the worst about and

very

expert in remedying
of oculists, impostors

dislocations of the limbs

had learnt while

and

rous nume-

kind, who
ocular
T

servingin

the

army

what

littlethey knew

made diseases,

largesums

of money

'38

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

by scouring the
"

country

with

their

lotions lurked

and

quintessences.But

at

the

bottom Yet the

of all this

popular
the

medicine

the most

outrageous empiricism.
to

authorities of
the

large towns

engaged municipal doctors, who,

were

judge by
rendered fortunes the did

on inscriptions

their tombs,
The

not

devoid

of

and ability, followed the in

considerable
of the Roman

service.

of medicine public teaching

empire,and
Yet
at

migrated

from

Rome

to

Byzantium

reign of Constantino.
not

the barbarians,in their

repeated invasions,
and Marseilles.
centres

destroy
and

the

schools
more

Treves, Aries, Bordeaux,

to

Alexandria

Athens

continued especially Greek

be

luminous
was

of

intellectual labour,

though

medicine, which

alone

taught there,

.^
"
"

It M

cttntig opfeou totnc cgrpticrrae ^hrfjicognc

te! 0"t popi'e

J Ion la lopo:De
njat

ror ellc touc leenuf tree opfcaug plue cj cm

fc no uut q (K clj a to gncG inottee

pzrc (cet me 6 DC

(a mccoitOce tmictce cmugucfcs oeufe oeaferpcect fcpurge

Fig. 97.
"

The

Stork

its

own

Doctor,

as

testified to

by Papias.
"

Fac-simile

of
"

Wood the

Engraving Library of

in the M.

"Dyalogue

des Creatures"

(Gouda, Gerart

Leeu,

1482, in

folio).In

Ambroise

Firmin-Didot, Paris.

had

embraced
to

theories

derived

both

from
Middle

dogmatism
Ages.
the
one

and

which empiricism,

continued

the prevail throughout of close

:

Oribasius
was, at

Pergamus, physician to
of the fourth

Emperor
of the
had

Julian last

the

Apostate,

the

century,
which

of representatives the labours

pagan many
more

science

his

writings,in

he

summarised

of

Greek

were physicians,

adopted by

the sect of Nestorians, who The

cultivated

particularly philosophyand medicine.

the eclipsed school
;

Nestorian
the
renown

school of Edessa
to attaching
was

soon

school but
as

of
at

Alexandria, and
Edessa the

shared

the

Athens
up with

propagationof Nestorianism
suffered, from Leo the the

mixed

scientific teaching,the
emperors, Theodosius

school II. and

which persecution

the Eastern

the Isaurian,waged against

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

'39

of licivsy with that

Nestorius.
of the Greek
at

The

u professors

hose

was orthodoxy

not

in

conformity
a

Church
same

were

deprived of

their salaries

by

decree of
school.

Justinian,who
The untenanted their chairs

the

time

wrought

the final ruin of the Athens

were

of

philosophy and
East, for the
go

medicine

not, however,

altogether

in the

Arab
a

schools

were

still in existence, though

did teaching

not

beyond
very

few books of

Plinythe Elder, of Dioscorides,

from Greek
or

of Aristotle, and

of

Galen,

translated imperfectly

Latin

Fig. "8."

Physician, from

the

"

Danse

Macabre," Guyot Marchant

edition,1490.

into

and Syriac, The

then
school

retranslated
of Alexandria

into Arabic had ceased

with
to be

of multiplicity
more

errors

(Fig.97).
her former

than

shadow

of all

the self,

lessons
a

of the masters

of science

were

and forgotten,

that she
to
a

was possessed

few

themselves who, instead of confining rhetoricians,

causes

careful

observation

of

and

commentated effects,
to the

and apocryphal

ridiculous

books, and

applied themselves

of discovery

useless hand

or

sate insenfive

solutions.

Thus, for instance, they discussed

why

the

has

1 40

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

instead, fingers than monks the

"

of six ;
;

why

such

and head the

such is

an

intestine is of
"c. In the

one

shape more
the
to

of another

why

the human and

round,

meanwhile

of Mount
rules of their

Lebanon

ascetics of Mount
the

Atlas, in obedience
translation and

order, worked

at incessantly
"

copying

committing
of theory
not

many

blunders, unfortunately of the

that the information world.

earlytexts

relating to
the ancients

the

medicine, in order

possessed by

might

be lost to the Christian all these

Amidst

obscurities of science, a

few

illustrious

savants
to

formed the fifth The

bright exceptions. Thus

what Alexander Greek and of

Aetius, of
was

Amidu the

in middle

Mesopotamia, was
of the sixth
"

Tralles

to

century.

former, a
observations them with

under collected, physician, doctrines

the

title of

Tetrabiblos,"the

of his
For

predecessors, completing and

work contains
a

elucidating

great judgment.

instance,his
the

very

plausible
eye, in of he

theory upon
and the
acute
a

of fever,a detailed description

diseases of the principal

of very series,

of the functional precise descriptions

morbid the

disorders caused
cases

organism by
disease
are

various based

complaints.

His

in therapeutics

upon

of Hippocrates, and principles prove

that

enriched possessedreal learning, Aetius Amongst pther things, of aliments

cases

by experienceand
advocates the
a

refined and

by
care

excellent

logic.

diet regular

in the selection

he

pointsout
in

good

effects of fresh
"

air and the God

cold water
of Abraham
"

in

of of

angina

and

pulmonary complaints.
when

May

and

Jacob,"

he

exclaimed
which

preparing

one

of his

remedies,

give to

this medicine After

was

the virtues
comes

I believe of

it to possess ! "

(Fig.98.)
medical since

Aetius

Alexander
sixth

Tralles, whose
No Greek
to

reputation
the

very

great in the

century.
with He had

doctor

days

of

Hippocrates had
and sagacity, facts which allow himself

equalledhim

regard
made

science, practical professional

merit. literary had

to

himself before

acquaintedwith
his time
;

all the
not

been

observed

and

collated

but

he did

become

the slave of any other

art

scientificauthority, or

to be

seduced

by

any

doctrine, recognisingno
a

guide
of

than

his

own

experience. He
he laid down of
a as a

possessedto
that principle until the

supreme
no

degree the
should

and diagnosis,

decision

be arrived
causes

at,

as

to

the treatment have and been

case,

and specific and

individual His

of the
upon

disease

carefully

sought out
of violent
cases

considered.
the

views of in

melancholia

gout, his dislike

laxatives in

aperientsand

abuse

opium, his preferencefor

cases

of

and dysentery

for emetics

of intermittent

both fever,testify

StEDICAL

SCIENCES.

141

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

to the

independence and

accuracy

of his
most

and observations,

show He

that he knew
was

how

to

apply with advantage the

to

theories. conflicting
to
use

the first certain

to resort

bleeding from

the

vein, and jugular

iron

in filings

affections of the blood.

In the seventh

century

the

Jewish in

doctors the which

endeavoured

to possess
at

selves themand

of the

teaching of

medicine

East, forming
all real

Damascus

in scientific assemblies, Constantinople

learningwas

lost in the

obscurities of cabalism.

The

East, always a land

ideas superstitious disease. in the This

of illusions and

fancies, was

only

too

accessible

to

the
of

implied
of

in
error

the

magical
and is truth
as

and is

treatment supernatural nowhere scientific and in

more

mixture
a

noticeable
it is

than

Koran,

which compilation

much

as

and religious,

to which

doctors

from

the

schools

of Alexandria

Dschoudisapour (thetown
the
name

founded for

by Sapor II.)must
of Islamism

have

tributed con-

of

Mahomet,

this code very

contains, with
excellent
one

regard

to

and hygiene, some physiology in the

remarkable

views and
often remind here

summarised principles
the

shape of aphorisms which

It is worth while

of

language of Hippocrates.
Mahomet's

mentioning
were

that, long

before

time, the
their share

Arab

doctors, who

also

and poets,legists, contributed Mahomet

to

had philosophers,

in the sacerdotal
races.

influences which
when the and

the civilisation of the Eastern had been

Thus,

conquests of

consolidated
found

with

the

sword,

the native

foreigndoctors residing
at

at Irak

and greater security than from the

from protection
at

the Mussulmans

Bagdad

and

Bassora
Paul of

Emperors
in the

Byzantium.
century, the
last personage

^Egineta was,
to

seventh

of note

belonging

the

expiring school
upon
own

of Alexandria.

This Greek
and

doctor, whose Oribasius, also

as

pathology was
had
a

based of his

the for

of Galen, Aetius, principles the

treatment

system

of
was

different

diseases, such

ophthalmia, gout, rapidity.

He

and

which leprosy,
more

latter

spreading with
and

frightful
towards

inclined One

towards

methodism

eclecticism than
who
was

empiricism.
a

of his

named contemporaries,

Ahrun,

not

probably

student that

of

the Alexandria he
was a

school, though he afterwards

Christian
as

medicine practised

in

where city,

priest, published a judicioustreatise

and which small-pox, latter disease

upon had

various

such epidemics, its appearance

scurvy and gave had

was

just made
the Arab celebrated

spreading rapidly,three
more

centuries
them.

before The

doctor,Rhazes,
schools which

detailed founded
at

of description

been

Bagdad, the

new

capital

'44

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

and

founded

schools

there, which

in

short

time

contributed

to

the

spread

'of science

in France,

Belgium, and Germany.

as

(See Chapter I., Universities.)

of

Medicine
When

continued,
the

before, to be

one

of the branches upon the

philosophy.
of the gave

municipal regime
the

arose

ruins

empire laymen
and

of
a

Charlemagne, when
share with

of independenceand spirit

isolation

ecclesiastics in civil functions, a

between The monks these
soon

struggleof

interest

vanity

commenced that
tune.

two
saw

distinct that if

classes, which

composed societyat
their

they were

to retain

monopoly

Fig.

100.

"

Cure

through
to

the

Intercession

of

Healing Saint.

"

Fac-simile
"

of

Wood

Engraving

attributed

Holbein,

in

the

German

Translation

of the

Consolation

of

Philosophy," by

Boethius, Augsburg

Edition, 1537, in folio.

in medicine, threatened
both of medicine and

by
of

the

laymen,they
;

must

extend
consequence rules who

their
was

knowledge
that down
as

surgery

and The

the

physiciansthey study
Latin
of the
"

made Re

great progress.

monastic

laid
was

the

De

Medica,"

treatise

by Celsus,
of monks

styled the
their
to

Hippocrates. Moreover,
dioceses
to wander

numbers

and

priestsleft

cloisters and relief of

through
Of these

the land,
were

devoting themselves
to

the

suffering humanity.
;

Thieddeg, doctor
;

Boleslns,
illustrious

King

of Poland

Hugh,

Abbot

of St. Denis

and

others.

The

MKDICAL

sciE.\ci:s.

i4S

Gerbert
in his

d'Auvcrgne, who

became

pope

under

the title of

II.,had Sylvester

medicine. parlylife professed philosophyand practised

no

It is had been
were

doubt

true

that

the clerks who

a

had

taken

monastic

vows,

or

who
;

ordained
often

as abstained, priests,

rule,from practising surgery

but

they

present
cases

at

ihe

serious

operationseffected
to

by their lay consulting

blood,they

assistants. surgeons
;

In such but in

they confined themselves

from such

the part of in

though they abstained

certain

dipping their hands

as simple operations

performed

urgent

cases

incisions and
dressed
blished esta-

dislocations blood-lettings ; they treated

the wounds all every

and

fractures of limbs,and

inflicted in battle.
over

had Leper hospitals

was an

long since
in every under

been

Europe. There
where
canons

almshouse
common

open

monastery, in

largechurch
There and

lived in

the conventual
in the diocese
were

regime.
of
lor

is reason

for

that several monasteries believing of Padcrborn

Mot/,
the

those especially

and

Corbie, which

famous
from

and philosophical

medical

teachingimparted there
means

to students

all

lands,furnished

their

pupilswith the
to

of

puttingtheir theory into

Here
were

attached practicein hospitals

1 rained

the

establishment. religious who travelled all

over

the

physiciansand
monastic
and

surgeons

Europe without
of

their discarding medicine practising

attire, to

fulfil their

mission

charityby
It
was

of performingordinaryoperations
were

surgery.
and
women

from

conventual

hospitals, too,'that

recruited the
sick.
a

men

who

devoted of matrons
was

themselves
and

entirelyto tendingthe
who

There
sort

were

also

number

women elderly

belonged to

of

which corporation, time forbidden

specially employed
men.

upon

obstetric medicine, at

that

to

The
to

renown

of the medical The

schools of Monte II.

Casino

and Salerno continued

Monte

increase.
to

Emperor Henry
for stone.

repairedto the monastery of

of the sick who
came

Casino

be

treated the

Most

three

sought

merely to
and the

touch

relics of St. Matthew, the

patron saint of the convent,

those of other

saints (Fig.100) ; healing

but

they found there,to

attentions
and of
a

second

intercessions
which

of
had

these
made

saints, the
a

material

religious possessed
common

community
a

serious with the

study of medicine,

which

hygieniccode
The
of

in accordance

and of of experience teaching upon

to at

sense.
as

touchingof
the
most

relics was,
means

nevertheless,looked
of
cure,

this

period

one

effective

and

it is not
had been

be

wondered

at

that the

Kings

of

England

and

of France, who
u

anointed with the

r+6

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

holy oil
of

at

their

should consecration, the

have

believed

that

they had the

such
as

power

healing,by

impositionof
"c. which the
same

hands, various

maladies,

goitre,

king'sevil,white
The

tumours,

empirical method,
century, was
in the many
not

was

current

in

the

West

during

the

eleventh

as

the

medical philosophical in the

treatment

taught
there
was,
so

celebrated

schools

of

the

East, but
The

of practice of

which

were

singularcontradictions.
the

Arabic

mode

treatment at

to

speak,speculative.Yet 980),
whom his

illustrious Aviccnna

(born
the

Chiraz,

in

Persia, about

contemporariessurnamed

Prince

of

Fig.

101.

"

Leper

House.

"

Miniature

from

the

"Miroir
"

Historical

"

of Vincent

de

Beauvais.

Manuscript

of the Thirteenth

Century.

In the Arsenal

Library,Paris.

Doctors,was
which of
won

educated
him
access

in
to

the school of
the he he
courts

Bagdad

and

his immense

reputation,
a

of several Asiatic
art.

is sovereigns, the

proof

the talent in

with

which
which

practisedhis

Amongst

numerous

works medical

Arabic

left behind testifies to

him, that
the

entitled the and

of

"Canon,"

which encyclopaedia, translated into

erudition
as a

sagacityof teaching for

doctrine

the six

author, was
or seven

Latin, and

served

basis

centuries. with

The
success,

followers

of Avicenna them Canon

"

spread the
Ilarun

of their
was

master
one

great

amongst
the
"

being
in

the

Jew, who

of the first

of interpreters

Europe

; Mesue

the younger.

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

147

whose
Anil"

treatise

on

the

Materia

Mcdiea,

disencumbered drawn
some

of the from very

subtleties of the

school, contains

ingeniousdeductions
Soliman, who

the external

aspect

nt'

eaeh upon

plant;

Ishak

ben

collected
younger,
a

sensible observations

dietetics ; and
some

Serapion the

Greek
to

doctor, whose
the
use

writings
schools of
Thus

embodied,

entirelynovel
Arabic

as suggestions

of medicaments. the

Moreover,
the East

the
to

system
of
was

of

medicine, in passing from

underwent
an

the. school who

Cordova,
at
once

many

changes.
and

the

Spaniard, Albucasis,
not

anatomist

did physiologist, Galen and should of

a

implicitly accept
He other laid down mutual kind. each

the
as

often
a

contradictoryauthority of
medicine
and

Avicenna. lend
most to

that principle he

surgery

and assistance, These the age,

invented
were

instruments surgical of iron ; for, in every

formidable the

instruments

opposition
had he
sonic-

prejudicesof

according
the- different
to

to

which

metal
surgery,

special property analogous to

that disease with
which

operationsin
He

tained mainthe

iron

only ought

be

employed.

therefore with
a

attacked

fire and
was

to iron,resorting

cauterization

degree

ness of bold-

often
or

successful,and
of the

practisingthe
which

difficult
modern

operationof again

bronchotomy,
resorts

incision
eases

windpipe,

science

to in certain
numerous

of croup.

The rendered

hospitals founded
more on indispensable

during
account

the

eleventh

century
;

were

all the

of the Crusades

and

monks,
Land

and hospitallers,

hermits

created

upon

the
The

routes

leading to
and

the

Holy

fresh
of St. in

refugesfor pilgrims in Mary

East and
; in

distress. devoted
were

Johannists
to

the

brotherhoods of
and

St. Lazarus
France

themselves the
brothers

the mission

charity
of the

the

there

of St.
the

Antony
heroic

Holy Ghost;
St. John of the

and

throughout
or

the

civilised world whose

chevaliers of establishments

Jerusalem,

the

Templars,

countless

combined
and

character triple in
a

of conventual both
statues

church, almshouse, and monastic,

a

fortress,
a

who,
to

attired that
seen

dress the

militaryand
of

wore

mantle double

similar

in and

as J^sculapius,

sign
to

of the

mission, beneficent
of their in lives, the

warlike, which
upon

they had

sworn

at the risk fulfil,

and hospitals

the field of battle.

of l-'.iieh

these
the

congregations gave religious

of its rules, to for the

itself
treatment

over,

either

by

its

origin or

by

character of St. and

of certain

special
of

(lis.-as.-s. The of the

Order bowels

Antony,
the

mations instance, treated the terrible inflamunder the

known dysenteries

^enerie

name

148

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

St.

Antony'sfire ;
devoted

the Johannists
to

and
cure

the of

brothers the

of the

Order

of the

Holy

"Ghost
so

themselves
this

the

great epidemics of pestilence

frequentat

period;

the Lazarists

possessed sovereignremedies
the

against cularly parti-

leprosy,small-pox,pustular fever,
the
severe

"c. ;

Templars

tended

more

and travellers, pilgrims,

and

soldiers afflicted with The

at
a

ophthalmia,scurvy,
assisted
were

wounds,

dangerous
women,

sores.

were Hospitallers

by
so

various

of corporations

and,

time

when

regular doctors

Fig.

102.

"

Ward
the

in the

Hotel-Dieu, Paris.
a

"

Fac-simile

of

Wood

Engraving

of the Sixteenth and leges Privithe

Century,in
Benefactors

Frontispieceof

Manuscript
Patriarch
"

entitled,"Pardon, Grace, Register,

of

granted by the
of

Archbishop

Bourges

and

Primate

of

Aquitaine,to

the

Hostel-Dieu,Paris."

In

the

Burgundy Library,Brussels.

scarce,

they were
was more

very

useful
than

as

substitutes.

Abbess Hildegarde,
at

of

Ruperts-

berg, who
a

eighty years
rendered

of age

her in

death

(1180),organized

school his

of

nurses

who the
nuns

great

service

the

hospitals. Abelard,
them
to

in

letters for the there

were

to

of the
the poor. for

Paraclete
In
most

Convent, urged
of 'the

learn

surgery

benefit

of

communities great religious

publicrooms
the

bathing,dressing the
In

wounds

of,bleeding,
of Salerno

and and

cupping
the Abbot

indigent sick (Fig. 102).

devoted

Italythe Bishop
material

of Pescara

themselves

to the

relief of human

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

,49

suffering. The Ages

is true but
some

learned such

have
a

often
as

sought

to discover

whether

in the Middle called. It

there that the

existed
no

thing
to

military surgery
until history mention

properlyso

allusion

is made

it in

the fourteenth

century,
made assumed

in

most
or

ancient clerk
as

chronicles

is
army

continually being
; and

of

monk
was a

accompanying

the

it may
terms

be

that he

mire,
it
was

or

or physician,

barber, according to the

wounded warlike
and
care

then used,
sick.

whose

duty

to

tend suppose

the any

for

the

It

is

in fact,to impossible,
some one more or

expeditiontaking placewithout
of it ; and
it is easy the

less skilled in surgery the first

forming part
were

to

understand had
a

that virtual

militarysurgeons
had

as ecclesiastics,

Church the lord

monopoly of

the science of medicine. obtained

In

course

of time

urban their

and

which municipalassociations,

from the

the feudal

communal

sought rights,
This
was

to

free themselves
the

from

vassalage
to

imposed by the Church.

rank number the poor,
at

how

barbers

were

promoted

the

of subordinate
of
men

surgeons,

arid 'in every fixed

town

of any

importance a

certain

were

paid a

and salary, the

man

undertook, in return,
the
commune

to attend to furnish
as

and

follow to the
of

wars

whom In many

had

the

bidding

the lord of

the
even

soil.
more

foreign countries, such

the

and Holland, Italy,

Germany,
in

than

in France,
at
a

populous and

wealthy towns
cost,
one or

engaged
more

the

and public service,

small comparatively

surgeons,

nearlyall
were,

of whom

had

been

educated
what
were

in

the then

monastic called

schools, and
works

who

therefore,well fitted for

was

of

mercy.

Of

these
but
a

Hugh
sum

of

Lucca,

who, appointed
livres for his

physicianat Parma,
services
as

received

lump
was

of

six hundred

long as
and

he

lived.
salaried

This

the and

origin of the

in Stadts Phi/sikits

Germany, having
at

of the

surgeons the

in France, who, physicians of the

monks in

after

been

for two
to

centuries

rivals let

medicine, were
to

last enabled

practisewithout
the Crown
Alexis I.

or

hindrance, and

form

civil

to corporations,

which

and granted certain privileges

statutes.

From
their

the

reignof
the

(1081) the Emperors

of

the

East

accorded
in their

protectionto
more

and literary

scientificstudies which
the West. latter
were

flourished
no

empire far
fondness
and

than

they did

in

Though they had

held in

particular
at

for medical

the sciences, the of

high

esteem
was

Bagdad

Constantinople ; but
the

character philosophical

of the art

disfigured reign of

by

shameless

devices
from

and astrology
to

quackery. During
II., Emperor

the

Manuel

Conmenus,

1143

1180, Conrad

of Germany,

5o

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

having
able
.

been
cure

wounded

in the Crusade, and

not

having
under

in the

his army
care

surgeon Greek of the and

own

to

him,

was

obliged to put himself

and he doubtless upon who

of

the

doctors

at

Byzantium,
who the

acted his

under

the

advice of medicine with

was

Emperor
surgery. hands

Manuel,
It
was

prided himself
Emperor
Manuel

knowledge

afterwards
;

dressed and he

his noted

the wounds in the

of Baldwin

II.,King
for his

of Jerusalem

for

his adroitness which had

bleeding,and

discovery of potions and

beneficial.
slave of

ointments

reputation of being
of his time
same

very

Unfortunatelythe
astrology. peninsula produced

ideas superstitious

made

him schools

the blind

At

about

the

period the

of the Iberian

Fig.

104.

"

Counter-Seal

Fig. 103."

Seal of the

Faculty

of

Medicine,

of the

Faculty of

Medicine, Paris

Paris

(Fourteenth Century).
the Collection of Seals
in the

(Fourteenth Century).
National

From

Archives, Paris.

three
works and

men

of

genius : Ebn-Beithar,
lost ;

doctor
no

and

most naturalist,

of whose observation

have

been

Abenzoar, who, with

surgery,
vast

other

guide

than

method,
and

practised medicine,
whose
"

and

pharmacy
of

with

the

greatest
science,

success,

Taisyr," a

compendium
a

contemporary

translated the

into

Latin, long enjoyed

roes,

well-merited

reputation ; and, lastly,

famous

Aver and

who,
with
to

at

Cordova, publicly taught philosophy,jurisprudence,

such boldness and

medicine

independence that

he

was

obliged

to

flyfrom
was

Spain
able

Morocco, where, notwithstanding some

compose The
a

further upon the

he proceedings,

to

remarkable
and Mahometan

commentary
schools

writingsof Aristotle (1217)

Jewish

of Cordova

52

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

which the that

latter

cityemployed
funds. The he

an

who experiencedpractitioner,

was

paid

out

of

municipal
for

objectionurged against Salicetti principal

resorted too
much
to

was

healing sores
of

cauterization
He him
was,
as

and

the

knife,

instead teacher honoured

applying toxical and

medicinal

remedies.

however, the
"

of Lanfranc, who

spoke of always respectfully

to

my

master

of this

memory."
Milanese

Compelled

quit his country

into the

for
was

political reasons,
invited
to

celebrated his

fled professor Dean of

France, and

Paris

by

Passavant, compatriot,

Faculty,and

by Pitard, surgeon-indifficult of operations

was

chief to
surgery,

King Philippele Bel.

which
won

After
renown,

performing several
he

him It

great
may

opened
his
two

school,which

very
a
"

numerously attended. complete reform

and
"

be

said that
and

teachingbrought
works,
"

about

in French

surgery, the

his

Magna Chirurgia
;

Chirurgia Parva,"

became

manual

of

science practical
of

for,before
in of

his time, this branch

of the

art, in the
was

hands

ignorantbarbers, both
beneath female
the

France,
medical insisted
to

Spain, and

Germany,
Thus

almost male
sex

crushed and

yoke
women

omnipotence.
on

all surgeons,

(formany

being attended

by their

own

in certain

were cases),

compelled
;

give an

that they would undertaking

not

limit their labours

or

to handiwork

that

they would
without
to

give
or

any the

consultation
of permission he could
cases,

administer

any

internal surgeon write

not
a

remedy
was

the advice he

physician. The give an opinionor

free

operate as

but pleased,
verv

not

tion. prescripleft to the he

was

Moreover, in
decision

grave
even

were importantoperations

of the
be.

or patient,

to that

of the
the

however practitioner,

eminent
lord

might

The and of

permission either
the the
was operation

of

bishop

or

of the
a

feudal

necessary, in presence

invariably preceded by
relatives

solemn

consultation

friends
more

and

of the

patient. These
the

exaggerated religious

precautionsare
authorities eminent seemed

all the
to be

for surprising,

while

civil and

so

with regard to operations performed by particular

at

surgeons,

interfered they scarcely

or

all with

the the

minor

operations

performed by
would
cases.

barbers

hospitalnurses.
their

Moreover,

leading surgeons
in

have At

considered the end in

it beneath

dignityto perform they

did
not

unimportant
to
or

of the
cases

thirteenth of puncture

century
for

condescend of hernia,
as

operate themselves
cataract, and
of their The

dropsy,of stone,
internal

of

they even

the study of disregarded

diseases

unworthy

profession. genius
of

Lanfranc

was

instrumental

in

bringing

about

better

MEDICAL

SCIENCE.

'53

slate

of

things.
a

He
man

says, in
to

one

of his books, "The

outside

publicbclii-\.;
But
cannot

it
a

for impossible

be

both proficient

in medicine

and surgery.

must good physician

know

something of
;

surgery,

and

good

surgeon

afford to be
man

ignorant of medicine
some

it

is,therefore, necessary
sciences." Under

for

medical

to have

knowledge of

both

these

the influence of

Fig.105."

Doctor

Death."

Miniature

from

"

Book

of Hours

"

of the Sixteenth

Century." In the

Library

of M.

Ambroise

Firmin-Didot, Paris.

t lirsi"sensible

science ideas, surgical

was as

rose

in the Paris
as taught

Facultyto

the level of the

and highestliterary teaching, of and Spain, to Italy their children.

it which The
was

well

in the best medical schools

to

French

parents no
was

longerthought it necessary
considered surgeons who
to

send

Faculty of Paris

be
came

equalto all
for
some

and requirements,

only

few
x

young

iS4

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

weeks

to

Bologna, where

the

great
before

anatomist
an

Mundinus

and

his

successor,

dissection Bertreccius, practised from all parts of

attentive

assemblageof practitioners

Europe (Fig.105).
of

Another
more narrow

set

belonging to professors teachingthan

certain
had

the Jewish

race,

less brilliant

and

in their

those attached
in celebrity

to the

schools the

of Paris and fanaticism From of the and

also enjoyeda Montpellier, the

towns

where

peopleagainstthe

Jews

been

quelledby

the

authorities.

Carlovingian times, Metz, Mayence, Strasburg, Frankfort, Troyes,

Avignon
upon
on

had

maintained
not
as

chairs, from
as

which

the

rabbis, who
as

were

looked

by

the Jews

merely

ministers

of
the

but religion,

the best advisers

earthlymatters

well, taught,after

of glossology Hebrew

cabalism

and

the

as Scriptures

commentated

by

the Talmudists, the medicine.

the
more

sophy, language,philo-

moral
From surgery In
an

and philosophy, hygiene, time that

the

Lanfranc itself
enacted the
new more

founded
and

St. Cosmo from

its

College at Paris, originalbarbarism.

disencumbered le Philippe
Bel

1311

that all surgeons

in the

kingdom
members

should

pass

examination
with
to

before

the surgicalcollege,

of

which,

honoured

the confidence

of the

King
This the

and
was

his the

ministers, caused

great

umbrage

the

Facultyof
the
not to

Medicine.

beginning
doctors

of the

long

between struggle
The

long-robed and
confer
its

short-robed

(Fig. 106).
until
them

faculty would
swore never

degree
and

of Bachelor continued

upon
to

students
from

they
the

practisesurgery,

exact

oath

of

perpetualcelibacy. The

also faculty
who
was

obtained
an

from

King

John

(1352) a
mendicant
a

decree monk

prohibiting any
from honours

one

not

student, or apothecary,
were

medicine. practising

These

measures

taken far

with less

view

of

the protecting

of the

but they proved profession,

effectual than

the labours of

Guy

de Chauliac

author (1363),

of the

"

Grande the

who, Chirurgie,"
of reputation

in his double

and capacityof physician

to
a

surgeon,

raised

the medical other

body
the

very

high pitch.
V.
were

Upon
St. Cosmo
exhibit

the

hand,

affiliation of Charles the surgeons, who and

to the
so

brotherhood
as injudicious

of
to

increased the
towards

pride of
as

the barbers towards the

much

intolerance
The

contempt

as

the

cians physiin

had their

shown

themselves.

master

barbers, "hampered

calling" by

surgeons,

appealed to
them

the

King,

who

received
as

their

and appealvery favourably, upon the

exempted

from
"

doing duty
the barbers

watchmen,

ground, as

the

royaldecree

put it,that

being nearly

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

"55

all of arise

them if

in the
were

habit of absent

practising surgery,
from

great inconvenience might

when
sent

they

their

houses

for

during
of

the

night."
The
surgeons,

who who
were

continued
none

to

encroach less

upon

the their

domain
own

the

but physicians,

the

of jealous
that

privileges,
of

subjected the barbers

to

so

many

vexations
to

the

tired authorities,

appealed to in order being continually

settle some

disputebetween

the two

rights of both corporations, formallydefined the respective

parties. The

Fig. 106."

The

Physic-inn." Designed

and

engraved in

the Sixteenth

Century by

J. Amman.

decree of October
and other

3rd, 1372, empowered the

medicines appropriate

barbers

"

to

ments, ointapplyplasters, open

men

for bruises, apostemes, and other

are death, because physicians

wounds,
of

not

of

character very

to likely

cause

great

estate

and

expensive,whom
were

the

poor

are

not

able to

pay."

From

this

then, there period,

in its different

three

distinct classes of persons

exercising
or

medicine

stages:

the

mirn long-robed practitioners,

;

the lilii/xirinitx, representing formed and the

a

Faculty of Paris
the

the short-robed
and
a

surgeons,

who
;

under corporation

patronage
a

of St. Cosmo

St. Damianus

barbers,entitled

to carry

sword, who

formed

business

corporation,

iS6

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

and,
sans

to

use

the technical

of expression

the

time, filled the

"

office de barberie,

conteste."

This rule

appliedto

all France,
were

except great

to

the

of Burgundy provinces and the litt/e barbers.

and The

Lorraine, in which
who latter, and
were mere

there

the

barbers
on

adventurers, travelled
to villageto village,

foot, with their small wallet

and

light purse,
the

from

sell their antidotes

his

drugs,
in
a

while

great barber, sworn

trimmed

surgeon,

called upon

attired patients,
the

long robe
bells

with
his
an

fur, and
a

hackney, a bestriding

tinklingof
surgeon, his of
case

whose
often

announced

arrival

long

way

off.

This

master

accompanied by
six kinds
of

assistant

and

several servants, carried

in

five

or

instruments

; to

wit, scissors,nippers,a
needles. upon
;
as

sort

probe

called

tprouvette,razors,
which
was were

lances,and
time

He

also had

five sorts

of ointment,

at

that
a

looked

which basilicon, : the indispensable

considered of vitality

maturative
flesh ; the

remedy
white

the

ointment, for quickening apostles'

the

bad

the flesh; the ointment, for consolidating

yellow ointment, for stimulatingthe

growth

of

proud

flesh ; and
even
more

the

dialtcea

ointment, for subduing local pain. The

and

great barbers did

went
out
on

than

this,

Guy
me

de

Chauliac

"

says,

never

my

visits without

taking
in the

with

several
as

and clysters
treat

plain remedies,
a

and

gatheredherbs

fields, so
and profit,

to

diseases in

proper

manner,

winning thereby honour,

many

friends."
was

Guy
Clement
to the

de

Chauliac, who

to appointedphysician

three

popes very
to

at

Avignon,

VI., Innocent
conditions
a

VI.,
which
should way

and
a

Urban
surgeon
"

V.,

was,

moreover,

as particular

under

should

be

allowed

practise. He good morality;

kind
to

insisted that bold

when

surgeon
saw

be

and of well educated, clever, in

he

his

clear, prudent

doubtful
in

cases,

his

patients, gracioustowards
and sober, pitiful,

his
;

modest colleagues,
not

giving an

chaste, opinion,
modest result of

merciful

greedy

of
means

gain,but
of the

receivinga
the patient,

remuneration, accordingto
the and illness, his
own

his labour, the

dignity."
to

It should

was

creditable

French
at
a

surgery time when

that in

such

honourable

sentiments

have
in

been

expressed
human

and neighbouring countries,

so

notably
upon

England,

credulitywas
characters. of

being
For

imposed scandalously English

and surgeon another

by

the most

ignorant of
had
two
a

instance, an

called Goddesden for the poor

; he

sorts

one prescriptions,

for the rich

sold at

high priceto

the barbers

so-called panacea,

which

MI-: DI

CM.

-'57

the latter sold

again at
up in he
a

and large profit,

;

this panacea advertised that

one

was

simply a

mixture
secret

of

frogspounded

mortar

he

pompously

infallible and
took
care

remedies, in which payment

for them

confidence placed so little1

he

to

exact
a

beforehand

(Fig. 107).

In

of his books

there is

Fig.

107.

"

Interior

of

Doctor's

House.

"

Fiic-simile of

Miniature

from
"

the

''EpistredeOthea,"

by

Christine

de

Pisau."

Manuscript of tho Fifteenth

Century.

In

the

Burgundy Library,

Brussels.

short
own

chapter upon
cure,

he diseases, dixnijrceaUe as

terms

them, which
mill.
are

work

their

and, therefore, bring no great epidemics,the

and his

gristto the.doctor's
terrible

Several

effects of which

alluded

to

by

Guy

de Chauliac

contemporary Petrarch, had

gave rise to the idea of

caused

tion great consterna-

throughoutEurope, and

a medical establishing

"58

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

police for
under

all countries. the

The

idea

was

happy

one,

but, carried

into

tion execu-

joint supervision of
scheme
to

the
was

and the municipal, ecclesiastical, imbued with

a

the that the

the authorities, University time. twelfth Thus

the

of prejudices
as

leperscontinued
and
were

be

kept by
The the

in

state

of isolation

in

century,
citizens

the

ceremonies

which

they were
black which

deprived of plague,one

their of the the

rightsas

maintained.
ever

well-known

greatest scourges
Asian
marshes

that

devastated
a

world,

and

in originated

in 1348, after

long

succession of
from

earthquakesand heavy rain,

to

ravaged Italy and

and Holland. In The

France, spreading country districts

this

thence

Germany,

England,
into lost

were

depopulated and
such

converted Venice

deserts.

the towns

plague raged with

that intensity

Fig.

108.

"

Banner
"

of the

of Apothecaries
Arms

Fig.

109.

"

Banner
"

of the

Apothecaries of
of the poration. Cor-

St. Lo.

Symbolic

of

the

Caen.

Symbolic

Arms

Corporation.

thousand hundred, and Strasburg fifty of the

inhabitants.
few

In The

many

localities nineadvice often

tenths
was

population perished in

months.

best medical

an powerlessagainst

the atmospheric poisoning, of

an

effects of which

proved fatal
arrest

in the

space

hour, and

the

municipalauthorities thought to
cross

it

by largefires which
The
as

were

at lighted

the

roads

and

in the squares
at

of

the

towns.

Church, by order

of Clement

VI., pope

Avignon,
decimated

endeavoured,
the

at the

periodof

the

plague which
Innocent

ravaged Italyand
IV.
was

populationof

Rome

in 1254, when courage,

pope

(Fig.110),to
and

the people with inspire prayers. the The

by

means

of

sermons, processions,

public
ing tendmen

Holy

See

granted plenaryindulgenceto
to

all those who,

by

sick,exposed themselves

almost

certain

death.

Few

medical

160

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

too, the

use

of
to

mineral the

waters

again

became those

general, and

the

doctors
an

'recommended

sick, and
sources

to especially

just recovering from

illness, the

ancient would

of still

Neris, Vichy, Plombieres, Aix-la-Chapelle,

more

"c., which
and
a

have
at

had these

visitors if the stations of

more

roads

had

heen

better,

residence

thermal
cure

secure.

Many

localities,

formerly celebrated pilgrimage ;

they were
It is and which the and

for

the these

chronic

diseases, became
their

places of

though

pilgrimages retained

character, religious

approved of mortifying to

and find

encouraged by
that in the made time of
to
no

the doctors. of the

towns principal

France, Germany,
ideas superstitious

.Italythe

authorities

effort

to

arrest

prevailed. From
were

time

the Jews, the

the insane, and lepers,

imbecile
even

accused

poisoning the fountains,the wells,the rivers,

seized and
cast

and.

the

air,and

they were

into

and prison,
were

often put
to

to death.

Sometimes,

it is true, these

acts iniquitous to take

cases

attributable
to

the

blind

fury of

the
own

populace,determined
hands and
;

what
the

they believed
urban

be

justiceinto their
took of

but

in

some

administration
when the council
were

part

in the massacre, Metz

became

for it,as responsible of several in times of the

the

city of

ordered
un

the

punishment

"who lepers, of

executed

-for their

worthiness."
the

Moreover,

epidemic,the
the

populationinvariablydemanded
Jews.
In and the meanwhile The the

extermination

lepers and

was rivalry

going on

at

Paris between
in vain

the surgeons efforts to

the barbers. down the the

former,

having exhausted

all their the and

put

pretensionsof the barbers, addressed,in 1390, University:

venerable
The
"
"

following
disciples,
cine" Medi-

petition to appeal
to

"We, your

humble
masters

scholars

your

to the authority,

of the

Facultyof
act
so

(Fig.112).
promised the
remained "true their

appeased by physicians,
to

this indirect

of

sion, submisas

surgeons But

lend

them

their
the

support
doctors in the

far

they

scholars."

whether
the
a

because

of

the

faculty
take

changed

minds,
at

or

because

Crown

interfered

interests of the V. did

not

even public,

the

expense and

of

privilegedbody, Charles
silence confirmed the

part with

the of

surgeons,
master

by

his

independence professional
a

the

barbers. of

The

surgeons

thereupon adopted
"

better

and

more

dignified way
new

their superiority. Henceforth," they asserting

"

declared in their write

statutes,
moreover,

every he

shall apprentice be of

be

able

to

speak
and

and free

good Latin

shall

comely

appearance

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

161

from

all

deformity:no

master

shall receive from

his

an

apprentice who
master, and

does not the

bring letters

of recommendation

former

degree

Fig.

111."

Shops

in

an

Apothecary'sStreet:

Barber, Furrier,and

Tailor." A reenal

Miniature

from

the

"Regime of

des Princes.""

Manuscript of the Fifteenth

Century."

Paris. Library,

Bachelor, without

previous examination,

shall cost

two

gold

crowns,

62

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

instead
access

of
to

franc."

These

were precautions

taken evidently be limited be

in order

that

the

of professorships

St. Cosmo

might
would

to students

who,

by
the

their

learning and
the

to work, application

capable of sustaining
of the

of aristocracy There

surgicalbody against the invading democracy

moreover,

barbers.

was,

very
sworn

ample

room

for choice, as
The number

the

College

of St. Cosmo
upon the other

comprised only ten

surgeons. from

of barbers, of the
esteem

increased, and hand, steadily

had risen
to

in forty, The

the middle

fourteenth
in which

century, it
each

sixtyat
medical the

the close.
men was

degree of
be

of the three

classes of

held may

gathered

from

the

characteristic and

fact that when barbers

to
"

Paris

Faculty appointedphysicians,
allotted
a

surgeons, of salary
to the two

attend

the

it plague-stricken,
one

hundred

to pounds-Paris

of the first,

hundred

and

twenty

second, and of eightyonly to

the fifteenth century the Arab doctrines of

the third. school

By

of medicine
their sway,

had

lost
to

ground, and
the
sive succes-

the sound

resumed Hippocrates
the

owing

checks
which

inflicted upon

doctrines

of Avicenna, Averroes, and

have been the still more

Galen,

fell into disfavour.

These had

latter would
not

discredited
a mass

if to the father of medicine of works which he

not
never

been

attributed

authorshipof

wrote, and
the

if the

theosophical ravingsof judicial

and method. The trious illus-

had astrology Marsilio himself

ardour

taken
of

place of

observation
was
one

Ficino

Florence, who
of true

of the

oracles of his
the

day,

retarded the progress of

a

science

by upholding with
was

passionate

Platonist the tenets

of

science which medicine

false and
have

misleading.
been

It is not
to

that therefore, astonishing, the occult

to

should

dinated subor-

to sciences, especially

astrology. These
horizons

imaginary
all
each

sciences
kinds

opened

and inquisitive them

to
a

restless minds

peopled with

of illusions ; with
was

dreams
a

and occupied the place of facts,

individual

supposed

hold

specialrank
or a

in

the
that
a

universal of
an

harmonic

system.
was

The

destinyof
upon the

country
of

city,like
and such

individual,
An the

dependent
caused

the

motion

such

planet.
as

epidemic
inherent

was

by

conjunction of
in the
was

different

stars, and

of principle
was

every illness was

first

constellation beneath
to

which

the sufferer
as

born, the doctor's

a

duty

seek

out

the
once

so constellation,

to

get

basis

for his

prognosis.

The

constellation
from its
as

discovered,the
sidereal 1414
"

most

remarkable

conjectures were
"

drawn

and position
an

influences.

Hooping-cough observed

for the firsttime

epidemicin

and

plica,

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

,63

or

scurvy

of the head, which the

extended

from

Poland

into Bohemia the

and

Austria,

of puzzled the sagacity terrestrial phenomena in While in medicine

who astrologers, above.

sought for

explanationof

signsfrom

astrological imposturewas
surgery,
as

invadingthe
a

domain

of

Italian observation, practical

was

compromised by
surgery

mass

of charlatans,

not

so nearly

far advanced

French

(Fig.113). Germany, not

Fig.

112."

Beadles

of the

Three

Faculties From

of the

and Theology, Jurisprudence, "Funeral of Charles

Medicine

at

the

Universityof
M. Ambroise

Pont-a-Mousson." Plate

III., Duke
In

of Lorraine" the

(1608), Copper

engraved by F. Brentel, after Claude

de la Ruelle."

Library of

Paris. Firmin-Didot,

less backward

in medical

manifested science,

an

equaldegree of contempt
were

for

and barbers,all bath-keepers, shepherds,

or corporations, marrying

of whom

preventedfrom

ing form-

into

any in

family not Germany

engaged in
than it
was

their trade.
in of
as Italy, a

art Surgical

was

at

an

even

lower

ebb

proofof

which

it may

be mentioned of
an

that Matthias
was

Corvinus,

King

Hungary,

in order to be cured

old wound,

to obliged

convoke

all the barbers

,64

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

of the
court.

Holy Empire, and promise them

Hans

rich rewards

if

they would
him

come

to

his

Dockenburg,an
nothing
to

Alsatian barber, restored

that this accidental the
cure,

to health
no

(1468);
doubt

but

there is

show way
*

effected

by

empirical means,
surgeons There
in

in any

increased

of reputation

the German

barber-

(Fig.114).
was an

of equal scarcity
the surgeons

able
were

and practitioners

learned and in

professors
vendors of

England, where

merely manufacturers
France

and plasters

ointments.

When

Henry V. invaded

1415, the only

Fig.

113.

"

An

Operator."Designed and engraved in

the Sixteenth

Century by

J. Amman.

surgeon induced
second surgeons
was

he

had

in his camp

was

Thomas

Morstede, who
him

was

with

difficulty
In
a

to accompany

the army,

bringing with
same

twelve

assistants.

undertaken expedition,
could
not

by the
many

the corporation of prince,

as

London

supply as

even

twelve volunteers, and

to press

the
as

King
many

compelled to
as

authorise

Thomas

Morstede
as

into his service

as

surgeons for

the army
and

and required,

many

artisans The

would

be

necessary
to

making
in

instruments. repairingsurgical and the celebrated

best

operatorswere

be found

France,

Balescone

of Florence

professedand

practised surgery

at the

school of

Montpellier.

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

"65

After
of

thirty years

of apparent
out

concord

between

the surgeons of

and

barbers the

Paris, the quarrel broke

obtained

afresh.

Upon
an city

the 14th
order
are
"

May, 1423,

surgeons

from

the provost of the

estate
or

forbidding generally
not

all persons,

of whatsoever

condition,who

surgeons,
was

even

of

or barbers,from exercising surgery." This practising

order

proclaimed, appealed
his
own

to the sound to

of the trumpet, at all the street-corners the 4th

of

but the barbers

the provost, who, upon The

not

November,

1424, withdrew
the
a

decree.

surgeons,
to visit any

but having appealed,

who patient had been

in vain, to attended

Parliament,
barber. But

resolved

by

Fig. 114.
taken

"

German the

Surgeon.
"

Fac-simile

of of

Wood
"

Engraving, attributed
of

to

Holbein, and

from

German

Translation folio.

the

Consolation

Philosophy," by Boethiua,

Augsburg Edition, 1537, in

the barbers

after shortly
so

this obtained

formal

of recognition

the

which rights and

they had
the

been

long insisting upon,

to et
a

for Colonet
two

Candillon,first barber
was

valet of the chamber title of maistrc the

regent and
du

kingsof France,
the
to

invested with

garde

mcstier, with
of the

his right of delegating who lieutenants, The

were

in authority

towns principal

kingdom

to

have
at

the exclusive

over rightof inspection

all the barbers.

a

latter formed it was of the

this

period a
to

numerous

to become association,

master

of which
one

necessary

pass

an

examination

before

jury appointedby

66

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

lieutenants

of the chief barber. seals "

and from he

Each

new

master

barber

obtained

"

letter
a sum

sealed with
of five sous,

the chief of the

in exchange for corporation, six

also

paid

two

sous

deniers
the

for

copy

of the annual
for

almanac, in which
or

were

recorded

the

days of

year

favourable

bleeding

the The

reverse.

St. Cosmo

surgeons,
one

not

caring to

carry le

on

the
had

the struggle against become the favourite

after barbers,especially

of them, Oliver

Daim,

of Louis

XI., sought to obtain the title of students of the

the and franchises, liberties, privileges,

of Paris, University

with together
thereto. The

exemptions attaching
upon

Universitygranted their request,but

lectures
were

condition

of their

the following Thus

of
once

the
more

doctor-

regents of the

Faculty of
of the

Medicine.

the surgeons the

placedbeneath
in

the sway of their

to the
was

physicians,

while
one

barbers, unrestricted

the

exercise Louis

obtained profession, of corporations

arts

of the

sixtybanners
of the

distributed

by
to

XI.

and trades

115 capital (Figs. of speciality

120).
was

Nor

this all. The

surgeons,
to

that forgetting barbers

cases

the

their art

manual

work, abandoned

the
to

of incision, and dislocation,

themselves fracture, confining the

or which, accordingto recipes, writing prescriptions

statutes, University surgeons. the aristocratic

and
or

to appertained

the masters the

of the final the

and faculty,

not

to the

Ttiis constituted

triumph
barbers
were

of the formed

plebeian over
the
most

surgeons,

and

henceforth

active

useful

section of the

surgical body. They

in only, times and
no

to be met

with, the lance

and

bistouri time for

in their hands, not of war, them in the wake

of peace, with
such
not

in towns

but, in villages,
lands.
But

of armies have been

to expeditions

distant

there would
of quarrels

thingas military surgery.

get beyond
the

The

tine intes-

the

doctors

did

faculties, and,

standing notwith-

their irreconcilable of medicine Most

was

differences of
in

opinionsand

systems, the science

in France and been

confided implicitly
continued
to

by the publicboth
the

Italy.
in the

of the doctors

be in

as fifteenth, they had

fourteenth blind
to

worshippers of the Arabic century, superstitious

of their
to

and astrology, attributed and the

imitators
seasons,

ignorantand empirical predecessors. They

and periods, the
rose, to

the

the lunar
upon blood

the hours

of the

day
The the

night a
belief
was

direct action
that into the

humours

of the human

body.

general
sun,

during the daytime, towards

at

and

descended bile

the lower
that

extremities

night;

that be

at

the

third hour with the

the

subsided,so

its acrid

qualities might

not

mixed

course

168

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

at

time

when

Tarenta

the

Portuguese, Jacques
Bencio

de

Forli, Cernisone

of

Parma, Mengo
Arabic

Biancheli

of Faenza, and

of Sienna, were

still teaching Pa

scholasticism in the chairs of

It
was

Pisa, Padua, Montpellier, Guainer,

via,and
Mon-

Bologna.
tagnana,
and

at

Padua

that

the Professors
were

Bartholomew the

and

Michael

Savonarola

the

first to

denounce

prejudices

and cabalistic medicine. ravingsof astrological The

mere

list of medical

works

from published

the

discoveryof printing teaching

of

to
was

the close of the fifteenth century is sufficient

proof that medical

The

exclusivelyArabic
was

throughout Europe.
Milan in 1473, at Padua had

Latin

translation
at

Avicenna
somewhat and
was

printedat
The

in 1476, and

Strasburg
in 1471,

earlier.

translation of Mesue

appeared at
six other and

Venice cities. the

almost reprinted

in five or simultaneously
not
was see

But

the

works

of

Hippocrates did
and

the

until 1526, light

France
or

text original

of Dioscorides
of favour the

Galen

not

printed in
The

till the beginning Italy alone

met

sixteenth the

century.

treatise of Celsus
and Roman the

with

any

from

of antagonists

Greek

medicine.

Upon

the other
a means

hand, the
of

resorted freely to professors leading

own

as printing-press

their diffusing

writings.
Benivieni, at
the fanciful
the

The

illustrious Antonio
in

close of the

sixteenth
the Arab

century,
the

succeeded
pure

for substituting of

dreamings of
the

school the
"

doctrine

Hippocrates; he
upon he the

commentated

books

of

early
even

authors, basing his themes

of

of anatomy investigations be the

and

pathological anatomy
and
his labours

"

which
were

proclaimedto by
his

only rule
of
"

of medical

art ;

continued

pupils, John
work

Vigo
Practica

and in

Berengario of Carpi.
Arte

The
"

former

published a

entitled
went

ChirurgicaCopiosa
in

which (Rome, 1514, in folio),

was

through twenty
His

editions
were

thirty years, and

treated
as

translated he

into
comes

French. down the

to

precepts

everywhere
for his

oracular, but
the

unfortunately posterity,

as reputation,

of originator

system of cauterizing

wounds

inflicted
to

by

firearms

with

boilingoil
"

barbarous of
more

practicewhich,
wounds,
than into
a

believed

be

effective for
upon the

destroying the
of

venom

the

inflicted

infinite torture
raised Berengario and fallen, Ihe esteem

thousands

patients for
from the

century.
it had him
to

Bologna

school

discredit

which

his excellent of his learned

was

treatise upon
successors.

Fractures

of the

Skull entitled

Germany

throughout

the

Middle

Ages

an

easy

prey

to

astrologers,

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

169

wandering Jews,
and
some

raw

and apothecaries,

all the other

satellitesof
eminent

ignorance
men

superstition 121). There (Fig.

of the

were,
as

however, several

in

imperialtowns,

such

Frankfort, and Strasburg,

Hamburg,

Fig. 121."

Charlatan

performing

an

Operation." Fac-simile

of

an

Engraving by

Wael

(Seventeenth Century).

and

in the studious very

cities of Swit/crland.
to

The

plain barbers, in
Hoe-elm

many

ca-es,

became the
same

proficient, owing

the

they acquired. At great experience

"

time, Jerome

I'.rimswich, Jean
z

ami iersdort',

obtained

7o

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

great reputationat
which

Strasburg by

their

and skill, practical and Italian. science

by their books,

latter
to

were

translated sixteenth

into Dutch the

Up

the
or

century

medical

of the
to

Middle
the

Ages,

dominated

absorbed

by

the Arabic

school,was

opposed

renovating
too

tendencies of the

teachingbody. Tradition,routine, and

;

were prejudice

strong

for them

and

love of the

and supernatural,

vague

after aspirations

Fig.

122."

Portrait

of Claude

of
"

France, Daughter of
In the Collection

Louis

XII.,

Painted

by Clouet

(Sixteenth

Century).

of M.

Double, Paris.

the

unknown,

retarded the dawn

;

the

general revolution,which

advanced

slowly but
a

At inevitably.

of the sixteenth medical

art

century nothing was

to

ready for

great

scientific reform
surrounded while sheds the
to

the

only subsisted, so
and materials in and

speak, amidst
had
new no

ruins,

by
masons

scattered who in. his

were

fragments
to

which

architect,
no

be

employed
doubt
a

erectinga

edifice had

work

Everywhere

credulitywere
upon the

paramount.

Rabelais,with

sceptical laugh,was

living satire

degenerate

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

,7,

and

corrupted

art

in

societywhich Scepticsof
of

was

after aspiring
kind
were

complete and
be

thorough transformation.
Henry
certain

another

to

found

in

Cornelius

Agrippa

Nettesheim, who, while

contending against
them

philosophicalerrors,
;
or

sought

to

substitute

for

theurgy

and

magic

in

Paracelsus, who, notwithstanding his splendid intellect, conceived

a

it possible that

hybrid alliance might

hand,
and medicine his

be formed
and

bstween

cabalistic
the

mysticism
other.

upon

the

one

occult

sciences upon
was

The

scientific faith

by

which

genius was
and

inflamed

not

shared

by
to

his

Rondelet, contemporaries, Argentier,

ancient erected

Joubert, who
new ones

were

powerful
their
ruins.

attack
man

theories,but feeble
a

to

raise

upon

Each

system of his
left not
a

own,

which, after exciting momentary

it. A

and attention, collapsed,

behind vestige with

few, however,

had

the

good

sense

to

content

themselves

labours,with philological
of

lating, trans-

and revising, the may

masters

commentating
and Roman

the

works
; and

Hippocrates,Galen,
amongst
this

and

of Greek mentioned

medicine

select band

be

Thomas
Louis of

Leonicenus, Gonthier
Duret.

d'Andernach,

Fuchs,

Jacques Houlier, and

The
work

great doctors
pure

that

those period,

who poor,

devoted

themselves

to

their
a

from

love

remained of science, did

and

with

made difficulty
so

out living

of their

profession. They
and the

not

medicine practise
as

much

as

study

the

malady

patient. Moreover,
received
a canon

there

was

no

tariff of for

doctor's fees,they sometimes

their labours.

the most
of

inadequate recompense
he

Paracelsus
of
one

sued

Bale, whom
the

had

cured, for the

him

fee stipulated florins. better

and
;

hundred

florins ; but

judge

awarded

only six
came

When
and

the

patientwas paid of
all

of
were

generous those

the disposition,

doctor
the

off

the best

who

attended
Louis
a severe

upon

sovereign
his he

the

court.

Honorat of France
to

Picquet, physicianto

XII., attended illness,which

daughter, Claude
was

(Fig. 122), during

and

fortunate
him

enough
with
a

cure,

Queen

Anne
crowns

of in

Brittany, her mother,

rewarded afterwards almost

a

fee of

three

hundred of the

gold. Frai^ois I.,who

not

became

the
cure,

husband and
was

Princess Claude, did the

forget this
he
created

miraculous of medicine,

when

he

founded

Royal College
a

chair

which

almost whole

always filled by

Frenchman.
added

Switzerland
numerous

produced
to

series of learned
on

who physicians,

treatises

the

long

list of works

medicine.
renown

Conrad
upon the

Gessner,
schools of

JacquesRuff, and

Guillaume

Fabrice

conferred

I72

MEDICAL

SCIENCES.

Lausanne

and

Berne, while
from

the

Universities

of

and Leipsic,Ingolstadt, and

Wittemberg, awakening
schools doctors
as

their

long slumbers,
ancient
renown

taking
with

the

Italian
and

their models, recovered

as

their

anatomists

such
were

Cannani, Cesalpino,Fallopio,and doctors,they formed

their
a

Eustachi. and

Wherever

there

several

homogeneous

compact body,
the

and jealous of constituted, solidly

and privileges ; for though rights

Fig.

123.

"

Andrew

Vesalius.

"

Wood

Engraving, after
M. Ambroiae

the

Design of

J. de Paris.

Calcar,Pupil of Titian.

In the

Library of

Firmin-Didot,

doctors

quarrelled amongst themselves,they would

their

not

allow any

one

else

to

interfere with While and had

prerogatives.
of

the Universities
so regained,

Salamanca, Alcala, Henarez, Toledo, Valencia,

success

Coimbra

to

speak,the
Middle
in

which

the Arabs arrived upon

as

and
the

the Jews medical

accomplished during
which is

the

Ages,
the
van

there

stage of France,
the
at

always

of progress
Vesalius

of revolution,

famous Brussels

founder
in

of anatomical

science, Andrew

(Fig.123),born
But the

and 1514, Brissot, Fernel, Sylvius,

Ranchin.

MI'.niCAL

SCIENCES.

'73

barber's

art

was

almost

simultaneously
of the

illustrated

by

Ambroise

Pare,
the

born

at

Laval

in

the

beginning
his

sixteenth

century,

who,

occupying
his

most

humble

position
the

upon

arrival

in

Paris,
the

soon

exchanged
and

rough

barber's

stall

upon

Place

St.

Michel

for

Louvre,
several

who,

Huguenot
reform,
medicine.

as

he

was,

was

enabled, afresh,

through
the
art

the

favour

of

kings,
it with

to

or

rather

to

create

of

surgery

by

associating

Fig.

124.
"

Banner

of

the

Corporation

of

Apothecaries

in

the

Mayenne.

CHEMISTRY

AND

ALCHEMY.

Diocletian
one

burns of the

the first

Books Chemists.

of

Chemistry."
Rhazes.
"

Haroun

Al-Raschid in honour the The

protects amongst

the

Sacred Saracens.
Albertus

Art."

Geber,

"

Chemistry
"

the

"

Avicenna,
and
do

Serapion,
Gerbert. Villeneuve.
"

Mesue. Vincent

"

Albucasis
of

and

Averroes.
"

Morienus Lulli.

Solitary.
or

"

Magnus
"

Beauvais.

Raymond
of of the The
"

"

Lullists, Alchemy
"

Dreamers.
the

Arnauld

"

Roger
the

Bacon. Italian. Cornelius

"

Invention

Spectacles.

"

in

Fifteenth

Century. Agricola.

"

J.

B.

Porta,
Gessner.

"

Origin Agrippa.

Rosicrucians.

Paracelsus. Flamel.

"

George
"

"

Conrad

"

Story

of

Nicholas

Alchemy

engenders

Metallurgy.

HEMISTRY,
of the

which
Christian

in

the
had

first

centuries

era

no

practical
of
a

application,
vague and the and
was

consisted

merely

few

and

entirely speculative
with of divine the

theories,
under

confounded

physics,
art, sacred
incoherent

appellations
sacred

art,
mass

science, in

of
made

transcendental
up

propositions philosophy.
the for Greek the The

which
word

high
(from
used

chemistry
in

clujii/i/i \rjfiifla,
first of

Latin),
a

time the

by
tenth

Suidas,

lexicographer
Suidas

century,

at

first

meant

an

alloy

of

gold

and

silver. irritated had them all for

mentions,
a

in of

this the

connection,

that

the the

Emperor
laws

Diocletian,
the
to

by

revolt of

Egyptians
committed

against
to

of
so as

empire, punish
the metals

their their

books

chemistry
by
of venting pre-

the

flames,

rebellion

them

from

carrying
of the

on

lucrative

business In

arising
another
went

out

the
his

melting
Lexicon

and
he but

working
states

precious
Golden in

(Fig. 125).
which the

part
in for

of

that

Fleece,
which

Argonauts
the

search

of,

was

the

ancient

papyrus

was

contained

secret

making

gold.
Without

attaching

overmuch

importance

to

these

dim

traditions,

they

I76

CHEMISTRY

AND

ALCHEMY.

Greeks been

were

with acquainted back

to

the

hermetic

science, the

originof
which

which
was

has wards after-

traced termed

the

mythicalHermes
sacred

(Fig.126), and
the Arabic of the

alchemy (by the adjunctionof

the
,

article al to the Greek

the school

word of

when x?7ju."a)

art, the art

the

of philosophers

Alexandria,
to

transformed

under

influence

of Mahometan

civilisation,

began
The

spreadthroughout the Bagdad academy,

the Christian and

ancient world.

founded

by

the

Caliph Al-Mansour,
The

rivalled in
Al-

lustre with

school of Dschindisabour. Motawakkel

gave
a

CaliphsHaroun

Raschid, Al-Mamoun,

great impetus during the ninth

Fig.

126.

"

The

Alchemist

Hermes.

"

After

an

Engraving by

Vriese.

century

to

the sciences
to

of observation, to the

experimentalmethods,
few
instances
men

and

sequently con-

physics and

chemistry.
free of the of

In

of

superior
had

shook intelligence
too

themselves
the

purely theosophicalviews
all

which

to long influenced,

exclusion

others,the

Eastern

philosophers,
tion transmuta-

and

sought in chemistryfor something higher than

of metals. Two
men

the chimerical

of
:

great
these
one

scientific
were

repute appeared in the

East

earlyin
of

the

dghth

century

Al-Chindus, who,
first to discover the

by

series

ingenious
the

experiments, was

of

the

secrets

of .nature, and

CHEMISTRY

AND

ALCf/i:.M)
.

177

celebrated and

(iebcr

(Fig.127),or
oxide

Ycber,
and

native

of

who Mesopotamia,
of mercury

covered dis-

analyzedred

the deutochlorure of but

(corrosive
Al-Chindus

nitric acid,hydrochloric acid, nitrate sublimate),

^avc

"c. silver,

specialattention
into Latin, are

to

the

arts

of

magic;

Geber, whose
Perfcctionis

works,
"

translated the his "Liber

stillextant,

the notably the true

"Summa

and

Philosophorum,"laid
on

down

of chemistry, in principles the

researches this

the

fusion, the
whom

and purifying,

of malleability

metals.

After

great chemist,
to to

Roger Bacon
of the
was

calls the Master in the

of Masters, and

who
come

deserved down

be

the

oracle of chemists
ninth the

Middle

Ages,
next

we

must

the

beginning

century for the

book

work

of

importance on
Razi, or Rhazes.
to

which chemistry,
This

of

the

great Arab

doctor,

mentions encyclopaedia

for the first time, as of

belonging
and of

the

materia

medica, orpiinent, realgar(a compound

certain mixtures
of arsenic with It is

arsenic
copper,

borax, and sulphur),

mercury
or

of

sulphur with

iron and

with

and acids,
not

various substances hitherto unknown,

no

at

all events

used.

with
use

little

surprisethat

we

read

of

Rhazes animal
their
wrote

recommending
such oils,
own as

to doctors the

of various alcoholic
modern

and preparations
as

oil of ants, which "The

secret

chemists

claim

remedies

of who

invention.

art has

of

chemistry," says Rhazcs,

extinct,
"

treatise on

this science which the do mysteries But

become

is

nearer

possible
of
a

than labour
corner

impossible ;
and

not
a

reveal themselves

except by force
man can

perseverance.

what

triumph it
of God !

is when
"

raise

of the veil which The

conceals the works

learned 'M.

Emile

Begin,whose
been

writings on

chemistry furnish

us

with

material for this

states that,from chapter,

the Middle

Ages downwards,
says,

the science of "From

has chemistry

analysis.He guided by experimental

many

Schal, the model

to Galen, how experimentalist,

important
issued it !

and discoveries, original from How the many

and fertile ideas,

valuable

have applications

chemist's

crucible ! minds

How
have

many

lives have

been

spent

over

laborious between
tor

relations the mysterious investigated

tions the internal combinabeen

established of with
mat

matter, and organicand organized

itself!
The

with

truth, it
and

must

be added, has

blurred

many

beliefs superstitious
savant
was more or

wild
a

fancies."
dreamer.

At

this remote
as a

epoch
of

nearly every
eour-e,
a

less of into

Almost

matter

Klia/es's jjreatwork, translated

Latin,with
a

the title of "ElHhawi,"

vast

pharmaceutical repertory completedby

A A

man

of

geniuswho

looked at

CHEMISTRY

AND

ALCHEMY.

science

from
to

the

healingpoint of view,
a

was

not, from

its

very

character,

calculated
to the
was

give us
which

complete idea
he wrote it.

of the chemical
can

knowledge appertaining
that this

epoch at
a

We

merely guess
the

knowledge
kinds
of

in

pretty advanced

stage ; but
the
arts

of chemistry to applications
to

metallurgy,to docimacy, to
such industries,
the
so as

of

luxury, and
fabric
are

various

the

melting

of metals, the

of

warlike
in the

weapons, tomb

decoration
many
a

of edifices and

furniture, "c., all

have left
can no

buried
trace

of

of generations
few of

artists who

other

of their

existence this

than

their
an

We productions.

learn
museums

less from

in history

respectthan

from

attentive

study of

the

of

Spain and

in Sicily,

Fig. 127."

The

Alchemist

Geber.

"

After

an

Engraving by Vriese.

which

are

preserved many
and

art

monuments

which

to testify

the

marvellous

skill of the Saracens The

the Moors. the works

"Canon

"

by Avicenna,
Medical

of

Serapionthe

younger, and of Mesue

some

(seethe
details and
as

chapter on
to chemical
now

contain, however, Sciences),

show that there
was

interesting
that

which operations, then

a

gradual progress,
says in the
to the matter.

every of

and ninth

of importance. discovery certain the had principles

Mesue

middle

the

century
of

been compose

as recognised

analyticalclassification
Albucasis,a
at savant

bodies

which
a

organic
in the Arab

of the after

eleventh

century, and

student
as

school

Cordova, who,

risingto

the

highest rank

and physician

surveyor,

CHEMISTRY
-

AND

ALCHEMY.

179

was

not

above

preparing his
of

own

remedies their of

and

instruments,heralded, by
era

the

independence
M-ience, amidst
were

his ideas

and

new practical a applicability,

for

the

misty subtleties

Islamism.

Avenzoar

and seemed

Averroos

the

of principalapostles in
a

this luminous the whole

out
as

doctrine,which

destined

to

ilhimimite

short time
was

scientific world. of its

the Unfortunately

human

intellect

easily dragged
inventors,such
of

depth

in the

Middle
who

Ages.

The
Rome

and investigators into

the learned

Morienus,

fled from

the

deserts of

in steering Egypt (Fig.149), had great difficulty in

a

clear of the shoals of

experimentalscience
the
art

century

when

the

operations
Their
demned con-

what

was

called

of frc

were

confounded

with
caused

magic.
to

labours

in
as

chemistry and
sorcerers.

metallurgy might

have

them

be

The

Court of Rome

deserves

for praise from make

him

its

good

sense

in

that,disregarding
Dominican

it summoned popularsuperstitions,

his cell a humble

master
we

monk,

afterwards

Albertus

Magnus,

to

of the Sacred
have

Palace, and

subsequently Bishopof Ratisbon (1260). But, as chapteron

made
a

alreadysaid (seethe
he had been

this philosopher monk, after PhilosophicalSciences),

pomp,

bishop, wearying of earthly greatnessand

for

abandoned
to

them in

without his

sigh

the

exclusion

of

the

in order cloister,
This
was

pursue

silence in

favourite

scientific researches. with the powers made

why

he it

was

believed

to be
was

munication com-

of darkness, and

was

said that he all parts to

His

guilty
him in and

of

magic, and

that he
as

gold. People came

arts

from

see

questionhim

to

the abstract

of

chemistry.
the

were recipes

great

request,his manuscripts were

has

copied by
and

thousand, and
which
honour

which posterity, does the

not
name

forgottenall

about

the monk

bishop,and

read of

his the

numerous

works, philosophical

still repeats with

(iri'iitAlbert.

It must

not
at

be

imagined that
of
a

the

princesand
as

sovereignsof

the Middle
as

Ages
of

looked

the interests

science from French

a pointof lofty

view

many
was

the

popes.

Nevertheless,
the

king, whose
the

venerated

memory Louis

aspersed by mercilessly employed

the Middle
who
as

of philosophers
a

last

century,

IX.,
of

tutor

for his children

Dominican

monk, the Pliny,the Varro

Ages.
to

This

was

Vincent

of Beauvais, the wonderful

at
a

encycloptedist,
did splenof
to

lived,so
works
were

speak,amongst despisedand
he avoided

the ancients

time when of Beauvais of the

their most
was

reviled.
the

Vincent

accused

sorcery

because

idle discussions

schools,in order

i8o

CHEMISTRY

AND

ALCHEMI'.

work the
to

in

his

laboratory in
the

the

St.

Chapello yard.
Queen
the

The

of high intelligence
were

King,
shield

and
their

pietyof

his mother, from

Blanche,
most

scarcely enough
accusations.
At
see

learned

protege
used
a

absurd quays the evoke of

midnight people often

whether furnaces

to

creep

along

the

of the

Seine
the

to

they

could

get

reflected glimpse,
was

in

river,of

magic
spirit.
the

in which about the

Master
same

Vincent

to supposed
was

his familiar another

At

period there
Lulli

much

talk

monk,

alchemist

Raymond

(born
life of

at

Palma, in the

island of

who, Majorca),
to
a

after

long and

eventful

wanderings and adventures, came

tragic

Fig. 128."

The

Alchemist

Raymond

Lulli."

After

an

Engraving

by Vriese.

end, being
has been

stoned

by

the
that
treat

populace
amongst
of

of Tunis
his
numerous

in

1315. works

A
on

recent

attempt

made

to prove

philosophyand
savant

those theology, almost these his works

which

alchemy
bearer

should
same

be

ascribed But

to another

contemporary,
which absurd have had

and

of the

name.

it

was

precisely
A

made
were

the

of reputation of
a

the

of Majorca. theologian and it

was

thousand

stories been the with

related

this
sorcerer

singular man, by
the

said he

that he would had of

as prosecuted

unless Inquisition, in

succeeded,by
false money,

help

of Edward the

I. of

England,
monarch

coiningsix
to

millions

which

English

promised

undertake

AND

ALCHE.MV.

181

i'lvsh Crusade
numerous

the against

infidels.
were

Raymond

Lulli
or

(Fig. 128)

left behind
made

him
a

who disciples,
use

termed of

Lnllixtx

and who ilri-iinn'i-n,

cunning
rnied

of the
to

sad

end
him

their leader, just as the honours of

the

Court

of

Rome

inclined
the the

accord
black

beatification.

Concealing

beneath

of prestige

magic

their attempts at chemical

the

ising, experimentalblessed martyr

Lullists
at

propagateda report that

hours of the
and night,

soul of the
to

appeared
secrets

certain

confided

his

neophytesthe
fine

of heaven,

touchingthe especially
of metals. The

divine art of

into transforming

gold
over

the commonest

Lullists been

enjoyedconsiderable
supposed that
have the incurred the

credit all

Europe, and although it might have

occult and

this sect,owing

to its

would practices, mysterious civil laws, the

the
were

of rigour

the
no

ecclesiastical and
little tolerance

clergy
men

and

magistratesexhibited
it.
The

towards

eminent

to belonging

mysterious
much

meetings of
solemn

the Lullists

in Germany, with surrounded, especially

at

being formality,
near possible,

held
or

night,in
mines

wild

and

uninhabited
the

regions,

and, if
of the

iron

copper

(Fig.129),where
in

ruggedness
with the the

soil and of the

the

bareness

of the
It

landscape were
that the

harmony
of

arcana

great work.
their
name

is believed
a

Brothers

Rosy

Cross, who
succeeded A

derived

from

German

gentleman

called Rosenkrutz,

the Lullists

in the

fifteenth century.

contemporary

of

Raymond

Lulli, and

versed,as

he

was,

in Eastern

and mathematics, philosophy, languages,

medicine, Arnauld

de Villeneuve,a bodies and chemical

native of of

Languedoc,
He

also

nature interrogated

by

the

of analysis

substances.
as

more investigated

the mysteries of particularly in this way he

science acids

bearing upon

medicine, and

discovered

the various
was

since named
to make

nitric,and sulphuric,
alcohol and

muriatic.
wine.
most

It is said that he

the
was,

first person

of spirits
one

Arnauld eminent
a

de Villeneuve

togetherwith
Middle

Albertus the

Magnus,

of the

exponents

in

the

Ages of
the

art, which, experimental

the the and ignorant, solitude
rare

stillin
could

state

of confusion,was

exposed to
the

of suspicions
in

under only be practised

It is a matter for

protectionof kings,or
men

of

the

cloister.

regret, however, that

and

of such have

as intelligence

Arnauld
and

de Villeneuve

Raymond

Lulli
was a

should
source

embraced absurd

the

opinion

systems of

which theosophy, with At the

of false and

theories

that often interfered

of application
same

the most

remarkable
had the

discoveries honour of

in science.

the

epoch England

giving

birth

to

Roger

182

CHEMISTRY

AND

ALCHEMY.

Bacon

(Fig.130),called
with his

the Admirable

Doctor, who
advance

had of had

narrow

escape He

of

paying
part

life the

crime

of

being in

his

age.

passed
a new

of his for

life in

prison.

Sal vino
a

degli Annati

just invented
Bacon took

process

making glass of

lenticular

shape, and

up

this the

invention, and,
thus telescope, He

having perfected it, made

the immensities substance of the

achromatic

glassesand
future

opening
a

sky
to

to

astronomers.

discovered

combustible
had hitherto

similar used

phosphorus,

and

with

which saltpetre,

only

been

he medicinally,

composed

Fig. 129.

"

The

Miner.

"

Designed and engraved in

the Sixteenth

Century by

J. Amman.

gunpowder.
victim
of

There
own

is

no

truth

in the

story of
he did of
a

his
not

having

been

the

first

his

discovery ; for,though
of the

foresee the tremendous

inflammable in the

consequences he
war.

arisingout
that it

manufacture

this

mixture,
art

had

assumed The

would

bring

about

revolution
the

of

melting
the idea the

of bells,practisedas
of

early as

thirteenth

century,
had

suggested

casting

cannon

(Fig. 131).
upon
so

Roger

Bacon he

all investigated

sciences, and
of

yet,

his

death-bed,

bitterly

exclaimed,
Thus from

"

repent

having

laboured
the

much

in the interest of science."

the

beginning of

fourteenth

century, France,

Germany,

84

CHEMISTRY

AND

ALCHEMY.

The

Inquisitionburnt
de

the

hooks

on

alchemy

and

magic

written

by
V.,

'Arnauld
two
were

Villeneuve; but, through

"

the

intermediacyof Pope
"

Clement

of his works, the

Rosarium

Philosophorum
has
not

and able

the "Flos
to extract

Florum,"
much that

spared, though
from these

modern obscure

science and

been

is useful

diffuse

compilations.

The

encyclopaedic
not

writingsof danger
were

Albertus

Magnus, piously preservedat Cologne,were

and,
as soon as was printing

in any

of ecclesiastical censure, several

towns

discovered,they
"

in published

of the Rhine

provinces.

The

Opus

Ma

jus

"

d
Fig. 131.
"

Casting of
In the

Bell,in

presence

of

Bishop who

gives it his benediction. Manuscript of the

"

After

the

"Rationale

Divinorum

Officiorum," by William
Ambroise

Duraud."

Fourteenth

Century.
"

Library of M.

Firmin-Didot,

Paris.

of

Roger Bacon

found

in the

of library this

the Vatican

the
to

which hospitality

it

deserved,and
was a

it may

be said that

book, dedicated

Pope

Clement

IV.,

for deposit
of the

all the science of the Middle

Ages.
de Villeneuve, and effect the the Albertus of

Most

of Roger Bacon, disciples the chimerical

to

Arnauld
to

Magnus

abandoned
devoted
to

attempt

transmutation
those

metals,and
continued
from

little time

in operations

and laboratory,

who

practise the experimentalmethod

did make, they really

derived
on

scarcely any
of

benefit

the discoveries which

account

their absurd

efforts to discover the

philosopher'sstone

(Fig.132).

CHEMISTRy

A\/"

"85

The culled
was

first who Gentile

looked

upon

the

side of chemistry practical properlyso treatise upon summary

it
was

Gentili de
may

whose Foligno, upxm

at
as a

doses

and

portions pro-

of medicine
which
was

be looked

of medical

chemistry,
to

very

complete for the time

Quaiuer

which

composed. Next

him

come

Antonio

of Pavia, who Arduino

base of which

manufactured

artificialmineral
works
enumerate

waters;

Saladin

of

Ascoli, and
a

Pesaro, whose
have been

the substances alchemists. It is to be

having

mineral

discovered

by the

of that nothing regretted

what

related

to

the labours of the

Fig. 132.
taken

"

The from

German

Alchemist. German folio.

"

Fac-simile of

of

a
"

Wood

the

Translation

the

Engraving attributed to Holbein, and of Philosophy Consolation by Boethius,

"

Augsburg, 1537, in

industrial

arts

at

this

epoch,as in the precedingones, has

this
we neglect

been

recorded

in

for by specialtreatises, whilst

have

lost many

ingeniousprocesses,
have

others, which

might have
been derived the

been after from

ready to hand, long

and

only since

been More

discovered

and quite accidentally, have

laborious research.

profitwould
an

consultingthe

daily note-book
were

of the

artisan of that period than

; i.e. the

farragoof those who

stone. philosopher's
u 11

engaged in

great work

search for the

i86

CHEMISTRY

AND

ALCHEMY.

Moreover,
"without any
as

the

alchemists

went

to

work

in
as

tin

unmethodical the moral

way,

and

scientific theory. Their of

an

systems

to

value of metals,
as

to the

existence
a

and indecomposablebody, and exceptional

to the
one

search for

universal
substances

panacea

could

not

lead

to

any

result.

They

took

by

one

the

belonging to
water
;

the three

kingdoms
them

of nature, and

treated

them the

by

fire and

by

they

combined
the

together, noting carefully operation ; phenomena

and with

isolated

phenomena produced by
to connect
as

chemical

they
the
a use

next most

endeavoured

far then

as

these possible

extraordinaryideas, and conformitywith

issued
at work

to

give
and
to

to

the

products obtained
If
some

in

their the

external
rows

characteristics.
retorts

tions unexpected revelathe alchemist led

to
was

from

of

matrasses

which

upon,

they were

attributed

chance, which

sometimes

some

Fig. 133.
hase

"

A
a

Mint

of the

Fifteenth

Century.
"

Reduced in 1487.
"

Fac-siinile of In the

Wood

Eugraving

at

the

of

printed at Monetary Slip,

Louvain

Burgundy

Library,Brussels.

fortunate the the

results

in

these the

absurd
alchemists

processes

of

experimental chemistry.
most
cases,

In

fifteenth
means

century

in had, unconsciously

been

of

to science, disclosing apart from

several substances
liver
were

comprised in

the materia

medica,

the

existence fluorine

of

bismuth,

of

sulphur,regulus of
expert
in

antimony,and
alcohol,in
sublimation and
to

volatile

of alkali.
and in

They

distilling by
of the

volatilising mercury,
of

obtaining sulphuric acid regiaand

a

sulphur ;

in

preparing aqua

various

kinds cloth
"

ether,

in

purifyingthe
the be

alkalis.

They

also

had

scarlet
in

dye

for

superior

anythingof
said
to

present day.

Several

processes
or

glass-stainingwhich,
"

though

lost, were

merely
In

abandoned all

forgotten

were

invented

and by glass-blowers

enamellers.

the probability themselves

effects of
to

hydrogen,
alchemists

employed

as

medium, light-giving

revealed

the

CHEMISTRY

AND

ALCHEMT.

"

87

and spontaneously; had

we

know

that

German

alchemist, Eck
which
was

of

Sulzbach,

ascertained

the

existence hundred the

of
years

oxygen,

not

demonstrated

hy

until Priestley

three
at

afterwards. of its
in celebrity

Alchemy
fit'trcnth

was

apogee

the

beginning of
and

the
picions sus-

the century, notwithstanding

royaledicts againstit
its adherents. 133 (Figs.

the

of

imposture
them

entertained
to

concerning

Not and

only

did

ask sovereigns the outside

supply goldfor
put
faith

the mints

134),but

who public,

in the wonders

of

potablegold, purchased

Fig. 134."

The

Officer of the Mint."

Designed and engraved in by

J. Amman.

the Sixteenth

Century

from

them,

at

an

certain metallic extravagant price,

mixtures
to

combined
cure

with

ointments
preserve

and

vegetable juiceswhich
of

were

warranted

diseases,

the appearance

youth, render
so

men

invulnerable, produce pleasant

dreams, prolong human

It
was

and life, that

forth.

at

this

period
a

were

composed
of

most

of

the

treatises upon wild

were

alchemv,

which

were

crude

mass

incoherent which

and propositions

assertions,a
lost amidst
a

mixture
mass

of poesy stilted faith.

and

in insanity,

all

ideas logical

of

which but through phraseology,

Amidst

breathed

blind

but

fervent evidently

this chaotic

collection of absurdities

fig. 135."
Memher

The

Extraction

of Precious
at Ghent."

Metals."

Pieces in the

Ceremonial

Collar of the Senior

of the Goldsmiths

Chased Fifteenth-Century

size of the original. Silver,

Fig.136.

"

The

Foundry of Precious
at Ghent."

Metals.

"

Pieces in the Ceremonial

Collar of the Senior Member

of the Goldsmiths

Chased Fifteenth-Century

size of the original. Silver,

go

CHEMISTRY

AND

ALCHEMY.

everything grand
demons
to

or

mysterious was

attributed

by

the

alchemists

to

the

which human the

and people the air,fire,

and Creator and
to

water, to the

stars

which

are

superior

the

the and

Divine his

will, to mysterious sympathies existing

to

between of

creatures, and
The
errors

the

hybrid

combinations

mineral
to

vegetable substances.
and the sciences,

fifteenth
of the

century followed, in
which
was

regard
full of

the

arts

preceding age,
traced in those
mass

grand manifestations,which
monuments

are

to

be

wonderful
of

Gothic sacred of

in which and

the

statuary has

representeda
which
a

figures,

and
a

profane,real
book of

imaginary,and
written with
and

give
upon

one

the
stone.

impression
And
were

being

alchemy,
the

chisel

yet,
a

amidst

this

passion for

strange
scholars order the

the

there supernatural,

few

patient and
the

laborious

who

only

devoted

themselves of

to

the

of operations

in laboratory

to increase

the progress

chemistryby
was

logical experiment.
first to allude to the the
means

Such
tree

was

Italian and

John

Baptist Porta, who

who

the

of

Diana

the flowers of tin,and

and of

discovered
or,

of Jean

reducing the
Hollandus,

metallic oxides
makers

colouringsilver ;
of artificialgems, and

again,
have
or,

Isaac

and

of enamel with

and

who

described

their process
Sidonius and

of work

great

minuteness

precision ;
several

again,
processes

who Sendivogius,

put into

execution

new

for

dyeing

stuffs.

In 1488
of

the Venetian and several

Government,
other monarchs

followingthe example
of the
men

of
severe

Henry

VII.

England

time, issued

interdict

against
continued

alchemist their

but practices, so-called under

the

who
At

pretended
this

to
was

make
that

gold
the

transmutations.
the
name

epoch
a

it

Rosicrucians
the

formed,

of 'the

Voarchodumia,

secret

association,
silver In

principalobject of
above

which

was

discovery of gold (Figs. 135

and

and

mines,
teenth sixthe

and,

all,that

of the

great
to

work

136).

the of
a

century science began

Middle and

free

itself from
she

the

ancient
use

routine
as

Ages, and
as

to
a

seek

road
to

in which her

might

reason

staff,
it
was

observation

lantern

path. And,

strange

to

say,

alchemy which
at

took

the

initiative of this scientific reform.

whom

Paracelsus
was

(born
made the
to

Einsiedlen,in Switzerland, in 1493),to

a

frequent allusion
be

in
most

previous chapter (Medical

and

Occult

Sciences), may
He

considered

characteristic type of contemporary alchemists.

men

so represented,

speak, two
reformer

combined

in the

one

upon

the ideas

one

hand, there

was

the the

daring days
of

who

upset

all

received

of medicine

since

,92

CHEMISTRY

AND

ALCHEMY.

and Nettesheim, philosopher, physician,

at

alchemist,underwent

the
as a

same

fate

Grenoble

after having (1535),

been

imprisoned at

Brussels has

magician.
called the
to

We

will not
of

attempt

to

the strange theory which justify in which he

been

pantheism
to

Paracelsus, a theory
purposes and any

only pretended
those But

believe

suit his

own

strike the
heed
to
more

imaginationsof
sober ideas. had the

who

would
be

not, perhaps, have

paid

it must

pointedout
the

that in his chemical the

Paracelsus operations resorted

in constantly

view
the His

of simplification

processes of
to

to, and

discovery
of
nature.

of

and elementary principles

the

truly active
he

mediums
true

celebrated
is he best and
to

arcana

amount
arcana,

this,and
to

says, "The

objectof alchemy
this

prepare

not

make

gold." Startingfrom
cooks,
can

principle,
of -the

denounced
arcana

the

and tavern-keepers
;

who

drown

the

virtue

in soups

the

who apothecaries,

only compose
at

insipidsyrups
the from bottom the of best

when decoctions, repulsive

stills- (Figs. 138
to

they

have

ready to hand,
and

their

147), extracts
Paracelsus
was

dyes

derived

and vegetables

minerals.

equallyindignantwith
a mass

the doctors, which

whose

barbarous

embodied prescriptions other.

of
the

substances
use

neutralised each
added
to

He

was

very

much

opposed to

of correctives
these
rectives cor-

-certain
no

when especially pharmaceuticalpreparations, with the used. preparations

"

had it was

natural relation
to

He

argued

that
"

necessary the active

discover the

of plants quintessence

the ether of Aristotle

and
and

them of organized bodies, isolating principles

to avert

with great care,

of other

using

them Bones

the

different

functional

disorders

the

animal

machine.

of

the he

and hare, coral, mother-of-pearl,

to

analogous
the
arcana,

bodies, from which

were

claimed
him

extract,

by

chemical of

process,

doubtless

used

by

for the sole purpose these mixtures he had

misleadingthe inquisitive ;
added
to them

and

when

he wished

to

render of

he efficacious,

certain

potent

substances

which

ascertained previously

the

influence. In any

event,

it may

safelybe
its

said

that, owing
a

to

the

labours
;

of and

Paracelsus,alchemy exchanged
this is with
so

for speculative Misnia

character practical in

true

that

George Agricola (born at

than

1494),who
any

proceeded
or

greater caution

without Paracelsus, effected, in

a

disturbance his

revolution the auspicious noisy discussion,

metallurgy which
fierce

ardent and
was

contemporary
the

was

unable

to achieve

without
at

strugglein

medicine

pharmacopoeia.Agricola resided

Bale, and

his sedate

temperament

AXD

AI.CHEMr.

in

keeping with

the

manners

of the inhabitants of that business city,while

not
an

his

scientific discoveries could it

to give possible

but

and interest them, please and useful

when

theyfound
arts

them

immediate
"

to application

and

industry.From
Bale quitted
"

about
"

1530 that

at

which

period Paracelsus

had of

already Agricola

to 1560

is to say, five years after the death

Figs.138

to

141."

and Furnace, Retorts,Stills,

Distilling Apparatus,
"

as

used

by Chemists

and

Alchemists of the Sixteenth

Century.

After

an

Engraving by

Yriese.

"

the

of Westhmer printing-presses of them

and

Froben wood

were

publishing incessantly
which
the

Latin works, most father of

illustrated

with

in engravings,

science expounded metallurgic investigations.

the

results of his long series of

Henceforth, or chimiastrie,

the art
c

of
c

transformingbe dies ar.d substances

CHEMISTRY

AND

ALCHEMY.

from,

medical

point
for

of

view, and
use

or metallurgy,

the

art

of

and extracting many the

purifyingmetals
of contact progress. and

the

of
"

industry
"

two

sciences

having
upon

points
road of

of difference

advanced
to
to

in

lines parallel
and

Alchemy, ceasing
abandoned

be the

experimental study of
a

becoming merely

was psychological,

few

fanatical adherents, and of science. positive

and the it

from disappearedaltogether finally

the the b3
a

enlarged domain

of history

the

conflict between
would chemists)

psychologicalalchemists
very

chimiasfres related it had how held

(or new
the for

if interesting one, especially the

a

genius of
so

the Middle

Ages graduallylost
the

ground

which
not

many

centuries ; but

placefor

such

historyis

Figs. 142

and

1 43."

Furnaces,

as

used
an

by

the Chemists

and Vriese.

Alchemists

of the Middle

Ages.

After

Engraving by

here.

We

can

only
Rhine.
with the and

summarise

the

salient The

facts, deducing
conflict
was

from

them
the of

afterwards banks Suchten of

the the

principalconsequences.
While

fiercest upon and

Graterole, Bracheschus,

Alexander

sided

alchemists,and

upheld

the

theories speculative

of

Avicenna, Gerber,
and had

Raymond
examined the

Lulli, Conrad
science

Gesner, Thomas
the

Mufetus,
ideas which

Nicholas

Guibert
new

by

lightof

the

inauguratedthe
In

period.
Cornelius with

the

meanwhile,
had
was

Agrippa,
the

the

who sceptic,
and

from
even

his of

childhood

been

familiar

mysteries of alchemy, separated science

from

necromancy,

tracingthe

line which

speculation,

CHE"ISTRY

AND

ALCHEMy.

"95

and
"

the

art

from

the

mere

trade say
a

made

out

of had

it.
he

This
not

was

the
an

art

concerningwhich
when

he could

good

deal more,

taken
no

oath

of

secrecy he

he

was

initiated into its

which mysteries," and

means,

doubt, that
"

could the

disclose

good

deal

of

roguery

imposture.

He

says,

I could

show

alchemist

fabricating azure,
of

cinnabar, ore, vermilion, musical

show the
same man

gold,

and

other admixtures

colours ; I could
Bonnet

committing a
with which all

fraud,forging a regular

stone, by philosopher's

contact

Figs. 144

to 147.

"

Furnaces

and

various

Apparatus,
"

as

used

by

the

Chemists

and

Alchemist*

of

tbo Middle

Ages.

Alter

an

Engraving by

Vriete.

other Alidus.

stones

are

converted drive such

into
a

gold

or

silver,according to
of the

the

desire

of his

I would I would

man

out

country, and

confiscate

goods ;
Christian

inflict upon

him

chastisement, bodily
after

for he offends

God, the
to

and religion,

society." Agrippa,
away

having promised
"

keep
much
:

continues, carried silence,

time
to recount

by

his

indignation, It
the

would

take

too

all the

the follies,

idle secrets, and

enigmas

of this trade

of the green

the inflated toad,of the lion, the fugitive stag,the flyingeagle,

196

CHEMISTRY

AND

ALCHEMY.

crow's the the mud

head,
of

of

the

black and

blacker other I made says

than

the

black, of

the seal of of
a

Mercury,
kind. As
not

of
to

wisdom,

countless
am

absurdities

like

science

in itself, with the

which trade

well
out

versed,

and

which
it to honest be

must

be

confounded
honour

of be

it,I believe

worthy
:

of the that of

which

Thucydides
her the
as

should

paid to

an

woman

talking about
of description
were

little as

possible." Agrippa
to which

has

also left

very

graphic
ranks
a

sad

condition

the

alchemists

of the
to

lower
make

then

from reduced, "travelling

sale of

in order fair to fair,

little

money
women

by
for

white-lead,vermilion, antimony, and other drugs

which the

used

by
of and
as

painting the face, drugs

bastards
to

Scripturecalls
not
earn

ointments money,
were,

lust."

These

of science

stole when false money

they could

resorted finally

the
"

coining

of

(Fig. 148). They

the
were

Agrippa
France discredit the
means

called the

them,

Such gaol-birds."

were

survivingalchemists
far
more

in
to

in

reign

of

Frai^ois I., and

they
to

calculated

the

of experimentalising than spirit The

bring it
had

into favour

amongst
different

upper from

classes.

famous
and

Nicholas

Flamel

adopted very
make himself the

these,a

hundred of

fifty years before,to

A
sworn

popular

amongst

the

people

Paris.

professorof
also
an

University, a enjoyed
wealth
not

and a naturalist, philosopher,

a

doubtless
had
so

alchemist, Flamel
less to do with his

reputationfor probitywhich
the
to
cause

probably

not

than

of the

holy stone,

long held

in bad

repute.
sums

People did

stop

inquire whether

fortunate
who

or speculations

of money

deposited

with him
of France

Jews by proscribed had

died

without the
;

heirs and

beyond

the frontiers the scribe

increased

hundred-fold la Boucherie

modest
common

savings of

of the
to

St. Jacques do parish,

in the

the his

always ready people,

believe

attributed supernatural, after his death

no

to large fortune exclusively

alchemy, and
pass the

long
of
to

citizen of

Paris

would

have

dared

to

house
so as

Flamel

and

Pernelle,his wife, at night without

evil which spirits his
were

signing
the
at

himself,
abode in

keep
the

off the

believed

to haunt

which

alchemist for the

concealed repose

treasure.

Yet

Flamel,
of

his

death, founded
and

masses

of his

soul in all the

churches

Paris,

bequeathed his goods to

The

the poor. of

great good fortune

Nicholas

Flamel
of

no

doubt

helped to

advance the

experimental science, but

search An for the

it led

thousands
became
at

enthusiasts of

astray, and

stone philosopher's

the mania the

the fifteenth

century.
of

ancient

author, who

did

not

all favour

alchemists,says

them,

AM)

M.t

'//AM/

r.

'97

"

Bad

coal, sulphur, excrement,

tli;inII.IIK y to

and poisons,

all kinds

of

hard

work

are

swivtr:-

them, until, having consumed

and patrimony,heritage,

.3

""
jt

"9 "

I
I
5

I
a

I
.a

EH

I
03

all of furniture, their

which and

disappear in misery."

smoke

and

ashes,the

poor

wretches

end

days

in rags

198

CHEMISTRY

AND

ALCHEMlf

Flamel,
work
and the
a

who he

died

in

1415,
that he

carried had in

to

the

tomb

the

secret
more

of than

the
a

great

which half

declared

and possession, the the

century

elapsedbefore
Paris.

the doctrine It
was

of

Paracelsists

obtained IV.

placein

Universityof
and

only in
both

reign of Henry
the in

that Baillif and

de la Riviere

Joseph Duchesne,
of the Bale of the of the and the

to physicians

King,

George

Penot,
to

like them, pupil, and reaction

school,succeeded great Swiss

chemical

attention attracting

the

name

the doctrines in

alchemist. of

This slow and

favour
not

system

Paracelsus, though
war

was undecisive,

less the

The significant. it was

broke amidst

out

afresh

between

the eclectic chemists

and Paracelsists,

this conflict

Fig. 149.

"

The

Alchemist

Morienus.

"

After

an

Engraving by

Vriese.

of

the

two

schools the

that

which chimiastrie,against sectaries of

was

ranged

the

insane able

of spiritualism
to make

Rosicrucians,those
the
as

mystic alchemy, was

of

its way other

to

upon

yet vaguely defined ground

science, metallurgy and

generalchemistry. chemistry,
so

The

two

branches
nature

of the
of their

technical
not

owing
many

the

did customary application, of time

were

encounter

and obstacles, and

in

course

and encouraged by protected

the

governments
hostile
to

local

administrations.

Venice,

which
to

had the

so

long

been

the

chemists, showed psychological

and the
same was

favour in

and practical
states

working chemists,
where
commerce

the

case

all the

cities and
to the

throve.

The

demonstrated metallurgists

publicthat

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

The

Origin of Magic.
"

The
"

Savants

and
"

Philosophers reputed
Oneirocritics and

to be
"

Magicians." Different Necromancy.

" "

Forms of

of Occult

Sciences.

Oneiromancy.
"

Diviners.
"

Practices

the other

Necromancers. kinds
"

Astrology.
" "

Celebrated

Astrologers. Chiromancy.
Art and
Evil the

Ae'i-omancy and
The

of
"

Divination.
The

The

Angelic
of Good
"

Notorious
"

Art. wilh

"

Spells of
"

the

Saints.

Magic.
"

Evocation and

and

Genii.

Pacts
"

Demons.

Celebrated
"

Magicians.

Formula)

Circles.
"

Incense
"

and The

Perfumes. Evil The

Talismans
"

and

Images.
"

The

tormenting of Wax
"The

Images.

The

Sagittarii.

Eye.

Magic Alchemy.
A

Cabalism.

F.iiries, Elfs, and

Spirits."The

Were-wolves."

Sabbath."

Trial

for

Sorcery.

JVERY
every says

illusion false M.

contains

principle, history,"
a

science

has

its in

Ferdinand
we

Denis,
to
a

work

of which
"

propose
as

give an
whole

analysis.
the ferent dif-

To

imderstand

branches
as

of

occult in
to

philosophy,
the say Middle
a

it

was

understood is necessary

Ages,
words

it about

few the

magic

as

practisedby

ancients." To
sources,

this stud}'

vast

in subject formulae

its

tive primi-

it would handed

be necessary down
to
us

to

explain the magic

of religion But time
we

of the Tcdas and back

to

in

India, as
the

in the cabalism. in

the need

Hindoos,
not

trate pene-

systems
of

of

Hebraic

go

further the
most

than

Diodorus

who Sicily, of Asia and

the

of Julius who tells

Caesar
us

visited
a

distant which

countries

Africa, and

of

Chaldean

tribe

composed

sacred

caste, devoted

to the study of exclusively

means

the occult

and sciences, the

secrets

seeking to discover, by incessantly

The
same

of
us

and magic, astrology

of the future. and the augurs, unknown

historian the many

tells

that

the

had Assyrians
to

their

diviners

to watch

flightof
centuries

the

birds

and

offer

up

sacrifices to

gods,

before

these

superstitious

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

201

had practices
turn,

been from

introduced
tradition Latin

into
a

use

amongst

the Romans.

in Pliny,

his

borrowed
;

curious
have

chapter upon
us some

magic

in the time of
as

Homer

and

other

writers the

given

information
is

to

the that

of magic amongst practice

Etruscans.

This

enough
was

to

show

ancient
occult The
were

magic,

and

more

Eastern especially

magic,

the

cradle

of the

sciences in the Middle

occult

Ages.
amongst
which the ancients, though
the forms

sciences existed, moreover,

they

not

called

by

this

generic name,

comprisesall

of the of

art

of divination,notably
or

Astrology and

Oneiromancy ;
and and

all the
;
"

modes

evoking good
and

evil

spirits, notablyTheurgy
between
means

Goety

all the that

material
is to say,

communications spiritual and all the

the

dead

living

Necromancy ;
power advent who had

of
"

and mysterious a supernatural exercising that is to say,

by
of

the

influence of dreams

Sorcery. But
of

when

the

changed Christianity
the
new

the

face of the world, the first heresiarchs,

in the have
:

only embraced

faith
to

hope
been

dragging it down
the Gnostics
declared

into

the chaos of pagan

religions, appear

the faithful
were

of guardians and that the

the

dogmas

and

precepts of ancient magic

these

followers of Valentine,
were

Harpocrates,and
the wisdom of

Basilides,who
the Eastern

they
who
or

the

of depositaries Christian

and theosophists,

disfiguredthe
ridiculous. of recent
were

worship by mysterieseither obscure, obscene,

to

Thus

they added
of

the ceremonies

of the
or

Greek

Church

mass

invented practices
devoid
at

of by priests

Buddha

Zoroaster,and

which

not

grandeur and solemnity.

Gnosticism, the sovereign
there

It

was

the

epoch (the third century)when

in the
"

science,flourished
illustrious

school

of

Alexandria, that
at
"

appeared two
and
his

philosophers Plotinus, born

at

Lycopolisin Egypt,
in upon
a

disciple Porphyrus,born
new

Constantinoplewho
who may be looked

manner as

founded

the

magical science,and
the Middle

the

first demono-

graphers of
the

had Ages. Plotinus,a thorough Platonist,

studied
to teach

philosophyof

the Orientalists in Persia and

at

India, before coming

in
"

mysticism and
"

pantheism

Rome.

He

embodied

work
set

entitled the of doctrines

a

Enneades"

"

that is to say, collection of nine books and in

whole

which of the

Porphyrus completed and commentated,

marvellous traditions
at

which

contains

selection

of

the

sacred

art

the East.
been for

After educated

them,
in the

"lamblichus,born
school of

Tyre

in Phoenicia,who
a

also had

Alexandria, discovered

formula systematic

uniting theurgy to

202

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

magic. Ennapius, Eustathius,and

system of Jamblichus, who,
in

the

Emperor
the

Julian

himself, accepted the

ancient

evoking
the

religious mysteries of
the
the

Egypt,

wrote

sort

of said the

gospelfor
to

thaumaturgists and
the

magicians. reign
of

Jamblichus

may and

be

have

expounded placein

physicsof

demons,
The

Proclus

metaphysics.
then took the neo-pagan

revolution

which

philosophycaused

A.RACIMET,

Fig.

150.

"

Druid

carryingthe
After
a

Crescent Roman

of the Sixth Monument

Day of the Moon, and

the

Druid

Sacrificer.

of the Second

Century.

the

and aspirations

tendencies the

of the ardent
secrets
a

and

minds, which, after inquiring

of terrestrial

to endeavouring

discover

of creation and
source

existence,

sought
could the

outside

of material

nature

of ideal satisfactions upon the

same

which
The

they
eyes of of the

not

find in the real

were

world, to
human it

converge

end.

mind

opened, and
which

became intelligence into communication upon the

one

enamoured with the there

occult

sciences the

brought
world.

superior
was a

intellects of

invisible

Thus,

hand,

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

203

scientific movement
who endeavoured
arose

from resulting
to

the

of daring speculations

few

savants

fathom

the

arcana

of

philosophy ;

upon

the other

hand,

there

and

extended

amongst
for the the
a

the

and ignorant

credulous

of populations
a legends,

Europe
vague

an

instinctive love

out wonderful, arising

of local

desire to march of
who

towards

unknown,
criminal with the
a

feverish

impatienceto

witness

terrible evocations
of and

and spirits,
were

the hope of obtaining

tion intervenpower, and This

demons,
became

credited

of possession

terrible

who

the

docile agents of

popular magic
the Alexandrian

more

active school.

dangerousthan
new

that of the its

of philosophers

magic

had

origin not

only

in

the

of superstitions

Celtic
a

races,

but

also in the sombre

and had

of mysteries the

Northern

mythologies.It
the North

was

sort

of dark

savage

which religion,

people of
and

and

certain Asiatic hordes

their

imported into Germany

and their

Gaul

(Fig. 150), with by

their

barbarous

worship
and

hideous

terror gods,scattering
,

rites sanguinary

magic incantations
were

amongst
the

the

primitiveinhabitants
and of the

of these countries,
of

which
It has

still full of
said with

winsome
one

poeticalsouvenirs
most

paganism.
of the
germ

been

truth, of

ancient

monuments

Scandinavian
most

called language,

the

llaru-mnl, that
their

it contained

the

of

of

the

ideas which, by superstitious the East

admixture
the

with

the

magic
of the

theories of
sorcery

and

of
.

antiquity, brought about

in

creation

of the Middle

Ages.

The
silence

occult sciences far from of

in

long remained
the

the shade, and

were

worked

out

in

the

of supervision which

ecclesiastical schools,but

under

the

influence

popular traditions
use

had

preservedthe mystic and divinatory

the

formulae
which the

amongst
with

the

Chaldeans,

Greeks,

and

the Eomans,

and

combined

the of the

lugubrious reminiscences
bards
art

of the Valhalla
Middle

of Odin

gracefulfancies

of and

Brittany. The
of

Ages employed
from many

all the elements

of the sacred

magic

sciences borrowed

different times and

Arabs

them with lands,linking

A.s
as early

the Mahometan the eleventh

creeds which

the
wi-n-

had

imported into Spain.

in

century there

Saracen
served

schools
to

the
the

Iberian wonders

where peninsula,

the occult sciences, which

were

unveil It
at
was

of

the the who

supernaturalworld,

publicly

expounded. Gerbert,born
the owed

long supposed by
in

demonographersthat
had

the illustrious

Aurillac
at

Auvergne,

completed his being

made

studies amongst

Spanish Arabs

the

school

of Cordova

before he had

elected pope, with

only

his election to

mysterious pact

which

the demons.

204

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

It would
two

be

to superfluous

refute
was,

such
so

but folly,

it may

be

remarked

that

centuries of study This

was,

later the Arabic for

to

speak,the key and the

of hidden

first instrument sciences. into

was

the mysterious sanctuary penetrating

perhaps,what
even

brought

about

the

secret

introduction

the
so

Christian,and
little diffused

into the monastic

schools, of this language which

of the savants who

throughout Europe.
were

Most

dabbled

in these

sciences, which mysterious

learnt Arabic
to
as

and proscribed and the

condemned

by
of

the

Church,
was

well

as

Hebrew

a knowledge Syriac,

which
was

necessary any
one

become knew

initiated into Arabic

or

mysteriesof cabalism.
was

This and

why
of

who

Hebrew

of magic, suspected

even

Fig.

151.""

How

Alexander

engaged

in Combat of
a

with

Men

having
the

Horses'

Heads

and

vomiting

Smoke
"

from the

their Mouths.""

Miniature

Manuscript of

Fifteenth

Century, No. 11,040.

In

Burgundy Library,Brussels.
"

sorcery.

From

the
man

time

of Plotinus could

and

Porphyrus

to

that of Cardan of science

or

and make

Paracelsus,no
any

of eminence

assist the

progress

great scientific discoverywithout

as a sorcerer
"

being reputed a magician,or

to the
name

tized stigmaa

fatal

which, attached appellation

his repose,

of

noble

victim

of

his

love

for

science, disturbed

often

interruptedhis
Lulli,

labours, and
Albertus

sometimes

put his libertyand

of

life in

peril. Raymond
and many upon

Magnus^ Roger Bacon, Vincent

a

Beauvais,

others, after
scholastic

having composed
could philosophy,

great number
escape these

of

remarkable

works

not

and unjust suspicions

persecutions.The
excited

Florentine

Cecco encyclopaedist,

d'Ascoli,whose

cabalistic studies had

THE

OCCULT

SCIKXCKS.

2O5

the

of the Inquisition, was suspicions

burnt
at

accused

of

being in

communication

with

the devil,and The

for

the stake had

in Rome

in 1327.

occult sciences
gave the
an

at the epoch when spread very rapidly

to

the thirst

knowledge
This
was

impetus

all the

intellectual forces of the Middle

were

Ages.
in with
amidst

period of

the

which great encyclopedias, the Renaissance These

of

"l compili

in simultaneously
more

all countries where

letters was

ushered

enthusiasm
vast
mass

than
divine

discretion.
and the
were

comprised, encyclopaedias philosophy,

standing but, notwiththat is to say,

the

of

human

sciences,hermetic
branches of

astrology, theurgy,and judicial

this,the occult sciences
from

other
not

magic

taught ct
the

rnflii'th-u;

the chairs of the Universities, over

an

which and

authorities always religious invention

of

exercised

unlimited the

power

of control

suppression. The
once

in printing,

middle books
occult
a

of the

fifteenth century, all at

conferred had

upon
never

teachingfrom
possessed. The
account

which degree pf^ liberty

oral instruction

sciences

profitedthereby, and, without

of the Church,

taking into

the

and prohibitions

condemnations
and

printing brought
these

into full
kind of

lightthe doctrines magic, which

not

to each experimental knowledge belonging

had render
was

hitherto

remained
or

hidden.

In

most to any

cases

did publications the Catholic militant

the authors
this

printersliable

danger, for
the

Church

at

period more
the

engaged
and

in

pullingdown
essence

heresies which

attacked

dogma

the very

of

religion. logists, psychocians, magi-

Cardan, Paracelsus,Cornelius

Agrippa,Jean Reuchlin, and

or

many

other

though they
were

were

more

less

and astrologers, demonologists,

not

interfered with for their very

which, goingthroughseveral writings,

but
in the

were editions,

widelycirculated

beginningof
Institor and

the sixteenth

century, certain inquisitors, amongst

their "Malleus
and invoked

others

Henry

Springerin
of sorcery,

Maleficorum,"

denounced

the formidable decreed this it was

invasion

against its adepts the penal laws

It
to
was

by

the

ecclesiastical the civil

authorities.
power and

only about

the

middle

of
; and

century

that

began

the proceedagainst
who jurisconsults,
an

sorcerers

seconded, encouraged,
gators instiit

urged by
and

the

seemed

fullyagreed to punish the

proselytesof
the works

science, reputed criminal illusory

the of demons. the One of

because

in participated Pierre de

of

these stern

magistrates,
in his

Lancre, President
on

Bordeaux

Parliament,
Demons"

boasted

"Treatise he had

the
more

Inconstancy of Evil Spiritsand

severe on

(1610), th;it
and his

been

the

sorcerers

than

the

itself; Inquisition

zo6

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

contemporary,
his the
"

the

political philosopherJean
"

Bodin, calmly
who had been the

enumerated handed
over

in
to

Demonomania secular
arm as

(1580) the
demonomaniacs

list of persons
or sorcerers

during

reign

of

the

Valois

kings.
to
use

The
the

magic

art

was

destined

to

disappearand
"

vanish

in smoke mother of

when,

picturesqueexpressionof Vico,
birth
to true

the Curiosity,

Ignorance,gave
We divisions may
now

Science." theoretical principal

and

examine

in succession the

practical

of occult

philosophy.
to say,

Oneirocricy(thatis words,
oi/eipos,
a

the

explanationof dreams,

from

the two

Greek

dream,
two

and

or xpt'trts, judgment),

Oneiromancy(thediviningof
and

dreams, from
is of very reduced traditions the
more

the

Greek

words,
The

oveipos,

dream,

/xaiWa, prediction)
the Greeks had

ancient
art

origin.

the Jews, Egyptians, into

a

and

the

of

dreams interpreting
was

regular doctrine.

The

mystic
all

of this art; which revived readily

instances the Church the the

implanted in
the Middle

all the pagan

were religions,

in of

Ages, because

the

Holy Scriptures
and

supplied many
which fulfilled,
facts
not

prophetic dreams,
Christ God.

explained

afterwards

of Jesus

naturally accepted as indisputable

The

in
seem

the

of history
to

people of
Catholic

explanationof
as

dreams

did
was

contrary
of Ptolemais
he

faith, inasmuch
a

Synesius,who

Bishop
in which

in the fourth
to

century, composed
Christian

treatise upon

Dreams,

endeavoured

sanctify by

reflections the

belief of the

a ancients, by making of oneirocricy

science

of individual

which observation,

enabled dreams dreams

distinctions to be
caused
was

made
one.

between This

natural

dreams, Divine
of

dreams,
the
nature

and of

by

the
as

evil
a

tripledistinction
in the

admitted

fundamental father

rule

of oneirocricy

the Middle
of

Ages.
who
see

However,

another
surer

of the than

Church, Gregory, Bishop

Nyssa,
to

a possessed

judgment
than
a

his

refused contemporary Synesius, of the He

in dreams
recent

more

momentary
it

derangement

mind,

caused

by

the

emotions brain

which
man

might

have

experienced.
the

compared poetically

the

of

during sleep to

string of
has died

harp, which,
away.

after

emittingits sound,
Great of
as were

stillvibrates

after the sound

of the Church

the repugnances

to the
"

systematicinterpretation
who
and made the of this
a

dreams, the

by profession oneiroscopists
had been condemned

those

which interpretation,
sacred
or

by

the popes

councils,

diabolic

art
as

"

exercised their mischievous

as

trade with in the

impunity in

the had

of kings palaces

well

in

the

towns

and

country.

They

208

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

and

curled might anticipate an carefully with

wear a

accession

of

wealth

upon

the other

hand, anything wrong

It of
as was a

the wreath

hair foreshadowed of

something
in
season.

unfavourable.
In this

bad
"

sign to

flowers not
the East
"
"

theory

dreams the
to
;

borrowed,
does
to

no

doubt, from
of the

the eyes
arms

relate to children, the

head

the father
;

family,the
to

to to

brothers,the
sons,

feet

the
the

servants

the
to

right hand
the wife
to

the

mother,

the

and Jerome

to

friends

left hand
did not

and

the

daughter."
vague and

The

learned

Cardan, who

choose
new

accept
of

these

incoherent

indications,
dreams in

attempted to

establish

laws

and arranged the oneirocricy,

Fig.

153.

"

The

Vision

of

Charlemagne.
the

"

After

Miniature
"

in the

"

Chroniquesde

Saint- Denis."

Manuscript of

Fourteenth

Century.

In the National

Library,Paris.

with categories corresponding

which

the the

seasons,

the

months,

and

the

hours

during
he
was

they

occurred.

But

common

people,little doubting that

more

unconsciously reproducing the simplerbut

his
"

logical system

of

Pliny

in

Natural

History,"merely explainedthe
and this
was

dreams of
a

by taking them

in their which
"

oppositesense,
has been

the foundation and renewed

small

popular work,

revised frequently

since

the

sixteenth

century,

The

Key

to Dreams."

Oneirocricy might
absurdities superstitious from the
two

have
;

been
such

to
was

certain extent
not

harmless, in spiteof
with necromancy

its

but

the

case

(derived
the

Greek

words

death, and I/CK/DO'S,

/xarre/a,divination, or

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

209

art of

the foretelling had

future

by evoking the dead),a

its

terrible and of
necromancers.

imaginary
This

science which

earned

for

adepts the

name

Fig. 154.
de

"

The

Image of Dame

Astrology,with
in

the Three

Fates.
a

"

After

Miniature of

in the

"

Trait*

la Cabale
to

Chretionne,"
I. Francois
"

Prose, by-Jean Thcnuud,

Cordelier
"

Angouleme,

Work

dedicated

of the Sixteenth Manuscript

Century.

In the Arsenal

Library,Paris.

srirnrc

was

all the
eves

more

believed

in

during

the

Middle

Ages
upon the

because

it

""":! red, in tin."i) i]

""t' a

observer, to superficial
i i

be based

authority

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

of

Scripture, through
Samuel.
D

the Witch

of

Endor

whom
were

Saul
not

asked
cases

to

evoke
a

the

of spirit and

The
:
'

of practices

this art

in all

of

solemn in

strikiner character

for the evocation

of the dead

consisted and black

sometimes

merely pronouncing night,either

cases,

certain
or

phrases,half grotesque
a

at unintelligible,

in

cemetery

cellar, by

the

lightof by
the
a

taper. In other

it is true, this evocation the

necromancer

was

surrounded them

the most effusion

horrible

mysteries,
A child

and
was

accompanied
its head, open

by

of blood.

put

to

death, and

placed upon
at
a

dish, surrounded
and up
a

by lighted speak as
from

tapers, was
the tomb. which this

supposed to
Sometimes
a

its mouth

given moment,

the
a

necromancer

merely summoned
the

mute

phantom,
It
was

by
way

gesture or
Albertus
the

look

repliedto
at

questionput
of the

to

it.

in

that

Grotus,
of spirit

the

request

Emperor

Frederick

Barbarossa, evoked
and

his

wife, who

appeared before

him, gloomy
mancy, Necro-

sorrowful,but
which
must

still recognisable, and

wearing her imperialrobes.

the

have

had
so

its
many

origin in
terrible

hypogea
to

of ancient

Egypt,
the

and

which

has

furnished

stories

the

credulityof

Middle

became Ages, eventually branch of the art of

fused

in sorcery. flourished in

Another the

which divination,
to the

Europe

from

beginning of

the Middle which the

was

Ages

sixteenth

century, was
with
so

that astrology, and

mysteriousscience
addressed science each

connected intimately
as

astronomy,
that the

which
of

itself to

eyes

well
as

as

to

the

mind,
an

masters

consulted

the celestial vault the

name

they
and

would

immense of
one

book,
of the

in which letters in

star, having received

meaning

the Hebrew and

to

recorded alphabet, well

man as

in indelible characters of the whole human the

the

destinyof empires
which
was

as sovereigns

that
at

race,

supposed

be

each subject,

his

birth, to
of the

influence

of the

planets (Fig.
came

154).

Astrologywas
was

the

oldest

occult

sciences, for it

from

Chaldea, and
world.
The

rocked, accordingto nation, which

the
was

the Hebrew the natural

to

works,

in the cradle of the of this One of the

"

Jewish

heiress

primitive
of them,

science, piouslypreserved
Simeon

depositconfided
is ascribed

its doctors. book in

Ben-Jocha'i,to

whom the

the celebrated

Zohar,"
such
a

succeeded,according to

tradition

of the Talmud,

attainingto
the

with degree of familiarity the

were

the celestial

mysteriesrelatingto
of Jehovah Author. in the

of position before
to

stars, that

he upon

was

able to read the earth

the laws their

sky

they

imposed
that

by

Divine

It is easy

stand under-

under

the

empire of

such

ideas,higher intellects, deeply interested

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

211

in astronomical

must science,

have

modified

at
no

their will the science of which

they were
the Jews

the for

boldest

Hence, interpreters.
which

doubt,
to

arose

the

fondness

of

astronomy,

they
future.

resorted This
was

for drawing principally the Jewish

horoscopesand
were

the predicting

why Ages.

astrologers
admitted

in the

such

good
of

odour

during

the Middle

They

were

into

presence

kings and
race

who princes,
was generally

loaded

them

with

honours
such

and

while riches,

the Israelitish

being treated

with

great

contumely.
The famous Arab

geographer Edrisi,who

was

the favourite of
rather
to

Roger II., astrology

it has

King
than been

of
to

at Sicily,

the close of the eleventh the favour in which

century, owed
was

geography
that

he

held

by

that

and prince,

asserted

the two

circular tables of silver which

were

he

engraved with
for
a

great

skill for

the

King

not

meant

for

terrestrial of It the

globe,but
stars

celestial

sphere

which
an

reproduced

the

motions
of

and

their
how the and

from conjunctions
in eagerly,

point astrological

view.

is well

known

the thirteenth century, Alfonso with

the

surnamed X., King of Castile,

Learned, took counsel

rabbis in his

of astronomy investigations of
whom Portugal,
a

astrology.Two
Rorigo, who

centuries

John later,
man

II., King

Queen
Master

Isabella of Castile called the

par

had in his suite excellence,

Jew,

perfectedthe

astrolabe

and who, doubtless,took staff), (Jacob's

to expeditions

part in the plans for the great maritime

his

the East

Indies

which

Royal Highness dispatched at

the aid

about

the

same

time

as

Christopher
the

Columbus, by

of his

own

knowledge

of astronomy,

discovered

fourth quarter of the world.

The of history of

the fifteenth and who astrologers,

sixteenth centuries
were as

records the
their

doing of
lifetime
and
some

great number

famous

during
many

as

they

are

now

unknown,
books. Without lived

though they composed

the recalling
numerous

curious

remarkable
and may
we

compilersof

almanacs
whom

who predictions be may mentioned

during

the

sixteenth
had

century, but amongst

but little faith in

Francois Rabelais,who
names

astrology,

cite the

of the

Luke

(born prelate Gauric, the learned Neapolitan

the

in

1476),who

drew

horoscope of

cities, popes,

and

kings of

his

day

Simon

in -ordinary to King Charles VIII., a converted Phares, the astrologerwho has

Jew,

left

manuscript history of

the

most

famous

; astrologers

to Fra^ois and Thiebault, the physician-in-ordinary astrologer

I. ; Cosmo
;

the Ruggieri,

Florentine

the astrologer,

confidant

of Catherine

de' Medicis

212

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

and

the

most

famous

of

them

all, Michel

de

Nostredame,
Charles in

otherwise who
was

and to Nostradamus, physician-iu-ordiniary astrologer born

at

IX.,

Salon, in France,
name

in

1503, and
has

who

died

there

1566. this

He

is the his and

whose only astrologer

"

remained

popular, and
in

through
verses,

collection

of

compiled perpetual predictions,"

the title of times
"

enigmatic

published under
been

Quatrains

and Astroiiomiques,"
"

which

have

several reprinted Judicial

under
to

the title of

Propheties."
alchemical thirteenth

so astrology,

called
no

it from distinguish rules until the

astrology
century
from
;

and had time

had magical astrology,

fixed of

it

long followed
it started upon

in the
a

wake

but astronomy properly so called, and

this

path of
from

its own,

adopted many
certain

imaginary theories,

borrowing repeatedly procedures. According includingthe

of the
to

the occult

sciences

mysteriousand fanciful

to the
sun,

pure

theoryof

the art, the

seven

planetsthen discovered,
the

formed, with the twelve

Each of these

figuresof
stars
a or

zodiac,the totality
was

astrological system. by
its
a

constellations of the human

supposed
the

govern,

either specialinfluence, whole

limb bounden

body, or
the

whole bodies

body, or
to

nation, and
to

this

relation of
all the

celestial

earthlythings extended
"

all the
as

beings and
to

productsin

creation.

The

flowers
made them

are

to the

earth

the stars

the
; to
"

sky,"the pseudo"

Trismegistusis
flower

to say

in the old French

some

translation
not

there

is not

one

amongst
or

which

star

has

bidden of

grow."

Albertus Secrets
"

Magnus,

rather his

the anonymous
name

author
us

of the book

Wonderful Saturn

publishedwith

to

it,tells
that upon

that the

planetof

over presides

and buildings life, sciences, ; the

over

and wishes,honours, riches,

the cleanliness

of

garments
wars,

are

dependent

Jupiter;
feuds
;

that that

Mars

exercises his influence

persons, the

marriages, and
;

hope, happiness,and
under the the influence of

gain
of

came

from
;

Sun

that

love

and fear
;

friendship are
are

Venus who and

that

debts, and disease,

beneath the Moon

influence

Mercury,

is also the dreams. As

to

planetof

commerce

while

causes

wounds, robberies,

the the
;

intrinsic

of qualities

the The

planetary influences,they
Sun ardent
was

were

denoted and

by

planetsthemselves. Jupiter, temperate

;

favourable

Saturn, cold
;

cheerless
;

Mars The the

Venus, fruitful

Mercury,
metals

inconstant
were

the

Moon, melancholy.
the influence of

days,the colours, and planets and

of the

the

also

subjectto

constellations.

rim

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

But,
care

to

draw

any

kind

of

the horoscope,
were

first step

was

to

observe

with

grout

what when

planetsor
the

constellations

dominant
next

in

the
to

sky

at

the precise
with the

hour

operationbegan.

The

step was

examine,
to

guidance
from the

of very

the complicatedcalculations,

consequences

be

deduced The
most

and positions

conjunctionsof
consisted in

the

stars

(Fig. 155).
into four

difficult

part of

the science

the determining

houses of the Suns

and

their

The respective properties.

day

was

divided

equal parts :
the sun,

the
and

ascendant the into lower

of the sun,

the middle

of the
These

of sky, the descending

part of

the

sky.

"

four
were

parts
called
a

of

the

day

were

subdivided
Great

twelve

distinct

parts, which

the

ticelre homes.

importance was

therefore attached,in

drawing

in to ascertaining horoscope,

Fig. 155.

"

Specimen

of

Genethliac, or Astrological Horoscope, composed in the Sixteenth

Century.

which

house

the

stars

as appeared, especially

these houses
time

of the

sun

varied
of

astronomically, according to
the

the

the countries,
two at

of year, and

the hour

day

or

night.

This

is

why

horoscopes,drawn
the
were same

by

two

different be

at wtrologers

different another.

but places, But

moment,
not

would

utterly
the the

opposed
errors

to

one

these facts
were

taken

into account, and

and

inconsistencies which
not
to

always occurring were

was never

imputed

to

and astrologers,

which astrology,

cumbered until, disensuspected the domain

of all these

it follies, superstitious

entered

of the exact

sciences
If
men

through its
sought

fusion with

astronomy.
future

to

the interpret

by

means

of the
means

sky,justas they
own

had

sought to

forecast their individual

destinyby

of their

dreams,

214

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

it is not with had

a

that they surprising

should
the and

have earliest

their interrogated times

own

bodies
the from East

like

expectation.
that the

From

the
which
a

peoples of
radiate

believed
of

broken in

multiple lines
strokes of

the

sutures

the

skull

are,

fact, the
man's

mysterious handwriting
fate.

which The

contained Middle
a

the secret

of each therefore

individual

Ages

were

quite prepared to recognise a symbolical

more lines, or

writing of

similar the

kind

in the countless
of the the

less

which distinct,

correspond with

inflections

skin Greek

of

our

hand.

This

speculative
and

science,called chiromancy (from

had divination),
was more

words other

x"'p"hand,

/xaiWa,

adepts than
in

all the

sciences of divination, and

to
a

eventually merged
have

astrology, giving rise

savants

number

of

systems

which The passage Book

been

upheld by

of

merit. unquestionable
their

chiromancers in of the
:
"

cunningly founded
which
shall be is
as

doctrine
word

upon for and

the word
as an

following
in the

Exodus,
"

repeated
a

almost his

Job

This

sign
But

in

hand,

ment instru-

before
this

his

9). eyes" (xiii.

the

the and

Church

would
was

not
one

admit
of
was

of the

futile

of interpretation she

holy text,

chiromancy

which superstitions

most

uncompromisingly opposed.
of the

It

not,

however,

until the

the

beginning
into

fifteenth century that

At this

this

superstition
who had and

spread from
arrived
from

East

Europe.

epoch,the Bohemians,
volume the
"

the

remote

regionsof

Asia

(see the

on

Manners

Customs,"
of

chapter on

Bohemians),brought with propagated

minds
set

them all

ancient

traditions which

chiromancy, and

them

rapidly in
to

countries this
new

they
of

traversed. divination
as

Inquiring
soon as

themselves

study

science

it made

its appearance. illustrations

or

Some

of them

in reproduced, of hands

treatises special scored

with
or

designs and

appended, the types

;

with lines

signsfavourable
the various

the

reverse

others
hand

the investigated and the celestial

:

direct relation between

constellations. Both

parts of
and

the

human

had
there

discovered
were

defined

various

types of hands

Eumphilius thirtyseven,
hundred the and

declared while

six

and types, Compotus eight, the

cure

Indaginus
types
at
a

Corvseus but Jean

was

placed
Belot, the
a

number

of

different

fifty ;

of Milmonts,
as

afterwards
the be of

reduced the

total to four.
was

There
one

long

discussion

to whether

rightor

left hand
was an

the

from
of

which

the

horoscope should
to

drawn. the the

There lines and

equal

difference

opinion as
it had

the

meaning

of the hand, though irregularities

been

to subjected

astrological

216

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

in the centre

of
and

an

earthenware

or

metal

againstthe pitcher,
number
or

sides of which

which,
were

swinging
taken

to

fro, it struck, emitting a

oracles. the

of sounds
the art the of

to be

and predictions

Pyromancy,

divination

by

fire, varied

according to
its

substances

consumed,
was

smoke

of

which

announced, by Thus,
when of
a

densityand
head

colour, what
was

to be

expected of

the future.
ment move-

donkey's

roasted from
a

upon

live
a

coal, the rotary

the fetid vapours which the served

emanating
to

it had

propheticsignification.
material

Geomancy,
beings and

establish

correspondence between
with
the
sternest

was elementary spirits,

connected

tions combina-

of cabalism.
Other processes,
none

which

seemed

to

have
as

character, but religious

which also

the Church
resorted

the

less condemned

were dangerous superstitions,

to in the

Middle
in

Ages
an

in order invocation itself the

to

forecast the
of the

future.

The

Angelic
and the

Art,

which

consisted

guardian angel,
in order of
a

Notorious immediate

Art,

which

addressed
as

to God, directly

to

obtain
of of To
were

information

to

future,
and

did

not

consist

body
virtue

but doctrines, which the

merely

of

few

prayers he

secret

ceremonies, by
the

operator believed
was

that

could

obtain

Divine
books

Presence. in which

St. Jerome
indicated

attributed actually
of practices
to which
a

the

authorshipof
Art and

two

the

the Notorious
not

of the

Angelic Art.

Other

books, prophetic

less marked

importancewas

attributed,became century.
the
to

so were popular, generally

they read, towards

Leonis

the close of the fifteenth Manual of

One, entitled

"Enchiridion

Papse" ("The
to

Pope Leo"),

other, "Mirabilis

Liber,"

attributed

St.

Csesarius,contained
to obtain

nothing

these singularpretensions. Moreover, justify

a of the saints, spells

what

were

called the the

text

was

taken

from

the

in and printed Holy Scriptures

"

of frontispiece
relates that he
son

the book.

Gregory

of Tours, in his kind of

History of
In

the

Franks,"

himself

practisedthis
taken

divination. the basilica

577, Merovee,
at

of

Chilperic, having
to

refuge within
his the father

of St. Martin of his what he and

Tours,

escape

the

pursuit of
entreated The

and

the
to

vengeance tell him of be

not

mother, stephad read the

Fredegonde,
to

holy bishop

hope
verse

or

to
"

apprehend.
Let
was

Bishop opened
looks
at

the Book

Solomon,

this

the
a

eye

which
omen.

its father did

pecked

out

by

crow."
was

This
to

sinister

Merovee the

understand He

it,and

anxious the

for interrogate of St. Martin

himself the

spellsof
of

the saints. of

placed
and

upon

tomb

Books

Psalms,

Kings,

the

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

and Gospels,

passed the iiiglit upon

prayer, he

his knees the

before the tomb.

After three

and days of fasting

opened

holybooks, and

lighted onlyupon

Figs.157

to 160."

Fantastic

Forms

aud

Figures

seen

in the

Sky

in the Sixteenth

Century.

Fac-sin'.ile of Ancient

Designs.

passages

which

foreboded

evil.

He

left the

basilica in

and despair,

soon

afterwardsperished miserably.
The
of magic origin had been

fervour religious
F F

carried to excess,

for

zi8

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

King

Solomon

was

always
came

looked
name

upon of the

by

the

adepts as

the

greatest of

magicians.
however,
latter
was

Hence in many

the
cases

Theurgy
same as

(from "to'", God), which,

much

this enchanter), Gocty (ydijs, powers,

having

for its evil he

objectthe

invocation and

of invisible

amongst

them

being several magician _as theurgy

love
human mirror and
as

genii (Figs. 161

or
"

1G2). Henry
to

Cornelius the

Agrippa,

was,
:
"

believed

himself

be, defined
made

principleof by
the of the

follows

Our

and soul,purified

divine, inflamed
to

of God,

ennobled

by hope, guided by faith, raised

to

the

summit

attracts intelligence,

itself the

truth of and

and

in

Divine-truth,in

of

it eternity,

beholds
essence,

the
their
an

condition
causes,

things natural, supernatural,

the

heavenly, their
them

plenitude of sciences,
we are

understanding purity and

understand

all in

instant.
the

Thus, when
are

in

this state
and

of
we

elevation, we

know

things which
this

above world

nature,
;
we

everythingthat appertainsto
and

lower

know oracles

not

only things' present

what will
to

past, but
near

we

also receive
in the three

the continually This

of

happen
God,

in

the
who

and

far future.

is how

men

devoted of the

and

the practise

virtues,are theological winds,

cause

masters

elements, ward
the

off tempests, raise the up the dead."

the
to

clouds to
this Prince

drop
of all

rain, heal

sick, raise
Cornelius
an

So, according
a

Magicians,as things,to
in whose Jesus But

Agrippa was
and

sumamed,

magician ought, above

in the
art.

have
name

ardent exercised

unswerving belief
or

assistance of

God,

he

his celestial
"

infernal ye

Christ
was

has
much the

said,

Have than

faith, and

shall
era,

remove

mountains."
to

magic

earlier

the Christian
to

for

it is said the
name

have from

with originated them. had

never

magi

of Chaldea, and the

have

received

The

demoiiographers of
had any other

sixteenth the
or

century

asserted

that and

magic

object than Mercury

This

invocation

of who
was

demons,
is

they
to

ascribed
no

the than and

origin of
Satan

it to himself.

to

Zabulon,
science

supposed
to

be

other

sinister

said
one

have

been

inculcated who which

propagated during
that he
to

the life of Christ from and of

to

by

Bamabe

Cypriot,

asserted

drew

his doctrines

books

of

of magic, the authorship These and the

to

he ascribed the

Adam,

Abel, Enoch,

Abraham.

wonderful

books,

which
the in

angel Raziel, the counsellor

had

Adam,
were

angel llaphacl,
be in existence
was

guide of Tobias, Abyssinia, in

Shcba
on

communicated

men,

said

the her

monastery
return

of

the

Holy

Cross,
she

which

founded

by Queen

from

the visit which

paid to

Solomon.

THE

OCCCLT

SCIENCES.

219

It
hem

must

not

be

supposed that the majority wore

number
never more

of

adepts to magic has

than in
mere

CUT

very say,

great;

the

theorists;that
the

is to

savants, purely speculative

the
art

who who
name

studied
asserted

books

mysterious
the
art

theory of
into

of

magic. Those

that

they put

of

alone merited the practice

of

magicians. But

the

common

161. t'ig.

"

The

Tiince

of Darkness. the Fifteenth

"

After

Miniature
"

of tho

"Holy

Grail.1'
"

Manuscript of

Century.

National

Library,

Paris.

people,always (Fig.162), and

accused of

ready
to

to

discover

the

marvellous

side

of

natural

things

placecredence
the eminent
men

in the most who any had

mendacious illustrated who

as was

illusions, invariably
themselves

magic
the

by great
be in the

scientific discoveries.

Moreover,
was

alchemist looked upon

supposedto magician. Thus

possession of

great work

220

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

famous the

Arab

alchemist

Gebcr,
believed
numerous

to whom to

the

hermetic

philosophers assigned by magic

the power of

title of

King,
and said

was

have

obtained upon

gold ; creating
into Latin, pope,
are

his

works studied

occult monk Gerbert

philosophy,translated
Gerbert, who
was a man

to have

been

by
999.

the

became of
vast
a

with

the

title of
a

SylvesterII.,in genius, yet

It he
was was

general learning and magician,and

had
even a

looked in the

upon

as

no

better

than that

sorcerer.

said

twelfth him

century

he the

possesseda

book

of black
and
was a

magic, which
idol which

gave

full power oracles if

over

of demons, hierarchy that,this

in the
was

brass

littered
even

for him

; and

how of

he the

able to discover treasures

they were

buried

centre

earth.

Upon

the

day
to

of his
come

death
to

(April 12th, 1003),

claim
ever

however,

Satan had
at

(Fig.161) is supposed
contracted, and
the the

have

the debt

which
a

the. Pontiff
pope
was

tradition bones of

ran

that

after,when
were

the

point of death,

SylvesterII.

heard

to

rattle in his- tomb.

The
not

accusation
was

of

magic, from
science

which
the
set

even

the

illustrious Gerbert

did
two

escape,
men

also levelled
upon whom

during
has and the

thirteenth the seal

century
of

at

the

greatest

genius, Albert
were

of

Bollstadt,called Albertus
of

Magnus,
with

Roger
demons,

Bacon. and

Both

suspected
who had

holding

communication
to

the

former,

endeavoured to

expound

the Revelation

of St. John
to

(Fig.163),was
up in
a

obliged

of Cologne,and resignthe bishopric

to

shut
;

himself

monastery,

in order the

impose

silence upon

his
at to

accusers

while

the second his

expiated in

dungeons of

the Franciscans
were

Paris the
the
score

daring of
of black

experiments in
One of their in

which chemistry,

set

down

magic.
was

the contemporaries,

celebrated
died in

doctor, Peter

of

Albano,
of

burnt

effigy
Naude

by

the of

and Inquisition,

prison at

the

age

eighty.
seven

Gabriel
liberal in
a a

says
means

him,
of
"

"

He
seven

had

acquired the knowledge

which spirits upon
as an

of the

arts,by

the and had

familiar
was

he

kept

confined

piece of
the had

crystal ;
devil,he

what the

looked

infallible
to

sign of
purse

pact with
he

facultyof summoning

back

his

the money

paid out

of it. and who

Spain, Scotland,
several
was men

England
were

also

possessed about
as

the In

same

period
there

of

science

denounced feats
are

magicians. by

Spain
of

Picatrix,whose
of Castile ;

wonderful while

attested

the evidence of

Alfonso,
Lord

King

Scotland

possessedThomas

Hersildonne,

////:

OCCUL

.sv7/:.vr/:.v.

221

Smilis, and
"

the

Michael philosopher,

Scott, who

finds

his

place in Dante's
the terrible

Divine

Comedy."

Amongst
succeeded in

tm"
"

Knglish
"

must

be mentioned
in
a

James

Jodoc, who

setting the by eclipsed

demon

magic ring; while

Faust, who
the end
of he

all other German made that hud

a

magicians are
the devil down for
to

the

John legendary
and

pact with

twenty-four years,
hell

who,

at

was period,

carried

by

the demon

whom Mephistophiles,

taken But

into his service. of

most

these so-called
vast

magicians were
of

men

of true
the

who, learning,

after

exploring the

domain

science,lapsed into
with

study of
sorcerers

the
or

occult arts.

They
who

must

not, therefore,be confounded

their

the

enchanters,

paid dearly for

sinister

and celebrity,

who

were

Fig. 162."

Dragons." After

Miniatures

in the

"

Book

of the Marvels

of the World.""

Manuscript

of the Fourteenth

Century." National

Library,Paris.

punished with
Dulot,
who

death

for their misdeeds.

Amongst the latter

Bel

were

Jacques
in

during the reign of Philippe le

wife
had been burnt

killed himself
the de

prison,
who

after his

alive; Paviot,
his
;

surnamed

Butcher,

perished

at

the

stake, while
at

accomplice, Enguerrand
Jean de

Marigny, was
to

hung
as a

in chains

Montfaucon
an

Bar,

also condemned the end

the

stake

necromancer

and
most

invoker of

of the

at devil,

of the

fourteenth

century ; and,
the
execrable with
a

notable de

all,the prototype of the legendaryBluebeard,

Marshal de

Gilles

Laval, called
sorcerer

Raiz

(or Retz),who,
in necromancy

in

concert

Florentine

named debauches

Prelati,dabbled
at

and

magic during his

horrible

his castles of

Machecoul

and

Chantoce,in Brittany.

222

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

The

occult sciences had

;

maintained cultivated

their
at

prestige up
that

to

the dawn
men

of

the

Renaissance
whose

but
was

they
the
were

were

period by
came

of
to
a

genius,

only aim

and love of science, vain

all of whom believe Cornelius that

miserable
in direct

end, though they

communication who
a was

enough
demons.
as an

to

they

were

with

and spirits upon the

Agrippa

of who

Nettesheim,
was

generallylooked expounder
of

emissary of Satan, and

of the ancient

merely always

learned

doctrine

Gnostics,

was

Fig.

163.

"

The
"

Angel, holding
Miniature from

the
a

Keys

of

Hell, enchains
on

the

Devil, in
"

the

shape

of

Dragon,

in

the

Pit.

Commentary
Ambrose

the

Apocalypse.

Manuscript of

the

Twelfth

Century.

"

In the

Library

of M.

Firmin-Didot, Paris.

accompanied,it
Paracelsus, who

was

said,by
believed

two
to

evil
have

in spirits

the

shape of

two

black

dogs.
the

was

in imprisoned his familiar spirit could

a

pommel
with

of his sword, boasted

that he

create

dwarfs, whom
for the

he animated

his archeus his

of heat) as (or principle

a

substitute

soul, and

yet

he ended who had

days in
and

hospital. Cardan
dived

himself,that wonderful
of

philosopher

studied

deep

into all branches

also claimed sciences,

224

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

mauds,
horrible The

repudiationof all saintlypersonages,

"c. blasphemies, bloodysacrifices,
oath

change

of

baptismal

name,

of

which fidelity,
in the midst
some

it

was

necessary circle traced for

to

take

to

the

demon,

was

always pronounced by
the

of

upon

the

panied ground, accom-

offer of

pledge, such,

instance, as

piece of

the

Fig.

165.

"

From

the from
a

smoke

ascending
upon

out

of

the

abyss

are

born

scorpions

which

scourge

men.

Miniature In the

Commentary
Ambroise

the

Apocalypse.
"

Manuscript of

the

Twelfth

Century.

Library

of M.

Firmin-Didot.

garments

worn

by

the

person

taking

it.

These

circles
:

held

an

important generally
evoker
and

placein
three the
cross.

all

in operationsof magic,especially and

evocations

there

were

of

them,

they were by
him
a

supposed to

establish

between the

the demon

evoked spirits

line of demarcation

which and

could not
was

Vervain, too, together with

In addition
to

incense

lightedtapers,

almost also

alwaysemployed.

incense,the magicians and

sorcerers

THE
"

OCCULT
"5
"

SCIENCES.

225

employed
smoke,

quantityof vegetable, mineral, and

was

animal

substances
and
even

to

create

which

believed
stars

to

act

upon

the

demons,

upon

the

influences of the
which

(Fig.165).

It is evident

that these
which

in fumigations,

belladonna, opiates, "c., were

employed,and
of

produced either

or drowsiness,helpedthe magiciansvery much. giddiness

The

art of

the magic had regulated with

use

perfumesfor

its

professional monies, cereof odoriferous Thus every To the kind Sun

in accordance substances
to be
was a

the

opinionwhich

held the smoke

mysticlink
to

between

the earth and the stars.

of smoke
was

addressed
a

some

particular planet (Fig. 165).

dedicated
added

mixture

of
an

to which amber, musk, clove,and incense, saffron,

were

the brain of vapour

and eagle

the blood of

cock.

The Moon in the

received,
head To of

the by preference,
a

of white poppy
a

and
and

camphor, burnt
the blood of
a

togetherwith frog,
burnt

the eyes of with added

bull

goose.
as

Mars

was

mixed sulphur, which

were

Various

such magic plants,

hellebore and the brain odour

of

euphorbium, to
crow.

the blood how

a

of

black
was

cat

and the

of

It

may

easilybe imagiped
ascended in

nauseous

these

horrible mixtures, which

spiralcolumn
believed

of smoke

varying in
see

hue,

and

athwart

which

the
most

lookers-on

they could
attributed
to
a

fantastic
to

shapes. Moreover, the

substances and

were singularproperties

various

which
that

were

thrown

upon
was

live coals.
to burn
a

In order

produce thunder
This

rain,all

was

necessary
was

the liver of

chameleon.
of
sorcerers

speciesof witchcraft
tempest-raisers. As
Dr.
storm

practisedby
as

class special
James

called
had
a

late

the sixteenth presence, upon

century
the

VI. of

of Scotland

Fian

tortured

in his

accusation

having raised
the
roses

in which
a

that

sovereignnearlylost
sea,

his life.

While

chameleon's
and

liver raised

high

the

burnt gall of cuttle-fish,

with

aloebe
a

wood, produced earthquakes. A

raised

legionof

demons

and

phantoms might
them

and hemlock, adding to coriander, parsley, by burningtogether from

black poppy,

liquor extracted
and other

giant fennel, red sandal-wood, henbane,

all these mixtures it
was

obnoxious laws of

plants. But sympathy

the and

with

necessary

to

observe

the
as

which antipathy
to

prevail amongst
insure

the perfumes,
of the

amongst

celestial bodies, in order

the

success

incantations.
The
in the
same

laws

of of

sympathy

and

antipathywere
for

to be

observed carefully

preparation
or

administered philters,
These
O G

the

purpose in ancient

of

inspiring
were

hatred

affection

(Fig.166).

which philters,

times

226

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

believed

to

have

an

irresistible effect,were
the

generally composed
be

of heterogeneous reduce sometimes

to

substances, which

magicians pretended to
The

able to

powder by
went
so

means

of various
to
use

unholy incantations.
or

sorcerers

far

as

the

host, consecrated
But

not, upon

which

they

traced

letters derived

written
from

in

blood.

they

more

employed generally
mineral blood

substances

the three

domains

of nature, the entrails of animals, the feathers

and of birds,scales of fishes,

vegetableand
the human

substances.

Pulverized compose

and loadstone, the parings of nails,

served

to

their

Fig.

166."

Marriage of
Edition

Young
"

Han

and

an

Old

"Woman."
"

Fac-simile In the Arsenal

of

an

Engraving in the

German

of the

Officia

Ciceronis,"1542.

Library, Paris.

powders, which
these
to

were

mixed

with the food

effect. in
more

or

the drink Some

of persons

upon

whom
recourse

were philters

desired to take
which which
was

still had magicians

with the the

hippomanes,

much

favour
than

Greek
of

and

Roman
on

enchanters, and
the head have the

was

nothing

lump

flesh found

of colts when
as a

first foaled. very

The

mandragora, which plant,was

in

ancient naturalists
renown

described Middle of the

wonderful
made
to

still greater
most

in

Ages,

and

it was

appear

in all the in the

sinister operations
a

magicians. This

which plant,

grows

shape of

human

TIH-:

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

227

body,
Satanic demon.

and

belongs to

the

Solaneoo

tribe,was
ascribed

said to
to
a

have

miraculous device

and

its origin being properties,

gruesome

of the

Philters

must

not

be the

confounded Middle

with

the talismans which

which
to

were

in such

great vogue
until the end

during

Ages, and
These

continued

be

in repute
or

of the

Renaissance.

talismans
Arabic
or

consisted Persian

of stones

metal

and plates, bearingastrological figures, in

most cases,

inscriptions ;
were

they came,
to

from

the Gnostics

of the East, and

intended

placebeneath
Most

the

of protection had

the celestial powers been

the persons
at

possessing
the time of

them.

of these talismans The

to

broughtinto Europe
the

the Crusades.

sixteenth which

century witnessed
insure

the increase of

astrological
and

forms,
desires. become
man

attention

would

accomplishment
wished
to
earn

of all human
to

Thus, for instance, to those who great, it

a was

honours

enjoined, Engrave
"

the white

image
in

of

who Jupiter,

is

with

ram's

head, upon
he is at

tin

or

upon

stone, at the

day and

hour
in his

of

when Jupiter, in

home,

as

in

or Sagittarius,

the Pisces, or

exaltation, as
from
the the
as

Cancer, and
of Saturn

let .him be free from

or

all

obstruction, principally
be
and rapid,
not

evil looks
sun

of Mars

let him

burnt you, you

by
made will

in

word, wholly auspicious. Carry

this

image

upon

above, and

accordingto

all the your

above-mentioned
belief." These

and conditions,

see

things which

will surpass
covered

less harmcomparatively the mantle of

were superstitions

with by judicial astrology

science.
The

magiciansresorted
as an

to

written
to

incantations

of

more

mysterious
upon

character
nature

accompaniment
some

the

gemahrz, or quaint stones

; to

which

had

put

distinctive mark
of bats ; to the

the

the magic phials containing

was no

blood

of owls

and hand the

hand had

of glory, which
been
were

other

than

the withered
treasure
;

of

man

who

hung,

for

discoveringhidden images
of the

to

magic mirrors,
absent
;

in which

reflected the
shirt of
a

dead

and

of the

and
a

to

the well-known

made necessity, in Christmas

men

of

flax spun
and
crown

by

the

hands

of the This

sown virgin,

during
heads of

night

week,
the

representing upon
of Beelzebub.
One of the most
was

front shirt
was

the

two

bearded
wearer

with

said to render
of

the

invulnerable. the bewitching,

a

dreaded
to

processes

magic was
by
slow

that

of

object of
could
not

which

compass

the death
The first

degrees of
process

person
to

who model

be murdered

outright.

step in this

was

228

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

in

clay or
a

in

wax virgin

an

of effigy
was

the

intended

victim, and
the

the

next

to

kill

swallow, the heart

the liver under of the of

of which the
wax

placed under
the

right arm

of the

and effigy, the

left.
or

Then

operation began ; sacrilegious pricked with

new

body

and

limbs

clayfigurewere
horrible

needles,
the trial
a

to the

accompaniment

the de

most

imprecations. During
Minister
declare of

of the ill-fated

Enguerrand brought

Marigny,
the the

Prime
to

Philippele Bel,
he

magician
minister's

was

before

tribunal

that

had,

at

the

request, bewitched
with
cases a

King by prickingthe magic image

The
of bewitchers had
more recourse

which other
;

representedhim
processes. it
was

needle. the

to

In

some

figurewas
and

bronze, and
rust, the
In

or

less deformed

concealed

in

tomb,
the
to

left to

rust

with coinciding
cases

the

leprosywhich
of wax, of the and
was

attacked made

person

bewitched.
a

other
and with
out

the

figurewas
progress his

melt
to

before death

fire of wood pace made

vervain, the
the of

bewitched In
other

person
cases,

keeping

melting of
earth taken

image.
a

was again,the effigy

from

and graveyard the

mixed

with

dead and

bones caused

an

in mystic characters inscription death of the victim within

a

completed
short time.

bewitchment,

the

Amongst
most

the
was

numerous

trials which

revealed
of

details

of this
was

crime,
accused

the of
a

celebrated

that

of the Duchess
VI. the She

Gloucester,who
instructed of
this
a

having

bewitched

King Henry
well-known

had

necromancer,

priestnamed
concert

Bolingbroke, with
a

execution
one

act

of

magic,

in

with
under

sorceress,

Marie The
wax

Gardemain,

Satan the

being
was

invoked found in
a

the

name

of MilFouvrier. of
a

figureof
had

King

half melted

in

front

fire of crime the

dry plantswhich

been

gathered
was

cemetery by moonlight.
the
sorceress

The

being proved, the

of Gloucester

necromancer

hung,

burnt, and
life. and The

Duchess notorious In have

condemned the

to

imprisonment
century
were

for

most

bewitchers sixteenth

of

fourteenth the many

was

Paviot

Robert.

the
been de'

century
in it

Italian such

Cosmo astrologer,
cases

Ruggieri, would
of protection
the

compromised
Medicis Charles
was

but

for

the

Catherine

and

always eight

believed months

by

the

public that
massacre

illness to which

IX.

succumbed bewitchment. easy also

to

after the

of St. Bartholomew less nail

caused

by
very

Another
was

pieceof withcraft,not
of chcvillemeni
upon

formidable,and
which driving),

practise,
to

that
a

(peg or

was

supposed

have

fatal influence

the person

whose

death

it

was

sought to

compass.

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

229

nail

or

wooden

peg

was

driven each

into of

wall, the
the

name

of the

intended of

victim

being pronounced

at

blow

hammer.

The

sorcerers

Fig. 167." The

Alchemist."

After

an

Engraving by

Vriese."

In the Cabinet

of Designi,

National

Library,Paris.

the

Middle

Ages

had

other

devices

for

killingpeople from
into

distance.
a

Thus, for instance, the

archers,or

launched sagitiarii,

the air

sharp-

23o
*

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

pointed arrow,
invisible.
seven
or

which
arrow

the

demon

directed towards
heart

given goal,and
at
one a

rendered of
even

This

pierced the
miles. three of In

of the victim

distance of these

eight hundred
Pumbert,
;

the fifteenth
arrows

century

sagittarii,
hit

named his mark who in him where

means

shot his
to

these
to

every himself The

day, never

failingto
the

and

sole

objectwas

make

agreeableto
of

devil,

indicated

him
to

the

various victims.

inhabitants

Lauterburg,
upon

.Prussia,stirred
and

eventuallyfell indignationby his proceedings,

The of device of the
came sagittarii

murdered

him.

from

the North,

the of

inhabitants

Finland
arrows,

and which

Lapland got they drew

arrows

rid
at

of
a

their enemies

by
the

little leaden
of

venture,

to

accompaniment
and three left
an

magic phrases.
which

These

went

straightto
at

the mark, end

invisible wound,

invariablyproved fatal

the

of

days.
Middle
the existence Ages' also recognised due incorporeal,
was

The

of certain demon the

magicalagents,
or

corporealand spirits.Such

to
a

the

influence of the known from

do not Nor

of familialbut

the

evil eye, the of

device

earliest ages,
cases

defined by inaccurately
its

who demonographers, the

in all
were

attribute

origin to

the

action

infernal
of the cavities

powers.

the

hermetic

philosophers agreed as
labours without looked of

to the

nature

archeus, the
of the

architect

which spirit which

most

ceasing
upon
as

in
one

the

human

body, and
The

Paracelsus learned
were men

of the active
as

forces of the mind.

science, such
in the

David

of

Planis-Campi and Ambroise

in participated

Pare,
all the
as

also believers

constellated ascendant, which and sciences, which

combinations
a

of the occult
as a

manifested
the
at

itself sometimes learned the birth

to

demon,

sometimes astral These

acts

good angel. According to

was

Ambroise

Pare, the
individual.
in all the

influence

that

which
were

presided
therefore

of
take in

each

incorporeal agents
the its occult

supposed

part
the the

of

sciences,and
were

in alchemy, especially their

were

practice of

which

adepts

incessantly calling to
and the evil These

aid

of elementary spirits in

the

metals,

genii which

invoked

nearly all
or

of the incantations

(Fig.167).
name

whether geniiand spirits, formula)

over

good
the

evil,are

mentioned

by

in many

of the curious had

a

used

in

making

of seals
wearers

or magic ringswhich (sigilla)

power from

demons,

preserving the
from

from
or

sudden and

them death, protecting them his

"

and illness,
as

danger by
The

land Sicur

sea,

procuring for
in relates,

as

much
en

money

they

required.

de Villamoiit

Voyages

Orient," that

232
,

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

higher
effects.

powers The

to

act

upon

the

lower

world, and
to

so

to

produce supernatural
the of
names

main and

point, therefore,was
reduce them

discover
to
a

of

these

superiorpowers,
This

by

evocations

state

passiveobedience.
in communication

magic
with

Cabal

consisted

in evocations

destined heaven

to

placeman
earth.

the

invisible

of intelligences

and

According
the

to

the

belief

of the cabalists of the Middle beneath his orders the

Ages, Ariel,the genius of

Princes

sublunary Sayanon
were

world, had

Damalech, Taynor, and

most
was

the latter commanded

the

the secondaryspirits, Rabianica. Mikael The Nanael of the other

powerful of
the

whom the

Guabarel, Torquaret,and
Jerathel of the

genius of

divine,
Jeliel had
an

and terrestrial,

sciences,while political
each genii, of
one

presidedover
its attributions innumerable

the animal in the

kingdom.

of whom

mysteriousgovernment
invisible
pass whom beings, in

formed earthlythings,

of hierarchy
not

the cabalists of the sixteenth

century
well
as

did

scruple to

review, designatingeach
Cornelius
names

by

its

name

as

by

its distinctive in registered

quality.
his

Agrippa,

for

instance, boasted

that he had

the catalogue
a

of six thousand of and categories,

intelligences,
all of which

or belonging genii, spirits,

to

great

number

might
The

be evoked occult

by

the

adepts of

the divine art.

sciences had

in this way been

brought within
to
as

their domain

most

of the

the fantastic

beings who
so

had
many
were

known and supreme

from popular superstition

earliest

periods under
The

names,

possessingso
in the

many

different

attributions.

fairies

long
to
men

where country districts,

to

they were
emerge

said from

often to appear
their normal and

without

being compelled by magic They

were

invisible

existence.

called

facas
in the
;

in the South the

of

France, korrigansin

and filaniUercs Brittany, in Ireland and

bonnes

dames

Saintongeand
countries.

Picardy,banshees They
or were a

Scotland, nor/ion
and the
;

in
nature

Northern

mixture

of human

of divine

they were
sometimes
caves or

enchantresses

magicians,presidingover
young, of beautiful the
'or

destinyof mortals,
inhabited
sources or

old, sometimes
the snowy
were

ugly
or

they

solitary
aerial

peaks
not

mountains,

limpid

spheres. They
to
more

in much

request amongst
The
the

magicians,who

left them

the fancies

of poets and
to

novelists.
were

mysteriousbeingswhom
who intermediaryspirits these may

magicians belonged
the

readilycalled
to

their aid

rather

the great demons

at

family of

demons.

Amongst

be mentioned the felt

or estries,

of darkness, who the who goblins,

hugged
made

to

suffocation presence

people whom by
harmless

they

met

night ;

their

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

antics ; the folkts, who lufins ; and the metallic

led the traveller in whom spirits, which

as

the Ittitom, or astray by false lights; it is easy many

to

the recognise

tions emana-

of inflammable

gas known

produce so
fire-damp.
and

sudden

in explosions

the

mines, and Demons,

which

are

too,

were

the

men-wolves

men-dogs, which
in the of the
the

were

very

similar to the ogres,

and whose terrible

or

which ouigoitrs, them

existed really

hordes, Mongolian

aspect caused

to be the terror

populations.
devil

The
to
assume

169),men loups-garoiis (Fig.

the face of
a

whom
a

pact with
scoured

compelled
and

wolf

once

year,

the

woods

fields,

Fig. 169."
in the

The
"

Han-dog,

the

Man-wolf, the Man-bull, and

du Monde."
"

the

Man-pig."

After

the

Miniatures
"

Livre

des Merveilles

Manuscript of the Fourteenth

Century.

In

the

National

Paris. Library,

devouringthe
in
and Greece,

young

children
men

like the vampires in Poland, the

broucofaqucs
blood.

the white

in

Provence, they thirsted after human

existence of many the
other

Occult
of
a

in addition, the philosophy recognised, inoffensive kind, whom

it

spirits
of

more

comprised under
the four
;

genericname

because they inhabited elementary spirits,

air ;
in talamtaukn, the fire ; gnomes,

elements:

sylphs,in the
waters.

in the earth
were

ondins,in the
the

All

the

beingsof
of

the invisible world

subject to

influence

or

domination from

magic, which
of the demon

though always proceeded,

;

in different

degrees,
various

the works

but

in

the

Middle

Ages

there

were

sectaries of this infernal art.

The

enchanters,the charmers
H
H

(male or female),

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

merely, made
;

use

of

magic
and

words

or

verses

for
to

their
their and
most

charms

or

ments enchanta

the

'

necromancers

magicians added
; the resort

incantations
the sorceresses,

whole

ritual of dark and in

and

sinister ceremonies
not

sorcerers

stri/yes

did faiturieres, order

to

hesitate

to

to

the

abominable
The

practices

get

into

direct
acts

communication
of
a

with
of

Satan. is

characteristic in
:
"

difference the
"

between

the

magic

and

sorcery

preciselystated
de

followingpassage
is
an

from

work theological effects

by

Cardinal of the

Richelieu

Magic

art

of

producing magic
of

by

the

power the

devil ; there of

is

this

difference

between that the

and

sorcery,

that

aim principal

magic explain

and is ostentation, how it

was

sorcery and

mischief." This
sorceresses
were

definition will

that in the

sorcerers

proceeded against and severitythan Ages.

The the
mancers necro-

punished

sixteenth

century
been in

with the

more

and and charmers have

magicians had
were

Middle

enchanters

only proceeded against for

the who astrologers
to

any

injuriesthey specific
themselves
to

might

caused, and
had

confined

the

art astrological

nothing
to

fear

in
and

the

shape

of

legal repression,

though they were authority.

It
to
was

liable

the

censures

anathemas

of the ecclesiastical

not

until

the fifteenth century that henceforward There

sorcerers

and
the

sorceresses

began
of
sorcery
to

attend the
true

the supreme

Sabbath, which
court

became

council
of
were

and the

of the demon.
name

is

difference

opinion as

origin of
the

the

and among first

of the

thing

itself. There

nocturnal
were

meetings of
the

sorceresses

all the

but earlypeoples,
of essentially and Divine in laws. the

these
an

not

Sabbath, which, when

instituted, was

obscene The

and

impious character, obnoxious point of

the
messe

alike to human
was

startingcentury,
mezcle drs

the Sabbath
cles

was,
a

perhaps,what

termed,

twelfth
into

Vaudois,
messe

denomination

afterwards
secret

transformed

Vaudois.

This

was

originally a

meeting of
of

the Vaudois It
was

proselytes
said that

of the heretic Pierre the

Valdo this

in the mountains way crops

to

Dauphiny.

Vaudois
was

met to

in

assist at

magic ceremonies,

the

object of they
were

which

destroythe
devilish

and

disturb the elements, "and that infernal dances, with

at

accompanied by

feasts and

tations, incanunintelligible

resemblingthose
of the

of the Jews

their

synagogue continued when

meetings on
to

the in

day
the

Sabbath.

These

mysterious
purpose

assemblies

be

held

dark, but

their aspect and

and

changed
made

vaulderie

became
sorcerers.

mous synonyHence-

with sorcery,

the heretics had

way

for the

236

THE

OCCULT

SCIENCES.

forward

the

Sabbath
from

was

merely
all

the

trysting-place
traversing
of

of

sorcerers

and

sorceresses

who

assembled

quarters,
upon others animals

space

with

the

rapidity
hoisted upon

of

lightning,
the shoulders

some

mounted

fantastic

shape,
broomstick

or

of

demons,
Satan

bestriding
assizes,
and
the

the

magic
received

(Fig. homage
the

170)of

It

was

here

that

held

his

the

impure
of

his

subjects,
De

distributing
Lancre,
"

to

novices
his

mark

and

sign

infernal
of the

initiation.

in

"Treatise
the

upon is

the

Inconstancy
in
a

Demons,"
of

says, black

The

devil,
two

at

Sabbath,
in his

seated

black

chuir,

with
which

crown

horns,
the

horns

neck,

and

one

in

the

forehead,
and

sheds

light
of

upon

assembly,
the eyes neck

the

hair

bristling, fully
of

the

face

pale

exhibiting
and

signs
with
the
a

uneasiness,

round,
and

large,
the
rest

opened,
the

inflamed, deformed,
of
a

hideous,

goat's
of
a

beard,

the

body
feet

the

body

of

shape
The

man

and

goat,

the

hands

and

the

human

being."
no

horrors
crimes

and

sacrileges
the
sorcerers

committed could

at

the

Sabbath their
misdeeds

were

merely credulity tion imaginaterrible

imaginary
or

not

impute
"

to

ignorance,
can

and

M.

Ferdinand

Denis

says,

All

that

the

wildest

conceive,
form
the

mythological compound
and the

recollections,
of the
court

fantastic of
of

traditions,
Diseased

traditions,
invent
new

Satan.
the devil

minds

crimes,
of
a

strident

laugh
sins.

encourages
to

the

commission

thousand
foul

nameless

Beelzebub

himself

ceases

put

on

the

image
whole

of

goat."
sixteenth

Thus

the

faggots
and

of

the

stake

burnt

out throughwere

the

of

the

century,
of
age
or

all

kinds

of
accused

torture

applied,
assisted
at

without
the

distinction

sex,

to

persons
to

of

having

Sabbath

and

given

themselves

up

Satan.

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

Superstitions
F" stival The

derived of the

from Deacons.

Paganism.
"

"

Saturnalia of

of

the

Ancients.
or

Festival
"

of

the

Barbatorii." of
the

The of

Liberty
the

December,
"

the

Fools' of the The

Feast.

Festival
"

the

Ass.

Sens

"

Ritual. of of St. the

"

Feast
Mere

Innocents.
Mere

The Folk

Moneys
of The of

Innocents

and
or

Fools. Devil. World.

"

Brotherhood

Sottt."The The

Dijon."
Antichrist Nostradamus.

Seipent,
and the Dreams End

the of the

"

Purgatory
"

Patrick." of the

Wandering
of

Jew." and

The

Prophecies
and

Sibyls,
"

Merlin,
"

and

Visions.

"

"

Spectres

Apparitions.

Prodigies.

Talismans.

ACTANTIUS,

in

his

book
"

upon

the
is

"Divine

Institution,"
of what
is

says,

Religion
of

the

worship
is false."
and added held in

true,

superstition
is
a

what

".All

superstition dangerous
The

great

punishment
for of

very

infamy
Council

men," Paris,

St.

Augustine. pronounced pernicious

of

829,
"most

very

energetically
are

against assuredly judicial

and

evils, which
such
as

"

remnants

paganism,

magic,

astrology,
the
in

witchcraft,
drawn St.
had
to

sorcery

or

poisoning,
dreams."

divination,
The Provincial is

charms,

conjectures
admitted John

from

Council,
The

14G6,

with Gerson

Thomas

that

superstition
that At

an

idolatry.
is
a

illustrious

already
and her the

declared

"superstition
all

vice

opposed by the
as

in

the

extreme

worship
and

religion."
councils,
which

periods
upon
to

the

Church,

organ

of

her

doctors
roots

waged
threaten of

war

superstition,
the wheat-

the

good
cases

labourer

up

tares

choke

In
and and

some

superstitious beliefs
of

took

the
event

form there

an

exaggeration something
to

of

faith

an

excess

devotion,
them of

in

which in
others

was

touching
and

respectable
the

about

they
or

were

due

dcmonomania,
In other

wore

expression
had

culpable
in
an

absurd

credulity.
or

cases,

again,

they

their

root

erroneous

distorted

tradition

some-

238

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

times,also, they were

of In

futile and

uncertain

character,or
the

became
was

heresy
made

against the' Church.

the pretext for The those Middle may

fact, everything in

physicalworld

superstition. Ages
be teemed with such

recollections of should
the have

ancient

mythology, and considering

who

that surprised the

been

the case,

the horror

in which of

of religion
may be

Gospel
that

held the

everything relatingto
pagan behind when religions, them may
a mass

the

errors

paganism,

reminded
the

they disappearedfrom

off the

face of

globe,left

of

popular prejudices profoundly rooted

the instance, address of St.
"

in men's of

minds.

"We

cite, for

Eloi,minister
I all, the

King Dagobert, and Bishop of

of you,
do
not

Noyon,
of the

to

his

clergy:

"Above of

beseech
;
or

observe engravers

any

customs sacrilegious

pagans

do not

consult

the

of

talismans, or
even

the

or diviners,

the
to

sorcerers,
omens or

the

enchanters, for any

do not be

cause,

for illness ; pay

the

no

heed

to

sneezing;
in
a

influenced Let

by
no

singing of
pay it

birds

when
to

you

hear he
one

them leaves
at

your

journeys
that upon

Christian
to

heed

'

the
not

day
any

house, or
Feast Let

which

he returns the the

....

Let
or

the

of St. John
no one

celebrate
to invoke

solstices by dances

diabolic incantations.

seek

demons,
Let
no

such
one

as

Neptune, Pluto, Diana, Minerva,

the in

or

the Evil
a

Genius. of
rest.

observe
make
or vows

day of Jupiter(Thursday) as
the
or temples,

day

Let

no

Christian

by
one

the

side

of fountains,or

gardens, or
enchantments

stones,
upon

trees

Let his flock

no

perform lustrations,or
the

herbs, or drive
in the1

through
Let
no

hollow
utter

in

tree,

or

through
the
moon

hole
wanes

dug

ground
no man

one

loud cries when

his master." the

Let
the seventh

call the

sun

or

moon

Thus

spoke, in

who century, a pious prelate, and of this

boldly attacked

of superstitions and much

even

his
a

time;
number

exhortation episcopal
or

readilyexplains,
which, though
of of

excuses, recent

strange
to

monstrous

facts annals

more

date, seem

form

part of

the

the

grossest

idolatry.
The Feasts of the Ass, of the Deacons, of the
as

Kings, of
the

the

Buffoons, and
and very

of the Innocents, characteristic

they

were

of

Middle
the

Ages,
lower

popular

with

the

people

at

with large,especially the

clergy, the
notice,

the lawyers' students, clerks,and

not

youth

of

the

period,deserve
in the local

only because

the

recollection of them because

still survives

history
art.

of certain

but districts,

they were

the

originof French

dramatic

24o

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

proclaimed kings
license Golden
was

of

the festival instead

to

of their masters.
the

This Saturn

period of
and
of the

thought

be

of reproduction

reign of
were

Age.

whose Christianity,

first followers first to

selected of the
a

from

the lower

classes of which
was no

was society,

unwillingat

deprivethem

popular festival
made

and a religious significance, longer possessed divide the festival into

only change day

each.

to

several
and

shorter

ones

of

Hence

arose

certain pagan

idolatries

reminiscences,to
the

which

the

festivals of

Christmas, of St. Stephen,of St. John

December the 25th
to

of Evangelist,
and of of

the Innocents the

(from
or

28th), of
The

the

Circumcision,
the

Epiphany,

of

Kings, gave

rise. the
two

or Lupercalia,

feasts

Pan, the god

also divided

of the

country, which
Christians
those of into the

ancients

celebrated

in

February, were
of the Carnival

by

the and

series,the
of

feasts
were

(Fig. 171)
to

month The

May,
was

which
at

generallyrestricted indulgent towards

which the

the

three

Rogation days.
of

Church

first abuses but

these

remnants

paganism, merely blaming

and

the

they engendered.

The

councils

doctors

we're

more

severe,

bishopsin

their dioceses, the

seemed afraid

in priests
to oppose

their these

and parishes,

the

abbots

in

their monasteries
such

habits,which superstitious
of the Kalends that the in
was

still held

great sway.
the of the Barbatorii, covered

At
reason

first the Feast

no

called the Feast in these saturnalia the

doubt

being

actors

their faces

with

hideous

beards,which
We do not

the

language of
any very

thirteenth

century

were

called barboires.

possess

accurate ; but

information
was

concerning
to have

this festival earlier than observed and

not

the twelfth

century

it

known in many
excuse

been

only in
It
was

cathedrals and

parishchurches,
cause

but the

monasteries

convents.

the invariably

of, and

for,the

most

excesses. disgraceful

The

first

work liturgical
the date

which,
and

under

the

name

of

"

Liberty of
the Feast

ber," Decem-

describes

strange 1182,

indecent shows
and that rank had

proceedings at
one

of the
in it

Buffoons, bears
was an

and

of

the

main As

features
a

inversion

of the this

duties

of the

clergy.
into

proof

of
be

how

thoroughly
that

profane
the

usage

passed
been

custom,

it may

mentioned

though

had practice

several times

anathematized laboured of pagan

by
hard

the
to

councils,and
what extirpate of the in 1444

though
a

several

prelatesand
called
"

sovereignshad
remnant

French

king
of the

detestable

and idolatry,

worship
the

infamous

Janus,"

upon

the
some

day

of the
as

circumcision

officiated priests

in the

churches,

dressed

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

241

women,

some

as

buffoons capes

(seeFigs. 172
chasubles

and

173), some
inside out.
in the

as

stage-players, They
elected
a

others

with

their

and

turned him

bishop or

archbishopof buffoons, attired

robes, and pontifical

the matins.
upon

received his benediction, chanting an danced

in

indecent

parody of
and

They

the choir, singing ribald songs,

ate

drank

the altar,

172.

"

Buffoon From de la the

playingthe Bagpipe.
"

Fig. 173."
Arm.
"

Buffoon After
a

holding the
Miniature in

Bauble
a

beneath

his the

"

Atlas des Monuments

Manuscriptof

France," by Alex. Lenoir.

Fifteenth

Century." National

Library,Paris.

playeddice
censer,

on

the pavement,
the

burnt

old leather and

other foul matter after this mock

in the
mass

and

incensed

and with it, priest celebrating mounted upon

they promenaded
another in

the

streets

chariots,and

vying

with

one

grimacesand

in insolent and and

as

impious remarks.
remained naturally royal prohibitions

The dead

ecclesiastical censures
a

the

letters at

time

when,

Gerson
i i

tells

us,

there

were

preacherswho

242

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

declared

from and VII.

the

pulpit that
the

this

festival
met

was

"welcome
the

in

the

sight of
of

God,"
Charles

when

clergy

of

Troyes

remonstrances

King
them

by saying
the Feast

that their

bishop,Jean
was

Leguise,had
also

ordered Sens. the

same

to celebrate

of the the

Buffoons, which

kept at

This

which festival,
Mass

Troyes clergy set great

which in existed,

store

by, was

as

the famous

of the Ass the

different

forms, in various
up the

towns

of France, but Church of

ceremonial special still to be read that

us

of which, drawn
a

expresslyfor
thirteenth

the

Sens, is
the

in

manuscript of
The

century
of this

preserved in
the
mass,

of library

town. to

inserted rubrics, the

in the text

order
which but

of
was

service,enable
not
ass

follow
been

whole

proceedings
honour
our

of

celebrated, as
which
rode
was

has the

in alleged, in which

of Balaam's
was

ass,
or

of the

in He

stable

Lord Palm any

were

born,

of that which

He

when

entered
may

Jerusalem be

upon
cause

Sunday.
greater

This

singular
than

festival

did

not, it

added,
and

disorder into and did the

that
to

of St.

Hubert,
the
no

when

dogs

falcons
the

brought
of
those horn who

church
; but

receive
was

benediction, to priest's
idea of

sound

trumpet
this. The

there

profanityon

the part of

festival of the Ass

been

was

conducted
conducted
was

in this wise.
in
met

comely
the

animal streets,

having
which

selected,it
strewn

was

processionthrough by
Here
the

were

with the
"

carpets,and
door

chanting,who clergy, they

Let announced those and
to
are

accompanied
in people, doleful Those up
to

it to

of the

church.

the

Latin

verse,

This is the
away

day
here.

of

gladness.
with

who

of

countenance

get

from

Away

envy

haughtiness!
ass was

who

celebrate the Feast of the Ass

and altar, of

desire to be
"

joyful."
"

The

led

to the

then
a

was

sung

that

Prose
in

of the Ass
at

which, according
commencement

the

evidence

contemporary, given
relief the

verse

the

of

the

ritual, brought into

talents of the
as

first

and chorister,
the

which,

far from

being a sacrilegious mockery,

insinuated,was
our a

the

of philosophers

eighteenth
of the faith
the

century have
and

simple and
Two of the

pathetic manifestation
Latin
with strophes,

piety of
:
"

forefathers.

French

chorus, run

"

Orientibus Adventavit Pulcher Saioinie

et

parlibus,
Asinus,

fortissimu.a,
he !

aptissimus,
Ane,

He,

sire

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

243

Hie

in collibus Siclien,

"ub Kiu.ti itii-i Transiit

per

Ruben,

Jordanem,

Saliit in Bethleem.

Ht,

tire

Ane, lit!"

According
which
was

to

an

old

tradition, preserved at Sens, after the Hallelujah,

all during the service, Then
the

sung

several times of
an

the

congregationbrayed
behind
most

in chorus

in imitation
two

ass.

from choristers, this

"

the altar,

chanted

Leonine

that lines,proclaiming

is the

illustrious of chief precentor, of the

his

all illustrious who

days,the greatestof
used

all the

festivals."
in

Lastly,the
the
"

had

his voice to the utmost in

pomp
a

chanting

Prose he

Ass,"

was

conducted

to

well-spreadtable,where
meal.
was

and

were acolytes

suppliedwith
of the Ass,
we

bountiful

The

Feast Thus

as

stated above,
the

celebrated

in several towns of Autun

of

France. 1411
to

learn

by

of registers

the Cathedral
ass was

that from
a

1416, in the Feast of the Buffoons, an

thrown
over

led in

with procession,
ane,

chasuble sung very

him, and

'to' the

usual

chorus The

of, "He, sire

at

h^ !"
was

by lay clerks

in

costume. masquerade. at

ceremonial

Beauvais

similar to that

Sens, and
taken

it is clear that the spectators as

as

the refrain
an

quoted

in the in all
was

precedingsentence
tones.

was

by

invitation to

bray
ass

At

the Feast into

a

of the Ass,
or

celebrated

at

Rouen, Balaam's
from the Old

introduced New

show

review

of personages
a

taken

and

the with

Testament, and

composing

sort

of

mystery-play, interlarded

in doggerelLatin. dialogues Eudes

was one

de

Sully,Bishop
who prelates
were

of Paris, towards

the end
to

of the twelfth century,

down

of the

tried the hardest with

put

these saturnalia,
he
set
an

and
to

if his efforts

not
use

crowned

immediate
same

success,

example
ritual of
own

other ecclesiastics to
of

their influence in the

not

direction.
down
to

The
our

the Feast but

we

has Buffoons, properlyso called,

come

day,

know

that from the the

beginning of
upon

the fifteenth

century it was

only under

the

porch,in

churchyard,or
itself
"

the open

space

beyond

"

that is to say,
soon

outside

the church

that these

masquerades

took The

and place,

wards afterthis
not

the
ancient

festival
as

was

suppressed altogether.
of their
it ; but
most

clerks

regarded
were

tradition
to

one

cherished

and privileges,

easilyinduced
the

renounce

while the

so kity, inheriting,

to

speak,

Feast

of the

Buffoons, formed

associations for

gettingup

the mystery-

244

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

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Fig. 174.""
Prose of ihe Ass,"
"

plain." Fae-simile
the

of the

Page
"

of the

Ritual

of Pierre

de

Corbeil.

Manusciipt of

Thirteenth

Century.

Sens

Library.

POPULAR

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PARTIBUS

PREMIERE

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DEUX1EME

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hcz

-S-

1
-

Hie

in col-li bus Siclicn

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Fig.

175.

"
"

Prose

of the

Ass," set

to Music

with

Organ Accompaniment

by M.

Clement.

246

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

plays, the
excesses

Church

gradually withdrew
the
"

its

protectionand

tolerance of the

from arising

Liberty of
that the

December."
a

It is

certain, however,
before
the
an

election of
the

Pope

of

the

Buffoons
as

was

discontinued former
was

suppressionof
insult to the

Feast

of the

Innocents,
the

the
a

considered
the

to Papacy previously

election of

Bishop

of

Innocents

being
that the

looked these

upon

as

offensive to the
elections lasted At

episcopacy. longer
Amiens,
and for

It is also
were more

worthy

of remark
in

parodiesof
than
not

celebrated
as

North
was

in the

South.

instance,

late

as

1548 well.

there
This

only by

Pope

of the Buffoons, but

as

several Cardinals

as

pope,

elected
silver

the

subdeacons, received
a

the

of insignia
took

his

dignitya gold ring,a

a

and tiara,
canons

seal.

His

ment enthrone-

placeat
that

banquet paid for by

servitors of the
the
tower

the mock

of the

cathedral, upon
abstain from

the

condition

the

pontiffshould
other such

removing
The

the bells from the

and

committing

pleasantries. by
the precentors the

Bishops of
and

consecrated,and Innocents, elected,

officialsof the
the ceremonies

acclaimed the
;

subordinate

Church,

had

right to

wear

and mitre,staff, and money The with ordinances

glovesat
sealed

of the Buffoons also coined

they issued
even

decrees copper

with
name

and their seal, and

motto.

lead and

bearing their
learned hold

that these

pieces of
the
at

money,

which

had
as

much

analogy
at sorts

the

or sigilla,

seals, which
as

Romans

offered

presents
so

the of

Saturnalia, were
passes
or

used

counters to

games
at the

of chance, and

became and

countermarks

be

used

shows, processions,
had moneys,

theatrical

which representations
and

the

Bishop

of the Innocents

the

right to organize

have
have

performed by
been

his adherents.

These

of great quantities
seems

which

discovered, in Picardy,which especially

of the

to have

been

the mother
to

country

Innocents, are
the In bear

in many

cases

with similar,

regard
of the

the

effigyand

to inscriptions,

royal
addition various

and
to

baronial

coinage

fifteenth and
nomen

sixteenth

centuries.

the Latin

$it inscription,
as,

Domini
de

benedidum, they often

French

sxich inscriptions, such

as,

Monnoie

Fercsque Innocent,or
Guerre
cause

nondescriptmottoes,
helas Buffoons
"

Vow
d

royez

le

est ! temps qu'il

maintz the

(griefs) Bcne
also coined
two

rircrc

"c. Icetari,
but all the

The

popes

and

of patriarchs

money,

which pieces

have

been

preserved are
represents
a

distinguished by
double head

teristics. characprincipal and

a

One with the

of them

of

cardinal

buffoon,

Stulti aliquandosapientcs. inscription,

248

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

comic
to

and

which serious,
a

became

and mysteries

farces when

they

had

been

set

rhyme by
There
was

poet.
a

(See below, chapteron

moreover,

the

Theatre.)
to

general effort made, perpetuatingthe

Passion,whom

form

privatesocieties
of Buffoons.

for The

preservingand
brothers and
to

traditions VI.

of the allowed

Feast
to

of the

Charles
a room

settle in Paris

(1402),
in the

representthe mysteriesin
of the Church

at the

TrinityHospital, were,
who
were

members origin,

and

pious persons

desirous of

letting

religion benefit
,

by

the

unbridled Buffoons

and passion for spectacles had

masquerades
the

which

the

Feast

of the
first the

spread amongst

the

clergyand

population. At being more

ecclesiastical authorities
those of the

encouraged these plays,as

and the

than edifying The the

to

Pope

of the Buffoons and

Bishop of
Basoche,
to

the Innocents. who offer the

advocates, lawyers,

procureurs,
"

clerks of the

remembered
an

good

times

of

the it
was

Liberty of December,"
condemned and cap

resolved

asylum

the

Folic, when
the

by

and

banished of

from

Church.

They

created

kingdom of Sots
with
a

the

empire

Fools,

whom a prince, electing

under
was

they crowned
Sotte. The

green

with

donkey's ears,
new

the

name

of the Mere

objectof principal
the
on

this

tion institu-

the

of farces or representation
the

satires upon

people in authority.
the

Amongst

societies which provincial

must

carried

traditions of the
Folk
de

Feast of the Buffoons

be

mentioned, first of all,that

of the Mere

Dijon (seeFig. 176), which

founded in

Philip the Good,

of

Duke

of
end

Burgundy,
to

himself

1454, for the

took

sole purpose in the

putting an
at

the

scandalous

orgies which Epiphany,

in and

place

churches
This

the

festivals of

Christmas,
which
were

Rogation Sundays.
with the

the practices of society,

complete harmony
of
more

customs

of that
of all

sisted wine-growing country, con-

than

five hundred of

persons

ranks, and
other

they were
of

divided

into

two
wore

one parties,

infantry(seeFig. 177),the
and
liveries ;
or

all of cavalry, which

were a

whom

the fool's cap

that

is to say, costumes The leader

a

motley
Mere

mixture

of

yellow,red,

green.

of

the

band,

named

Folk, passed reviews

mock

of his army, his

presided over

mock

tribunal, and
to

pronounced

judgments,which
These
trials and

procurator-fiscal green
and

undertook solemn

put

into execution.

cavalcades pleadings,
and any

assemblies,
have Feast

brought into relief

without

all the

types

attributes of
wiser
;

Folly,which
the ancient

peared disapof the

leaving the world

driven
and

but

Buffoons, when
to

from farces

under

the vaulted

roof of the

temple,continued
of
some

inspire songs

which

betokened

the

birth

comedy,

POPULAR

RELIEFS.

249

while sacred
were,
an

the

clergy inaugurated the

the

serious

drama

by histories

taken

from

the

books and

legends of the saints. The

to the

mystery-playsand
of Buffoons, but
"

farces
there
"

much so therefore,
or

credit of the Feast between

the

is

interval of three

four centuries

Prose

of the Ass

and

Fig. 177."

Staff of the

Dijon Infantryin
M.

1482."

Fac-uimile

of

Design communicated

by

Bnggieri.

the scenic

of compositions

Jean

Michel, of Andre
the of

de la

Vigne, and of Peter

Gringoire. (See below, chapteron

Many instances might be given
in the traditions of

Theatre.) popular errors

maintained which had their
source

and antiquity,

which
K K

the ideas of

paganism

2S0

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

amidst
errors

the

most
not

holy
have
to

and
been

solemn

of

beliefs; but,
had the
not

at

the

same

time, these
the of
men

would

sustained

the

credulityof
of
a

of

learninghelped

propagate them
Thus, for

by

creation

world
the

fantastic

beings (see Fig. 178).

Comestor, a famous
arrived Scriptures,
the

instance, when

Peter

Eater, called
the

of theologian
at

the twelfth century, in his

paraphraseof
Moses he

the
sons

fourth of God

chapter of Genesis, where

and the

speaks of
takes
care

giantsborn

to

the

daughters of

men,

Fig. 178.

"

The

Serpent, or
on

the

Dragon, and
"

the

Behemoth,
of Ihe

or

the

Devil.
"

"

Miniature
In

from

Commentary
M. Ainbroise

the

Apocalypse.

Manuscript

Twelfth

Century.

the

Library

ot

Firmin-Didot, Paris.

to state

that these of

giantsare
and in the

of the

family of
was

Enceladus
from the

and
to

Briareus. furnish

The
certain

deluge
dramatic
monsters

Deucalion

Pyrrha Deluge

borrowed
;

incidents bred

of the Bible
the earth

serpent Python
to

and

the

from

the

slime into

of the

(Figs.179

182),in

the

Greek

theogony, were
masters

imported

which glossology

the

rabbis,those
the
to

grand

of of

superstition, were
the Talmud. The

continually introducinginto
Christians
were

work elastic frameabandon the

careful

not

1'om.AR

RELIEFS.

emblt 'inatie
of tlie

of representation

these

monsters,

which

soon

became,
evil.

in the eyes

the people,
are

multiform

of the spirit of personification

in which

There

numerous

legends
faith.
to

the serpent is
we

vanquished by

the

great

champions of the
which
was

In Phoenicia
the

find St.

George slayingthe
of

dragon

about

devour

daughter of
themselves

the

king
the

that country
to

St. ilichael

and

St. Germain

arming

with

cross

drive out

Figs. 179

to

182.

"

Monsters

born de

from

the

Deluge.
"

After

the

Wood folio.

Engravings

in the

"Chronique

Nuremberg," printed in 1493, in

the

winged serpents which

his stole the
a

were

invading the

land

of Parisis; St. Remain St. Martha

the

binding with leading with

Gargouille of Rouen
terrible
Thus

(seeFig. 183) ;
had his

string

the

Tarasque which

laid waste

neighbourhood of
with the

Tarascon.

the serpent took

other marvellous

place in emblazonry
He
; he

unicorn, the chiuucra, and

the

animals.

has

his

under placein history

of designation

Melusine

of

Lusignan

has been

25*

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

the
one

theme end It

of

the

most

wonderful

travellers'

tales,and

is to be

found

from

to the other

of science, poetry, and

to

art.

is the the

serpent, or,

speak

more

the devil, to accurately, hideous

monsters

whom descended

is

attributed in
a

birth of the grotesque and

order

which

natural

of succession

from
of

the

giants,pigmies,Cyclops,satyrs,
The

centaurs,
of the

and tritons, harpies, did

not venture

sirens
to

mythology (Fig.191). question the

fathers
of these

Church

call into

existence

monsters, whom
the

Pliny and

the

ancient naturalists
and

complacentlyadmitted
all the
more

into

hierarchyof livingthings;

the

people were

ready to

Fig.

183.

"

The

Gargouille. From
"

the

Stained-glass Window Chapel, Rouen

representing the
Cathedral.

"

Life

of

St.

Remain,"

in the St. Romain

accept them
of the demon. It is the

as

because they attributed realities,

their existence

to

the power

that astonishing
a

none

of those
of

who

lived in the Middle

to

Ages, with
the

exception of

few

heroes

legends,claimed
writers tried hard

have
to

discovered its
or

earthlyParadise, though geographical position. If

thirteenth Marco

learned
some one

define

precise
of the

of the travellers of the twelfth

de

century,
had

such

as

Benjamin
such of
a

Tudele,

Jean

Piano

Carpini, or
been

Polo,

put forward
as

claim, it

would of that

assuredlyhave period,so

admitted, inasmuch

many

the Christians

fertile in

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

wonders, did
and

not

hesitate to believe that

could be
were seen

access

could

be

gained

to

purgatory,
of the

that Paradise
Sorcerers
entrance

from believed

afar,without
to

leavingthe
power of

world

living.
hell. made in
an

alone

have

the

descending into
claimed
to

The

into purgatory, whither

to

certain
was

persons

have

their way island

of

and

have

returned

from,

believed

to

be

in Ireland,

Lake

Derg.

This

purgatory, according to the legend, had

been

discovered
was

by

St. Patrick

(Fig.184), guided by Jesus Christ himself,

a

who
on

said to have from

left him which

for the

day

and

night in this
himself
once
"

"

very obscure

pit,"

emerging

saint

found he
the
at

purged from
to

all his

former handsome

sins," in gratitudefor which

church
and
a

built, close

the

pit,a
his

monastery of

order of St.

Augustine.

After

Fig. 184."

The

Purgatory of Monsignor Century

St. Patrick.

"

Miniature

of

Manuscriptof

the Fourteenth

In the National (No. 6,326)."

Library,Paris.

death the
enter

people came pit, but

there in

: pilgrimage

few rash persons

was one

attempted to
more

the

they

never

reappeared. There
an

report

brought from
with
who

purgatory by
to

English knight

named

Owen,

who, loaded

sins,determined
was

try the experiment of St. Patrick

to

(Fig.185),and
after

fortunate
at

enough

behold
seen

again
from
and

the

rays of the sun,

having
The
seen

arrived

the gate of hell,and

he told the of

afar the

heavenly Jerusalem. things he

him had

story
the

which

the

strange

wonderful from

in

company

of

devils,who
the
name

refrained the

harming

because

he

invoked incessantly referred generally

to

of

Saviour, was
Middle

believed, and implicitly

The

throughout the

Ages.

monks

who

kept

254

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

watch
were

over

St. Patrick's

gap

showed
motives

the

doorway

of

it to

the

pilgrimswho
the
one

attracted to Ireland

by

of

pietyor

but curiosity,
no

aperture
ventured
took

remained
to
care renew

closed. impenetrably the it

was

and though Notwithstanding,

experiment

made

by
the

the

Chevalier

Owen,

every

nation

that

in represented
was

stories told of visits to the

purgatory of

St.

Patrick, so firmlyrooted
A
not
seems

the belief in it dates the

throughout Europe.
from the
same

less famous
to

Avhich superstition,
been

period,and
first Crusades, dubbed

which is that
every

have

brought
Jew,
white
as

from the

East

after the of the

of

the

Wandering
with
a

inhabitants who

country
the

beggar

long

beard

trudged along
The

roads

with

eyes

downcast, and

without

opening

his

lips.

story of this

accursed

Fig.

185.

"

Owen,
of the

accompanied by
Gap, and
the creeps

Monka
into

chanting the Litanies

it.
"

for

the

Dead, repairs to

the

Aperture

Miniature

of

Manuscript

of the Fifteenth

Century

In (No. 1,588)."

National

Library, Paris.

pilgrimwas
an

told

for the

first time had the

to

the monks
from

of St. Albans
the

in

1228

by

Armenian

archbishop who doorkeeper at by the

Jews
to be

arrived

Holy

Land.
when

Joseph
Jesus

was Cartaphilus

practoriumof
As Jesus

Pontius
halted

Pilate upon

was

led away

crucified. him

the threshold
"

of the

struck pratorium,Cartaphilus you I go,

in the loins and

to

said,

Move
a

faster ;
severe

why

do
"

stop here?"
and you will

Jesus, turning round

await my

him, said with

look,

coming." always

who Cartaphilus,
to

was

then he the

thirtyyears old, and

had Lord

who

since

then
was

returned

that the be
a

age

when of

completed
and the few

hundred of the

years, world.

always awaiting
was

coming
man

end

He
never

supposed

to

of

great
with

of piety,

words, often weeping,

smiling,and

being

content

256

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

with
He

him.

His
to

name

was

no

longer Joseph
of of age ; his very full

or

but Cartaphilus,
was

Ahasuerus.
he
went

appeared
;

be dress

fiftyyears
consisted
a

hair

long, and
a

barefoot

his
the

breeches,
his heel.
and

short

petticoat
present

coming
at

to

knee, and
sermon, tears

cloak

descending to

He

was

the

Catholic

notwithstandinghis creed, beating of

His the

himself, prostrated
the he

with Jesus
an

sighs and
was

and

breast, whenever
very

holy name
not

of hear

pronounced.
without
sous.

speech was
tears, and
his

edifying;

could

oath

bursting into
The

when
our

offered money

would

only

accept a few
Paul of

story of
the

meeting

Lord,
so

as

related

by Bishop
he
was

Eitzen, differed from

front

account original

far

as

this,that
he

standingin
entreated

of his house, with had halted be at be

ever

his wife take

and

children,when
while

roughly
cross

Jesus, who
"

to

breath
the

carrying his

to

Calvary.
of the

I shall stop and

"

rest,"was
on

indignantreply of
After
over

the

King

Jews,
and

but

you

will do

foot."

this

decree

he

quitted
He
lead
town

his house
not

to family,

penitenceby wandering
to

the world.
to
a

did
so

know

what

God

intended life. In
to

do with sixteenth

him, in compelling him century there

was

long

this miserable what

the

not

or

but village of Christ's it place, Jew in

was was

claimed and
to

have

to given hospitality

the unfortunate
was

witness in any

passion ;

yet, whenever
foreshadow
been
seen

his appearance

announced the

believed
to

great calamities.
at

Thus and

Wandering

believed

have

Beauvais, Noyon,
IV.
that

several towns

Picardy when
Another

Ravaillac

assassinated less

Henry
than

not superstition,

popular

of the
to

Wandering
the
same

Jew

in

the

Middle

Ages, may
John,
a

also
sort

perhaps
of

be

attributed

origin;

namely, the Prester

for centuries the hand
had

half Jew, pontiff-king,

half Christian,who

governed
had
was

in

India, or in Abyssinia, a
more

vast

empire in

which

of God It

collected
an

marvels

than

in the who
a

of paradise
to

Mahomet the

(Fig. 186).
first

Armenian

bishop, too,
and many

brought

Europe

story as

to the

fabulous stillmore
a

personage, wonderful
the

and chronicler, traveller, 1507

a

poet capped
written in

it with

details.

In

letter

(evidently

ironically by
Prester

of partisan

Reformation) was
himself, by
the
an

put

into circulation,

which

John, who
the

entitled

grace

of God,

the

Almighty King of all

Christian kings, after

and

making
XII. upon very

orthodox
come

of profession
settle in his

invited Pope Julius II. faith, which States, The he described

he
as

King

Louis

to

and

the most

favoured
were

the

face of the earth. it is

even

which descriptions

gave

of them

tempting,and

"";,_,. is-."

The

Eeign

of Antichrist."

After

an

Chronicarum," 1493, in folio." Cabinet

Engravingby Michael Volgemuth, in the of Engravings. National Library,Patis.

I.

"

Liber

I,

258

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

said that the scud several

Kings

of

Portugal,Emanucl
India and

and

John
see

III.,went
whether

so

far

as

to

to expeditions

to Abyssinia,

these

wonders fiction

existed. really of Prester named John

According to
had its

certain

savants

rather

less

credulous,the
a

originin

the actual in the

existence

of

Nestorian
a

leader,

Johannes

who Presbyter,

twelfth

century

founded

powerful

empire in Tartary.
It
came was

by
be

natural

transition the

that to the

Wandering
Antichrist

Jew

and

Prester the
was

John year
to

to

attached

of personality

the

who,

since

1000,
be
a

had

always been expected, and

the end of the world. leave his

whose
"

long-delayed appearance
At the end of the
a

prelude to
John,
four
"

thousand

years,"
are

said St.
at

Satan

will

prison and Basing

wrong mark way, the
at

seduce their

peopleswhich
upon

the

corners

of

the

earth."

arguments

this

which prophecy, announced

the theyinterpreted

several

had earlytheologians the times.

that the millennium arrived the

would

accomplishment of prepared to
gave
to

When

that date

earlyChristians
property, which
useless the

once

appear churches land

was

before
and all

God, renouncing all monasteries,and

industrial and
to

their

they

the the

suspending as

cultivation
year

of

and

commercial

pursuits.
was

The

thousand, which

expected
heaven
porary contem-

be the last of the world, earth

"

marked

by
and

manys

threatening signs in
rivers. A

and

comets, famine, by eclipses,has left

us a

of overflowing the talk

writer

terrible

picture of
The
eve

desolation
was

which

then

prevailedthroughout the
and
was

entire West. the

whole of the whole

of terrible miracles the

year thousand to

unheard-of
on

prodigies. Upon point

of

day

when

the

completion, the praying,waiting

population crowded
for expectation the

the

churches, weeping
of the
sun rose seven

and

in

dread

sound the their

trumpets
as

and

the

coming
stars

of the Antichrist and fell, Nature's

was

(Fig.187).
laws

But

usual,none

of the
was

continued

course.

it Nevertheless, had

believed that this

in order
were

only a

short be

which respite

God the

granted

to the world

that

sinners

might
It Even
was

converted, and
not

days,weeks,
afterwards
was

and

months

anxiouslycounted.
were

until many this the end the

years

that men's from

time

minds
to

reassured. and

after

of the world of Antichrist

time

announced

and expected, civil

or

coming

was

believed to be imminent, whenever

moral disorder in
was

foreignwarfare,
call him he had
at to

famine, epidemics, or
earth. been In

societyseemed
rumoured

to

the

1600,
; at

more

it especially,

that
near

length

born

Babylon, according to

one

report

Paris, according to

POPULAR"

BELIEFS.

another.
diabolical

sorceress,

put

upon

her
at
a

trial, declared

that

she

had

held

this

infant
no

upon

her .knees

Sabbath, and that

he had

claws

instead

of feet, wore

shoes, and

could

speak every
the
a

language.
ordinaryaccessories
upon the of all historic

and Miireover, prophecies

events

presages,

of any

always had importance, invariablyready

most to

great hold

popular imagination,

which

was

of the accept mysteriousinterpretations Since

the

plainestand
the orators

facts. trifling
pagan

decadence
this
to
was

of made held

the false
up in

gods,
the

of the

temples were
who Sibyls,

mute, but continued

for

by

attributed prophecies

to the

be

honour

by

Fig. 168.

"

The

Token

of Mace
of the

Bonhomme,
"

Printer

and

Bookseller

at

Lyons.
"

Taken
octavo.

from

tl.e

originalEdition

Propheciesof

Michael

Nostradamus,"

1555,

the Christians, for it of Christ.

The in

was

believed firmly
Merlin

that

the they had predicted

a

birth fifth

propheciesof
favour. special

the

Enchanter,

bard

of the

century, were
The all
more success

of the

of prophecies
Catherine

Michael

Nostradamus and
her

surpassedthat
son

of

previous soothsayers.
than superstitious

do' Medicis

Charles

IX.,
to

the least

of enlightened

their

contributed subjects,

their of

popularity by paying
to

visits to this famous

he

at astrologer

the little town

Salon, in Provence,

which

had

withdrawn.

The

courtiers

naturally

26o

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

followed taken. the moon, and

an

their

example,

and

were

also anxious
in planets,
to be able

to

have

their

horoscopes
sun

It

was

in the stars and

the

the revolutions
to read

of the destinies

and
men

that Nostradamus He

claimed

the

of

of nations.

composed, after
of

his

pretended astronomical
in

observations,

sort unintelligible

conjuring book
and form

rhymed
many

verse,

teeming with
to the

hybrid words
date very

and

foreignnames,
in 1556. them The

he made of these
or

additions to it up

of his death easy

to find

prophecies(Fig.188) made clearlyto all the

of astrologer
events

it of

more applicable

less

and history,

this

sustained

the

of reputation

the

Salon

long

after his death. But

Nostradamus,

in his collection

of

dealt only oracles, Sibylline he

was

with of

the fate of less

and kings,princes,

nations,and

succeeded

by

number

who pretentious astrologers

or prepared gencthliatics, horoscopes, upon

of interrogation

the stars,for all those

who

came

to them

with

money.

These
to

had for competitorsthe dicincrs, who astrologers

made back

it their the

business

visions interpret
to profession
a

and

dreams,
remote

and

who

could With

trace

origin of

their

very of

period.
were

all ancient upon

as

and peoples,

notably

with

the children

dreams Israel,
or

looked

reflections anticipated in

of the

future,as
or

divine

diabolical

warnings,whether
were

without disclosing
or

concealment

enigma
a

the

things which
and
more

destined

to occur,

whether The
"

beneath concealing Church sometimes did not, as

sent

sombre
do rule,

mysteriousveil the spectreof destiny.

than declare

that dreams
the demon.

were

two

kinds

by God,
of the

sometimes
was

wrought by
no

Thus, according
in the Middle

to the writers
or even

there period, the

important event
was

Ages,
dream.

to subsequently

Renaissance,which
was

not

announced of that
a

by

The the lose

day

before

Henry

II.

struck

down

by

the blow

lance she the

saw

during
him

tournament,
one

Catherine
eyes.

de'

Medicis, his wife, dreamt

of

his

Three
III. trodden

days before
dreamt under he
was

he he

fell
saw

beneath the and

knife

of

Jacques Clement, Henry

stained lower heard with blood A the and

that

royal insignia people of

the IV. she had

foot

by

monks

classes.

few

days before
his

murdered de'

by Ravaillac,Henry
to

during
"Dreams
she !"
"

night
are
"

wife, Marie

Medicis, say
he asked
upon

herself, as
what she

awoke,

but falsehoods !" and you

were

when

her

dreamt,
Louvre The

replied, That
Thank
of God

stabbed

the

steps of the

Little

it is but like

the King. dream," rejoined of Julius

death

Henry IV.,

that

Caesar,was,

moreover,

pre-

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

261

ceded
to

and

accompanied by
were
so

presages
many

of many

kinds.

From
a

one

end
event

of France

the other, there

precursory
was

signsof
at

great
At

that the

the

peoplebelieved plantedin
touched
vault
;

that the end of the world

the

hand.

Paris

pole, May-

courtyardof
church

the Louvre, fell to the

ground without being

sealed the funeral
upon

in the

abbey

of St. Denis
its

the stone

which

of the Valois lifted itself from shed

arose

and place, had

the statues

the

royal
him

tombs

tears.

Henry
the You

IV.

himself

which gloomy presentiments,

to

doubtless
on

from
"

great
do not

number

of officialwarnings addressed

this

subject.

understand
"

me," he said
you

to

the Due

de Guise

on

the very

morning

of his death

when

have

lost me,

you

will learn

Fig.

189.

Dream

of Childeric.
"

After

Miniature

in the

"

Chronicles of St. Denis."

"

Manuscript

of the Fourteenth

Century." In the National

Library, Paris.

to

appreciate me,
been

and

that will not

him

be

long first."
die in
a

He

often remarked

that it

had

for predicted the murder

that he would

and carriage

in his fiftieth this

year.

After
were

numerous

visions, evidently bearing upon

a

tragic
hour
"

event,

mentioned
was

at

Douai,

who priest,

was

dying

at

the very

the crime

committed, had
in the

three is

convulsions,and
slain." In
an

expired saying, abbey

in

The

greatest monarch
nun

world
at

being

Picardy a Pray
God

who

was

sick exclaimed
for he is

the moment

of the assassination,"

for the

King,

being killed."
often been

Visions,which

have

confounded

with

dreams, do

not

occupy

62

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

less

than placein history that the

the latter.

They

were

so

frequent in
of them

the

Middle

Ages
the

gravest historians

mention

instances make
a

without

making
so

reservation. slightest

It is difficult to of terror and

choice
but

amongst
two

many
tioned men-

visions

combining the
which

elements in the

mystery,
of the

may

be

occurred

first centuries that of

French

monarchy,
the first

and

which

are

very

celebrated.
under and

First

who, King Childeric,

night
whole

of his
future
at

marriage,saw,
of his
race

the form

of various of
a

ferocious animals, the

in the island of in his

that secondly,

hermit

who, Lipari,

the very

hour

of

King Dagobert's death, witnessed

and
one

sleep a deadly
the possession
were

combat

between

the demon

various saints who of the

were

fightingfor
The demons

of his

soul

"

over

gratingsof

hell."

and vanquished, In

the victors of the kind.

can

carried

his soul up chronicles is

no

to heaven.
are

every
a

page

ancient
There be

to

be

found and
no

visions

and

of prodigies wherever it may the

seem,

similar

lack

of

phantoms
there is

apparitions
as

marvellous
that is not

brought
to deserve

in ; and
some

fact,futile

thought
was

manifestation. supernatural

As

general rule,a originof

the

vision

looked

upon

as

unlucky, and
a

this,no

doubt,

is the
to

tradition, according to which

of the
the head
or

spectre always appears

of certain

announce

the death There is

of the

some

member Melusine

illustrious
which

families.

legend
cries,upon

of

fay

(Fig. 190),
de

utteringloud appeared,
in

the

donjon
to

of the Chateau
die. But this it

Lusignan,
is less that

Poitou, whenever

Lusignan
canons

was

about

legend
was

terrible than three in the weeks choir

that of the before the

of of
a

Mersburg, in Saxony, for

canon a

said

death

strange
hand

tumult

arose

at

midnight
with

of the

cathedral, and
canon

grim
was

appeared,which
to

struck The

great force

the stall of the marked of his

who

condemned

die. the

guardians day
the

of the church
canon,

this stall with

pieceof chalk, and

next

warned every

approaching end, prepared for death, while

his of
or

the

chapter

made

for preparation
were

obsequies.
a

Visions

very whole other

often
town

public character,and kingdom.

Pierre

caused

consternation de

throughout

Boaistuau, Francois

and Belleforest, collected far from in

one

simple-mindedcompilersof
these
the "Histoires

the sixteenth and gieuses,"

one

century, have
still

volume exhausted

Prodi

they

are

having

subject. Thus,

to cite but

after instance,

having predicted the

of civil war,
such
as

numerous

prodigieswhich
the

announced of

the calamities

in apparitions

heavens

fiery dragons,of gigantic

264

POPULAR

BELIEFS.

We

have

said

nothing
such

as

to

many of

other

popular
talismans,

superstitions,
amulets,
Occult

traces

of

which

still

exist,
the

as

the

use

magic

rings,

herbs,
for

stones,
enumeration

and

hair

of

animals

(see

chapter
to

on

Sciences), ignorance

an

of

them

would

merely
better that

serve

display
draw

the

of

our

ancestors,

over

which

it

is

we

should

veil.

Fig.

191.
"

The

Siren.
"

Token

of

Gerard

Morrhy,

Printer

at

Paris

in

1551.

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

Latin

and

Greek
"

Geographers.
Marinus
"

"

Measurement

of

the

Roman and

World.

"

Voyages
"

of

Hippalus
and

and

Diogenes.
Itineraries. the Sixth

of

Tyre, Pomponius,
Invasions.
"

Mela,
of

Ptolemy.

Coloured

Figuratve
from

Barbarian the Tenth

Stephen Charlemagne
and
"

Byzantium."
and Albertus Bacon.
"

Geographical Magnus.
Vincent
" "

Ignorance
"

to

Century.
"

Dicuil.

"

Geography
"

amongst
Travellers Mauro.
"

the
in

Arabs. the

Master

Peter

Roger

of The the

Beauvais.

Asiatic of Fra
"

Thirteenth of and

Century.
Ptolemy.
"

Portuguese
Maritime
"

Navigation.
in

Planisphere
Fifteenth

First

Editions

Expeditions Spanish, Dutch,

Century.

Christopher
in

Columbus

Amerigo

Vespucci.

and

French

Travellers,

Sec.,

the

Sixteenth

Century.

REAT

as

was

the after

progress
the

of

geographical
of
the

knowledge
Roman its

establishment

empire,
decadence of
the

still

greater, in
disfavour

contrast,
in that
is

were

and Middle of
was

the
to

early part
say, in the

Ages
the
one

beginning
in

fifth century. of
the
most

Geography,
useful of

fact,
of

auxiliaries

the
the

aggressive policy
march
and

Rome,

directing
all
over

of

her

peditions ex-

the useful

world,

enabling
ing concern-

her the

to

acquire
It

knowledge

countries
of

which

she

had
was

conquered.
in

may,

therefore, be
the is

said

that of
to

the

science

geography
perusal
of the

general practice during

writers of
that

reign

Augustus.
show how

principal
the letters

period

sufficient
in
a

widely spread
well
versed

were

general
and

notions

of

geography
was

society
with of used and

which,
the

being

in

highly educated, geographers,

"

acquainted
those

great

works

of

the

ancient

Greek

especially

Eratosthenes
Sn;il"u's

(276
Greek

"

194

u.e.) and
as a

Polybius (204
for
most

121
the

B.C.),and
Latin

which

Geography
a

manual
the

reading
distant

historians of
the

poets,
Poets

and such

as

guide-book

for

provinces
and

empire.
such
as

as

Virgil, Ovid,

Manilius,
M M

and

Lucan,

historians

266

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

Livy and Julius Csesar, were

up, in his

also

; geographers

and

Pliny the
the

Elder

summed

four

books

of

"Natural
set

History," all
a

results
no

obtained

by

and research, geographical

forth in
"

number

of works
"

longer extant.

Pliny
attributed

often
to

mentioned

in his

Natural

History

the

operation geodesical
and son-in-law of

Marcus
was

VipsaniusAgrippa,prime
Julius of Caosar who,

minister

Augustus.
the

It

during his consulship (accordingto geographer of

the whole the fourth world with

assertion positive

Ethicus,

century),
should be of

"ordered measured

by by

senatiis-comultum
of the

that

Roman

men

and greatest ability

to

endowed four
Greek

all sorts

knowledge."
and

This vast

intrusted enterprise,

mathematicians
had
was

and Zenodoxus, Theodotus, Polyclitus, geographers, their

Didymus, who
land surveyors, took

under

orders
in

staff of

measurers geodesical

and appear he

completed
matter

twenty-five years.
and

It

would

that

Agrippa
to

the
at

in
a

hand,

when

it

was

completed
which
the he

proposed
to
"

construct

Rome
of

beneath portico, gigantic

intended

unfold

the

map The this

the world

before
of

the

eyes

of

universe,"as

Pliny expressed it.

the execution and of

premature death
but grand project,
was indicated,

this illustrious

general prevented
world, with

the map

of the Roman

the roads

distances

in deposited the

the archives of the Senate of

(Fig.192). by
the

Nor

was

progress

geography
more

assisted

victorious

armies
at

alone,for
that from

and the travellers,

still

the

merchants, whose

even vessels,

conveyed them period,

the ports of
two

to the most

distant parts and

the
same

brought
Under

back the

cargoes

India, did much

were

towards

end.
to

reign of
of the

Nero,
sources

centurions

sent

by

the

Emperor

Ethiopia in
to

search and

of the Nile, and

this

expeditionis alluded

by Seneca

Pliny.

during the reignof Claudius,a Greek Previouslyto this,

one

of Egypt, philosopher

Hippalus,had
the

struck

out

with

his vessel
the

from

the

coast, and

ventured

across

high

seas,

from starting

Gulf

of Adulis

(Aden), and

arriving
driven

upon

the coast winds

as

of India. far
as a

Another

named traveller, called

was

was Diogenes,

by

north From but be

or

large island

Menuthias,
marked
was

otherwise

Zanzibar.
maps,

this time the

forward
Sea

all the coast-line

upon

the marine

Erythrean

(asthe

Indian

Ocean

then
more

was called)

believed to

impassableand
Phoenician
One

full of terrible endeavoured

dangers,though
to sail
across

than

one

Egyptian

sailor had

it. collected Tyre, carefully

the maritime
com-

of these

Marinus experiencedpilots, which

he

of

all

the

information geographical

could

gather from

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

267

merce

of Phoenicia
maps

and
were

Egypt, and
at

he used time

it to prepare
to

more

detailed and
a

correct

than

that

in use, and

compose

book

of

is copied from by Ptolemy. which, though no longer in existence, geography, That

writer says of him,

has

"

Marinus

of

Tyre,the
to

latest of
it to
to

our

contemporaries
purpose,

who

cultivated

seems geography,

have

done

some

for

it is evident

that he

has

made

several additions

the former

knowledge

Fig.

192.

"

Map

of the

Roman

World.

"

Taken the

from

the

"

Liber

Guidonis."

"

Manuscript dated

1119

In (No. 3,898)."

Brussels. Burgundy Library,

of this
errors

and subject,

that he has first misled

corrected
him
as

earlier
as

which writings This

is

contained
seen

that had

at

well

others.

very

in clearly of

his corrections of the

Table." Geographical
had written he

Previouslyto Marinus
a

Tyre, a Roman

citizen, Pomponius Mela,

"

useful

treatise

on

geography,entitled, De Situ Orbis,"

the known the world, following

in which

described the countries of with beginning

circumference

of the seas, and

268

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

the Mediterranean
was one

; and

which his treatise, of

formed

luminous

and

mary, rapid sum-

of the handbooks

studyin geographical
Ptolemaeus, born
of Alexandria
in

the Middle
at

Ages.
Lower of the

Greek

geometer, named
was

Claudius school

Pelusa, in
middle

Egypt,
second

who

at

the
an

famous

the

century, formed

idea of

writing a generaltreatise upon by Hipparchus by

second
a

tical Mathema125
H.C.

Geography
He
had

after the

plan
for

traced

in

the

year

prepared himself
and

this In

task the

long
book

series of of his of the

"

astronomical
"

observations

calculations.
to to

Almagest

he

wrote,
of

"

I intend

mark

the

and longitude

latitude

principaltowns phenomena
the shall

each

country,

facilitate the
I shall mark
towns

calculation

of the

celestial

which

occur

there. each in

by
is

how

many from

degrees, countingfrom
the

meridian,
also

of these

distant the

equator,
eastern at

and and

compute,

degrees counted

from

equator, the

western

distance

of each meridian
the meridian

compared
of that

with that which I intend

was

passes
to

Alexandria,
those
an

for the

it is after other and

a

city that

reckon

of

placeson

the earth's surface."

a

Ptolemaeus
he had
not

more

of
at

astronomer

geometer than

geographer;

travelled

all,and

had,

therefore,no
his book, he

personalexperience, while, excepting the

astronomical

part of

merely borrowed
he work
in his he

from

his

and contemporaries cospredecessors sequence from

so or

mographic
The

materials which

arranged without loosely

are
"

comment.

best features of

what

he

borrowed

the

treatise

of
as

Marinus
does
not

Tyre, and

says,

I resolved to preserve
to throw

much

of his book
most

and require correction,

light, by
of the

means

of the
the

recent

information,and
the obscure

by

better

arrangement

places on

maps,

upon

of points

his treatise." the

Ptolemaeus

while preparing unfortunately,

his list of all the committed the

places in

known

world, making
to

eightthousand
to

names,

most

glaringerrors, owing
the localitiesby
means

his

having sought

fix the

latitude and
The

of longitude

of astronomical

observations.
doubtless

Geography of Ptolemaeus, written

into simultaneously
Latin

in Greek
use

and (Fig.193),

translated
the

for the
his

of persons

travelling through
and

Roman
as

empire,was, being
the

in

of spite
useful it were,

faults of omission

commission,
The

consulted

most to

during a long journey. guide-book perhaps,rectified

;
soon

coloured
new

maps

appended

afterwards,upon

measurements itinerary

being taken
to
name

to Ptolemasus,there for,previously

existed not
Art

only road

maps, the

which of

Vegetius
itincra

refers in his treatise

on

the

of "War, under

but picta (coloureditineraries),

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

269

""tiK,t"t,i

(iiniiotatecl itineraries), upon

one

which

were

marked

the

day's

marches.

It

was

of these

itineraries figurative

that the learned Conrad

Fig. 193." Map

Ptolemseus."

of the Greek

Island

of Sardinia." of the

Reduced Twelfth

Fac-sitnile

of

Map

of the in the

Geography

of

Manuscript

Century, preserved

Monaster^ of

Mount Vatopedi,

Athos.

Celtcs discovered in
and '"i-iitury,

monastery
friend

of

Germany,

at

the

end

of

the fifteenth the

which

his

Pentinger of Augsburg presented to

270

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

Imperial Library at Vienna

of twelve
maps to

(Fig.194).
as

This it
was

document, consisting precious

known in the third the
tract

the world representing

century,

forms,

so

speak, the explanatory complement of

the Roman

chart of the
to
us

provincesof
the been title of drawn These

empire,which

has

been

handed which

down

under
to

"Antonini

Augusti Itinerarium," and

in the fourth
were

appears

have

by

the

Ethicus geographer maps,

century.
and in the

itineraries and

which
must

sold at Rome often

principal

cities of the from hand

empire,and which
to

have

been

copied as they passed

the continuous upon the from

hand,
the

were

not, in all
hordes

to probability, foreign

migration
from method the

of

barbarian

which

graduallymoved
followed systematically

Italy
same

different
to

parts
reach

of the Rome. the

;
or

world, and
These

in order like the

invaders,whether
the

coming
Goths
;

the the

North
heart
or

Lombards,

Suevi, the Yandals, and

from in the
awe

from

of Asia,like the Huns

steppes of Caucacus,

like the Alani

the

Heruli, had long

to burst

been the

kept

by
to

the Roman advance

legions ; but, when sagaciouscaution

easy
to to

once

they began

barriers

and

with

through the Roman

see

provinceswhich
selected in

they ravaged (Fig.195),it was

the created

that

they had by
the way

beforehand

which territory
frontiers and
not

they intended

occupy, with
route not

which

they

militarystations
swerve

less

than intelligence
traced

boldness.

They

did

from

the

which

they had

out, and

paid implicitobedience
or

to

chiefs who

had been
Thus

formed the

in the schools

of Athens

Alexandria.
to the

study of geographywas
to

apparentlyfatal
rivals
how

empire,because
its very
vast-

it demonstrated
ness

its enemies what

and

vulnerable
for
an

made

it, and

facilities were
enabled

afforded countless

invasion

by
easy

those

roads which splendid military under

more

hosts

to

arrive

by

stages
for

the very
than
a

walls of Rome.
to stem

The

Emperors, it is true, endeavoured

it is not

century
that

the the

tide of invasion,and
maps and

unreasonable facilitated the

was

to

suppose of

they had all

invasion
the

itineraries which

progress

the

destroyed.The
for schools,
and the

teaching of geography
historians of the

not,

however, neglectedin

fourth century,
Ammianus

Claudianus, Nemesianus,

Ausonius, the

Emperor

Julian,

Marcellinus,and Macrobius,display knowledge, very profound geographical

which
on

they must
were

have

acquiredby
rare

travel and

study. But
the

the

treatises special which

been
are

geography
to

very

at

this

period,and
we

only works
assume

known

have

escaped a destruction which

may

to

have

272

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

born

at

Rome the

and
new

the

other

in

Calabria,both of whom
combined Ostrogoths,

rose

to the

highest
a

in dignities very made varied

kingdom
an

of the
and

with

learningof

kind

extensive

thorough knowledge
Cassiodorus
and of

of

geography, which
in his

their services
a mass

valuable. exceedingly

has

disseminated

"Letters"

of valuable information
customs.

remarks interesting into Latin did not

concerning
the books of

places, men, Ptolemy, so

In

and
as

Boethius within

himself
the

translated

to

put

them

reach of those who

open
at

speak Greek.

the pagan

schools which of the

remained

and throughConstantinople out

the after the both

as a

empire

East, until closed by Justinian

and

in 529,
Strabo

were

taught, Ptolemy,
this latter

of writings
and

Eratosthenes

Hipparchus, of

and
"

cosmography

geography,in

addition to

simple astronomy
of the

guideto

the forecast of

weather, the variations

atmosphere, and
century, composed
extant

navigation.Stephen of Byzantium, who

a

lived in the sixth

largeDictionaryof Geography,
useless

of which

all that remains from

is

dry

and

abridgment.
this

But

it may

be learnt

the works

of the Greek
was
sidered con-

historians
to

of be

of Procopius,that geography epoch, especially

from inseparable
true

history.
meet

Thus but in
a

Procopius and
one

his

successor,

Agathias,are
sixth

geographers. We
Vibius

Latin

geographer in
to the
clature nomen-

the

century, viz.

who, Sequester, lakes,seems

work
have

dedicated learnt

of rivers, and springs,

what read little he knew upon

to

from

the Africa

poets
still

the
the

subject. The
Latin and Greek

Christians works
on

of

Syriac

translations of

geography by
been and when in

Aristotle, Ptolemy, Pliny, Pomponius

after the
texts original
were

Mela, "c., which

of Athens retranslated founded
and

had

studied
these the the

in

the

schools

Alexandria, Arabic,

Syriac

translations

afterwards

into

Caliphs,successors
countries
must

of

Mahomet,

had

Mussulman

schools

which
had

they occupied and

a

conquered. Very naturallygeography

for
a

have the

specialattraction
to

warlike

people which
the

aspired to
the Koran. of

conquer The and of

world, and

propagate throughout it
and in
at
a

of religion
as

schools

of Cordova

Toledo

in

Spain, as

well

those

Bagdad
for

D,schindesabour

Asia

remained Minor, accordingly

open

geographicalinstruction throughout the West,

From
which the

periodwhen
at that

geography plunged
were

was

no

longer taught
darkness.

which
the
;

was

time

in barbarian but

sixth to

tenth

century

there maps

few

manuscripts
were,

escaped destruction

all the coloured

and

traced itineraries
The

like the

images, ruthlessly destroyed by

the iconoclasts.

only remaining

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

273

Fij;.19,5.
"

Arrival

at

Cologne

of

the

Fleet

of

the

Tyrant Maximus,

who and

revolted her
whom

fgainst tha
to

Roman the

Emperor Gratian.
of eleven

Some

of the Vessels
were

conveyed
hy

St. Ursula

Companions
the of St.

number
had

thousand, who

put to deuth
"

the Barbarians of the

Emperor Ursula,"

Gratian

the hostile Fleet. dispatched nguirist the

Fragment

"Legend

painted upon

Keliquaryof

that

Saint,ut Bruges, by J. Memliug (Fifteenth Century). be

notions

of

cosmography

and

geography datingfrom
N N

that

period are

to

274

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

found

hidden

in scholastic there

which, encyclopedias,
the

like

the

ark In

in the addition of

Deluge,
to

float here' and

amidst

abysses of ignorance. Capella(470) and

interest in

the

of compilations encyclopaedic there of the

were a

Martianus took
some

Isidore
:

Seville,

few

historians

who

geography

the historian the

Franks, Gregory
of

of Tours and
no

(about 590), the

the historian
moreover,

historian

designatedas
Paul

"Anonymous
frid

Ravenna,"
can

of the

Lombards,

Warnehad
templated con-

(780).

There

be

doubt,
the of

that

Charlemagne

the
not

encouragement of
a

teachingof geography, when

resumed politics, its rank

this

science,
Palatine

then

regarded as
directed and

handmaid who

at the

School

by Alcuin,

included
course

it, with

dialectics, philosophy,
Yet it
was

astronomv,

arithmetic, in his

of lessons.

only

very

Fig.

196.

"

Brunehaut
"

the making superintending

a

of the Seven
de Hainaut."

Roads
"

which

led from the

the

City

of

Bavay.
"

After
In

Miniature

in the

"Chroniques

Manuscript of

Fifteenth

Century.

the

Burgundy Library,Brussels.

imperfect and
Aristotle,who
circumference
be ten times

elementaryscience, for
described
and the terrestrial

it

was

confined
as

to

the

theories

of in
to

globe

being 9,000
he
that estimated the latter had

leagues
the
was sea

2,803 leagues in diameter, while

than the surface Based be

greater
from

earth,and
to

asserted central

1,400
area

leagues deep

the

the

axis, and

an

of

5,000,713 square

leagues.
could
not

upon other

these than
a

data,mathematical
chaos of
erroneous

and

mical astrono-

geography

ideas

and

misleadingtraditions.
The

genius
of the

of

Charlemagne, however,
measurement,
the

extracted germ

therefrom

the
to

clever
seen

invention

cadastral

of which

is

be

in

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

'75

the

CapitularyLaws regime, gave

of the

the

great KmjMTor, and

of the

which the

under eventually,
area

the

feudal

measure geometrical

of

the

while soil,

preservingthe carefully
of this

ancient

names

of

different of

localities.

By

means

definition descriptive the

of

the

limits

fiefs,historical

geography
of

recovered, after
of territory The

lapse of centuries, during the

all the

details topographical of his

few
are

the

the Gauls

lifetime of

Charlemagne and
whom of but
a

successors.

historians and
not

the poets of this information

as

of period,
to

known

to

us, do

give much

the

state

knowledge, geographical
seems

the schools founded which, notwithstanding

by Alcuin,

to

have

been

Fig. 197."

Seal of the Town

of Dunwich

(Thirteenth Century).

very scanty.
more

But

it is

probablethat the knowledge of geography was

Britain and

much
in the

advanced

in Great

Ireland, for Alcuin

were

was

educated

monasteries

of those of

as countries,

also

St.

Columba,
other

St.

Gall, Theodore,
who for
came

Archbishop
France,
where

Canterbury,Scotus they
founded

Erigena, and
and

savants

to

monasteries

established
a

chairs their it
was

teaching

and the sciences, There

to the
was

geography was
need fishermen

always given
in

place in
as

programmes. very useful

the

more

for its cultivation of the ancient

England,

traders Sea.

and

port of Dunwich

197),in (Fig.

the

North

276

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

Alfred

the
was

Great, King
a

of

the

Anglo-Saxons (849
"

901), who,
took
a

like

Charlemagne,
interest

sovereign of great organizing powers,

set to
an

special
self himthe

in these

and studies,
a

example

to his

subjectsby making
and

with acquainted, islands and

coasts
a

view

developing the
and the

fisheries

trade, with
Two

washed named

by

the Baltic

the North other

a

Seas.

travelling
Other,

traders, one
wrote
an

Dane

Wolfstan,

Norwegian
had way

named

account

of their maritime Other had

explorations.Wolfstan
the

exploredthe
of the

Baltic

coast, and
and of

navigated to
Alfred the

polar seas

by

of the coasts into Saxon

to

Norway
"

Lapland.
"

Great, who

translated

Universal
accounts

History by Orosius,written given by

which
a

in the fifth the

century, added
an

from it,

the

Wolfstan the few

and

Other,
had but had

of description
a

immense athwart

extent

of

country

Romans

caught sought to
as

glimpse of
reach the

the miraculous island of Thule

stories of

sailors who
was

mysterious
limit of the

which (Iceland),
was

looked that

upon there

the extreme

habitable
to

globe. It
fishermen continent

owing

to him

were

charts, prepared pilots'

the
remote
a

enable

to

exercise

their
and

in industry

regionsof

the

Norwegian
with all the
at

(Figs.198
Baltic.
a

199),and

to establish

carryingtrade
in

ports of the
that time of

Geography,in England
but brief

as

Germany,
Thus under years
a

consisted
canon

few

rudimentary
a

notions. practical

of Bremen

composed, in 1067,

of Denmark, description
"

the

title of "Geographia Scandinaviae pretentious Irish

"

while, two
on

hundred

before,an entitled,
borrowed

monk, Dicuil,wrote
Mensura the
some

regular treatise

generalgeography
of the and

De from

Orbis

"

(Concerning the

Extent

Universe)
Priscian,
But this and had of

Latin novel

writers, Pliny, Solinus, Orosius,

remarks
an

supplement3d by
treatise, though
other

upon
as

the northern
to

countries.

it contains in

account

the

of discovery
the

Iceland monks

facts interesting
to the

contemporary
contained

historywhich
errors,

imparted

author, also
For

several

but world
source

little in the way into

commentary.

instance, Dicuil

divides

the

three

parts,

Europe, Asia, and

far from
There the
are

Libya, in

which

latter he

placesthe

of the

Nile, not

Atlantic,in
doubtless which
as

the mountains but

of Mauritania.

few

geographicalworks
the

during
a

the

tenth

and

eleventh
but it may

centuries be

place the theoryof

certain that

science in itself
was

reliable

form,

taken

geography
in the

taught
the East

wherever could
not

education afford to

existed.

The

Greek

schools
was

empire

of

neglecta study which

from inseparable

that

of

history and

of

GEOGRA

PHICA

SCIE\"

277

and philosophy, be learnt from for

geography
the treatise

even

became

an

essential part of

as politics,

is to

composed by
of his
son,

the and

Emperor
which in

Constantino bore the

Porphyrotitle of of the
"

genetes

the

education

De

Administratione

Imperil."

This

book,

written

the middle

tenth

century, is, in
of description

a a reality, geographical work, containing

very

complete

Eastern

Europe
or

and

of

part

of Asia.

Many cosmographical
in Greek

of travels books, descriptions

the eleventh
numerous

of embassies, were

written
have
not

during

and

the

twelfth of the

centuries,but

they

been

published. peoplesand

The

writers

of Byzantium history

describe

the

Figs.198

and
upon

199.

"

Navigators who
their food.

have The

mistaken

Whale's

Back

for

an

Island

selves seatingthemthe

it to cook

Whale,
"

the feeling from

fire, plunges to the bottom, and

"Bestiaire d' Amour," Ambroise

Vessel

narrowly
"

escapes

being

wrecked.

Miniature
"

the

by

Richard

Furnival. Paris.

Manuscript of

the Tenth

Century.

In the

Library of M.

Firmin-Didot,

states

in

other

parts of Europe with

degree of accuracy

and

detail which

testifies to their It The which The

was

being well

versed

in

geography.
that
to

in Islam

that the best

had

of geographers the first taken

time the

were

to be

found.

Mahometan
made

mind

from

study of geography,
schools.

immense

progress
son

after the
of

eighth century
Al-Raschid,
he

in all the Arab noted

Caliph Al-Mamoun,
in favour
of

Haroun

was

for his predilection

the graphy Geo-

of this science,and

translated
maps,

into

Arabic

PtolemaDus, adding to

it illuminated

which
or
were

latter fact showed

not

that Ptolemaeus's

original maps

had

either

been

lost

reproduced

2-8

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

in the
an arc

translation. Syriac of the" meridian

From

the

reign of

Al-Mamoun

the Arabs

measured
to

in order

to calculate the size of the

as

earth,and

rectify
of the

the calculations of rtolemacus

to the

measure

of the

degree of
at

each

largecircles
miles. The

which

were

supposed

to intersect

the earth

intervals of 66|
sea,

conquests of

the Arabs, their

trade served

by
at

land
once

and

and, above
their store

their religious pilgrimagesto Mecca, all, of

to enrich

knowledge

both from

as

to

astronomical, physical,and
the compass, and with the
use

political geography.
the Chinese
sea

They brought acquainted from

led to The
a

China

which

had

been

time almost

immemorial,
immediate

of it at

unquestionably
of

total and
Arabs

revolution

in the science
two

geography.

in possessed

the tenth

century

learned

Ibngeographers,

Fig.

200.

"
"

How

Alexander

did battle with from

a

the

Beast

which

is very

formidable

and

has

three th;

Horns.""

Miniature

Manuscript of the Thirteenth

Century

(No.

In 11,040)."

Burgundy Library, Brussels.

Haukal

and

Masoudi,

both

natives

of

Bagdad.

The

first wrote of the

geographical,
the has face premade duced intro"

and political,
to which

of the statistical description he

a

Empire

in Caliphs, which

said,

"

I have

collected
men

all the information of all entitled

of

geography
into
a

science

to interesting

degree."
"

Masoudi
al Zeman

work large encyclopaedic

Akhbar collected it would

(the

News
five work author

of the

Time)

all the documents

Asia and

which
Africa remains
"

he had
;

during twentyappear made that this the

travels through years' has been

but
an

lost,and
under the

all that title of

is

abridgment

by

himself

Golden

Prairies," and

which

itself fills

28o

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

who where

went

to

or

returned received

from with

Palestine the

halted

for

day

at

this the

abbey,
story of
It

they were

and greatest hospitality, and

told

their travels and

was

adventures

(Figs.200
the

201)

to

their

learned the

hosts.

here

that

Constantino

African, one
when he and

of the

lightsof

school

of
and His de

after having, Salerno, retired,

left the Asia for

a

schools

of Alexandria years. the and in

a

Bagdad,
wonderful

travelled lore

through Egypt
him the

twenty-nine
sorcerer,

earned

reputation of
secretaryhe
and
was,

but

Due he

Pouille,Robert
able to continue
where hours
to

Guiscard, whose
undisturbed

protectedhim,

was

his medical

works geographical

retreat

his curious of repose from

of descriptions recreation

the countries the monks

beyond

the

sea

lightedup
were

the

and

which

of St. Benedict

allowed

snatch The

their labours

and

prayers.
was

Universityof
which
time had
to
a

Paris in

not

yet founded,
well
as

but in

the

ecclesiastical

schools cities
at

alreadyflourished
their few

the

capitalas
The all

all the

important
limited it
was

bishop.

teaching
more or

of

geography was
and

that

rudiments,
as

less erroneous, and

in

the
some

Latin

classic poets, such

Horace, Virgil,

Ovid, that

students
can

got
prove

idea of the facts

to descriptive geography. relating

Nothing shape of

more

the ignorancewhich clearly the

then

as prevailed

to
a

the few

the

globe
the

than

rough designswhich
century,
The time the

are

to be met

with could

in
never

manuscriptsof
seen

eleventh

authors

of which

have
occur

Ptolemy's
some

Geography.
poetry
and of of the

which geographical descriptions

were

in

of

the

much
as

nearer

the

truth, for the poets of the eleventh

and
seen.

twelfth countries

centuries,such
and

Ausonius

Venantius
It
was

Fortunatus,
in this way

wrote

places which
of

they
who

had

that

Marbodius, Bishop poetry

in the

Rennes,
of

died

in it

1123, sketched
a

in his didactic

geography
with
nature.

Brittany, giving
few

picturesquecharacter

quite

harmony
There

were,

however,
even

some

men

of

genius to
the
arcana

whom

the

study general
and of

of science

had,

at

that

period,opened
was

of astronomical
that
man

philosophical geography.
whose learning and who appears real
name

Such
is not

the master

of

Roger Bacon,
of his of

written

in the works

illustrious

pupil,

to have

been him

one

Mehairicourt, a
Master in Peter. and

native

Picardy. Roger

Bacon
and where

always speaks of
had

as

mathematician, Philosopher,
Asia before
which
no

he geographer,

travelled

Europe

coming
other

to

Paris,
had

he taught

Roger Bacon,

about

1230, that

teacher

t ; i:"(rRA

PHICA

SCIENCE.

281

the

power

to

impart

to

him.

He it
was

had

constructed

spherewhich

imitated

motion tlit'

of the

heavens, and

of astronomy through the intermediary

and

mathematics

that

he

grappled

with

the

most

arduous

questionsof

geography. Roger Bacon,

in the fourth
o o

part of his "Opus Ma jus,"devoted

z82

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

almost

to entirely

the

of description
he had

the

earth,doubtless transcribed
from Master the Peter
; but

without he
notes

change
the
errors

the lessons which

received

of the

ancient

refutes geographers,
a

opinions of Pliny
science very did

and
not

Ptolemy, and bringsforward

solve till

host

of fresh

problems which
did he describe

long
yet

after his
known very

time. and far

Not

only

accurately
maintained side of

regions not
that Africa the

scarcelyhinted
south, that
of the

at, but

he

further the

extended the

it had

inhabitants

other

equator,that

temperature
coasts

pole was

endurable, that continent,and

the Indian

Ocean washed
was

the southern
more

of the Asiatic
was

that the earth

case.

ten

times the

thicklypeopled than
Bacon

believed to be the
under Master

At
these

time

committed which

to

paper, the

Peter's dictation,

theories ingenious

changed
to

face of

geographicalknowledge,
numbered

Albertus

Magnus

was

propounding
chair in the
and

attentive

audiences
a

by

the

thousand, from
of stripped
when

his

Universityof Paris, teeming

in
a

system of geography
which he did
not
erase

all commentaries, his

with

errors

he embodied

lessons public

treatise entitled "DeNatura

terms following

Locorum." main

Roger
of object
a

Bacon

in appreciated
was

the

the

and utility
"

science which and

still groping its way its roots and in

in the dark

"

Geography,
as

like astronomy
must

has chronology,

mathematics, inasmuch
inhabited

it
on

repose

upon

the measurement

shape
and

of the

and globe,

the

determination precise

of latitudes that

But longitudes.
not

the carelessness of the

are

of the Christian

peoples is such
Yet the

they do

know

one-half
be

globe
the

which

they

inhabit.
of the

first

important points to
the

settled
towns

measurement

earth, the determiningof

the

positionof
the

(Fig.

202)

and

of

and countries, the

western

adoptionof

fixed
to

degree for
the
eastern

longitudes,

from starting
India. the This

extremityof Spain
can

extremity of
the

immense

work
or

only be accomplished under

a

auspicesof
all the
costs

Holy ApostolicSee,

of

monarch

who
savants
men

would

undertake

of the

the enterprise, by remunerating

employed upon
unless and
one

it.

Moreover,
climate
are

it is

to impossible

form

an

opinion of
the

knows

what

they inhabit,for dependent upon

manners,

if the the

products of
much

animal
more

kingdoms vegetable
this be the Thus
to
case

climate,how
the

must

with
we see

the that

the

and character, and sagacity the

constitutions

of

!" peoples him

Roger

Bacon's

of spirit

intuition enabled
of modern but
restore

anticipate by

five centuries The

results philosophical

science.

thirteenth

century

could

not

geography

to

its

place

of

";I:"H;RAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

283

when honi)iir, the who

the Crusades

were

taking so

many

peopleto
liy the

the East, and of the

a

when

deu'lctpment
flocked
to

of classical schools upon

favoured .study, of the the

same

ardour

students
taste

the

Paris

University,fostered
as

for

edited encyclopaedias

plan

Pliny's"Natural placein
these vast of St. Louis, had

History."

Geography
and

was

destined

to occupy

permanent

tions, compilato

Vincent
a

of Bea'uvais, who,

by

order

intended

present, in
of

voluminous the

entitled "Speculum Majus," the compilation information philosophical

the documents

pendium com-

and historical, scientific,

of his

time, instead of merely puttingtogetherall

furnished antiquity him

and

systems which
the

with

of geography and concerningthe history

out

of description
countries

the he

universe, sought
intended
to

the

travellers who
so

had

visited the

which

describe,and

obtained
a

fresh

information,

he which, unfortunately, his

"

failed to

get revised by
one,

theless, competent critic. Never-

book

is

valuable
in

and
treats
more

he

deserves

great praisefor his

the

Speculum Naturale,"

which

he

of the
than
a

positionof
dozen Latin Asia

skies,of

not cosmography and geography, citing

authors. enabled notions

the
cerning con-

From

this of

period the Europe

to

accounts

of travellers in
more

Upper

inhabitants

form
world.

accurate

and of

extensive Prester

this in the

part of the

The

story

John, alluded
and travels,

to

previouschapter, was
IV.
and

the
both

principalcause
determined
to

of these

Pope
there
into
to

Innocent
was

Louis

IX.

ascertain what
two

truth missions

in these
one

travellers' tales.
confided
to

The

sent Pope accordingly

Asia;

monks

of the
to

Franciscan

order,
the

the

other
to

Dominicans.
and dc

The The

first

proceeded

Mongolia, and
was

second

Persia John of the

a

Armenia. Piano

story of the
arrived
sent to

first mission his

written
upon

by
the

Brother
banks

who Carpini, The

with the

companions
Khan
to

Volga.
few
years

embassy
was

Great

of

Tartary by

St. Louis

later

of

greater

service

science,and geographical

the gave

Flemish
many of

Franciscan

monk,

Ruysbroeck, generally called Rubruquis,

which the
was

details interesting he could

not

in the account ascertain

even

he wrote
name.

as

to distant

countries
two

which

Yet

for

another

centuries

the existence

of Prester

John the
to at

believed generally
soon

in.

Another
and for

Marco traveller, de Piano

Polo

Venetian, who,
seek the his
court

after

Rubruquis
and who

John

went Carpini,
a

fortune of the
in Asia

in

Tartary,

twenty

years

held

high post
and

Great
to

Khan, availed
a mass

himself

of his

residence

of his excursions

collect

of

284

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIEXCE.

valuable

notes

about

the

geography of
his
a

the countries which

his country
one

he

inhabited

for
an

such
account

lon'gtime.
of his

Upon

return

to

in

1298, he dictated
of Pisa, who them

journeys to

romance-writer,
before and the

Rustician Polo
had

took in

them

down

in French This

eight years
valuable

Marco

written

Italian.

account,

truthful
fullest and
or

notwithstanding the
best

great
then

of credulity existed of

the author, contained

which description
other

Tartary,Mongolia, Cathay
was,
so

China, and

parts

of

Central
Marco in
or

Asia, and
Polo found up

to

speak,the

first effort of
none

picturesque geography. equalledhim.

of entirely

many the

but imitators,

of them

Travellers
Franciscan of Monte

Asia

to

fifteenth century consisted

almost be

Dominican

monks,
of Monte

amongst

whom

may

mentioned
John

Pucoldi of

Croce, John
the most 1322
to

Corvino, Oderic of Frioul, and

was an

Marignola ;

but

famous

of all

Englishman,

John

de known

Mandeville, who, from

world
to

1356, explored nearly the whole

of the
a

for the

mere

and pleasureof travelling,

who,

after and

pilgrimage nearly
the

the of

Holy
Asia.

Land The
not

(Fig. 203), explored'part of

story of
say much who
more

Africa in

whole

his

travels,written

English,teems
of

with

stories which
Several of

do

for his
seen

judgment

or

powers

discrimination.
powers

travellers,
and de la

had

fewer
of

better countries,displayed

observation

knowledge
staff pilgrim's The
caravan

geography, amongst

them
was one

being
of the

Bertrandon

a Brocquiere, Burgundian gentleman,who

last to start with

the

for Jerusalem.
seem

travellers

to have

stimulated

the

of energies
The

travellers
first navigators In the

by

sea,

and who

hydrographytook
explored the
the
as

its

place beside
coasts

geography.
were

western

of Africa

Portuguese.
Gonzales the

beginning of
advanced The
as

fourteenth

century (in 1315), Alonzo

within

Balduya
Islands. in

far

Cape Bojador,almost
an

sightof

Canary

island of Madeira, which

was

Englishman, Masham,
till 1417 John

caught sight of
Zarco, who

1344,

not

discovered positively it
on

by

Gonzales
of

took That of The

possession of

behalf of his master,

I., King

Portugal.

king'sson,
maritime

Prince

Henry,

surnamed devoted
not

the

Navigator,was
of

fond passionately his

and exploration, his

forty-eight years merely

to

life to
countries

it.

object of

was expeditions

discover
;

new

rich in

fresh opportunities for gold,and offering the equator, this

commerce

but, in trying to reach

view the increase and of the

enlightened prince had

The

mainly
were

in

geographical knowledge.

Canary

Islands

already known,

;K. i run "",]":""(

\ \ i.

.SY "//":. \Y "/:.

King

of

Castile's

flag had
as

floated there
as

since
of

1345, but
Rio

the

Portuguese
founded

expeditionsadvanced
establishments which of Nuno
"

far

the

mouth

Grande,

and

at

the islands off

half
a

Cape Verde.
the

In

these successive
Gil

tions, explora(1442),

lasted

century, under

of leadership

Eanes
of
a

Tristam

(1443), of Alvaro
had

Fernandez
been

(1448), and
of

Cadamosto
third of

(1454

56), hydrographicsurveys

made

about

the

C.MARA0JVH

Fig.

203." before

John his

de Mandeville,

celebrated the

EnglishTraveller,taking leave
Seas."
"

of

King Edward
du

III.,

Departure
of the

for

"beyond

Miniature

from

the

"

Merveilles

Monde."

"Manuscript

early part of the Fifteenth

Century." In

the National

Library,Paris.

African

coast,
Joiio
coast

as

far

as

the great South

and Pedro

Cape.
de

After

the

death
had

of Prince
the the

Henry,
Guinea
southern southern

de in

Santarem

Escalona,

who the

explored

1471, crossed
In mouth

the line and

opened

up

of navigation sixth

hemisphere.
latitude
at the

1484

Diego

Cam

reached
two

the

degree of

of the Zaire, and

years

later Bartholomew

286

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

Diaz, who

had

ventured
and the
extreme

out

into

the

ocean,

which

was

still called of Good

the
or

Impenetrable .Sea

Dark

Sea,

the Cape perceived

Hope,

Stormy Cape,
These when there the
a

at the

end of Africa.
coasts

African

islands

and

had

for alreadybeen frequented,

were

in

1471,
find from knew

Portuguese

landed

in

Guinea, they
Le Petit

much

surprisedto
sailors

French
had

trading depot called

a

Dieppe, which
the
same men

Dieppe
of the

founded

century before.
America
a

These

were

who

existence the

of North Antilles.

century

before

Christopher Columbus
brothers under
coast

discovered

Moreover,

in 1395, the had

fleet of the the

Zeno,
the of

at freighted

Venice
a

by the traders,

crossed
to

Atlantic northern

guidance of
America of
for
;

who Dieppe pilot, all these

pointed out
to

it the

but

due discoveries,

commercial
were

and enterprise
no

the love
to

gain,and achieved by daring adventurers, they

were

in

way

useful

science,
some

kept,secret
commerce,

when

they
while

were

likely to importance
It
was

be
was

beneficial to attached
until the
or

branch
when

of maritime

no

to

them

they resulted

in

no

material
to

gain.
an

not

fifteenth
to have
on

began century that navigators

them

write

account
were

of their voyages,

recorded
But

by

the

cosmographers who
were

generally to
or were

be

found
to
over

board.
very it
"

these

records
the

either

kept

secret

shown

only
which

few

as people,

navigatorslooked
close watch. Terre until de' 1507.
to
a

upon

them

as

property

was

necessary

to

keep

Thus

the curious voyage

"

of Cadamosto,
the Land of

Prima

Navigatione alle
not

Negri

to Navigation (First

did Negroes), These every

one

appear
were more

travels

useful

map-makers
map

than

to

for geographers,
after

traveller and
for

navigator found
added
to it the

and indispensable,
own

making

himself,he

result of his very oldest

scarce,

discoveries. and
those

Previously
did exist

to the
were

fourteenth

century

maps

were

which

faultyand
the XXII. is

incomplete. Ages
is that map,
a

The

general map
of Venice
to be
an

of the

world

dating

from John maps,

Middle

which

Marino appears which

presented to Pope
imitation of the Arab

in 1321.

This than

which

nothing more

in picture

the relative any

and of places position

countries is given almost

A hundred of

without hap-hazard,
Camaldulan his

meridians. or signof parallels Fra

and
one

a fortyyears later,

monk,

Mauro, paintedupon
isle of Murano, known
near

the wall

of the

rooms

in

monastery,
he

in the

Venice,an

immense

in which planisphere, The first marine

grouped all the

drawn

geographical

facts of his time.

maps,

Portuguese,or by Italian,

288

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

This

abundance

of

charts it

and
was

maps,

in especially

countries
were

which
almost in 1440,

how a navy, explains possessed

that copper

engraved maps
was

contemporaneous with printingin movable

but
of

type,which
until folio

invented The

kept

secret

by

the

town

of

Mayenne

1466.
at

first edition Hermann

Ptolemy's Cosmography .was

1462
;

printedin
but this

Vicenza, by
no

Levilapis of Cologne, in
Denis which the
were

edition had

maps.

Nicholas
book the maps
while mean-

Benedictine

had, however,
copper

composed for Ptolemy's

Beniucasa.
But in
was

engraved on
set

by

Andrea for

new

of

maps,

also intended

Ptolemy's book,
the associate of

admirably
who

drawn had

by

the

Conrad printer, his presses letters

were

Sweynheym,
;

Pannartz,

removed
the

to

Rome

and

these

maps,

numbering twenty-seven,
and

in which
were

stamped

with

punches jewellers'
Buckinck,

hammered,
edition far of
as

completed by
was

the Alsacian

Arnold
Eome

to illustrate the

Ptolemy which
the

printed at

under

the

so superintendence,

was letterpress

concerned, of Domitius
maps

Calderini, and
wood and

which coloured

appeared
with the The

in 1478.

Other

with editions,

engraved on
in

appeared paint-brush,
Greek
to
was

in succession
was

Italyand

Germany
the the
;

(Fig.204).

text

of and

Ptolemy

revised by carefully
order
to

who geographers, Latin

sought

amend

it,in interpret

improve

which translation,
text
was

continually by being reprinted

1533. the Latin

the thousand

for the Greek

not

printeduntil
The of

of publication ancient

translation these

of

Ptolemy

was

followed

by

that

several

and geographers,

editions primitive The

testified to the

sympathy of
and Sixtus

the lettered

science. publicfor geographical the

Popes
which

Paul

II.

IV. and

gladlyaccepted the dedication of

Arnold
1469 Pannartz
;

editions

Conrad into
at

Sweynheym
Paris

printed at Rome.
in 1473
;

Strabo, translated
at

Latin, appeared in
in 1473.

Pliny
were

Solinus,

Milan, in 1471, and

where
a

These
up.

works

also

reprintedat Venice,
at this

they were largeplace

(

eagerlybought
in the

The

study of geography
what

periodheld
it
even more

system

of

publiceducation, and
is the
use

proves

than clearly Mela

contemporary
which
were

evidence

quantityof

small

editions

of

Pomponius

printedfor
can

in the that this

to
sea

universities

throughout Europe.
maps and books
on

There gave after

a

be

no

doubt

profusionof
and

geography Portuguese,
coasts

general impulse
a

voyages in their into the

expeditions. The
the
western

spending

whole

century

discoveryof
Indian Ocean

of

Africa, prepared to push forward

by

way

of

the

Cape

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

289

of Good Asia
as

Hope,
well

so

as

to extend

their commercial,

and military, created

naval

power

to

as

to

Africa.
in

Diego d'A/ambuza
Guinea, which
;

in 1481

the first

European establishment
beforehand in 1484.
compass,

had

been Joan

explored twenty years

Cano discovered

by
But

his

compatriot Cintra

and

Congo
the
not

their the boldest mariners, notwithstanding

had

of possession

which

been

discovered

in

the

twelfth

century, would

Fig.205."
which

Columbus." Discovery of San Domingo (InsulaHyspana) by Christopher ia attributed

of to

After of

a a

Sketch Wood

him, and

in which

he is himself

made

to appear."

Fao-simile

Engraving
the Milan

the

"Epistola Christoferi Colom," undated

Edition

(1492P),in quarto." In

Library.

venture

across

the

which Atlantic,

was

believed

to

be

boundless
other

and
or

full of
not
a

perils.

The

however, discussed amongst each pilots,

whether
most

vessel, by steering westward, would continually

islands of the Indian Ocean. This
was

reach

the

easterly pilot,

the idea formed

P

by

the Genoese

29o

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

Christopher Columbus,
childhood.. He says in

born
one

in 1446, and
of his

accustomed
"

to

the
me

sea

from

his

letters,

God

imparted to
of the

ledge great know-

of maritime and and

was,

matters, and

some

knowledge
the

stars, of geometry,
to

of arithmetic.
to

Moreover, He
the proper

granted me

power

delineate

globes,
He

indicate

and positionof towns, rivers, still more

a

mountains."

a therefore, geographer,and

chart-maker.
him
a

A had

Florentine

astronomer,

showed Toscanelli, in the Atlantic there

was

map

upon

which

he

indicated it
was

the route
not
as

to follow

in order land
at

to reach

the Indian

for isles, Asia. East this and

supposed

that

any

between first to induced the

"

Europe
seek
to

and

Columbus,

ho himself

states, only intended

advice that
to

for the follow

Genoa

by
new

way

of the West." it
was

The in vain

of Toscanelli he

him

route, but

applied to

Republic of
After

the

King of Portugal for

funds from

equip

his vessels. the Catholic which 1492.

eight years
of

of fruitless efforts he obtained

and the he

Ferdinand,
small

King
he In

Arragon,
from

Queen

Isabella

three of Castile,

with vessels, of

started

port

of

Palos, in Andalusia, on
to

the 3rd

August,
the

March, 1493, Salvador,

returned and

Spain, after having discovered

islands of San
the
new

Cuba,
he
not

San

Domingo (Fig. 205). Appointed Viceroyof

there that

lands which
but it was and

had

acquiredfor Spain,he returned

his

in the

following year,
the

until

third
coast

voyage

in

1498

he

discovered

continent

exploredthe
The

of South

America

(Fig.206).
name

discoveries of

ChristopherColumbus, whose
it deserved first

did

not

apparently
effect

obtain the

notorietywhich
The

in after ages,

produced a great incomplete as by

throughout Europe.
were,
were

indications, vague

and

they
which

received with enthusiasm, and

followed left
no

the detailed

information
of

they were
lands. in which

doubt

as

to
a

the existence

these

vast

unknown

They

led to the
no

out of fitting

great number

of maritime
was

expeditions, people to given

to

science had

part, and

the A

object of

which

to

take
was

what

was

called the gold country.

and
to

great impulse,however,

geography, large sums

and

families throughoutItalyand Spain the principal the

devoted

formation

in

their

palacesof

collections

of

books, maps,
all

instruments

bearing

upon

nautical

astronomy, hydrography, and

These animated families,

the branches generous

of ancient and
vast

modern
sums

geography.
in

by

motives, spent
the
new

promoting

voyages

of

and exploration

to discovery

parts of the world.

An

adroit Florentine

adventurer, named

Amerigo Vespucci,was

enabled,

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCF..

291

by
and

tlic munificence make

of

one

of in

these the

Italian families, to
seas

equip a

small

flotilla,

several voyages
were

Columbus. explored by Christopher for commercial

been made purposes; in the
cause

These

voyages

probably

undertaken of of

but

Vespucci gave

them

the appearance
the form

having
a

of lands

in geography by publishing,

of the description letter,

new

which
he made many

he claimed
no

to

have

discovered

before

Columbus, Christopher
in Italian and circulated

to
a

whom

allusion.

This

written letter,

of which

great

copies were

printed, was

widely

throughout Italy,the

Fig. 206."

Signatureat
iu the

the foot of Lords

an

Autograph
St.

Letter

of

Columbus, Christopher
dated
"

addressed

from 1502."

Seville to the noble

"

of the Office of

George, and

dos dias de Abril

Preserved

Municipal Archives

at Genoa.

inhabitants of which
and
at
once

were

much the New

pleasedat
World

the
the

success

of

one

of their countrymen,
in his honour.

gave

to

name

of America

The

after the death of Columbus latter,

in 1506, continued

his voyages had the

was

along

the American

coast, and

maintained stoutly
was

that if Columbus
first to the
name

discovered continent

the islands of that itself. His

continent,he
were

the

have

found

statements

believed,and
he had

of America company

finally
several

given to

continent

which

merely explored in

with

292

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

Spanish, French,
Cabral.

and

such Portuguesenavigators,

as

Hojeda, Pinzon,

and

The
New upon

Portuguese

seemed
much

for

time

to

abandon

their

expeditionsto

the

World, being so
the west
coast
as

engaged

in

their tradingstations establishing

upon for the
east coast

they had alreadydone

de Gama had
won

of

Africa.
and

Albuquerque Ceylon,and
their

and

Vasco

them

the

islands of Goa

their

possessions upon
not

the Asiatic

shores increased
to the

rapidly. But
current

could navigators
was

long remain
of

indifferent

commercial

which

drawing
the

all the navies of

Europe
the
new

into

American
a

waters, and
into the

they

entertained
Ocean
were

hope

in discovering their voyages

land
a

passage

Indian

(Fig.207).
calculated to northward

Thus
serve

had

certain scientific

tendency,and sought
the
was

the progress

of

geography. Gaspar
Asia.
in

Cortereal He

in vain
Gulf of

this passage
and

communicatingwith
the

entered he

Labrador,
the

ascended
Three

St. Lawrence
a previously

1500, where
trader

stopped by
Cabotto,
passage
to

ice.
at

years

Venetian
in

named
a

settled

Bristol, had
the

attempted
of his

to

discover

this direction
the

India, but
The
coast

only result

was explorations

of discovery

Newfoundland.

intrepidMagellan was
America,
his name, he and and he

more

fortunate

in his researches

along the
the the

east

of South

discovered

in southern up
an

latitudes into

straits which
South

still bear which

which

opened
to

entrance

Sea, across

pursued

his voyage
a

the

countless in

islands of service of
had

(1521). Magellan, though Polynesia Spain

such when he

Portuguese, was

the

undertook

this

long

and

which perilousexpedition,

brilliant results for The

science. geographical

objectof
one

the

expeditionsof
in

the

Spaniards
to to

into

America,

which the

followed

another
name

rapid succession,was

take

possessionof
a

country in the

of the Diaz

King
Janeiro
saw

of

Spain, and
Pinto de

enrich

few

adventurers
in

of various nationalities.

de Solis and
;

discovered
Leon and

Yucatan

1507,

having
chance in 1526.
to

disembarked

at

Rio

Pontius

discovered Pizarro

Florida

by
it

in 1512 These

; Vasco

Nuiies

Peru

in 1513,
were

conquered

conquests and
the

discoveries

not

of any

immediate

service
than

for geography,
the

navigators thought less

silver mines
;

of

studying the country

and
men

of

working
such the
as

gold and

but

when

naturalists and

of

letters,
went to

Oviedo

y Valdes, J.

Varezzani, Ramnusio,
became liked

other

savants

features country, its geographical

better

known.
to

King

Francis

I.,who

would

have

France

have

had

share

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

293

in the the

new

continent,gave

very

place to geographicalstudyin conspicuous

He

Royal College founded

by him.

encouraged
which
must

most

of

the voyages that of travellers

undertaken

during

his

reign, amongst
Canada

be Other

mentioned French

Jacques Cartier,who

discovered

in 1533.

Fig. 207." Galley of

the Sixteenth

Century." After
Arts

an

Engraving by Raphael."
Venice.

In the CollectTon

of the Fine

Academy,

not

less devoted

to

the

cause

of

science

explored both
useful

hemispheres, and
information
of
a

collected, during

their
;

distant

pilgrimages, very being Pierre

geographicalkind

amongst

them

Gilles,Andre

Thevet,

and

294

GEOGRAPHICAL

SCIENCE.

Pierre

Belon, who

publishedexcellent Cosmographiesoil
Nicolay,who
visited the two

the

East;

Jean

Parmentier'and
back much

Francois

Indies, and
most

brought

information. interesting

Amongst

the

of indefatigable

Fig.

208." of the first Companions of St. Ignatius in the Church Vow of Monlmartre, Day of the Assumption (1534)." Father Pierre Lefevre, the only priest in the whole

upon

the

Compaq-,
the School

is

saying Mass."

Picture

of the

School

of Simon

Vouet

(Seventeenth Century),in

of St.

Genevieve, Paris.

travellers commenced

were

the
about

companions of
this time
to

St.

Ignatiusand
the

of Francois
their

Xavier, who
in the

write

history of

missions

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

The

fabled Armorial

Origin of Armorial Bearings

on

Bearings." Heraldic
Eleventh and of Twelfth
Arms

Science

during the Feudal

"

Period." of the

The Colours

First arid

in the

Centuries. Heralds."

The

Meaning

Divisions

the

Shield."

Kings

and

Heraldic

Figures." Quadrupeds,
Emblematic and
"

Birds, Fishes."
"Prevalence Mottoes and

Plants, Flowers, Fruits."

of Armorial
"

The the

Legend

of the Fleur-de-lis."

Arms.

Bearings
Traders'

in

Thirteenth
"

Century."
of Armorial

Helmets

Crests. Decadence

"

Emblems.
of

Sign-boards. Usurpers

Bearings.

of the Science

Heraldry.

OME
use

have of

endeavoured

to

trace to

back

the
the

armorial

bearings
of

almost

very A

commencement
on

human
not

society.
scrupledto

writer

heraldryhas
the

affirm their and

that

of posterity

Seth borrowed
the

armorial

bearings from
and

animal
the

vegetable kingdoms,
of Cain

that

children bucklers

painted
of

upon

their
other Anto

implements
attributes he
came

husbandry.
their

person

invention
the

Noah
in the sixteenth ancient the documents

when it of
was

out

of

ark, and
that

and

seventeenth
had disclosed

centuries the
arms

being asserted constantly

of the first

Adam,

of patriarchs,
and

prophets,of

the

Kings

of Jerusalem, of the

Virgin Mary,

of Christ

himself. As M. E. de la

Bedolliere, in
such blunders the

very
not

luminous

treatise upon

the

originof being
even

heraldry,remarks,
contemporaneous
known
such
as

are

worth

refuting.

So

far from
were

with

earliest

ages, their

armorial national

bearings
and of the

not

to

the

ancients.

They
Judah,

had

hereditary symbols,
Medes,
the

the

Lion

of

the

Golden

Eagle

Owl

of

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

Fig.209."

Or.

Fig. 210."

Argent.

Fig. 211."

Gules.

Fig.212."

Azure.

Fig.213."

Sinople,or Vert

Fig. 214."

Sable.

Fig. 215."

Purpure.

Fig. 216."

Tenne

range.

IVTT IT
111.
Fig.218." Ermines.
Metals, Colours, and
Furs

SSH

Fig. 219." interpreted by

and the

Vair.

Fig. 220.

"

Counter-vair.

Engravers of the Middle Signs.

Ages by

means

of Marks

Conventional
Q Q

298

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

Athens,

the

Crocodile
their

of

Egypt,
were

and

the

Dove
were

of
not

but Assyria, transmissible

the from

devices father

with which
to
son.

bucklers

covered
the

These their
arms

which figures,
as

celebrated

warriors

of Rome

represented
selected of

upon
at
a

the

of insignia

their warlike

achievements, were
a

the

biddingof fancy.
the of

We
crow

may,

as however, cite,

unique

instance

emblem, patrimonial
the descendants

which

was

worn

on

the crests

of their helmets
attributed of
a

by

Valerius

Corvinus,

to

whom of
one

tradition

achieved singular victory

omen.

by

the

intervention

of these birds

evil

When

the

age

of feudalism

set

in, it

became
as

the
a

custom

to

distinguish

by

means

of various

bright colours being signs,

as

rule

used, the military

shields and
thick

so insignia,

to

for the troops during the provide rallying-points decorative

in paintings,
at first
as

of the

fight.

These

which

may

be

discerned

the germ and

of armorial all the

were bearings,
more

or entrc-sains, styledcognisances,

they were

necessary

the vantailks, or
wearer.

of eyelets,

the armet

(closed helmet)quitehid
Here
traces

the face of the chronicles

at
a

and

there,in

the

of the

Middle

Ages, are
used

to

be in

found

of the

but cognisances, all signs,

the

epoch when

they first
were

appear
to

history
the

these

different

of

very

simple kind,
became

not

form

combinations special
and
were,

which

afterwards

the exclusive

appanage

of such

such
so

and family,

which

fixed the

of principles
any
wrote
one

heraldic chose
a

science.

They

to

speak,public property, and

Jean
de

who

could

appropriate tion descrip-

them. of
to

Master

Garlande, who
the
"

in 1080

very

curious

Paris, relates

that

dealers in bucklers,who

suppliedtheir goods
with

all the towns

of France, sold to

the chevaliers shields covered

were

cloth,

and leather,

pinchbeck,upon
as

which

painted

lions

and

fleurs-de-lis."
of France

Thus,
no

as

late

the

close of the
the

eleventh

century, the Kings

with

had

and regularcoat-of-arms,

embellished shields,
any the
one

lions and

the fleurupon

of purchase to de-lis, belongedby right

his

who

chose to
use

buy them,

showing

that

as

chevalier he had
existed
as

rightto

them. it may nobility, be

If the coat-of-arms affirmed science armorial that

was

one

of the
any

attributes of
and

the in

practicehad
and infancy,
to be
"

not

fixed
not
even

general basis.
settled the
way
"

Heraldic
in

its

had

which

were bearings

composed, by
and
not

the

use

of enamels

that the

is to say,

the metals

and

the such

colours
a

of the plush, or
to

fur, to form
or

ground
upon

of the

the shield, in

way

as

confound

them,

place one

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

2gg

other. of and

The

metals,the
white. had
not
were

or

and

the argent,were
so properly

probably no
called
azure,
"

more

than green,

colours

yellowand
violet
"

The

colours the

blue, red,

black,

received

names

of when

gules,sinople, sable,and
an

purpure,

which

assigned them
to

emblazonrybecame
of the escutcheon

art

or

science

209 (Figs. the

220).
or

The

images or
ground
himself

which enigmaticfigures

were

placedon

coloured
one

metallic

presentedlittle

and variety,
as

every

considered

free to alter their colour and which unvarying principle

metal upon

shape

suited his
never

fancy.

In

any
upon

event, the

consists

in
was

placingcolour
established

colour,or
feudal
first

metal, in
about this

coat-of-arms,

not

during the
at

period. At
mere cross

epoch, however,
to

few coats-of-arms, which

them

were

cognisances, began
voided, cheque, and
his seal, to
a

become

amongst hereditary,
which

being

the

pannette,
deed dated of

Raymond
and

de St. Gilles

affixed, togetherwith

1088,

which
; the two

remained
bars

part of the armorial

bearingsof
appear

the

Counts

Toulouse

placedback
and

to

back

which

in the
were

seal of handed upon

still

ThierryII.,Count
down
to his
successors

of Montbeliard
; and

of Bar-le-Duc, and
lions which under

which

the young
and

the
name

Lad Plantagenets of leopards, are

their coat-of-arms

in

1127,

which,

the

preservedin
It
was

the

royalarms
course

of Great of the this

was

Britain. the armorial

in the

twelfth century that

no

bearings

increased in number, and

may be inferred from

doubt

attributable to the firstCrusade, as used in them.

its

the choice of enamels from imported

to

The
name

azure

blue, or

had lapis-lazuli,

been just

the East, and Red

wore

of ultramarine
name

is

reminiscence the fur

of the voyage

Palestine.

got its

of gules
and the

from

trimmings which
were

the crusaders

round

the neck

and which wrists,

dyed

red and

purple("murium

rubrioatas

pelliculas quas
The

gulas vocant," says St. Bernard, the apostleof the second

enamel

Crusade).
the

sinoplealso received
town

its

name

from Minor.

the

dye

which

crusaders

a brought from Sinople,

in Asia

Several
were

divisions
"

in the

shield also recall the time lands

"

when

the chevaliers
bird

fighting in

the miscreant
to
warm

the martlet, a

of species

which
; the

emigratesevery
shell
or

autumn

recalled Jerusalem climates, naturally

the bezant d'or

to the pilgrims (coquille) appertains specially ;

(a Saracenic
in

Arab

coin) was

the

ransom

paid

to

the Infidels ; while in all the

the cross, which

every

conceivable
a

of shape appears diversity "War.

oldest coats-of-arms,

announced

in the Holy participation

3oo

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

In

the

thirteenth
not

century
the

the

became cognisances towns,

in

universal

use,

and

henceforward
assumed

only

nobles, but
The gave been

and villages,

abbeys also,
the
name

armorial

bearings.

cognisances then
rise to much

received
among

of

blazon, the etymology of which

debate

the learned, that in

though
French instead

this the of

debate

might
blazer

have

spared

had

they noticed

early
used

word
or

of Celtic origin, is often (to shine,to blaze), Thus battle the author

shield

buckler.

of the

romance

"

William-thethat the

Short-Noscd," describinga
assailants crushed
less ancient
romance

in

the

twelfth

century, writes

the helmets of the

"

and
le

broke

the

blasons in

pieces ;

and

in the not

Garin
hero
:

Loherain," which

is referred terrible blow

to in another

part

of this

volume,

is overthrown in
another

by

dealt at his

blason

by

Chevalier

Ivait

place, King

Amadus,

attacking a
Blason,
was

central part, of his adversary's blmon. or Gascon, strikes the buckle,

then, simply means

at first displayed.
some means

the buckler, the shield, upon The

which

the coat-of-arms

science of blazonry, begottenof the

so

for having necessity

of

between distinguishing

many
manners

different

and emblems, signs

were

was

but

the result of and

studyingthe

various

in which

arranged
It
was

the enamels

divisions which it

appeared
was

in the

coats-of-arms.

also

because called heraldic science,

the

specialstudy of the heralds,whose

functions became
Middle "Manners that these

of considerable The duties

of the importance in the feudal organization

are

Ages.
and

of the heralds

alluded

to

in

the be

volume
added

on

Customs"

(chapteron
household, who

but Chivalry),

it may

here
mission, com-

officers of the
an

only obtained
or

their

diploma,or

after

of seven apprenticeship
over

eightyears
and

in the service of their

the

feudal lord,had
to sovereign

them
a

the

kings

of

arms

(Fig.221),appointed by

draw

up

list of the

nobles

with gentry of each province,

a

their

different
was

armorial the

for the compilation of bearings,

generalpeerage,
of France.

which

placed in

custody of

the

premier King of Arms

Figuring in

their

capacityof publicofficialsat certain ceremonies, where

with
were,

they received, in

accordance
arms

the
as a

established

custom,

many

valuable

presents,the heralds of

rule,men

of considerable
the
true

erudition,

incessantly engaged
heraldic science.
mass

in

the verifying

titlesof

and nobility

in genealogies, of principles

the blazons,and deciphering It

was

in

generallythe establishing
who laid down the

they

laws with

regard to
had

the

of distinctive

the original selection of which decorations,

often been

guided by ignoranceor capriciousness.

.SYYA'.Vf'A'.

They, in
barons, which

settled the the first place,

was

shape of the

shield.

That

of the French

first of all

and triangular
at

somewhat
lower

was slanting,

replaced
for

by
in

rounded shield, quadrilateral

the two The

corners,

and

terminating

pointat

the centre

of its base.
for
a

Germanic

shield
was

was

remarkable

its rounded

and basis,

which lateral indentation,

used for

supporting

\.
Fig. 221.
"

\
to

\
the Four

\
the

"Fashion

and

Manner

in which

the

King of

Arms

displays

Judges
same."

Plaintiff and

Defendant, and presents to them

his the shoulder
"

the Letters and the

of the said Plaintiff and Painted Parchment

Defendant,
"

wearing
Miniature National

upon

the Cloth du roy

of Gold Rene1.""

of the

from

Tournois

Manuscript of

the Fifteenth

Century." In

the

Library,Paris.

the lance when

at

the man-at-arms,
with

mounted
his buckler.

upon

his

held charger,

this lance

his breast rest, covering

Leaving
different

to

specialheraldic
shield
"

treatises the

theoretic

of description

the

of the partitions

that is to say, the lines which

or

divide it into

and horizontal, diagonal,

sections perpendicular

parts
"

we

proceed to give

302

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

summary

of explanation
most

the

which, figures
in the

once

so

familiar,have

become

very

enigmas to
to

persons

present day,which

constitute the blazon

(Figs.222

239).

Fig. 222."

Party per

Pale.

Fig. 223."

Party per

Fess.

Fig. 224."

Party per

Bend.

Fig. 225."

Party per Bend

Sinister.

Fig. 226."

Tierce

per Pale.

Fig. 227."

Tierce

per Feas.

Fig.

228."

Quarterly.
Terms

Fig. 229."
of

Quarterlyper
Partitions

Saltier.

Fig. 230."

Gyrony

of

Eight.

Heraldry.

of the Shield.

To the colours and metals

selected of the in solely order that

alreadymentioned, they might harmonize

and

which

seem

to

have

been

with the

costume variegated
"

of chivalry

the Middle

Ages,must

be added

the plush,or fur

that is to

304

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

shaped stripsof
enamel,
the fur
or

ermine

or

foumart

to

form
in

the the

fair

(variegated fur).
of

The

sable, which
the

represents black

language by

was heraldry,

of and

sable,or fisher-weasel, as
centuries.
in the dress

it is called

several

poets

of the

twelfth

thirteenth the

Amongst
devices

panels
from

coats-of-arms
of the

are

to

be found
that

several
as

other the

borrowed

the

of nobility

such period,

or labels, gold fringe of

sashes ; the

or orles,

trimmings

of tunics ; the

bands,
made
; the

or

ba rs, which

or plumes representedscarfs; the lambrequins(mantles),

of

silk

or

velvet,which

were

affixed

to

the

extremity of
were

the

helmet

housseaux, or

with thick soles, which top-boots

on

only worn

by

men

when

they went
the letter heralds chevalier

out

foot in wet
the

weather

the pairlc, which,

having

the

shape of
the

Y, resembled
sixteenth

and constituted, accordingto bishop's pallium,

of the
:
"

century, the emblem

of the

great

derations

of the

His

God,
to

his

Lady,

and

his

King."
from the dress marks of the

In
there

addition
were

the

derived hieroglyphics

nobility,

other

heroic

symbols:

the

vals, or
in

of

jurisdiction ; the
which
a

the or frettiaux, frettcs,

barriers
arrows,

which and the

fenced

the the lists ; the portcullis, carry

towers, the
their the
own

chains, the

emblems battering-rams, also the keys,which

were

with explanation
a

them
or

; and
a

souvenir

of

of capitulation

castle

of

city.
stars

Fire,water, clouds,and
the

even

the

240 (Figs.

to

244) also entered

azure,

into

composition of the shield.

argent, and

The

Chains
azure,
en

family has
six comets

with in

three

crescents

that of Cernon
the crescent

with

or, three

chief,

and

three in The whole

point,with
of the

abisme
so

(inthe

centre

of the

shield).
as

human
"

body

is not

often used "c. legs,

"

in the blazon

the

separateparts of the body represented, as

natural The

head, hands,

eyes,

which

are

sometimes their

also

are

animals, plants, and

carnation. heraldry
as

various

with objects,

colour,called

in

animals, quadrupeds especially, which, ideas,are

after
a

rule,imply general

gorical alle-

very
more

common

in

the blazon, though

to nature
:

they are
lion

always represented

type

or

less untrue

the that

the (generosity), is careful to

the squirrel because elephant (courtesy), (foresight,

close the apertures of his and nest),
or,

animal

the lamb

For instance,the (gentleness).

;

Montalembert
azure,

arms

are

with

three

wolves' heads, sable

the

Portal arms,
same

with

ox

or,

accompanied

in chief

by

six

the fleurs-de-lis,

the

Coignieux arms,

azure,

porcupinepassant

sable.

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

305

As

rule,birds general

express

of nationality, and change of residence,

of

Fig. 240."

The

a Piccolominis,

Fig.

241."

John

II., King

of
diating ra-

Fig. 242."

Richard

Coeur-

Family belonging
und
about
"

to

Rome,
Sienna

France

(1350"

1364)."A regibus
the

de-Lion, King of England

established the

at

Star, with the Motto,

"

(1189"1199)."
A

Eighth Century.
with the

Monstiaut

astra

Star,probably that Bethlehem, issuing

out

Crescent,
"

viam,"
which

in allusion

to the star

of

Motto,

Sine macula."

guided

Magi

to

from

of the Horns

Bethlehem.

of the Crescent.

to of the particular condition, irrespectively meaning applicable

each

246 (Figs.

Fig.243."
1

Martin, I.,King of Arragon (1395"

erect triumphant, upon

Fig. 244."

Emanuel,

King

of

Portugal(1495"
sailing Motto,

110)." Faith

the

1621)."The
by the
several
"

Terrestrial
across

Globe, surrounded
which Vessels. me."
are

Terrestrial
in teuebris."

Globe, with

the

Motto, "Non

Ocean,

Portuguese
circumdedisti

Primus

and

247). Thus

dominion

is

represented by the eagle by the cock, ; vigilance

R

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

the

heron,

or

the and
was

stork ;

conjugalaffection by
age

the
;

dove and

eloquence by by

the the the

parrot ; long
which pelican,

laborious old believed

by

the

swan

self-devotion
its young

by

the

ancients

to

nourish

with

Fig.

245."

Alfonso

X., King

of Castile

(1252" 1284)."A
Motto,
"

Pelican
et

opening

its side to nourish

the

Young.

Pro

lege

grege."

flesh of its

own

breast,and which

is

(seeFig. 245) represented

and

upon

its nest,
In from the its

with extended

wings,tearingits breast
heraldrythe drops

brooding
which
the

over

its young.

language

of

of blood

pelican draws

if

Fig.

246."

Robert

of
A

Anjou, King
Swallow
"

of

Naples
regni."

Fig. 247."
"

William,
A

Prince

of

Orange (1572"
in the

(1309" 1343)."
to its

bringing Food
Concordia

J584).
Sea, and Motto,

placing its Nest IL'.lcyon

it the

Young.

Motto,

above "Scevis

Monogram

of Christ.

tranquilluain undis."

breast Thus

are

called piety,when
of Lecamus

they are
has

of

different
a

enamel

from

the

bird.

the house

on gules (shield

red

ground),with
azure,

pelican
a

in its eyrie argent,vulning itself yules, ; the chief seamed

charged with

III'.RAf.niC

SCIENCE.

307

fleur-de-lis or.
and
a

The
to

ancient

familyof Vienno, which

with ijnli'x, doves

had

given two
house
or,

admirals

marshal

France,
with

has

eagle or.
or;

The

of

Savoy,in
gules,
as a

Dauphiny, has
cantoned

azure,

three

Montmorency,
These

cross

by

sixteen

azure. spread-eagles,

which, spread-eagles,
which indicate iu the
arms a

rule, represent eagleswithout

over some

beak

or

claws, and
a

victory
of the
of

foreignfoe (Fig.248),have
It is said that arisen

meaning special
festival
Franks

house

of Lorraine.

during a
the

given in
and

honour

King

Pepin, a quarrelhaving
Duke

between

the Lorrainers,the
at

Begon, who

held

the post of seneschal, placed himself

the head

of

Fig. 248."
deusvef

Godfrey de Bouillon, Duke

three
"

of

Lorraine, King of Jerusalem

taken from

(1099).-An
"Dedehilne
of

Arrow viam

fixing transcasusve

Spread-Eagles.
The

The

Motto,

Virgil,is,

Spread Eagle still forms

part of the Arms

of the House

Hapsburg- Lorraine.

the kitchen
for seizing committed this that
a

servants, armed
himself
a

them

with which

spoons, several the

pokers, and plovers were

It
was

and, fire-dogs,

spit upon

being roasted,
in memory

frightful carnage
the

amongst

Franks.

of

exploitthat they were

back

converted plovers, took spit, the

to into spread-eagles

make

it clear

upon with

the

their

place in
Duke

the

arms

of

Lorraine, which
been
one

looked its

prideupon

fact of the

Begon having

of

earlyrulers.
Fish

generally represent
in the

sea

voyages

and

naval

victories.

One
even,

of the fish

oftenest used

shield is the

dolphin (Fig.249), which

by

means

3o8

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

of

heraldry,gave
crown.

its

name

to

Dauphiny, one

of the

greatest fiefs

of

the

French

Shell-fish, serpents, and

but heraldry,
to

insects

also
was

form
the

part of

the

figuresused

in

it is difficult to

say what in

attached signification special

them.

Lowan that

Geliot, however,
the cricket

his

"Armorial
the

Index," published in
because virtues, this

1650,
insect

states
"

represents all
of honest

domestic

the only frequents the

same

hearth

people."
the better of him, had

According to
as

author, whose
of

gets imagination
arms,

is the
a

case

with

all the old heralds the

flowers, and plants,

meant ;

fruits

all

fixed

symbolism:

oak, for instance,

love apple-tree,

power; cypress,

the

olive-tree,
;

peace

;' the

vine, gladness ; the

the

sadness

the

Fig.

249."

Pope

Paul

III.

(1534" 1549}."
Motto,

Chameleon

carryinga Dolphin.

"Mature."

pomegranate
alliance

(Fig.250), by
and
men

an

ingeniousidea,was
one

held

to

represent

"

the

of nations

united under

Trifolium, columbine, religion."

their
rose

and quinte-feuilles hope, because tierce-feuilles, quatre-feuilles, represented appearance in the

spring presaged the

and

summer

and

autumn

crops ; the

naturally typified grace

events, may
which be called

beauty.

The

(which in France, fleur-de-lis

has flowers)
to
a

at all

the queen

of heraldic French

complex meaning,
azure

its justifies

selection

by

kings

the variegate

field of the heralds

their banner

bespangledwith
of flowers

innumerable
to

fleurs-de-lis or, before

reduced

the number

three that

(Fig.276).
this so-called fleur-de-lis did
not

Various

experts have

argued

in

If/-: KM.

DIC

SCIENCE.

309

realitybelong

to

the which the

vegetablekingdom.
Louis
VI. first

According

to

them

the

flowerwhich iron

shaped charges

placed upon
to

his

seal, and

rhilipof Valoia,in tipsof

Other the

fourteenth

century, reduced
use

three,were

the

three-headed
in

in javelins

amongst
the

the

Merovingian

Franks.

dabblers
as

have heraldry

described
The

shield of the
to

earlyKings

of

France
statements

"sable, three toads or."

is to be found
"

best contradiction

these ridiculous

in the The

"Annals"

of William
had
'

of

Nangis, and
arms

that

ancient
de-lis
are,

chronicler

says,

Kings
much

of France
as

in their

the

fleur-

paintedin
grace

three leaves, as of God,

more

to say,

Faith, wisdom, and chivalry

than

by the
two

abundant

in
are

our

kingdom

anywhere else.'
and

The

leaves of the fleur-de-lis which

bent

wisdom signify

chivalry,
the

which

guard

and

protect

the

third

leaf

placed between

them, and

Fig.

250."

Catherine and
a

of

Arragon, first Wife

of

Henry

VIII.

(1501).
"

Pomegranate bearinga
Rose of Lancaster,

Re;l Rose

"White, in allusion

to the White to the

Rose

of York

and

the Red

uniting the Rights of the two Families

English Crown.

greater lengthof
and

which

which faith, signifies

must

be

governedby

wisdom

protected by chivalry."
It is,therefore, beyond doubt,
to according
arms

the

evidence

of this historian the central side-leaves

of the thirteenth

century, that in the

of the

King

of France

petalof

the fleur-de-lis represented and religion,

moral

that the
was

wings

or

represented the Moreover,

French
third and

and

material
used

force which
in the
no arms

intended

to

support it.

the fleur-de-lis was which foreign,

race. were

of many

both noble families, the

in

way

connected

with

kings
had
a

of

the

French

It

was

only some

of these

families

which

obtained

the

of placing the privilege

to

fleur-de-lis upon
Thus

their

escutcheon,as VII., when

recompense he

for services rendered

the Crown.

Charles

ennobled

jio

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

the

brothers

of Joan

of Arc, gave

them

not

only the
an azure

new

name

of Du

Lys,

which
with
a

they assumed

but after their sister,

two

also

escutcheon, charged
and sinister

pointedsword, with having

made
use

fleurs-de-lis or, dexter

emblems principal

(Fig.251).
nature

After

of the

furnished
borrowed the of

by

in the

the
work Thus

composition of
of human
certain

armorial
or

bearings,heraldic
the fanciful

science

from

hands,

from

of conceptions instruments

human

mind. such
as

families took

for their escutcheon the

music,

and or hunting-horns, harps,guitars,

ordinaryutensils

of domestic

life,
Other

such

as

"c. knives, mill-stones, candlesticks, glasses, pots, drinking-

Fig. 251.
Crown This

"

Family
or, and

of Joan

of Arc, alias Du flanked with

two

Lye.
"

Sword

argent in pale,the point suppoiting

6rmatei

being
was

with the Motto, "Consilio Fleurs-de-lis, VII.

Dei."

Coat-of-arms

composed by Charles

himself,in

1429.

families, having animals, such

It is
as

more

ambitious

ideas, placed in

their
so

arms

imaginary
that is to say,
to

the
of

and phrenix,the unicorn, harpies,

remark with

forth.
;

worthy

that many
certain
common

arms

were

emblematic

people charged them

an

which objects
For

happened

present

analogy with
three
the
or

their

familyname

(Fig.252).
the

the Bouesseaux instance, chabots

had

bushels

(boisseaux) azure;
mailkts

Chabots, three
the Du
the

(a

river-

fish) ;
palms

three Maillys,
the

(malets)sinople ;
or (ratres)

Palmiers, three
a

Eethels, three

rateaux

Crequys,

crequier
;

(cherry-tree) gules; the

the

three Begassoux,

heads the

of the btcasse

(woodcock) or

Auchats, a

chat

startled, (cat) argent ;

Herices, three

herissons

(hedge-

3'*

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

of the person.
open and

Thus

the

kings had
bars, to

the

helmet
a

or,

the visor full-face, know

pletely com-

without

that signify

sovereignought to

and

Fig. 253."
Lodge.

The

Lords

and

Barons

"make
Banners

windows and

of their blazons fiom Rene."

"

;" that is to
the windows

say,

exhibit

their

nobility by displayingtheir
"

Coats-of-arms du

of the

Heralds'

After

Miniature

in the

"Tournois

Roy

Manuscript of the Fifteenth

Century." In

the National

Library, Paris.

to

see

everything. The

helmet

of counts

and

viscounts

was

argentthree-parts

UllRM.niC

SCIENCE.

3'3

the visor profile,

drawn
to

down,

and

having nine

bars

or.

That

of
was

baron

had

onlyseven
sold

bars

the visor.

That five bars

of the gentry untitled

of

polished
or

with steel, placed in profile,

a

argent. "When
of the

the

King

conferred

he title,

invented

as

the

crest

blazon,for the

person

ennobled,

Fig.
"

254."

The

Duo du

de Bourbon, Rene.""

armed

cap-a-piefor the Tournament."

After

Miniature

in the

Tournois

Hoy

Manuscriptof the Fifteenth

Century." In

the National

Library,

Paris.

:in

iron

helmet further
to

in

with the profile,

rantaille

and

nose

piece half

open. the

The
wearers

helmets attached
enormous

had
crests

piecesof cloth
of their Tlx-se

called

which laHibmjiiin*, size of which

an

the

helmets,the
cn-sts

attained gradually essential ornameiit,

proportions.

themselves
s s

became

314

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

and

representedlions, horns, chimscras, and

however, Gradually,
it became with gems of the

human
to

arms

bearing

some

weapon.

the custom and

replacethese

sories acces-

by plaincoronets
of which varied

enriched

the shape and pearls,

number

accordingto
of the

the rank fifteenth led

wearer.

About which
had under

the middle enrolled their

century
them
to

it became

customary for
ost

families
reign sove-

troops,and
own

join the
the

(army) of
a

the

banners, to place above

crests

or Imtel,

scroll,
every
or

bearing upon
chevalier

it their

this right was battle-cry.Gradually had the the

arms means

claimed

by

banneret

who
with

of colours

assembling
of
a

under
or

his pennon, five

gonfalon(a standard
and twelve
or

or

four noble),

gentlemen

fifteen men-at-arms the is battle-cry the

equipped at
of very
were

his expense. earlier date

to
nerve

Moreover, century,
the the for

much

than

the

fifteenth for

even

Barbarians
were

accustomed
as

themselves usage

fightby

cries which
a

also used

signals.
of
the
some

The shout

of

rallying by
when the he

soldiers upon
army about
own

field of

battle

by

means

uttered

whole
was

in chorus
to take
men

is to be
camp when of

discovered

in

Bible, for Gideon,

the

the Midianites

by surpriseat night,ordered
the and enemy

his

to

shout

they
"

attacked the Lord

were

whom
!"

the

Lord

had

delivered into their hands,

In

For

for Gideon
Most and

the

Middle
than
some

Ages
the

battle-cries of

universal.

of them

were

nothingmore
by
Tremoille
!
"

names

the different

nobles

chevaliers, supplemented
as

flattering epithetor
Notre the battle-cry their

pious invocation,
Dame
name

such
la

Mailly
!

'
"

La The

Bourbon, Bourbon,
used
as a

"

Coucy, a
a

Marveille
a

great barons
an

of

of province,
not

or lordship,

of

important town
town
or

upon

domains,
owners.

and

these did

change
of

even

when the

the

lordship changed
still cried, Hainaut

Under
due
as

the Dukes The

men

Burgundy

Hennuyers
and of

an

noble

of

Gascony, Navarre,
of Navarre and

Arragon shouted,Bigorre ! Bigorre ! Arragon.

The The
men

under

the

Kings
to do in
rni

of

Beauvais, when

they went
shouted,
Lou

out
m

invoked battle,
riche due !

Beauvais

lajolie! while

those 'of Louvain families

au

battle-cries of certain
Flandre

contained
was

allusions of the of

to the

chargesiipon
of Flanders, Another of The
menace

their and

and coat-of-arms, Au

lion

the cry

Counts

peignc d'or (thegolden comb)

as

that

of the lords
to

Gallant.

familyused
to the

its

a battle-cry

sort

of exhortation

the valiant, or

vanquished,without

any

or special genericcharacteristic.

Counts

of

Champagne cried,Passarant

les meillors

! the

Chevaliers

of

Bar, Au

feu

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

3'5

nu

feu

! those

of Brie, Cans

d'oisenux ! intercession Dukes

St.

The

meaning

of

some

battle-cries of the

was

to implore the evidently

of God, of the

Virgin,and

saints
Malo
au

during

the

fight.
of

The

of

Brittany exclaimed,
! the

St. Yves ! St.

Dieu

! the

pukes
baron

Anjou,

Maurice

Montmorencys,

ayde
aie !

premier

chrestien !

and

the

Chastel-Montforts, St. Marie,

(aidus !)
It is to this latter category of war-cries
the

that

assuredly belonged that

which has

of

Kings of France, Montjoie St

Denis ! the

of origin

given rise

Fig. 255." llary Tudor,

middle, with
The Double
a

Queen

of

England (1553"1558).
surrounded with of York

Double

Rose

intersected

down

the

Bundle is
an

of Arrows,

Rays, and
and

surmounted

by

royal Crown.
Arrows sent repre-

Rose of

allusion to the Houses

Lancaster, while the

the House

Arragon.

to

so

many

and misleading statements. conflicting

in the

One

theory is that Clovis,

to the foot of
a

giving battle
tower

of Conflans, drove valley

that he

back

the enemy memory that

called

and Montjoie, his

the perpetuated

of his

triumph

by takingMontjoieas
invoked
mon

Another battle-cry.
at
was

theory is

Clovis,having

the aid of St. Denis

Job
! which

the battle of Tolbiac,called him, in French,

Jupiter,man

corruptedinto Montjoie. But,

"

as

matter

of for

fact,Montjoie St.
this banner

Denis

merely
battle
was

means,

Follow upon

the
a

banner

of St. Denis," upon

a

during

hoisted

giltchariot,as

3i6

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

Fig.

256.

"

Device

of

Fig. 257.

"

Device

of Pope

Leo

X.

Fig.

258.

"

Device

of

Henry
of

VII., King

(1513"1521) ."A
the Motto,
"

Yoke, with

Charles
France
"

IX., King

of

England
A in

(1485
thorn-tree Haw-

Suave."

(1560"1574).
Columns the
emblem terlaced, in-

"1509)."

Two

flower,
of

between
H. E.

the letters

Piety

and et

Justice

("Henricus

(" Pietate
cia").

justi-

Rex").

montjoie(an eminence

or

that hillock),

it

might be

visible from, afar while

the

Fig.

259."

Device

France

Henry III., King (1574" 1589)." Three Crowns,

those of he coelo." France
and to

of

of
presenting re-

Fig.

2UO.

"

Device

of the

Emperor
of
a

Charles

V.

"While

yet King
as

Spain (1518) he
Sun
"

Poland,
obtain
:

adopted
a

his

emblem
as

rising above
Nondum
in

and
"

that

which

hoped

Zodiac, and
"

his Motto,
at its

Manet

ultima

auge

(Not yet

zenith).

combat

was

going

on.

The

Kings

of France

were

entitled

to

the banner

of

fll.RALDIC

SCIENCE.

317

St.

Di'iiis in their

qualityof
Louis
than

arouds

of (lawyers)
was

the

abbey

of take

that name,
the

and

Counts

of the Vexin.
was no

VI.

the first to go and

in the called

oriflamme,
the

which

other

this

banner,
was

basilica of St. Denis, upon

the and montjoie), his
successors

altar of the continued

to

holy martyrs (which

come

and
to
was

ask for it from

upon
an

the monks
"

of the

royalabbey whenever

they

were

about
St. Denis word

start

expedition, because," says

and

Suger,

"

the

blessed
This
same

the
to

special patron
discovered

protector of
other

the

kingdom."
as

was

be

in several
! and

such battle-cries,

Montjoie St.
War-cries founded

Andrii'iu- !

Montjoie Anjou
be

others. when Charles

ceased

to

used

during battle

VII., having
the

the ordinance

the companies, dispensed

bannerets

from

duty

of

Fig.

261.

"

Device

of Catherine

de'

Medicis, Queen

of France,

during her

Widowhood.

their leading
upon the

vassals to the

fight.

It

was

then

that these cries

upon

were

inscribed

scroll

placed above

the crest, while

of

underneath,

another of the the it

scroll,
house.
"

appeared,in
There
was,

letters of

gold or

the patrimonialmotto silver,

the in and battle-cry
some cases

moreover,
was

this difference between

not

motto

that the
each

latter

for always hereditary,

same

changed

at

generationeven
house
members of of

in the

family.

For

instance,the ordinarymotto
"

of the
several

Sales, in Savoy, was

of

Ni originally,

plus, ni moins,"
That of Francis
"

but de

this

family adopted
"

other
"

mottoes.

Sales,Lord
biens

Roisy, was,
!
"

En

bonne de

foy;

that of

John

de

Sales,

Adieu,
of St.

mondains de

that
"

of

Galois

Sales,"In

paucis quies;"
the

that

Francis

Sales, Numquam

with excedet," signifying,

word

Charita*

understood, Charity never

dies out.

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

In

many

cases

mottoes, like the

name

charges
sort

on

the upon

shield,are
the
"

and allusive, Such

"

reproduce the family Achay,

vaux

with
"

of

play

words.

are

in the

Franche-Comte,

Jamais "A

las d'acher

Vaudray,

J'ai valu,
in

et

vaudray;" Grandson,
"

petite cloche, grand son;" Lauras,

"

Dauphiny,
Several
arms.

Un

jour 1'auras

"

Disemieux,
allusions

II est nul
to

qui dise mieux."

the coats-of-

mottoes,
the

also, contain

the
are

figures in
or,
seme

Thus
turrets

Simian has

family, whose
for motto,
are
"

arms

with
"

fleurs-de-

lis and

azure,

Sustentant

lilia turres

(The

lilies

support the turrets). There

of
a

mottoes, too, which

which
enounce
some

evoke

the

recollection mys-

battle

or

of

proverb,or

indefinite and

Fig. 262.
"A Anna

"

The
to

Arms

of Anne
of

of

Brittany,Queen
Cordeliere,founded
is

of

France.

"

An

Ermine,

pure

and the

spotless,
Motto,
pro te in

attached
ma
"

the Order The

the

by
an

the

Queen
with

for Ladies, with the

vie."

royal
for of

Shield

supported by
upon
"

Angel,
side de
a

Motto,

"

Rogo

(Anne,
to

I pray

thee),and

the

other
earn

Lion

rampant, with

these

words,
the

allusion of the

the
"

ermine Miniature

Brittany:
the
"

Libera

ore

leonis" de

(Deliver it from
"

jaws
the

lion).

from the

Funerailles M. Amhroise

d'Anne

Bretagne."

Manuscript

of

Sixteenth

Century." In
For

Library of

Firmin-Didot,

Paris.

terious allusion.
la

instance, Antoine
m'oubliez
!" of Johann

de

Croy,

"

Souvenance in

"

Jean
"

de

Tremoille,
que of

"

Ne

Schenk,

Germany,
his

Plutot with

rompre

flechir;" Philip

Burgundy,
an

after

marriage
of the

Isabella motto,
of the
"

Portugal, "Autre n'auraydame

and the
"

n'auray,"

alteration

amorous

Autre

Isabeau, tant
are

que

vivray."
:
"

The Roi
ne

proud

mottoes
ne

Rohans

Coucys
Je
ne

very
ne

well known

puis,due

daigne,Rohan

suis ; "

suis roy,
were

due, ne

comte

aussi, je suis
mute

le sire de

Coucy."
such
as

Sometimes
the White

the

mottoes

by merely represented
of

emblems,

Rose

of the

house

York,

the

Red

Rose

of Lancaster

320

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

Camillo
stem

Pallavicini,member
was

of

an

ancient
a

Milanese

family,bore

flower, the

of which

being nibbled by

with turtle,

the Italian

"Ogni inscription,

Fig. 264.

"

Banner

of the Calais

Innkeepers.

Fig.

265.

"

Banner

of the Amiens

Butchers.

Fig.

266."

Banner

of the

Bethune

Tailors.

Fig. 267."

Banner

of the St. Omer

Cobblers.

Fig. 268."

Banner

of the

St. L6

Dyers.

Fig.

260."

Banner

of the

Bordeaux

Upholsterers.

belleza

ha

fine"

(All beauty

is

perishable).Another

Italian, Paolo

Sfortita,

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

had

painted at

the

side of his

blazon
"

an

arrow

strung
"

upon

the

bow,
to

and

iii"1 heavenwards, with the words, point

Sic itur ad astra

256 (Figs.

260).

Fig. 270." Banner

of the St. L6

Blacksmiths.

Fig. 271."

Banner

of the Tours

Slaters.

Fig. 272."

Banner

of the Paris Founders.

Fig. 273."

Banner

of the

Lyons Tinmen.

Pig.274.

"

Banner

of the Don

tiShoemakers.

Fig. 275.

"

Banner

of the Pin and

Needle

Slakerj.

The

mottoes

more forming riddles, T T

or

less difficult to

solve,came

into

322

HERALDIC

SCIENCE.

fashion
a.
"

during
and

the sixteenth three in is

century.

The

house the

of Medicis

had

in its Latin

arms

diamond

with ostrich feathers,

"

motto

forming a

pun, this

Super adamas
device

pennis (Above the diamond, only

to

in the

and wing feathers), thus

:

strange

be

understood

by translatingit

Ahcayx

iuriiK-ible in trouble.

The

art of devices
"

"

for it had for the

of riddles

become

an

art,

as

heraldryhad

become defied

science

was

often
the the his

used

compositionof enigmas which (Fig. 276).

as

the

sagacityof
President with the
a

solvers Paris
name

Pierre device
a

de

Morvilliers,first

of and

Parliament, had
was

his this

connected portcullis Y because lies),

Y,

expressed by
of

figure(Mort
all

is portcullis Several

the emblem

death, which

makes memory

thingsequal.
of
some

devices perpetuated the hereditary battle of Fornova

was

historic

event.

Charles

VIII., during the

of the
soon

when loth, 1495), (July the

surrounded

by

mass

enemy,

saved

by

Seigneur de Montoison,
the

whose
was

heroic valour
over,

changed

the

and fate of the battle,

King,
the

after it

recompensed
uttered in

his deliverer

by giving him

as

his motto

words

which
!
"

he had

him calling

to his

"A assistance,

la rescousse,
was

Montoison killed and my

Catherine
thrust broken hence of

de' Medicis, after

a

the

death

of

Henry II.,who
her lacrimse
"

by
took

the
a

lance

at

tournament

(1559), changed
Hinc

device

lance, with
my

the

motto,

"

dolor,hinc
who

(Hence

woe,

tears). ChristopherColumbus,
the noble

discovered

America, left to

his

descendants

Spanish motto

"

"

Por Nuevo

Casttlle ot por Leon mundo hallo Colomb."

(For Castile

and

Leon, Columbus

discovers

new

world.)

At
custom

about
was

the time introduced

that of

devices of all kinds

were

becoming
supporters,or
which
it up

numerous, tenants

the

adding
was

to coats-of-anns

(Fig.

262).

The

first of these
to the

names

given to

the animals who

was

supportedthe
"

shield ; the second

men

of human "c.
most
so

form
This confused much

held the

the

angels, period
to

chevaliers, heralds,moors,
of but heraldry,

savages, also had the done

most

brilliant
fatal the

it

was

and

the

most

this

ancient
as

which institution,

for the

and chivalry
as a

nobility,
course,

the

excessive

exaggerationof
and

heraldic

signswas,

matter

of

favourable

to fraud

usurpation of armorial

bearings(Fig.263).

This

III-.RALDIC

SCIENCE.

323

which usurpation,
did nobility,
not
an

was

a prelude generally

to

the

of usurpation
a

titles of is

involve any
ordinance
as

other

punishment than
IX.

fine

"

fact which

mentioned

in

of Charles

addressed who shall

to the

States of Orleans
the
our
name

in 1560, and

framed

follows:"
or
use

"Those

falsely usurp
fined

and and

titleof the most

in

take nobility,

crested arms, will be used

will be

by

judges,
fines."

measures rigorous

to make

them

pay

these

But,

of spite

the

numerous

and

severe

decrees of the

Crown

againstthe

the assumptionof titles,

the

and evil increased,

by

the end of the fifteenth century well

as

merchants

and
arms

the and

working mechanics,
devices without
any

as

the

took bourgeoisie, the part of the

for themselves

opposition upon

Fig. 276."

The

Arms Charles

of France VI."

in the

Fifteenth M.

Century."
Ambroise

After

Miniature Paris.

in the Missal

of

In the

Library of

Finnin-Didot,

judges of
to relating

arms,

who

exercised

an

official supervision over

all the

matters

the

and nobility of

their

privileges.It bearings by
of
a

may the

be

therefore, supposed,
classes
as was

that

this

assumption
in return
all

armorial

middle

only

tolerated

for the payment

tribute to the
Crown

King

the

supreme

of dispenser
a

nobiliary privileges.The
themselves of the
arms

had,

moreover,

recognised
tions, corpora-

sort of

of trade,by nobility showed

the grant of statutes

as as jealous

to the workmen's

which

the

of nobility

their

honorary

and distinctions, embroidered

which

they

had
to

painted,engraved, or
275), at
a a

upon

their in his

insignia(see Figs.
"

264

time

when

Montaigne declared

Essays

"

that if "

is nobility

good and

reasonable

HERALDIC
324

SCIENCE.

institution,
if it be

it

is

to

be

esteemed

far

below

virtue,"

inasmuch

"

as

it

is

virtue,

one,

of

an

artificial

and

visible

kind, country.

dependent
."
. .

upon The

time

and

fortune

diverse

in

form,

according
the
arms

to

the

ancient

custom

of

solemnly

interring
had

of

an

extinct

family
centuries.

in

the

grave if noble

of

its

last

representative
became

been

abandoned

for

Even

families

extinct,

they

were

resuscitated

with

their

armorial

bearings,
or

and

formed

new

branches

by
cause

substitution

of

name,

by

alliance,
and

by

tion. usurpaof the

This

was

the

of

the

different

verifications

reforms

nobility
in

which

took

place
fines and

in

the

fifteenth

century,
the

and

which

added

large

sum

the

way

of

royalties

to

King's
the noble

treasury.
institutions which first

Heraldic

science

has, existence,

however,
and

survived

brought importance,
past,
and

it

into

though
intact

it

has

lost

part

of

its

primitive
of
the

it

still

remains

almost

as

picturesque

monument

as

tradition

of

mediaeval

history.

PEOVEEBS.

Antiquity
"The

of

Proverbs

amongst

all Nations." Ilural Bit de

Proverbs and

in

the

Middle

Ages."
Guillaume Proverbs."

Solomon de

and

Slarcoul.

Philosophers'
of
and

Proverbs."

Vulgar

Proverbs." Historical

Tignonville."
in Works The

Proverbs of Use Prose of

the

Villeins."" French

1'Apostoile.""
in the

Proverbs

Verse."

Proverbs de Bourbon's

Sixteenth of

Century."
Proverbs.

Foreign

Proverbs."

Proverbs.

"

Constable

Collection

HE has

popular
been
"

sayings
called
are

which "ancient times be

and

compose wisdom of
in all the

what of

the all
to

nations for

of

lands,

proverbs
of
to

are

found but

early

language especially
collected

all the

nations Middle

they belong
which had

Ages,
them
and
as

and of the

preserved

precious
in

legacy
world's

early

ages

peoples

the

history.
nation
to

Every impress,
The that
and the has the of
so

gives
to

its

own

special
proverbs.

speak, proverb

its familiar is

Italian bold. The

it

witty
proverb
attacks the

and

subtle;
incisive rich
and

the

Spaniards
:

haughty
in
the

and

French very often

is the

satirical

originating
and
not

lower
is

classes,

powerful, developed proverbs

of

unfrequently
In

expressed

in

language
and

liberty of

which

into
are

license.
severe, to

England,
and

Germany,
pedantic.

in all Northern The

nations is used

cold, formal,
characterize
an

proverb general

by

all classes

society
as

individual is
never

act,

or

some

or

specific

occurrence,

occasion

requires.
as

It

explained,
from

but

always
into

understood.

Proverbs

passed,
very abundant itself

by
in
not

natural

transition,
works

speech
in date

writing, though

and

they
worb

are

the

first
to

written
of

French,
than used

the

proverb

does
this

appear

be

earlier

the

thirteenth
all authors

century.

Before

period,

the

word

proverbium,

though

by

326

PROVERBS.

who

wrote
"

good Latin,
In the the the

had

no

better of

equivalentin French
the

than

respit or

reprovier.
passage

oldest Book

version of

Bible, in

the

twelfth
et

century, the
exivit pro-

in

First

Kings (chap, xix.),"Unde

translated
was

verbium,"
The any is

is wordprorerbitini
was

respit.
read and

Bible

then

The

Book, which
as a

learnt

by

heart

before It

other,and

which

served

type

for various who

compositions. literary
may be said to have

that King Solomon, only natural, therefore, model for this kind
as an

given
have

the been

of literature in his Book

to

of Proverbs, should

regarded

oracle

be oonsulted

with

respect in
as

the

Middle

Ages.
Magic,
article

Besides, the
and which

Jewish him

legend which
supreme
as over

Solomon represented the whole

as

the

King

of
an

made

of nature, had

become

of faith with the Queen and

the Christians

well
one

with

the Jews.

Accordingto
of

this

legend,

of the Ants
to

settled

day

upon

the hand

the
of

King
the

of Israel,

revealed
of

him

the secrets

of eternal
the

truth. Middle

One

first collections

French is

proverbs,published in representedin
it
as

Ages,

was

dedicated

to

Solomon, who
to
a man

the

type of Divine

wisdom, opposite
human
reason

named

Marcol, or Marcoul, who

is a

is the

of representative the two. him

277). (Fig. King

axiom
utters

There
some

dialoguein rhyme between

Marcol
sense answers

The

Israelitish

weighty saying,and
the

with

an

analogous generally
et

embodying

rough

common

of the

people,and
Salomon

expressedin homely language. originally composed

Middle One
verse

The

"

Dictz

de (sayings) into all

Marcol,"
the

in

Latin, were

translated

languages during

Ages,and
of it
runs

the French
"

version

dates probably

from

the twelfth century.

"

'

Qui sages horn

sera

Ici
Ce
'

trop ne

parlera.'
dira fera.'

dist Salomon. mot

ne

Qui ja

Grand
Marcol

noise
lui

ne (dispute)

respont."

The

of popularity to, and

these

which rhymed proverbs,

were

continually being
of editions which

added revised,

modified, is proved by the multitude century.

eleventh
undertook It is

appeared at
Latin
was

the close of the fifteenth

probablethat the original

a

written, in the

tenth

or

century, by
to

student

in way

the the

ecclesiastical schools of Paris, which

vulgarisein this

328

PROVERBS.

given to

the second

person the

in the Middle

was dialogue,

no

other
was

than

Marcus,
to
were

brated cele-

philosopher of
Porcius
to be

Ages,
Marcus

who

believed
son,

be

Marcus

Cato, called
the had

the

Censor, or
of the
"

Cato, his
"

who

considered
Moribus

joint authors
since the should surnamed in

Moral

Distiches
been
to
a

(" Disticha
as

de

")

which but

seventh

century

employed
monk these
as

works

of education,
or

which

rather Cato. the

were

be attributed The

named

Valerius

Dionyread the

and sius, and

of celebrity

which distiches,
as ever

were

expounded

schools,remained
more

great

all

through

Middle

Ages. They
verse

than

once

translated, paraphrased,or
thirteenth
and centuries, under

imitated

in French

during

the twelfth
verse

and

they were
the title of Peter

in frequentlyreprinted
the
"

during again
"

the fifteenth

century
the

Grand

Chaton,"

and

at

the

beginningof
du

sixteenth, by

Grosnet, under
There
was

the title of

Motz

dores

grand

et

saigeCaton."
of
or proverbs,

also in the twelfth

century
had
a

another

collection

of

which proverbial philosophy,

which the
was

long

great reputationin
for the
use

the

and schools,
as

several times

translated into French

of
"

of the upper
Latin.
a

of

lower

neither classes,
as

which

had

much

knowledge of
contained

This of

known collection,

the

Philosophers'Proverbs,"
most

selection

in (sentences) sayings
most

verse,

of which

were

apocryphal,attributed
in

to the

noted Latin

personages authors and the who

of ancient
were

times, and
the

particularto

various

Greek

and

comprised in appeared
and in

category of philosophers. Thus

Ovid, Virgil,
Solomon
Afterwards
"

Horace
one

this and

compilation between
.ZEsop upon
the other with
some

Moses

and

upon

hand,

Homer

278). (Fig.
the title of

these

moral

were sayings

translated

into French
had

Dits

des

Philosophes,"but though they

passages
of the authors
to

doubtless

resemblance

to
more

certain

whom

they
with
to

were

attributed, they had

and

in common,
as

when

moulded

into verse,

the be

dialogueof Solomon
an

Marcoul,
will show

the

which lines, following

claim

imitation

of Juvenal,

"

"Tant

vaut

amour

comme

argent dure

Quant

argent fault (manque),amour

sien

est nule.

Qui despent le
Si n'est
ames

follement,
nule

(aime)de

gent."

In the the

fifteenth century, Guillaume

Charles VI. found

de

Provost Tignouville, his other

numerous

of

Paris, in

reign of

time, amidst

occupations,

PROVERBS.

3*9

tn

make

fresh

translation of the which

he

"

Bits

das

Philosophes" in

verse,

with
prose like

numerous

additions, to

notices in appended biographical

he

of the

philosophers, amongst
the Great
as

whom

included
of

not

only

warriors

Alexander

and

Ptolemy, King

Egypt, but imaginarypersonages,

and

such
was

Simicratis, Fonydes, Arehasan, for, in

addition
to

Longinou. His book manuscripts

with

great

success,

the

many

of the fifteenth century published several editions miniatures,the printers of it. These different collections of attributed proverbs,
to such

famous

men

as

Fig.
"

278."

The

Wolf

cheating the

Donkey."

Fac-simile

of

Wood

Engraving

from

the

Dyalogue des Creaturea"

(Qouda,Gerart

Leeu,

1482, in

In the folio)."

of M. Ambroiae Library

Paris. Firmin-Didot,

Solomon, Cato, and

upon
as

the ancient Greek

and Latin

philosophers, may
at
sense

be looked other
to

the fruits of scholastic erudition and

had
an

while invention, literary

the
same seem period,

which collections,
emanate
more

equally great
the
and

success

from directly

homely good
four
v

and

native is not

wit

of the

with all their facetious people,

to mention
more

It qualities. picturesque of these

u

necessary

than

three

or

of whi^h, in spite collections,

330

PROVERBS.

their immense

at the,time,were popularity

not, with

one

exception, reproduced They

or

by

the

of printers

the fifteenth and

owe

sixteenth

centuries.

are,

however,
and

which original proverbs, which is

nothing to
our

the writers The

of Greece

of Rome,

bear the Gallic stamp of

"

ancestors.

oldest of these collections

to satisfactory

entitled, Vulgar

and

Moral

Proverbs."
an

It is hand

find
or

that six

the six hundred

proverbswhich

unknown

five put together which has taken

centuries ago
in the
manners,

the still display, notwithstanding

change

place
with the

ideas, and
a

even

in

language,a
in Some bird
"

clear and

plaintext
be

which,

exception of

few

differences readers.
"

spelling, might
of these in the hand

understood
"

by

general body
un
"

of modern
tu

proverbsare
is worth
cito
"

Mieux

vaut

tien que

deux
tost

1'auras

(A

two
"

in the

bush) ;

Ki donne
"

il donne
more one

deux has
can

fois
the lose

(Bisdat, qui
one
"

dat);

Ki

plus a plus
"

convoite

(The

more

wants);

Qui petit a petitperd

esveiller le chien

(He
dort

who
"

possesses

little
a

little) ;

II fait mal
"

qui
le

(Itis

well to let

sleeping ; dog lie)

On

oblie
a

plus tost

le mal

que

bien

"

(An

evil action is remembered

longer than
have
been

good one).
the

The
seems

second
to

which selection, contained

"

must

contemporary with

above,
terms.

have

more

homely proverbs,expressed in
aux

blunter

This

entitled piece, nine

Proverbes lines of This fond of In is

Vilains,"is
and
some

divided
stanzas

into

unequal stanzas
verbs, pro-

of six,eight, or
others the

rhyme,

comprise several
old
saws

only one.
very and
tone

collection forms
and repeating, order
a

of pell-mell

which amidst of these

people were
sorrows

which
understand grave word

enlivened the
gay,

them

their

labours. of which

to fully

meaning

the proverbs,

mixture

of of

and

it is necessary
was,
as a

first to understand

the proper

meaning

the

which villein,

rule, taken

in bad

part, as
villein

synonymous
was

with of the show

full coward, poltroon,

of

envy,

"c. do-nothing, of the term,

as

The

the

man

peoplein the worst

:
"

acceptation

the

subjoinedproverb will

"

il vous Oignez villain,

il Poignez villain,
vous

poindra.
oindra
enrage
. .

Villain affame Villain

demy
ne

enrichy

connoist

pas

d'amis."

The

third collection does not

it consists of ancient
are

date

so

far

back
prose,

as

the

two

previousones,
title, Common
"

though

proverbs in
about
seven

with

the

Proverbs,"of

which

there

hundred

and

fifty, arranged

in

PROVERBS.

33'

order by alphabetical

J. do la

Veprie,priorof

Clairvaux.

Tbo

name

of the

compiler
was one

is

and guarantee iat the decency of these proverbs,

causes

this

perhaps
several

of the editions

of the

success

of

this little

of which collection,

Gothic

appeared at

the close of the fifteenth

century.

Fig. 279.

"

Court

Jester.
"

"

Miniature

from

French Ambroise

Bible.

"

Manuscript of the Fifteenth

Century.

In the

Library of M.

Firmin-Didot, Paris.

The
a reality

"Dit

de

which 1'Apostoile,"

must

be
than
to

mentioned, though it is in
of
is of proverbs,

collection of

rather popular sayings

much

less The

ancient

date, belonging as it probably does

the

thirteenth

century.

332

PROVERBS.

"

Apostoile

"

is (apostle) in this

the

name

vulgarlygiven
decides
as

to

the

Pope, and

it is

the

Pope .who,

piece of

verse,

to

the

titles and

epithets

Fig. 280." Device

Franco with

of Louis
"

XII., King
A

of

Fig. 281."
1547).
"

Francois I.,King
A

of France amidst
et the

(1515"
Flames,
"

(1498" 1515).
the

Porcupine;
et eminus
was
"

Salamander

Motto,

"

Cominus

"with the feed

on

Motto,
it and

"

Nutrisco

extinguo
was

(I
the

(From

far and

near). This

vice the dein

extinguish it). It

of his

grandfather, who,
Order
of the

139",

popular belief that this salamander

and the fire, could it. extinguish

lived in

instituted the

Porcupine.

which

are

suitable of

to

the These

towns principal

of

France
the

and

the

different customs,

countries

Europe.

epithetsaccord

with

the origin,

Fig. 282."

Device

of the Flemish with

the

Gueux
"

A (1566)."

Wallet

held

by

two

Hands

clasped,

Motto,

Jusques

porter la besace."

the the

the physical position,

town
or

moral

state, and

the

specialcharacteristics
persons and

of

country.

The

veritable

physiognomy of

things is

PROVERBS.

333

and sayings, expressedby proverbial in this the de

were

this feudal
"

is faithfully society represented

"

simple enumeration
of

Concile

d'Apostoile,"Parliaments
of Clerks," "Beuverie
that at that time

of

King," "Assembly Bourgeois,"

couched
The in
"

Chevaliers," "Company
We
see

Crowd
a

"c. of Villeins,"

proverbs
truth

very from

few words, but those few these

a expressing great deal.

transition

which plainproverbs,
280 proverb (Figs. the
name

express

some

moral

or

idea,to ordinary
remarkable
an

the historical
to

and

281),which
remarkable

mentions
person,
or

some

event

celebrate

of any
of
a

contains
a

allusion to the

characteristics special One and

or country, a province,

town, is a very natural

one.

might imaginethat

the

peoplewere

bent

upon

writing in
seemed

this

concrete

of strikingshape the history

the facts

which The
not
a

worth

remembering.
France
one

ancient
or
"

to proverbs relating

are

numerous,

for
In

there
"

is de

town

which village
to be

has not
six

to referring

it.

the

Dit

are 1'Apostoile

found
about

concerningthe
the

Flemish twelve

282),five (Fig.
about

about

the about for

Gascons, eighteen Paris, and

so

Normans,
of
the

Orleans, thirty
afford of
matter

forth.

Each from

these double

proverbs would

an

dissertation interesting

pointof

view

and history

philosophy.
We have

already (seechapteron
mottoes, but
relate to the

the Science of
are

Heraldry) spoken of
of

the

heraldic devices and which sayings

there

also

certain number of provinces

popular
For

of nobility

the ancient

France.

Burgundy

"

"

Riche Noble Preux Fin de

de Chalons, de de

Vienne, Vergy,

Neuehatel,
de Beaufremont barons."

Et

la maison

D'ofo sont

sortis les bons

For

: Brittany
"

"

de Penhoet, Antiquitfi Vaillance de Chastel,

liichesse de Kennan, Chevalerie de

Kergournadec."

These
mentioned. The

are

allusions to the

of qualities

the different

and places

families

proverbsrelatingto

the

names

of

men

of

undent

or

modern

times

334

PROVERBS.

have, as
nods

a
"

some rule,

satiricalmeaning:
yes, and

"

"Old

as

Herod

"

"Homer

sometimes

;"
But

Hippocratessays
better idea
can

Galen

says no."

be formed the Middle

of the

tendency of
which

the held

French their
own

proverbs
almost of them

which

were

current

in

Ages, and

intact until

the

middle

of the

sixteenth
in

century, by quotinga few

stillin
use
:
"

which,
"

with

alterations slight

are spelling,

A beau
A A chacun

parleur closes oreilles.

oiseau
son

nid lui est beau.

dur

ane

dur

aguillon.
te aidera

Aide-toi,Dieu
Amis
A Au

(God helpsthose
argent.
ne

who

help themselves).

valent
a

mieux
a

que

Dieu,

pere et voit-on

mattre, nul
1'ami

pent rendre
a

equivalent.
friend

besoin

(A friend in need is

indeed).

Besoin Bon

fait vieille trotter.

ne

cceur

peut mentir. jamais perdu.

Bienfaict Bonne
vie

n'est

embellit.
entre

Borgne
Gain

est roy

aveugles (Amongst the blind the one-eyed man

entre' par
ce

is king).

de cordonnier
or

1'huis et ist
not

(sort) par

le fumier.

Ce n'est pas

tout

qui luit (All is

gold that glitters).

assez Celuy scjait

qui vit bien.

mange

De De

brebis comptees
nouveau

bien

le

loup.

tout

est beau.

Diligence passe
La La La Les
faim

science. le

chasse

loup hors bois.

nuit porte conseil.

plus mechante

roue

du char

crie

toujours.
en

petitssont sujetsaux
dormant vray
vault

les grands lois,

courant

font

leur

guise.
run

L'eau Tout

pis que 1'eau

bon
a

waters (Still

deep).

n'est pas

dire

(The

truth

is not

always welcome).

Trop parler nuit, trop grater

Vin
are

cuit. sont

vieux, ami vieux

et

or

vieux

aimes

en

tons

lieux

and old gold (Old wine, old friends,

always appreciated)."

There
common

can

be

no

doubt

that

proverbs were
have
lent
an

at

one

time

much
a

used

in
to

and parlance,

this must

and originality
to

piquancy

conversation.
was

The

proverb,which

so represented, was

speak,generalopinion,
animated

which in conversation, perpetually recurring

the

by being thus
of the
the

impregnated with
with originated
and the

personalthought of

the

speaker. Most
by
the nobles

proverbs

but they were people,

used into

and
were

bourgeois,
the

they soon

passed from

conversation

and writing,

quoted by

greatestauthors.
Thus in the thirteenth

century

many

sermons

and

many

piecesof poetry

336

PROVERBS.

another

part, when
escort,

he

represents Philip Augustus

that Dit
"

as

having set

out

with

small

thinking
the
"

Eichard
des En

had
"

not
a

yet disembarked

in

France,
in the de

he borrows mouth

from

Villains
un

proverb afterwards quidance,n'a

pas

put

of Sancho

Panza

muis

de

plein pot

sapience."
Proverbs
had
a were

applied to history(see Figs. 283

the comic theatre of the fifteenth

and

284), and
The
to

they also
farce of

largeplacein

century.
and
to

Maitrc

to Pathelin, attributed alternately

Pierre
add

Blanchet

Fran"ois dialogue.

Villon, abounds
The

in

which vulgar proverb?,

goes off with
a

great

zest

the

lawyer Pathelin

pieceof cloth,which

the

shopkeeper

Fig.
"

283.

"

Device

of

Louis, Duke Stick,with

used

of Orleans the Motto,

game

Fig.

284.

"

Device

of Jean

sans

Peur, Duke
with

of

A (1406)."

knotted
term

Burgundy him), which

of the Duke

(1406)."A

Plane,
houd" the

the

Je

a 1'envy,"

in the

of
This

Motto, in Flemish, "Hie

was a

(I have
challenge

dice,signifying,"I
was

utter defiance."
to Jean
sans

replyto

meant

as

defiance

Peur.

of Orleans.

Guillaume
he succeeds he

is

induced, by his specious talk,to sell him

even satisfying

on

credit ; but cheated

the

though
keeper, shophe had

in

the the

judge dupe

that
a

he

had

not

is in turn
to hoodwink

made the
own.

of

humble
an

shepherd,whom
for acquittal
a

taught how
more

and judge,

obtain

robbery even
the

impudent than his

"

The

moral

of the

comedy

is

comprised in

proverb

"

Or

n'es'-il si fort entendeur

ne

Qui

trouve

plus fort

vendeur."

PROl'ERBS.

337

It may that each

be said of this line is redolent

which farce,

was

in

great favour
that

when
more

firstwritten,
than

of Gallic

and proverbs,

for

three

centuries the

peopleof

Paris

which adopted the proverbial sayings

it contains.

Moreover,
of the

most

of the farces

playedby

the

Pont-Alais

troupe, by the clerks

Basoche, by
full of

the brotherhood
common

of the Mere

Sotte,and

by

other

strolling hearty

bands, were
of laughter
The that
a

and

vulgar proverbs which

excited

the

the audience. also

proverb

prevailedin
itself
this
to

all kinds

of

poetry,

and

in especially

which

addressed

the

people. Frai^ois Villon,

he

himself
ments "Testa-

true
"

Parisian,bore
a

in

mind

when

inserted in his two

number

of

popular sayings and

adages
his

which

had
are,

become,
in

or

were

fitted to

become, proverbs. Indeed,

the

ballads

reality,
refrain,

an

ingeniousparaphrase of
in
"

rhymed proverb which

which jadis,"

forms

the

as

the

ballad

"Dames

du

temps

contains

the

oft-quoted

line
Mais oil sont
are

"

los last

neiges d'anUn ?)

':"

(Where

snows year's

It is not

that surprising
association

Pierre

who Gringoire,

had

longbeen

at the head

of the dramatic
at

of the Mere
a

Sotte,before becoming

herald

of

arms

the

court

of

Lorraine,gave

largeplace to proverbs in
"

all his works.

Many
the
"

of his

are poetical merely collections of rhymed proverbs; compositions

"

the amongst others,

Menus

the Propos,"

Abus

du

Monde,"

and

especially
of all

Fantaisies de Mere
:
"

Sotte."

the best known This last collection,

terminates thus

"

Femme Femme Fcmme

Femme

est eat

1'ennemy de 1'auiy,
peche inevitable,

est familier cnnemy,

decoit
est
est

plus que

le diable.
.

Femme Femme

tetnpebte de maison.
le serpent des

serpena."

Prince
but nothing France and

Charles

of Orleans, who

was

court

poet, and

who

composed
dames

ballads and

for roundelays
not
were

the young

nobles and young

in them

of

England, did

think

it

to embody undignified

several

which popularproverbs,

picked up pearls
"

from

the

dungheap. Amongst

he quoted the proverb others,

x x

338

PROVERBS.

"

Jeu

qtii trop

dure

ne

vaut

rien

II convient

quo
a

trop parlcr nui-ic.

moilie

Chose

cat qui plaist

vendue."

"When

in

the

fifteenth

century

French

literature

began

to

abound works

with known the

tales,stories, joycux den's, moms

under list
so as

propos,

paradoxes, and

other their

the

ies. proverbsnaturally took general title of facet

place in

being quitein harmony

so,

with

the

genius and
rather

tendencies
too
are

of the of

people:

much

that their

skilful

became prose-writers and many

fond

embodying
in Antoine

proverbsin

works,
"

of these

adages
in the
"

enshrined Nouvelles

de la Sale's novel,

Jehan

dc Saintre," and

Cent

nouvelles,"

Fig. 2S5.

"

Shoemaker

Shoe. a fitting Choir

"

Copied after
Cathedral

one

of the Stalls called Misericordes

in the

of Rouen

Century). (Fifteenth

by King Louis
behind its

XI.

In

the

taste

for

proverbsthe sixteenth century

as

was

not

and predecessors, such and

as

poets
and

such

Clement

Marot

and

Antoine such

de
as

Baif, narrators

Rabelais

Noel

Dufail,
of the

writers polemical
"

Henry Estienne,
very

satirists like the author science. The

Satyre Menippee,"were
be termed
as

well versed
all true
more

in this

proverb,in fact,may
a

the
was

passport of

ideas, which, expressed as

vivid

proverb, assumed,
better

it

thought,a
the memory.

and striking

shape,and

became

impressedupon

PROVERBS.

331

Looking

to what
was

took

place in

other

parts of Europe, we
each
case

find

that
was

verbial pro-

literature

alike fruitful, though in

the

produce

of the

native growth,

Spain and

Italybeing the

countries whose
had
not

proverbs have
so

to those of France. greatest similarity

England

many
that

proverbs,
Britannic

but

those

of

English origin are

is not
to

remarkable specially with

are :

for

humour

which
to

be met Such
to
us

elsewhere, and
"

which

lends

great

ginality ori-

her

proverbs.
not

If

one

knew than

what
a

were prices
" "

going

to

rise, one
no

would

need
sent

be

in trade and with

more

year

Exchange
"The

is

robbery;" "God
makes

meat,

the devil sent

the cooks;"

devil

his Christmas

pudding

fingers and attorneys'

lawyers'

tongues."

Fig. 286."

The

Shoemaker

and

his Customer. of Rouen

"

Copied after

one

of the Stalls called Mistricordei

in the Choir

Cathedral

Century). (Fifteenth

In

painting, sculpture (Figs. 285

of art
were

and

286),

and

in

nearly

all other
verbs. prothe

branches

reproduced the figurative implied by expressions

all

Pictures, and tapestry were drawings, engravings,

of these proverbs, which interpretation the blades of swords and
were

employed in

were

also to be found the helmets

engraved upon
and

of

daggers,and
with

upon

breast-plates. they were

of
also

Medals
worn

and in the

counters

coined

proverbson
sashes and

them, and
scarfs

shape

of embroidered

by

persons

both

34"

PROVERBS.

sexes.

They

were

inserted, also,in

the

windows, stained-glass
and drinking-glasses Sorel's Chateau
were

and

upon

the

carved

furniture One of

(Fig.287),as
of the
rooms

also upon in

other

articles of
was

dailyuse.
with squares

Agnes
which

de Beaute

paved

painteddelf,upon

inscribed

wittyproverbs. Many
trade,and
tokens it
was

proverbssuitable displayed shopkeepers' sign-boards

the custom of booksellers and

to their

printers to

add

proverb

to the

which

Fig. 287.
"

"

Comb,
en

made
and

of Carved
upon of

Wood, the

of the
"

Fifteenth

Century.
"

Upon
the

one

side

are

Ihe

words

Erenee
"

gre,"

other,

Ce

petitdoun."
M.

In

Collection

of

31. Achille

Jubinal.

In

the centre
a

the

inscriptionis a puzzle,representinga flower, a flaming heart,

the two
a

and
man

an

arm

holding
he wou'd

dnrt,with
a

letters

P.

It

was

said colloquially

of

passionate

that

kill

mercer

for

comb.

they placed upon

Some kind of these

the

of title-page

their

books
most

(Figs. 288, 289, and

of them
were

293).
graver

proverbs were

but facetious,

of

There

are

to

be found

in several

publiclibraries

various

collections

of pro-

34'

Beneath

this riddle

is the

following explanation
for Jesus
oMr on

"

"

Let Let

us us

salute

Mavy
my

praying
in

the

cross

hope

for his peace heart

hearts.

I have I

given
to

to God.

hope

gain Paradise,

Praise

be to God."

Fig.

288.

"

Riddle

taken

from

the

"

Heures

de Nostredame,"
at

printed by Guillaume

Qodait,

Bookseller

Paris, in

1513.

verbs, represented by miniatures

or

drawings executed
authors

with
;

the
we

pen,

and

doing great
mention
out

honour of

to

the talents of their unknown

a

but

will

only

all these

curious

collection

of

water-colour

drawings

Fig.

289."

Token
in

of Jehan
1512.
me
"

de

Brie, in the
riddle
is

"

Heures
to

1'usaige de Paris," printedby Jehnn

"

Bignon
I.imace.

This

strange
et achete."

be

Irjnslated, In vico

sancti

Jacobi, " 1*

Cy

vend

342

PROVERBS.

Fig.

290."

Drawings of Proverbs, Adages, "c.

Fonda La

"

Manuscript of the Fifteenth

the National

Century (No. 4,316,

Valliere, 44).
"

In

Library,Paris.

executed

by

the

Constable

de

Bourbon,

at

the

beginning of Library (Fonds

book contains

Francis
La

I.'s

reign,and

now

preservedin
of

the Paris This

National handsome

Valliere,

Department

Manuscripts).

sixty-one

"

Dieu

veult

souventesfois

permettre
:

Quoy qu'ilen
La charette

pcut advenir,
devant

mettre

L'homme

perir,qui
of

dist

Je veulx,

lea boeufs."

Fig.

291."

Drawings

Proverbs,
La

Adages, "c."

Manuscript of the Fifteenth

Century (No. 4,316,

Fonds

valliere, 44)." In the National

Library,Paris.

344

PROVERBS.

Amongst
relate
to

the

other

striking proverbs
go do
to

compositions (Fig.
the well

in

this

collection

are

those

which

the

following pitcher
may

291)
once

"Tant
"

va

le

pot
Mai

1'eau,
mal

qu'il
n'est

brise

"

(The
"

too

often)
"

"

sur

pas

sante

(Two
"

wrongs

not

make

right)
Each

En

forgeant
in this

on

devient

forgeron
has
a

"A

petit quatrain
at

mercier

petit

panier."
the

proverb
The

collection

rhymed
is

explaining
foot of Constable

drawing.
Bourbon's

inscription
informs

in

verse

which

placed

the

portrait
was

us

that

this
his

collection, death,
memory.
so

commenced
that it is

during
a

his

lifetime,
raised

not

completed
poet
and

until

after

sort

of

monument

by

the

the

artist

to

his

Fig.

293."

Token

of

Michel

Fezandat,

Printer

at

Paris

(1552),

with

Proverbial

Device

attributed

to

Kabelais.

LANGUAGES.

Tho

Origin

of
"

Languages.
The Rustic

"

Decadence

of
"

the Common

Latin

Language."

The
"

Celtic First of

and

Teutonic of the
"

Languages.
the French
"

Language.
"

Neo-Latin the of German Boethius.

" "

Dialects. in
842.
"

Evidences William Roland."

"

Language.
The The
"

The Oil

Oath

of
"

Louis Poem
"

Laws Chanson de

Conqueror.
Fabliaux.
"
"

Oc

and

Languages.
of the
Rose."

Tho Sire

"

do

Romance

Villehardouin. de la Sale. Marot

"

The
"

Joinville.

Froissart.
"

Influence
"

of Flemish Hellenism and

Writers.

"

Antoine
"

The and

Cent

Nouvelles
"

nouvelles

and

Villon.
and

Italianism.

Clement

Rahclais.

Ronsard,

Montaigne

filalherbe.

soon

as

language
the

has task the

far

reached
of

the

stage

of

making
a

understanding
of
the

it
social

difficult

one,

dissolution
off of

elements
of

is not the

Babel

is We M.

symbolic
take

destiny
from
the in

languages."
the

this

remark
on

work

of

Francis

Wey

"Variations
which

of the
out

French
that

Language,"
idioms,
their
like

he

points

everything
of rise

else

mortal,
that

have
a

periods

and

fall, and
are

time

arrives

when
influence

they
of

rendered

diffuse (3 Book when lands be

one

by neologism,

or

decomposed
of

by the
as

equivocation.
Moses in the

The
of the

history of the
Genesis, might
Roman

confusion
be

tongues,
as

described what

by

looked

upon

typical of
establish of

happened
dominion

in
over

Europe
all the
to

people endeavoured
had of of

to

their
their
"

which social

they
cement

conquered
the whole

by

means

language,
the

which earth
to

was

the

nationality.
And

And

whole
down

was

of
the

language
and

and

one

speech
the and

the

Lord

came

see

city

the the
to

tower,

which
is
now

children

of
have be

men

builded.
all
one

And
;

the
and

Lord
this

said,

Behold,

people
:

one,

they
will

language
from

they they
their

begin
have

do

and
to

nothing
Go

restrained

them,

which

imagined

do.

to, let

us

go
Y Y

down,

and

there

confound

34.6

LANGUAGES.

language, that they may

scattered them left off to build
the Lord In did the

not

understand
thence upon

one

another's

speech.

So
:

the Lord and

;

abroad
the

from

the face
name

of all the earth of it called

"

they

city. Therefore
confound
the the ruin

is the

Babel

because

there

language of
century
Latin

all the earth the

(Fig.294).
the Caesars had

beginning of
a

fifth
;

empire
which

of

become, like Babel,

vast

the the

tongue,

since the

Roman

conquest

and

occupationhad

been

and civil, religious, legal,

administrative

language of nearly all Europe, was

soil of
was

invaded from

by the
the heart

barbarian

tongues,

as

the

by

the savage the

hordes unknown this

which,

of Asia, the

extremities
in upon the

German}', and
world.

regions of
dates the
out

the

North, poured

Roman

From

epoch

originof the languages of

of
a

modern of the

Europe (Fig.295),which
invader usages with the Latin

were

formed

mixture
too

of the

idiom

tongue, which
to be

latter had

become

deeply rooted
that

in the

of

ordinarylife

altogether. It extirpated
Sallust the
was

is true and

the classic

language of Livy, Cicero,and

upper varied Latin classes of but society,

only spoken
classes used
a

understood

by

the

other

rustic

language which
from the true

with

the district and This rustic

but which population,

was

derived consisted

tongue.

Romano) language (lingua

one

of

an

infinity
some

of dialects
from less, The existed
were,

proceeding from
the mother

and

another, and

some differing,

more,

tongue.
certain number
the of

Celtic

language also comprised a

the Gauls in his
at
"

which dialects, which

same

amongst
as

the

epoch of

and of Caesar, expeditions

he

says Strabo

Commentaries,"
that the Gauls of

merely variations of

the

language.

also says

everywhere used
dialect.

native single
the Celtic of the

language,merely modified language simply underwent

Latin

by differences
certain

Moreover,

under modifications,

the influence

language,when
the Roman

the

latter became
The

or exclusivelythe political

official

language of
cities of Latin

colony.

Emperors established
and

in the

principal
the pagate pro-

Gaul, notably at Lyons, Autun,

was

Besancon,

schools in which
made the
to

language
it not

taught,and
in the

the most

earnest

efforts were

only

aristocratic

but classes,

amongst
idiom.

people,who policy of
lush into of

were

more

stubborn
was

in the retention successful.

expresses

of their national Not

This

the Romans
as servitude,

very

only did they

took
a

the

Gallo-Romans
the

Tacitus

it,but

to willingly

language

their

conquerors, and

with the

the

exception of
of
a

few

unavoidable
words

errors

of pronunciation
the Latin

introduction

few

Celtic

into

347

vocubulary.

In

short,when

barians the Barin

a

established

themselves

Gaul, all

the

inhabitants, except
for centuries

few
used barians Bar-

had country-people,
a

bastard

Itonxuitt. liityi"t

These

imported new
into modified
not

idiomatic

ments ele-

this

hybrid language,as they could

the

by

the Gauls, but Latin

it,and destroy
or

remained

foundation

root

of French.

Moreover, the
or history

Gauls

had

no

written
tion excep-

with literature, few

war

the

of

songs

and

religious
room

hymns,
national

which

stood

then which of

in

of
served pre-

archives,and
in the memory

were

the Druids The Celtic

the

and

the heads

of families.

language, not
consecration would
tended of

having

received

works literary

which

have

insured its perpetuation,

dissolution dissolution
and

to inevitably

disuse.

This

law

of

had

Fiir. 294.

"

Construction

of the Tower of
"

of

Babel, in the
the Descendants from
a

Valley
of

Senaar, by
Miniature

of Noah.

Manuscript
"

the Fifteenth

Century.

National

Library,Paris.
their

probably

taken

effect

by

the

time

that the

Franks,

after

repeated

LANGUAGES.

invasions of Gaul, had

at

length established
men

themselves

in the

which territory
the

they had conquered.

still spoke Latin, but

The of
a

the of letters,

and ecclesiastics, sometimes

patricians

very

mongrel

and

kind. unintelligible

Only
and able

those

who

had

studied familiar

in the

academies
the

of

Lyons, Vienne,
the

Narboime,
were

Aquitainc were
to

with

of principles gross

language,and

write

it without

making

any

faults of grammar

(Fig.^

Fig. 295.

"

Ihe

Institution

of

Languages.

"

Fac-simile

of

Wood
in

Engraving quarto.
"

of the

"

Margarita

PhilosophicaNova,"
Paris.

Argiutoratum,

J.

Gruninger, 1512,

In

the Arsenal

Library,

But

the

general language
written
to

used

was

the
"

lingua Romana,

and

in
as

this well
"

vulgar
which

tongue
have

were

works
our

of prose

probably works

of poetry

not

survived

day.
a

The

Franks

had

such

great respect for

the Roman

institutions

that,far

LANGUAGES.

349

from and

left attempting to destroythem, they generally administrative

undisturbed is

the Latin

political
tongue

of organization Prankish

the Gauls. the

This

why the

continued

to be under

dominion

generallanguage of

the

people

aortamur ""tpforalittr

aamtumaa
norrmmo*

"

rranniMfuntroootmunttrortfonl'
norranwr Jf.""rpluralitrt

tmnam r to f tpli'IatpTfrrto

menus rfr

utinam t ortt fuiflV t Ifr t."tpUiralttrr

firfuturlfuttrcntyfrturotrtin tomrf. ar"ommswlaocrarf "tpfr

wnnam ootramur o o tramtut

rorranf
grammarian
of

Comunmuo
296. 1'ig.
"

IIIODU
of the
"

pjfftnt* ttmpoif
Liitine," by JElius Donatus,
a

Specimen
Fourth

of

page
"

Grammairc of
"

the

Century.

Fac-simile

Wood This Wood

Engraving

for

the
was

Xylographical Edition, preservedin

the

publishedat Mayence, by Gutenberg.

of the l)uc de la Valliere.

Engraving

Library

(Fig.296),and

it was

more

refined the

and

learned

language as spoken by the

Franks
to

and the clergy, publicofficials,

magistracy.The
they were

used

the Teutonic

languageamongst
the

themselves

until

converted their

after Christianity

example

of their

king (Clovis). Thenceforward

regularintercourse

35o

LANGUAGES.

with

the

ecclesiastics who Latin

a

instructed

them

in their

new

led religion
less

to their

learningthe
endowed with

language,and speakingit more

or

Being correctly.
were

and lively intelligence

ready wit, they

which
recommended

not

long

in

acquiringa knowledge
as

of

new

language

itself to them

having
In

about

it the halo

of Roman is

greatness.

fine,the
"

French

language
and
are

composed
;

of

three

perfectlydistinct

elements
most

Germanic, Celtic,
There

Latin
more

the than fewer

last,however, being by far the

a

predominant.
the French
are

not

thousand

words

of Germanic all is

originin
the rest

language,and
it has been

far

of Celtic

origin. Nearly
that
"

Latin, and

said with

perfecttruth

French

merely
From

patoisof
the time

Latin."
of Clovis
as

the progress

made

by

Latin

was

very invaded

rapid.

The

laws of the Franks,

of the other barbarian

;

peoplewho

the Roman in what because

empire,were
was

written the
sermo

in Latin

not, it is true, in

Latin, but scholarly

termed

called

or quotidianus,

every-day language, so
It is true that the

everybody understood
continued Rhine other and
to be

and

spoke

it.

Teutonic

language
of the the

spoken by

the Prankish Germania

;

tribes which but

occupiedthe
under
at

banks

the

provincesof
chiefs who

the Franks themselves

Clovis

and

kings or

had

established
as

Orleans, Paris,and

Soissons, soon
The

adopted the vulgar Latin

either great vassals,
their national
as

their

language.
or

Jeudes,or

out

of indolence it
was

adhered pride,
use

for

longerperiod to
the upper in order assumed
two
to

and language,

probably in
The

amongst
first race,

classes
to

late

as

reign. Charlemagne's
the Gallo-Roman

kings

of the

gain the sympathies of

an

nevertheless population,

to feel

interest in the progress

of the Latin

vulgar tongue.

Thus

centuries the

the Gauls, who earlier,

still spoke

Celtic, endeavoured, according

of the rust of this
the graces of the of the

of expression

Sidonius
order

"to Apollinaris,

rid themselves familiar of

ancient beautiful sixth

language,in
Latin

to make

themselves

with

I., King language."Chilperic

himself He and
as

in Soissons, his

the middle

century, plumed
learned in his

upon

in imitating
to

speechesthe

rhetoric of
the Latin

the most

Romans.

endeavoured
his

develop the study of

not

tongue

dominions,

subjectscould

manage Roman

to

reproduce

the sounds

of the Teutonic
use

idiom Greek

with and

the letters of the Hebrew

he alphabet, lent themselves

suggested the
better
to the

of certain

letters which

intonations
of

of the
up

Frankish the

tongue.

Contemporary
learned in

with

him,

Caribert,King

Paris, set

of being pretension

jurispru-

352

LANGUAGES.

in

books

and

public documents,
whole
of

there

were

only
"

two

general languages
and Teutonic. ninth and

throughout the
The
most

vast empire Charlemagne's

Romance the

ancient is the

monument

which which

we

possess the

in

middle

of the

century
Louis in

double

oath

Charles

Bald, King
the

of France,

the German, of

leagued againsttheir brother,

armies upon the 14th oath of

Emperor Lothair, took

842. It will be in

presence

their

February, by by
from
et

sufficient for

present purposes
order
to

to cite the

taken

Louis army

the German of

Romance,
which
was

in

be

heard

and and
"

understood

the

Charles,

composed
Southern

of Franks
: regions
"

Gallo-Romans
Deo
amur

Neustria, Aquitainc,
Christian
savir et in

and
nostro

other
commun

Pro
en

pro

poblo, et podir me
cadhuna

salvament, d'ist di
eo

avant, in quant Deus

dunat, si salvarai
nosa,

cist dreit

meon

fradre
fradre

Carle, et

in
o

adjudha, et quid
il mi

si

cum

om

per nul

son

salvar

dist,in

altresi fazet.
moon

Et

ab Ludher in damno
was

plaid numquam

prindrai, qui, meon

vol, cist

fradre

Karle

sit."

This this

the

vulgar tongue
it is

as

spoken
that

in

the

greater part
the words

of France

at

and period,
are

worthy

of remark

nearly all

in the above the Latin. from

a

document Thus fusion the

in taken, disfigured

from or spelling, pronunciation rustic

common

language was
and
"

Latin
This
was

; the

Romance

formed

of Celtic,German,
called

Latin.
Latin
"

the

language of France,
this

and

the Germans which

was

France

because (Francia Latino), of the of the

language,
there.

only
to

hybrid product
and

Latin
tenth says but

tongue,

was

spoken
was

According
named
not

Luitprand,an
Romano,
France there the
on

historian
a

century, Gaul
that

always
was

Francia

later writer of

this denomination

given

to

account

Rome,
a

because sed called

a

of the

Romance

language spoken
And this is how

("sic dicta, non

of Gaul
came

Roma,
to

lingua Romana").
Francs Latin

Franks

be

(Latin

Franks).
Still the Gallic

nobles, as

the

great

lords of

of the soil called Latin

themselves,
The learn

protestedagainst this general invasion Emperor Lothair, son'

Latin,
the
use even

the had

vulgar tongue.
to

of Louis

the

Mild,

refused steadfastly
had

the

vulgar tongue, and

Teutonic

his father
states

endeavoured
means

to

preserve
to

of the

language
be

in his

by
this

of

decree

the few the

effect that

the Bible

should
of

translated
itself. of

into At

language,which
of Tours

had

out representatives

Germany
intentions

the

Council

(813)

bishops furthered

the

Charlemagne's

successor

by expressing-

LANGUAGES.

353

their

desire that
both

the

homilies
and
none

of

the

Church

should

be

translated

taneously simul-

into Teutonic

Romance the

(Fig.297).
at disappeared

The

Teutonic

language

less

the end

of the tenth of the third

pure

century, for Duke

race,

Hugh Capet, before

interview with the

he became

the first

king

during an
so as

Emperor Otho

II., who

spoke in

Latin him

to

make
; and

himself

understood

by the bishops,could only replyto

was

in Romance

the historian

Richer, who

present at the interview,

translate what Otho

relates that Arnulf,

Bishop of Orleans, was

obligedto

Fig. 297.

"

King Robert,
from the
"

Sou

of

Hugh

Capet, composing Sequences and

France."
"

Responses in

Latin.

"

Miniature
"

Chroniques de

Manuscript of

the Fourteenth

Century, No.

3.

In the

Burgundy Library,Brussels.

said A

into

the

vulgar tongue

in order
Duke
at

that Duke
was

Hugh

might

understand

it. of

littlelater, however, when

was

Hugh
the

upon of

the throne, the Mouzon

none

Bishop
he

Verdun Teutonic. make

appointed to speak
The
Romance
or

Synod
had

because

knew
to

vulgar tongue
western

the

less continued the

its way

throughout
it
was

the

provinceswhich
both

formed

kingdom people.

of France,

and

tho

language

of the

nobles

and

of the

354

LANGUAGES.

William
as

the

Conqueror,Duke

of

Normandy,
did

introduced

it into

England,just
William that is to say,
"

Eobert

his contemporary, G-uiscard, of

into

and Naples. Sicily in French

"

decreed

that the laws which be

was

England

should
dialect

be written

in Norman, French
to
an

merely a
the

of the

Romance
Latin.

language
At

and

that

should
historian
esteem

taught in

schools before
was

Naples,according
was

of the time, whoever French essentially

the

ignorantof
court.

French

held

in very

poor

at this

One what

of the

articles (No. 38) in had been

made

the Laws the Romance transformed

of William

Conqueror
the end

shows

progress

by

language at
into the

of the "Si

eleventh home

century

to arrive at

being

Langue d'Oil:
Jo
vos jettai

seit occis, u altre, enpuisuned

por
cause

pennariablementessille.
me

choses
a

de mort, et de 90
pour de mort,

ne

poez el The
ne

emplaider:

car

leist a faire

damage

altres par

quant

par

pot eschaper." Romance, otherwise

the
are Neo-Latin, languages

French, Provencal,
formed
at the
game

and Roumanic. Italian, Spanish,Portuguese,

They
regard
to

were

time, but
are,

under

different influences with

them
was

and pronunciation, throats from and looked

they
at

in

truth, all of

Latin

from issuing

different

in different

lights. It
do

poetry which, when

creation of modern

emerging

the cradle

of

the chivalry, inaugurated rhetoricians best

use

languages,for grammarians and

not

make when

languages ;
a

all

they can
been

do

is to

superintendthe
the efforts of its

of its wealth writers who

languagehas

enriched

by

poets aad
the

employ it.
without

Moreover,
and

the two

currents

which

carried its two

national

idiom,

resistance

without

admixture, into

beds, the principal

The
one

Oc language and
the

had the Oil language, that

long

been

manifest.
and

was

the

languageof
the two

poets,the other
rather

of the troubadours

the trouveres, and

or languages,

the two first

both acquired dialects, records literary of the

their simultaneously
Provencal and Duke

relative
the

perfection. The
poem

language are Aquitaine(1071

"

of Boethius, " The several other

has poems

Mystery

of

the

Wise

of the Foolish

and Virgins,"

anterior to William cited

as

IX.,

of

1127),who

often

been

the earliest of the oath in

"

the troubadours.

The

first memorials the Cantilena

to St.

of the French
of St. and

language,after
two

of 842

quoted above, are

Clermont

Eulalie,the
to the

poems the

the Life

of library

dedicated
was

Leger
about
de

Passion, and
Next
come

of St. Alexis," which

composed
romans

1050.

the in

warlike this way

epodes, called
that

chansons

de gcste or
one

and chevalerie,

it

was

the Homeric

epodc was

of the Greek of the first inspirations

language.

LANGUAGES.

355

In these
and

of pictures vigorous

heroic life the

of invention,imagination, qualities there

are

national

geniusare
the
famous

most

and conspicuous,

of signs

brilliant and

before sparklingstyle
It oldest still in

the

formation regular "Chanson de

as

of the

language.
that

is in

Roland" M. Francis
poem, the The

is to has

be

found

the
was

type of the language,which,

its
a

Wey

remarked,

infancy.
trouvere

But named

this

beautiful
none

attributed

without many the

sufficient
passages

proof to worthy
which
the

Turold,
the

less contains is following

to

be

compared

with

Iliad.

description
peers, in

he

givesof

the death

of Oliver,one Roland and

of
his

twelve Charlemagne's

Pass of Roncevaux, where army

:
"

companionssustained

the attack

of the Saracen

"

Oliviers sent Ambdui L'oie

que
en

la mort

mult

: 1'anguisset

li oil

la tcste li turnent,
tute ;
se

pert e la

veiie

Descent Formont Cuntre Si

E

A. pied, a la tere
en

culchet,
sa

halt si recleimot
ses

culpe,

le ciel ambesdous
que
e

mains

juintes,

Dion preiet

li dunget, pareis France

beneitt

Carlun

dulce,
desur
tuz

Sun Fait

cumpagnun

Reliant li helmes

humes.
;

li le coer, le
core

li embrunchet

Trestut Morz

k la tere li justet.
que

est li quens

plus ne

se

demuret.

Rollanz Jamais

li ber le
en

pluret,si 1'duluset.

tere

n'orrez

plus dolent

hume."

*
.

Henceforward

the French

language is

an

fact. accomplished which

it borrows

It is the
some

close to Latin, from Oil language. It stillclings

most

of its

and narrowlydefined ingenious

rules ; amongst French

the declension of others,

words

and

in represented adjectives,
s.

by

the

or suppression adjunction

of the

final

This

rule
see

was

not, however,
was

adopted by generally
and followed

French
some

writers,but

it is easy to

that it

pointed out

by

of

"

The
turn

literal translation in his head. Recites his

mea

of these lines loses

" Oliver feels the agony is,

of death and throws

creep

over

him. upon

His the

eyes

He

hearing and
Joins

sight.

Dismounts and and

himself

ground.
God
to

culpa aloud.
Paradise. heart fails and

his two

hands

raises them

heavenward. above the

Prays all,his ground.

on

let him

enter

Blesses

Charlemagne

gentle France, and,

falls at full
him

companion Roland.
'Tis
earth

His is
man

him, his head

Baron

droops. He
bewails

length upon
for him.

done, the
will you

Count
see a

dead;
more

Roland

and

weeps

Never

afflicted."

"'

356

LANGUAGES.

them.
grammar
or

It
;

must, every

however,
one

be said that
wrote

as

yet

there

was

no

such

thing as

spoke and

at his

fancy,according to
obscure, heavy
of spelling
to
or

his instinct

and tendencies,
to the person

the that

language was employed

not
occur

clear Even

or

ing accordlight, varied almost of

it.
to

the

words
a

ad

and infinitum,

it did

anybody

establish

regularsystem

orthography.
The

great

romances

of

imported chivalry
very

to

the the

Oil

language a
But

sort

of

nobility, grandeur, and

trouveres, of humble
than

force

suitable
as

to

epic style.
satiric and
the

other

originno
wrote

doubt, and,
de

such, more

facetious

the poets who

the chansons

invented gestc,

Fabliau,the Conic,

Fig. 298.

"

of Conflagration

the Bel-Accueil

Prison.

Fig. 299.

"

Narcissus

at the

Fountain.

Miniatures

from

the

"

Romance

of the Rose."" M. Ambroise

Manuscript of

the Fourteenth

Century.

In the

Library of

Firmin-Didot, Paris.

and

the Dif, which

and passions,

abounded

in

comedy

and

sarcasm.

The

vices,the defects,

the

the foibles of

from society,

the villein to the of the persons

king,were

hit

off in

popular poetry, much

have
of such

to the amusement

portrayed.
been

The

languagemust
the
even

become
satire
use

richer and
as

more

supple for
was

it to have in the

made and and

medium trite

this,which amongst
the
more

couched

familiar
of town

in expressions
went
on

common

peopleboth
various

country. As time
and
"

it became

vivid,more
the

more pointed,

incisive,
also the de Lorris

more

sprightly. Its best

of the

types

are

fabliaux,and
William

Romance

Rose

"

(Figs.298

and

299),begun by

357

about

1220, and

completedfifty years
of the Rose
"

later

by

Jean

de

Meung,

surnamed

Clopinel.
The
"

Romance

was

beyond
with

all doubt the it

reminiscence

of

Provencal poetry,which
South

for two

centuries had

charmed which

of populations

the

by
of

the
the

soft

and

graciousimagery
The
Romance

expressed the

ments senti-

heart.

languageof
have

the South, the Oc

language
twelfth the
to

and perfected, purified,

developed, might

become, from

the

century, the rival of the Latin, Italian, and

troubadours,
who
were

Spanish languages;but
too

dreamy

and

pensive poets, were

the

addicted

singingof love,of
life. Their

women,

of flowers, and

of earthly pleasures enervating

were

their planets, "c., which chansons, their tcnsons,

some

recited to the the Northern de Lorris and the

accompaniment of
trouveres, but with
his
successor

instrument, stringed
and
more

were

imitated

by

less monotony
to

force.

"William

added

the

and complimentary allegories

subtleties of
was,

"Romance
the
outcome

of the Rose"

the satiricaland sarcastic element, which In short,the spirit. French

perhaps,
be said,

of the Gallic

languagemay

in this work

of the thirteenth century, to have

acquiredall already
be

its original
as a

qualities.The
thereof
:
"

of spring may followingdescription

quoted

proof

"

En

mai

ce estoio, songoie, amoreus

El terns

plain de joie, s'esgaie,

ne

El terns oil tote liens

Que Qui
Et

1'en
en

ue

voit boiaaon parer

ne
se

haie

mai

voille

covrir de novele

foille.

Li boia recovrent

lor
com

verdure,
yver dure ;

Qui aunt
La Par
terre

sec

tant

meismea

e'orgoille
moille

la

rosee

qui la
poverte
tot

Et oblie la Oil elle Lors

a

1'yvereate.
la terre si

devient

gobe
robe," "c.

Qu'el volt avoir novele

William

de Lorris
more

rather belonged
common

to

the troubadour

while Jean de school,

Meung

had

in

with

the trouveres

and of the Artois, Picardy,

correct

of both, Champagne provinces, though the style

was

and full of
at

elegance,
was

of thoroughly representative in
as

the Oil

which language,

that time
as a

almost

much

favour

as

Latin, though

the latter stillsurvived

spoken

"'

358

LANGUAGES.

language

in

the

Universities.
that

The

Oil

language
was

had

become the
tutor

so

famous

throughout Europe
wrote

Brunetto

Latini, who

of

Dante,
"

in French Dante

the

publishedby encyclopaedia
whom
to

him

under

the

title of

The Oil

Treasure."

to Alighieri,

Brunetto

Latini had

taught

the

language, came
studies

to

Paris

in

order

and complete his linguistic

scholastic

300). (Fig.
served
to

Poetry had
all other

stimulate from

the

progress

of French,

as

it had

done

of

but, languages,

the

beginning of

the thirteenth

century, good

dx" tntto qgntiflz, u"?l-|7wu"

Am*

ccm^
nonet t""rm

Ubut tenfro tecotdtim

f^nm

ai/hci?

ZMltten to le a^on
"? no

mb^
Fig. 300.
"

aterd
"

Id |tem
Commedia."
"

Fragment

of Dante's

Divina

Manuscript of

the Fourteenth

Century.

In the National

Library,Paris.

prose
on

made

its appearance

in France, with

Geoffroi de Villehardouin's book

man

the

This writer, a Conquestof Constantinople.

of little education,
used the
true

who

wrote

with
a

and great facility noble the and

a

and precision, he
was

who the

historic
out

was language,

warrior, and

first to

bring

the

real

of qualities

French
of

language
which he

in his
was

of description

what

took

place

duringthe
of

Crusade

1202, at

present. This crusader, a native

a

almost Champagne,attained perfection

at

bound

; and

the Sire de Joinville,

360

LANGUAGES.

and The

not

imposing any
the

check

upon

his

which style,

is often

heavy

and

diffuse.

tendency of
The
was

language was
the
to

to become

turgid and

monotonous.

usurpationof
not

Flemish

writers into all branches

of French and

ture litera-

favourable

the latter, which,

becoming

affected

involved,
de Pisaii

finally lapsed into pedantic and

of (Fig.301), the historiographer

fallacious
Charles

verbosity.
the

Christina

V., set

example

of this fictitious of the

court

pathos,but

she

was

very

soon

outdone Olivier

by
de

the la

historians
and been

of

Burgundy, George Chastelain,

other knot writer for responsible the

Marche,
to

Molinet.
more

Jean any

d'Auton, the chronicler of Louis XII., appears

involved

have

than the

stylewhich

formed

Gordian

of the French Antoine

de way
"

language. pleasantchronicler
to

la Sale, a
contribute

of the

court

of

Burgundy,
cut

did

not

-in any

this knot, though tighten

he did not
a

it ; and
to

his romance, the

once

Petit Jehan
had

de

Saintre," must
so

have

been

welcome
in

change
a

reader

after he

perused

many

written compilations de la Sale wrote authors

at style

and pretentious

.involved.
even

Antoine

French,
"

and

this

remark

with applies

greater truth
to descend

to the
a

of the

Cent

Nouvelles
troiiveres

nouvelles,"who
who
had
too set to

seemed

in

direct line from The

the ancient

rhyme

so

many

joyousfabliaux.
more

French

language,spoilt
put
in

by
the

much

erudition,once
of the

recovered
a

its

force,when original
drew
from his
own

mouth

people at largeby
words Francois
or

poet who

tion, inspiraa

without
and
"

the aid of Latin

kind. of the

of declamation, eloquenceof

simple
the he
a

natural

This

was

Villon,who greater force

the

writes and

the

language of
"While

Romance

Rose," only with

boldness.

was

to restoring

its placeof honour

was

language of Paris, a

statesman
are a

and

courtier, Philippede Comines,

model of the grave,

Memoirs preparing

which
of

perfect

sustained,and
"The

language philosophical

history.As
in
a

M.

Francis
is

"Wey remarks,

Seigneur of Argeiiton writes

nervous

style

which

flexible, precise, ample, and

few differences
from the

; his

language seems
a

entirely

modern, and, exceptinga

in

and spelling

few obsolete words,

Yet

separated by only a nearlya century During

and Italian, the the for

few

years

reignof Henry
and
was a

IV."

there

was

between

de Philippe Francois years

Comines

the

King

of Navarre.
to

reign of
a

I. there this

tendency

imitate
same

the

hundred fortified

but tendency prevailed,

contact

at the

time Latin.

language was

by

its continuous this

with

Greek

and

Rabelais

satirizes in

"Pantagruel"

abuse

of

Latiiiism, which

Gcoffroy

LANGUAGES.

361

Tory
Latin
set

had
"

condemned previously
to preface
"

by

his denunciation

of the
an
"

"

skimmers

of
to

in the

Champfleury," which
as

contains

exhortation

the French wholesome

language in good order, so

French" the French

to

in good speak with elegance very

and the

(Fig.302).
students, was
he
none

Rabelais,while
not

justly ridiculing

jargonof

himself

his guard on sufficiently

but erudition of style, against the language of perfection

the less raised to the

degree of highest
Marot
and

the sixteenth

century.

Clement

like

poets of
as

his

Bonaventure school, Villon

had

des Periers and others,sought their models,

the

Francois

done, in

authors

of the

thirteenth
and

century, and transparent,

writers

they were

the custodians

of the real French

language,clear

and correct, elegant and witty. Calvin and several precise

Protestant

belong

to

this school, but

their

stylewas
with

harder, colder, and

somewhat

colourless.
The finest and sixteenth

century
French

teems

chefs-d'oeuvre of every tainted with

Italianised

kind, but the

of productions

genius are

Hellenism, Neologism,
Henri the

Latinism, and the

courtier-like and this

as language,

Estienne
of the

termed Yalois

it in his treatise upon

into the

permeated subject,
into the written

from

court

spoken rather than

"

language.
"

For

the most

part it was

the poets
for

and

the best of them and

into the

bargain who, owing to

the demolishers
were

their affection
ravagers

Greek, Latin,

Italian,became
and

and main

of the French

language. Ronsard
the other

the Pleiade

the

promoters of this deplorable change. (Seebelow, chapteron

The
and
on prose-writers,

National

Poetry.)

hand,

set themselves

against this sacrilege,

as

remained resolutely like

French.

Historians Henri

such

Blaise de Montluc, like Bona-

humanists
venture

Amyot, polemistslike
Noel
du

Estienne,narrators
moralists
like

des

Periers and

Fail,and

Montaigne, show

that the French But

languagewas
enemies

still known

in France.

the
and

worst

of the French

language were
change

the

reformers

of

grammar These

and Louis Meigret, spelling, Jacques Pelletier, wanted

to

Pierre

Ramus.

who extravagant philosophers, far

more

the whole

system of

were language,

absurd

than
sense

the

Limoges student
little success
and

of

Tory Geoffrey

and from

of Rabelais,and

the

good

of the

generalpublic prevented them

they
Of did

making
soon

many

proselytes.What by Montaigne
was a
"

obtain

was

neutralised
Francis various
;

afterwards
says, His

Malherbe.

the former

M.

Wey
his

wit

at

once

unrestrained,

and undulating,
was

genius was

disdained supple,
3
A

and doctrines, iinj"erious

pro-

LANGUAGES.

foundly imbued

with

Roman
His

thought, a
erudition
as

subtle
a

and

tempered

savour

of which

pervaded .his style.

and

philosopherinvigoratedhis genius
and

his

style;his independence,unfettered
from but his imitative and He could

yet

flexible in its

course

of

action,preservedhim
he knew
no

servility ; a painterof

the human

mind,

model

nature,

only speak

the

language which
lating trans-

corresponded with
it." the best and Malherbe servitude

thoughts.

expressed that language without

before

Montaigne is,in fact,the writer who,

most
seems

Pascal's

time, made

remarkable
to

use

of the French
it his task He
to

language.
free the
his

have and

made

language
with

from

the

of Italianism
he

Hellenism.
to

did

work

unbending
taining mainFrench
"

sternness, and

restored

poetry

its national

while characteristics,
To him
we owe

it in the
verse

regions of

the most

majestic lyrism.

which

the primordial features possessed truth. But

of the French than any

language
one

purity,

clearness, and
the old and
sense.

Henry
and and

IV.

did

more

else to renovate hated tion affectacommon

French

language

French Latin

wit ; for that

king, who

despisedGreek
He

pathos,was

the like
a

of personification

thought
and the

like

philosopher, spoke
The French made under

soldier,and

wrote to

at

once

like Brantome Italian

once more

Amyot.
Valois, was

language,which
Spanish during Henry
IV.

tended the

become
;

under

being

League

but

it

became

French essentially

Fig. 302."

The

Broken

Jar."

Token
"

of

Geoffrey Tory, Bookseller,

small

at

Paris, in the first Edition

of his

Champfleury," 1529,

folio.

ROMANCES.

Origin
the

of

the first

Name
French

Romance.
"

Greek These

and

Latin Romances in

Romances.
were

"

The

Discussion of Three

of

the

Savants

as

to and of

Romances. Ancient Their

"

the

Emanation The
the

Popular
Matercs

Songs

Latin the

Chronicles.
"

Romances

Prose

and

Rhyme.
of

"

(Metres)

Chansons

de

Gate.
"

"

Classification. de Roland."
"

"

Manuscripts
of

Jugglers. (Ballad
"

"

Assemblies

and the

Trouveurs.

"

The

Chanson Romances.

Progress
"

Somancerie

Songs) Holy Early

"

during
Grail.

Crusades. Decadence The Short

"

Breton of Romances

"

Tristan.

Lancelot.
"

Merlin. of

The the The

"

in of the

the

Fourteenth

Century.
Century."

"

Remodelling
Abroad."

Romances."

Romances

Fifteenth

Romance

Amadis."

I OVELS
of
in who read
a

and similar

romances,

or

works
were

of in

imagination
demand those
and

character,
and
no

great
among

Greece
had for

Rome,
business

especially

occupation,
rather than

who

amusement

for

tion. instrucmeant
a

The work
not

name

romance

(which

written
used and

in the

the

Romance
or

tongue)
twelfth

was

until with which ancient

eleventh
a

tury, cen-

very

different
to

meaning
it.
romances

from

that

now

attaches
and
"

The
were

Latin The

Greek

merely
"

recitals Ass"

of of

imaginary
were

occurrences.

"Satire very

of Petronius

and

the Roman that

at

Golden

Apuleius
time

doubtless

imitated

frequently
of

in

the

literature
we

of the for
and

of the

Caesars, but
of
a

it is in the which the

literature

Greece
its sway

must

look

the

progress

literary school empire

kind the in

long

held

Constantinople,
set

throughout
the and

the this
"

of

East.

Achilles he and

Tatius the
ceeded suc-

of Alexandria
"

up

model

for

of

book

when

composed
he the
"

Loves

of

Clitophon

Leucippe
of
and

in

third

century,
who
the
wrote
"

was

by Heliodorus, Theagcnes
and and of

Bishop

Tricca,

Thessaly,
who
wrote

Loves

of

Chariclea,"
last
named

Longus,

Loves and

of

Daphnis
and

Chloe."

The

was

unequalled

for

its

simplicity

grace,

364

ROMANCES.

stood far above

and Eugenianus, The

the love
a

romances

by published
writers

Theodore

Prodromes,

Nicetas

number

of other

in the twelfth stories

century.
of

Middle of pagan

Ages, however, origin,but

a

cared
the

little for

profane love
John

and

works

in
romance

eighth century
of
of

St.

Damascenus

composed in
of St. Barlaam

Greek and

sort

of

mystic love concerning the legend

this fabulous

Josaphat,King
was

India, and
into every

story was
must

so

warmly
come

welcome
to the

that it twelfth

translated

language.

We

then

down
can

century
with
the

to find any

fabulous
romance

stories written
; as,

in Latin

which

be connected of the Seven

literature of

for instance, the

or

"Romance from

translated Sages" (Septem Sapientes), of the

imitated

the Hebrew

by

monk

Abbey

of

Haute-Selve,
these
two

and

the celebrated

entitled compilation the

name

"Gesta
was

Romanorum."

"When

works
de

appeared,
other in

of

romance

alreadygiven to
or
"

the chansons

gcsteand
were

stories
"

of

of wonderland, chivalry,
"

of

which religion,

written

Romance For

verse

or

in
a

"

Romance

prose.
most

nearlyhalf
have and any

century the

scholars gifted
trace

of France,
the

Germany,

and

Belgium

been Paulin else

His

endeavouringto
Paris,more

the

originof

old French

romances,

M.
one

has especially, first to appears and

elucidated

this of

question
some

better than these

most
romances.

by being the
discussed Gautier
;

the earlytext publish

to
us

of
the

system, which
been

the

most
men

and logical
as

has satisfactory, and

a

opposed by
last named, the

such

Michelet,

Edgar Quinet,
on

Leon

yet the

great

as

is his experience
and literary solved. learned

such

could only retard subject,

which

solution of the

historic We

problem

his

M. predecessor,
sum

Paulin

Paris,had
so

all but many

propose,

therefore,to
to endeavour

up

the

opinions given by
them
some

and disputants,

to draw

from

conclusion. logical
upon

According to
the chansons the
de

M.

Gautier's
the

system, which
romances

is based

great erudition,
and
set to
verse

geste and

of

invented chivalry,
their

by
and
or

in jugglers

the twelfth century, had

But the M. Gautier

origin in

the

popular songs
cantilen",
which

Teutonic

cantilena. in of

could

not

discover cites

these

original songs,

Germanic
and

language.
which has

He

only one,
common

he

calls the Cantilena chansons

de

Hildebrand,
as

nothingin

with the

geste, inasmuch
the end

it makes

mention
He

of Odoacer,
a

King

of the of

Heruli, at
the and seventh

of the fifth

century.

also mentions

popular song

century, which
into Latin

the in his

Bishop
"

of Meaux,

has Hildegaire, which is

collated

translated

Life of St. Faron," and

supposed

ROMANCES.

365

to

have

boon

composed

in Romance mentions

to celebrate
a

the

of victory

Clotaire II.
song about

over

the Saxons. battle which

he Finally,

very

beautiful Teutonic

the

Louis

III., son

of Louis M.

the Stammerer, is

fought against the

confess that these
de

Normans
Teutonic of the

at Saucourt

in 881.
were

But

Gautier

obligedto

which cantilenae, twelfth

believed to be the germ

of the chnmom

geste

century, are
at

no

himself longer in existence, confining time because exist,

to the

that they did supposition Chronicles

that

one

Eginhard relates
and of

in his

Charlemagne
were

gave

strict orders that the old songs the

(antiquissima
ancient

in which i-iirmina),

celebrated

mighty
is

deeds

wars

times, should
The

be collected and

transcribed.

existence of these old

popular songs
were

but beyond all question, the memory

those
of the

which

Charlemagne
of Gaul

had

collected

in only preserved

inhabitants
Thus in the the

by being translated

into the rustic

"

or

Romance
du
were

tongue.

Anglo-Norman poet,Robert
the

Wace, in his
de

Roman

Rou," recalls
sung, viously prethe

lines following

primitivechansons

geste which
of the army

to the battle of

in the presence Hastings,

of William

Conqueror:

"

"

Taillefer Sur
un

qui mult qui

Men

cantoit

cheval
eus

tost aloit

Devant De

s'en alloit cantant

et de Reliant
vassaux

Callemaine

Et d'Olivier et des

Qui

morurent

k Rainschevaux."

Here

was

the veritable the That

of origin

the

"

Chanson
de

de Roland," which
were

is rightly
into

regarded as
Romance. had

oldest of the it is formed

romanced
"

chamom
an

geste which
various

composed

of

of aggregation

popular songs vulgaror

which

been already
"

that is to say, written

but it is
to impossible

in the

Romance
chansons de

tongue

is very

probable;

believe that the his

successors,

to the r/cstc relating

reign of Charlemagne
le Loherain,"
It
were was were

and

excepting,

perhaps,the

famous

"Garin

composed by
the the chansons

French

jugglers
in the
the

after Teutonic Romance

cantilena;.

undoubtedly
of preludes
M. Paulin

popular songs
de

languagewhich
cf

the
as

geste and

great romances
these

chivalry.But,
had

Paris has
to

provedto rhymed

tion, demonstra-

popular songs
were

first

given birth

histories and

chronicles

written in Latin, which It may

the

source principal

of the

romances.

for instance, that the Latin be affirmed,

Chronicle

of Nennius, the

366

""

ROMANCES.

"

Historyof
"Rou" of

the

Bretons,"
were

and

the

"

Life

of

Merlin/'

written in his

in

Latin

by
of

Geoffreyof Monmouth,
the and of the

the materials
as

used Robert

by

Wace

romances

"Brut,"
and Latin

also the

by

de Borron

in his romance,

"Joseph

Arimathea,"
is the

by

anonymous

author
to

of the

"St. Graal."
of

Then, too,
Rheims.

there This

Chronicle

attributed

Archbishop Turpin

spuriousChronicle
written

is in two of
at

of parts : the first, consisting the middle is the work

five

was chapters,

by

monk

Compostelloin Chapter VI.,

the years

of the eleventh of 1119.

a

century

the

second, beginning
wrote

monk

of
at

St. Andrew

of Vienna, who

between

1109

and

Such,

Fig.

303.

"

Joshua, King

David,

and

Judas of Neuf

Maccabseus.

"

From

Series

of Ancient

Engravings, figure in the

of the

representingthe
Komance,
Fifteenth
"

Nine

Heroes des the

Sacred, Ancient,
Preux."
a

and

Modern Coloured

History,who
Colbert

Le

Triomphe
form

These

Drawings, apparently
in the

Century,

of Frontispiece

Manuscript

Room,

National

Library,Paris.

are least,

the

conclusions

arrived at

by

M.
or

Gaston six prose

Paris.

This Chronicle
were

at

once

acquired such
this
was

that celebrity

five the

translations
much

made,

and

the

source

from

which

jugglersobtained
whose
a rose romances

of their lore.

Chrestien

de

the beginning of Troyes,

is here
:
"

appended,

intimates that he has

merely put
"

into

verse

romance

Chrestiens
A

qui

entent

et

paine

rimoier

le meillor

conte

Par

le commandement

le Comte

368

ROMANCES.

merit, while
musical better

the

prose

romances

were

merely

read
must

or

narrated

without

accompaniment adapted
romances

of any
to the

kind, and
chansons

rhyme
de

naturallyhave
most

been

than
;

prose that has

geste during the

and

flourishing
centuries. the
name

periodof
M.
romance

is to say,
set

in the twelfth very

thirteenth

Paulin

Paris

forth in
a

the clearly
to the

reasons

why
of

of
it it

was (romaii)

given
for

France

narratives

before chivalry
For
some

became

the

name special

whole

branch
to

of literature. talk Romance, but

time
not

had
the

been close

the custom of
:

throughout France
century
thus In that

it

was

until in

the

eleventh
was
"

any in the
same

attempt

was

made
was

to

write
Romance.

Romance M. Paulin

whatever

written
the

vulgar tongue

Paris

adds,

this way
were

genericname
Bible

was

retained

for

all these of the of the

writings.

There

romances

of the
romances

(Fig.303), romances Virgin,romances

of the

Crusades, romances
Saints

of

King Arthur,
the

of the

(Fig. 304), of They

were

Passion, of

the

Image

World,
ful wonder-

of

"c. Sallust,"

for the most French

part narratives of warlike

and the had jugglers armies

and

adventures, which
Crusades and works these of
to all the

the

trouveurs

told

during

the

who foreigners
course

composed
gave

from

beyond
of
romance

the seas,
to all

in foreigners

of time in the
"

the

unique name

imaginationwritten
has

prose.

Dante, who
of the

could write
at

and end

speak
of the

French,
thirteenth

himself

fixed

meaning

word

the

century

in the line

"

Versi

d'amore,

prose

di romanzi."

Thus
came

the

romances

in prose

were

as

numerous

as

those

in

verse

when

Dante

to Paris

to

study the language of

from
the

Oil.

The three of

jugglers had,

thirteenth three Round three

:

century,
distinct

divided
sources :

romances

into
romances

which categories,

proceeded from
romances

the

Charlemagne,the
and Roman the
"

of

the

Table, and
of categories

the
romances

romances

of thus

Greek

antiquity. These

are

in designated

Song
Ne De
Et Li sont

of the Saxons

""

"

que

trois materes de

tout

home la

entendant

France,
de
ces

Bretagne
materes

et de
a

Rome

Grant,

trois

n'i
sont

nule

semblant. et

conte

de

Brelagne
sont sont suge

et vain
sens

plaisaut,

Cil de

Eome Franeu

et de

apparent,
. .
.

Oil de

voir

(vrais)."

ROMANCES.

369

Hut

each of those matters

one

comprised by
a

number

of different

which subjects, and

corresponded with
facts.

another many

succession of
one

homogeneous
vast
same

analogous
were

They

were

so

forming cycles
same race

whole,

in which

""rouped personages
cycles principal

of the

and

of the

character.

The

three had

of the

Geste

in

France, for instance, were

those which

Fig. 306."

Compiler."Miniature from a Manuscript of the Brussels. In the Burgundy Library, William figures Charlemagne,
is indicated
"

Fifteenth

Century.

for their central

of

Orange, and Renaud

from

dc

Jlontiiuban,us
"

by
que

the

following line
en

the

romance

of

Girars

dc Yiane

"
"

H'ot

trois Gestes 3
B

France

la

garnie." A gest*

370

ROMANCES.

may
out

be in

compared

to

tree

of ancient the
to

growth, the
trunk
branches.
;

branches each of

of which these

spread

all directions

from

mother
new

and

branches,

graftedthereupon, gave
M.
extant

birth

Gautier
which

has

classed in
to

order systematic three rich

all the

romances

in and

rhyme
the

still
mere

belong
shows

the

great cyclesof
literature

France,

mention

of them
du Grans

how
or

French

is in works into

of this kind.
"

The"Geste Berte mont,

aux

Roi,"

of

"Charlemagne," is

divided

six parts:

1st,

Pies, Enfances
de

Charlemagne, Enfances Bourgogne, Entry

Gaidon,
Jehan into

Roland.

2nd, Aspre-

Fierabras,Otinel,Gui
la Chanson

Spain,the Capture of

Pampelona,
or

de Roland,

Anse'is de de

Carthage. 3rd, Acquin,

;

the

Conquest of
;

Little

Brittany;

Lanson

Simon

de

Pouille

Galien Huon Garin

Voyage

to

Jerusalem.

4th, Song of the

Girart

Saxons.

5th, Macaire,
The
"

de Bordeaux. de

6th, Charlemagne, by
or

of Amiens.

Geste

of

Montglane,"

of

"

William

of

Orange/' comprises no

less than
as

twenty-threeor twenty-fourromances,
follows
de
:
"

which,

arranged,are chronologically
Garin de

Les

Enfances de

Garin

de

Montglane,
Renier de des

Montglane,
de le

Girars

Viane,

Hernaut

Beaulande,
le

Gennes, Aimeri
Enfans de
as

Narbonne,

les Enfances

Guillaume,

Departement Looys, le

Aimeri,

Siege

de

Narbonne,
le

le Couronnement Barbastre de

Charroi

Nismes, la Prise d'Orange, d'Aiidrenas,

Siege de

(Beuves de Comarchis,
Narbonne,
Enfances Bataille de

Guibert revised),

Mort

d' Aimeri

Vivien, Chevalerie

Vivien, Aliscanps,

Rainoart, Moniage Guillaume,

la
Prise de

Loquifer,Moniage Rainoart, Renier,

There
or are
"

Cordres, Foulques
"

Candie.
de

but Boon

ten

or

eleven,

romances

in the
"

Geste

of Renaud

Montauban,"

de

Mayence,"

viz.

Boon

de

les Enfances Mayence,Gaufrey, de

Aye Ogier,la Chevalerie Ogier, Maugis

Aimon,

d' Avignon, Gui

Nanteuil, Tristan
1'Amachour de other
:

de Nanteuil, Parise la Duchesse,

d'Aigremont, Vivien
or

Monbranc,

and

les Quatre of

Fils the

Renaut
:
"

de

Montauban.

The

cycles are

composed

following

elements

Cycle of

the Crusade de

Helias, les Sebourc, and

;

Enfances

Godefroi, les Chetifs,

de Bouillon.
;

Antioch, Jerusalem, Baudouin

"

le Bastart

The
;

Geste

des Lorrains

"

"

Hervis
; and
"

de Metz The

Carin de Loherain
du Nord
" "

Girbert

de Metz

Anseis,son
Gormond

of Gierbert and

Yon.

"Geste Geste

"

Raoul

de Cambrai, and and de

Isembart.

Burgundian
de

"

Girart
"

de Roussillon
et

Aubri

le

Bourgoing.
de Blaives.

'-'Petite Geste "Petite Geste

"

Blaives:"
St.

Amis
"

Amiles,
and Elie

Jourdain
St.

de and

Gilles:"

Aiol

Gilles.

"English

Geste:"

Horn

Beuves

d'Hanstonne.

Various

37'

"

Sipcrisdo Vignevaux, Floovaiit,

Roche, Lion de Bourges, Florent

Charles and

the

Bald, Hugh

Capet,

Boon

do la

Octaviiiii,i^c.

Fig. 306."

The

St. Mark

Library, Venice, founded

Cardinal Bessarion.

in the

Fifteenth

Century by-

of jH-rusal

the

titles of

these

chansons

de

yeste and

romances,

some

of

3?2

ROMANCES.

which

have

not

yet

been

and published,
an

most

of which
extent
to

contain which

from
the

six

to

eight thousand lines,will give

literature nourished from the
some

idea

of
to

the

romance

twelfth

the

thirteenth century.
which should
"

There

are,

in addition to the above, and cycle, of Rome and

or

twenty

romances

belong to
be included

the

Brittany

four of

or

five very

long

ones

which

in the

cycle

: amongst antiquity
"

others,the

Romance

of the Seven in the twelfth Most

Sages"
century
of the
in

the well-known Lambert

"

Romance and

of Alexander,"

begun
de

by

li

Tors,"
are

continued
above

by
are

Alexandre
in

Bernay.

romances or couplets,

which

given

ten-syllable verse,
not

arranged

la!fuses, with

assonances,

which

were

replacedby rhymes

until

the second

age

of

romances.

Many others,less ancient, are

because the first

in lines of twelve
to

called Alexandrines, syllables, this. metre lines of

seems was

attempt

write
are

lines with
a

made

in the

"Romance

of Alexander." this

There

few

in

and eight syllables, rhymed-in couplets, been in applied, the first instance, to
"

system
of have than

of versification
a more

to have

romances

homelv

kind, which, like the well-known

of sprightliness the

Roman

de

Renard,"
to the

the

and vivacity

fabliau,and

appeal more
rather be

wit

to the

tion imagina-

of the readers, or, it should The

de
were

said,of
the
some

the listeners. their chanson*

jugglerswere
romances,

very and

loath to part with it

was

manuscriptsof
time and that these

yesfe and

not

for

manuscripts
of these of

to be found
one

in the
can

libraries
see,

of monasteries been

castles.
the

Many

as manuscripts,

have

copied from
were

at original

the cost
to

some

wealthy noble.
romances,

The

themselves jugglers learnt

always
in

eager

procure
paniment accom-

good

which

they
or

by

heart Those

and who

sang had

to public,

the

of certain of

the violin with

the

rote.

the

best repertory their

were

meeting

the most

numerous

audiences

during
in

tions peregrinaAges
with the

through the country.

they formed
the main
one

These

jugglers,although
many

the

Middle the
one

vast

had association, distinctions fortune.

pointsof

difference
were

other, and preserved the

upon their talent and songs, and

of rank, which of them appear

dependent in
not

Some
to

would in the

sing other
of the

than

national nobles. received

were

only condescended
about
at
on

houses

great

They
a warm

travelled welcome

horseback, accompanied by their servants,

castles and

the

abbeys

which

they visited,and
their
mean

handsomelypaid. Others, again,excited

appearance,

suspicion by
from

and

hungry
before

and

were

often
to

ordered for

away

the door It may

of the houses be taken

which

they halted

sing

their

supper.

for

A'(".lf.-L\'C"S.

373

granted, too,
littleversed

that

their
art

stock

of
as

songs of

\vas

limited, and

tliat

they

were

a*

in the

of musie

tale-tellers.
twmlili-in-x

Amongst

the

jugglerswere

great many

and

tnnu-fin-x.

The

Fig. 307."
de

Coronation

of

Charlemagne
taken from

in the

City of Jerusalem."
No.

Miniatures the

from

the

"Chroniques

Charlemagne,"

Mnuuscript

9,066, in

Burgundy Library,Brussc-ls

(FifteenthCtnlury).

latter composed

romances

in prose prose

and
or

in

rhyme.
more

The

asiseiiiblfurx (Fig.305), them-

though capable of writing in

in verse,

confine! generally

374

ROMANCES.

selves
so as

to

compiling the
the

various

of episodes

romance

or

of several

romances,

to vary

impressionsproduced 011
of rhapsodists
or

the audience. modified

These
the
text

assembleurs,
which

like

the Greek
to

Homer's

time,

they
and
were

intended
transformed couched

narrate

to

sing, and

they

in many

instances in

corrected

the

ancient

romances

when

the

language
the

which

they
taste

had

become

obsolete, and
of
some

when especially
new

popular
is how

of the
came

day
pass

called for the addition that the

text primitive

ornaments.

This

it

to

of many

romances

underwent be difficult to

changes of dialect,
understand. another of the times Some-

the existence
an

of which
who

it would

otherwise

assembleur into another

desired to transpose the

into original the termination

dialect,

or

even

language,simplychanged
sort

words,

and There been and

so

composed
still exist

of

grammatical balderdash
written in the

incomprehensible. utterly
Oil

certain

romances

language
and

which

have

thus
even

travestied into
some

by

the

jugglersinto

the Limousin St.

Provencal

dialects,

Italian.

The

of public library these

Mark, Venice
French
more

(Fig.306),
romances,
nor

contains which

curious

manuscripts of

Italianised

are,

while

preserving the preciseoriginal form,

neither

less

than

gibberish.
of the songs
romances as belonged, we

Most

have

said, not
but

only to the ancient earlylegends

not

popular
written

in

Celtic, Teutonic, or
under the
name

Romance,

also to the

in Latin
sources

of Cfesta.
traced

These

two

distinct but

gruous incon-

are

often

to

be
to

in the

romances

of the first
different The Geste

epoch, in

which

the
cum

author, in order
dit la

the distinguish
dit

two

origins, repeats
soon

either
more

Geste, or
the

si

cum

la Chanson.

acquired
in scruple

influence

than

Chanson,
obtained

and

all nearly

the trouveurs
some

felt no

that theyhad declaring

their stories from This In the is the

"

of the old monasteries, with

notably from
to relating moine

the the

Abbey

of St. Denis. France.

case

several

romances

historyof

Enfances
author
to

Guillaume,"
have

genti!

(a good-natured monk)
the materials

is said
"

by the
les
"

suppliedhim
monstres." it

with

for his work,

"

Si m'a Pies

vers

enseigneset
even more

The
was a

author
courteous

of

Berte

aux

Grans

states

that explicitly

monk

of St. Denis, named (moinecoiiois)

Savari, who

"

Lc

livre

as

histoires

me

monstra.''

Moreover,

the

monks

of St. Denis

themselves

composed fables which

they

376

ROMANCES.

work,
romances,

as

well which

as

the made that

Chronicle
the

of

Turpin,

served

as

theme

for

several

princesand
had

lords who undertaken

took the

part in later Crusades

feel

quitecertain

Charlemagne

journey to

Palestine

(Fig.307).
In and it any
was

event, the authors

not

of many

of the

earlyromances period of

remain
literature
or

unknown,
that end the of

until

the

second
names

epoch
either

of this
at

trouveurs

appended their
Moreover,
or

the for

beginning

at

the

their works. who

name,
romances

there

is

good ground
were

that believing

the the

jugglers,
author's The first
must

recited
as

sang

the often

romances,

very

chary

of

giving

they very

claimed
very the
"

the

authorship for periodof

themselves.

precededby only a
almost coincided who with

few years the

the Crusades, and

have Claude

of inauguration
It the
was

the feudal I

epoch,accordingto
romances

Fauchet,
to

says, that

at

this

time,

believe,that
and
crown

began
the

be

written,and
of these

trouveurs, jugglers, feudatories of the

frequented singers
of and that Fauchet in
romance

courts

princes(grand

France),
other which

to

recite and

sing their

narratives without rustic Romance

rhyme, their
language
we see as

songs,

poetic
was

inventions, using the

understood convinced He
even

well Claude

as

by

more

people."
romances

Thus

that

appears

that the says in

so

in prose

were

anterior of you that

to the

romances

rhyme.
was

many

words,

"

If any

believe that the

there
were

written

only
and

in

rhyme,

I will tell him in the

"

also
"

romances

not

rhymed

in prose. into St.

For

Life of Charles
year 1200 Comte
"

the Great
at

of (Chronicle of

Turpin), put
Comtesse de

French

before

the

the

request

Yoland,
the

Paul,

sister of book the

Baudoin,
author
'

de

Hainau,
Comte

surnamed de when who

not

in Bastisseur, discovered
at

the fourth Sens in

says, of

Baudoin,

Hainau,
on

Burgundy

the

Life

Charlemagne,'and,
de Sainct

his

death-bed, gave
me

it to his sister in
a

Yoland,

Comtesse many

Paul,

asked read

to

publishit
would

prose

romance,
as a

because

people who

would

it in Latin The

read
romance

it

romance."

rhymed
to

of

Charlemagne, apparentlythe
named after and

which famous

the
"

translator Chanson de

of

Turpin

declared
which M. Leon

be

was spurious,

Roland,"

is attributed

to

trouveur

Turolde, and
songs learned

which, according to

Gautier,

was

composed
Paulin
or

popular
other

of Teutonic

origin and
that it is be

tendencies, while

M.

Paris rustic

critics believe de

belongs to
a

the

Romance

language.
and

The

"Chanson

Roland"
it may

true

French

Iliad,full

of

lofty, generous,

ideas,and patriotic

ROMANCES.

377

trrnu'd

the

highestand
in

most

touchingspecimen of earlyFrench
to

poetry.
to

The

predominant feature
France. When

it is attachment is

the

Catholic

faith and

gentle

Roland

from expiring last look

German
to
or

the effect of his wounds

in the defile
for

of Ronceraux

(Fig.308), his
is

and

his last

thought are
this may

France.

Assuredlythere
French
romances,

nothing

Teutonic
was,
we

in

the oldest of the

second

in order

which

fairly suppose,
first

the

version original

of "Aliscans."
as,

These
"

romances

of the
de

epoch

often lines

began abruptly ;
of which
run
"

the for instance,

Chanson

Roland," the

first two

"

Carles li reis,nostre Set

anz

emperere ested
en

magne,

tuz

ad pleing

Espaigne."

This

is

very
to

characteristic

opening for
in

popular song,
very

in

which

it

was

necessary
not

matter explainthe subject

few words.
the

It is the poet,

the

who juggler,

has

to

make
two

direct

appeal to

public whom

he

that speaksin these addresses, But

lines.
an

nothingcan

give so good appended

idea

of the

chansons early

de

gesteas

few

and quotations,

is the the

narrative of

of the

death

of Roland skin

at

Ronceraux Saracens
:
"

(Fig.308), where

nephew

Charlemagnewas

by

the

"

Roland

sent que

la mort
va

lui est

proche

Sa cervelle s'en Le voili

par

les oreilles.
sea

qui priepour

pairs d'abord, afin que Dieu

n'en pas avoir de epee.

les

appelle ;

Puis, il se reoommande
II

st 1'ange Gabriel. pour

son

prend 1'olifant d'une main, Durendal,

reproche,

Et de 1'autre saisit II s'avance Fait Monte II y

a

plusloin qu'une portee d'arbalete,

pas
sur

quelques
sur un

la terre Sous

d'Espagne,entre
beaux

en

un

champ de ble,

tertre.

deux

arbres,

Ik

quatre perrons de marbre.

a

Roland Et
se

tombe pame
:

1'envers la mort

sur

1'herbe

verte
.
. .

car

lui est

proche.

trois
en

Roland reprises,
nl wit que

frappe sur
saurais dire.

le rocher

pour

briser

son

epee

Plus

je

ne

L'acier

grince : il ne
remonte le comte
en

rompt

pas

L'epee
Quand
Tout
'

amont

vers

le ciel. la

qu'ilne s'aper^oit
il la
comme

peut briser,
:

doucement

plainten
tu
es

lui-meme

Ma

Durendal,

belle et sainte !

378

ROMANCES.

Dans

ta dent

garde doree
de

il y

l)ien des
sang

rcliques:
de saint

Uno Des Du

saint Pierre, du de

Basile,

cheveux vetement
non,
ce

monseigneur

saint Denis,

de la
n'est

Vierge Marie.
pas droit que
entre
ne

Non,
Ta

paiens te possedent.
chretiennes. lache !

place est seulement

a

des mains

Plaise Combien

Dieu
de

que
terres

tu

tombes

pas entre celles d'un toi

j'aurai par
a

conquises,

Que
Et
. .

tient Charles

la barbe

fleurie,

la richesse de 1'Empereur ! qui sont aujourd'hui de grande douleur, a cause Et maintenant j'ai
.

cette epee.

Plut6t

mourir

que

de la laisser
cette

aux
a

Paiens

Que

Dieu

n'inflige pas

honte

la France.'

Roland Et

sent que

la mort

1'entreprend
sur

lui descend qu'elle

se

de la tete
un

le

coour.

II court Sur Met Et Et

se

Jetersous
verte
son se

pin,
face contre
son

1'herbe
sous

couche

terre,

lui

olifant et
cote

ep6e, pa'iens.
veut qu'il des Francs,

tourne

la tete du fait-il f

des

pourquoi le
dire
a

Ah

! c'est

Faire Le

Charlemagne

et

toute 1'armee
en mea son

noble
sa sea

comte,

qu'ilest mort
son

conque'rant.
cttlpa.

II bat Pour

coulpe, il repete peches, au

ciel il tend

gant.

Roland
II est la

sent que
au

son

temps est
d'un

fini. ;

sommet

pic qui regarde 1'Espagne

D'une
"

main

il

: frappe sa poitrine

Mea

culpa, mon
mes

Dieu,

et

pardon

au

nom

de ta les

puissance,

Pour Pour

peches, pour
ceux

les

petitset pour

grands,
de
ma

tous
ce
a

que oft

fails depuis 1'heure j'ai

naissance

Jusqu'a
II tend

jour
Dieu

je

suis

parvenu.'
sa

le

Et

voici que

les

droite, Anges du ciel s'abattent pres de lui. gant de

main

II est la

gisantsous
se

un

pin, le comte
cote

Roland

II II De Et Et II

a se

voulu

tourner
a

du

de de

1'Espagne. plusieurschosea
:

prit alors

se

souvenir

tous les royaumes de douce de

ne

qu'ila conquis,
et des gens de
sa

France,

famille,
;

Charlemagne, son
il ne
veut

seigneur, qui 1'a nourri

peut s'empecher d'en pleurer et de soupirer.

pas
se

Mais

mettre

lui-mcme

en

oubli,
:

Et,
'

de

nouveau, vrai

reclame

le

pardon de Dieu

O notre

' Pere,' dit-il, qui jamais ne

mentis,

Qui ressuscitas saint

Et defendis Daniel

Lazare

d' entre

les morts

contre

les

lions,

ROMANCES.

379

Saave,
A II
cause a

sauvo

mon

ame

ot defends-la

centre
ma

tons

jii'rils.

des
a

peches
Dicu

que

j'uifails
sa

en

vie.' droite
:

tondu

le

gant de

main

Saint Alore Et

Gabriel
sa

1'a re";u.
s'est inclinco
sur

tele

son

bras,
fin.

il est alle, mains lui envoie

un

a sa jointes,

Dieu "t

de

sea

anges

cherubins

saint Michel Gabriel

du
est

Peril.
avec
eux :

Saint Ils

venu

emportent 1'ame du comte

au

Paradis."

*
.
.

"

Roland

"

and

the
the

first

romances

were,

as

we

see,
a

French essentially dramatic

in

creations,in which
form
memory

trouveurs

had

embodied

in

and literary
were

the

scattered

and

uncertain

traditions

which
means

embedded of the

the

of the

and vaguelyretained by nobility, lower

popular songs
that their

in the recollection of the

classes.
and

There

can

be

no

doubt

objectwas
barons It is thus

to

stimulate who

the warlike listened

to

of patriotic feeling with such

the lords and

of France
easy
at to

them

unfeigned satisfaction.
have that
come

infer,by comparison of dates,that they must

the

into existence
were

about

time

of the first Crusade

the

in 1095, and
led

they

imported into

the

East

during

great Crusade

by Godfrey de
of Flanders,

Bouillon, Duke
and
son

of Lorraine, and of I. ;

his brothers,Baudoin, Count

;

Eustace, Count
of

Boulogne

by Hugh

the

Great, Count
;

of Vermandois, of

King Henry
; and

by Raymond, Count

of Toulouse
race.

by Robert, Duke
heroic songs

Normandy

by other

chiefs of the French

The

of the

were jugglers

well

calculated to lessen the dreariness of the

long and perilous

for five
or

voyage
years,

undertaken
and did
not

by

the

who chevaliers,
their task

remained

absent

six
had claimed pro-

consider

accomplished until after they

that

captured Jerusalem

(1099). It

was

then

Godfrey

de

Bouillon,
a

King by his companions

into kingdom, introducing France. national
It

in arms,

converted

Palestine into the

de

Christian of

it the

laws, the language, and

this

customs

may

be

said

that
a

from

period
new

the

chansons

geste and

romances

obtained
were
ever

foothold

in this

France

of the East, the

residents in which The

and
romances, at

gazing westward.
returned thither with the crusaders,

in France, originating

spread

the

same

time
to

throughout Europe, where They

of M.

their

popularity
romances,

increased

from

year

year.

became

the

fashion, and

Translation

Leon

Gautier.

380

ROMANCES.

trouveurs, and

made jugglers

their appearance
of
romance

in all countries. of

The
were

twelfth
several

century

was

the

great epoch
in the

and

jugglery.

There

however, changes,
as

styleand
underwent the be

fashion

of the ancient

romances,

in proportion it would

the

vulgartongue

its successive the

and modifications, when fixed

be difficult to
it with the
new.

recognisein
It would each

present day
not

ancient text

comparing
date
to the

less difficult to

assigna
the

beginning

of

cycle,all
was
an

of

which

started

from

primitivecycle of
the and

Charlemagne.
whose
audiences

There
were

incessant

competition between
some new

jugglers,
it
was

always clamouringfor
that the trouveurs increased

thing ;

to

this satisfy and prose

demand the old

of the Oil
the

language put into rhyme alreadylarge domain long series

which
of

Breton
This
was

lays,and
the

French
romances,

romance.

commencement
"

of the

of Breton
not

otherwise

called

of the
de

Round

Table,"

and

must

be

confounded M. upon,

with the chansons

geste.
these
matters

Paulin holds

Paris, whose
that this the

opinionson

may the

be generally Franche-Comte
or jugglers,

relied had from

chevaliers

of Flanders
conversation

and

to previously

gathered from the

upon the

of Breton

Latin

books

written

of authority

ancient

the traditions narratives,

were,

of the Celts and the instance,

was

of the fabled

kings of
of
a

Armorican

Brittany. There
in Little

for

stories of

Tristan,son

King of Leon,
under

who Brittany,
of the the
as

in love with

his uncle's wife ; of all remedies

King Mark,
were

the fatal influence

philteragainst which

powerless ;

of

King Arthur,
beautiful and such

Celtic
most

Hercules, the husband

inconstant
of
women,

of Queen

Guinivere, the

most

and

surrounded

by

court

of heroes
some

Launcelot, Gauvain, Perceval, Lionel, Agravain,"c.

the sham
called combats in which the young nobles the
to

For

time
art of
war

already
were

learnt the

rude

tournaments

because (tournoys), while

champions
a

turned

about
a

in

sort

of

circular arena,
or a

endeavouring
or

hit

certain mark,
The of

movable of the

figure,
Breton

with their lance quintain,

their sword.
as

authors

romances

represented King
and said

Arthur that

the founder valorous

chivalryand
assembled
at

the creator his thus Eound formed the

of

tournaments,
the

this

king

Table his fair

twenty-four bravest
Court

chevaliers These

of his old

kingdom, who
romances,

Supreme
sex
was

of

Chivalry.
more

Breton attractive

in which

assigneda
were,

and dignified
to

part than
were

in the Carlo-

vingian
rammers

romances,

so

speak, the
favoured

school the

in which

formed

the

of

and chivalry,

which

development

of refined

polite-

ROMANCES.

381

ness.

The

sort

of

worship paid
lavished
upon

to

women

at

this

distant

epoch,

and

the very all

delicate

attentions the

them

by

the

opposite sex,
a

contrasted which

stronglywith

roughness

and

of brutality noble

state
were

of

in society
out

between misunderstandings A succinct

of analysis of
"

people of
Tristan
"

birth

washed
a

in blood. idea of

will

givethe

reader

better
to

the

characteristics
dates from
an

the

Breton

romance,

which, according
romances

certain

critics,

earlier

period than

the

of the

Charlemagne cycle.

Fig. 309."

Tristan

at the

Chase."

After

Miniature

from

the

"

Romance

of Tristan."" Paris.

Manuscript

of the Fifteenth

Century, No. 7,174." In the National

Library,

The
as

action principal
of

of the romance, itself

which
in
a

is the first in order of way

to enthral

chronology
tion, atten-

merit, unfolds
around three

and clearly,
whose is
a

the reader's
out

personages,

physiognomy
good princeand
the

stands
a man

in

distinct

relief.
the

Mark, King of Cornwall,

of

great worth,

Ix'iiutiful Ysolt

being

his

wife, and

valiant

and

poeticTristan

382

ROMANCES.

(Fig.309) his nephew.

draught which
of the

the

two

latter have of

taken
the

without voice
force of of

meaning
honour the Mark

any of

harm
reason

deprives them
;

power

obeying
the

and

in love,and they fall violently is upon time in them

serves

irresistible their

enchantment passes

which his whole

One

to

excuse

fault.

King
and in

watching them,
his anger

in

them, detecting
too

them. forgiving him her. him

day, however,
Tristan from in behind but he is

and

jealousyare

much

for
to

when He

he discovers strikes him

the

Queen's chamber
a

playingthe harp
terror, and
courage in

with

310),given poisoned dart (Fig.

with
retreats

by

the

fairyMorgana,

suddenly seized

in

silence.

Tristan, though wounded,

his

displays great
takes

bidding
Dinas,
and

good-bye to Ysolt, mounts

who

horse, and
The

refugewith
made is sad

his friend

receives him

in

dying

state.
care

poison has
which
over

rapid progress,
tended,
state

Tristan, notwithstanding the

almost The
a

with
tears

he his

has and

become

corpse.

His

friends shed

day

night.
he of

only signsof
The
and

life in his motionless Mark

has

body

are

the him

cries which piercing of his

and

utters.

good King

repented

cowardly
wounded
her
sorrow

act

vengeance,

regrets having surprised his

does
not

nephew

him.
; and

Moreover, the unhappy Ysolt

when
she learns that

attempt
is

to conceal

her dear

Tristan

dying,she openly declares

He bears

that she

will not

survive him. feels that his last hour like to

see

Tristan

is at hand. that he

sends
him
no

for his uncle, to say ill-will for

that he should his death.

tears

him,
when

and he

causing
the

King Mark,
down his

receives this message,

"

exclaims, with
to
me

running
my

cheeks,

Alas, alas
in the

Woe whole voice

for
! He

having
then

stabbed

nephew,
Dinas's

the

best chevalier

world
was

repairsto
"

castle, where
one

Tristan,whose
you
more

very

faint,said,
Tristan
to

This

is my and

last fete ; the the

have

so

desired eagerly tears, but

presence,

to see." consents

weeps, for

King
at

sheds his

even

abundant Her

send
to

Queen

Ysolt

nephew's request.
she

however, fails
! is it thus
must

revive his
are

and forces, failing

"

exclaims,
"

"

Alas, dear

friend

you

to die ? at my

Whereupon
arms

he
no

says,

Yes,

my

lady !

Tristan

die
"

Look And

they are

longerthose

of Tristan, but
too

of

corpse

Ysolt The

sobs

by

his side, praying that

she

may

die.
a

next

day

Tristan
from

half

opens that will

his eyes, and, like he may

see

has good chevalier,

"

his sword

drawn

its sheath "what

it for the last time. you

Alas,

good

sword!"

he

says,

become

of

henceforward,

without.

384

ROMANCES.

arms." presses

Ysolt her
so

leans

over

Tristan, who
her heart

takes

her

into he

his wasted with expires

arms,

and

that tightly

bursts, and

her, thus

mingling
The prose

their last

sigh.
the

of description of

beautiful

Ysolt, as

Luce

du

Gault, author
himself
trace

of

the

version this

the fourteenth

century, makes
show

Tristan
was

it,will

complete
at this

touching story,and
"
"

what

the ideal of

female
;

beauty

period:
than

Her

beautiful her

hair

shines like arched

golden threads
like small Her
stars.

her forehead
;

is whiter
narrow

the

lily ;

eyebrows are
her

crossbows

and

line, milk-white, dimples emeralds, shining in her

nostrils.
like and
two

eyelidsare
Her

brighter
the

than

forehead
white
a

face has
colour

beauty of morning, for

its due
colour
;

it is both

vermilion, each
ardent

having

proportion.
her

Her

lips are
than
to

trifle thick, and

with

bright

teeth,whiter
be

are pearls,

regularand
of

of

good size. No
The
two

spices can
smoother and and be

compared
marble.

the

sweet

breath

her

mouth. sweep The

so

chin
arms,

is

than

From

her

statelyshoulders
is tender and soft.

thin

long hands,
and straight,

the flesh of which her the

so

are fingers

long
can

nails
two

are

beautiful.
There

Her is

waist

is

narrow

that it the

spanned with language

"

hands."

nothing, perhaps, in
these
two

old
of

French
"

and graceful

as picturesque

prose

romances

Tristan
The

and

"

Launcelot
of
"

of the Lake."
"

romance

Launcelot

appears

to

be

fresh

embodiment
son

of the

Armorican
Beno'ic

legends relatingto Tristan. nephew of

the

Launcelot, the

of the

King of
with

and (Bourges),

King

of

Gannes, falls in love

he

Queen
in
as

Guinivere

(Fig.311),wife
faith
as

of

King Arthur, and

deceived
two

deceives the latter M.

of the has

great good
that

Tristan
a

had

King
romances

Mark.

Paulin

Paris

pointsout

there is
and of

mixture

in these

souvenirs of
many

ancient Greek
of resemblance

Celtic traditions.
and

Thus

King
his

Mark

points

with

King Midas,
no

Tristan,in

expeditionagainst the
slew the the Minotaur of veil

Morhouet Crete
;

of Ireland, is

other dies
a

than

Theseus, who
with
of

while, when
to the
romance

he

reconciled reminiscence
"

King

Mark,
of

black

attached In the

vessel is also of
"

the death asks is

an

Theseus's Launcelot

father.

Launcelot under upon

the

giant who
death

young

riddles

which
which

he

must

solve

penalty of
Mount
at

imitation of the
at

Sphinx
of the

(Edipus faced
of the the Lake

Cithseron. the
court

Launcelot

the of

court

Lady

is Achilles of

of

the

King

Scyros, and
to

Guinivere,

wife

King

Arthur,

is

Dejanira, who

proved fatal

385

Hercules. Greek

There

is

something very singular in

of the Round
Table.

this invasion

of

the ancient

fables into the books

Fig.

31 1."

Launcelot

and

Gn'nivere. No.

"

Afier

Miniature

in

Manuscript of the Eleventh

Century,

6,964." In the National

Library,Paris.

The

"

Book

of

Merlin

"

and

the

"

Book

of tte

Grail," though

contem-

386

ROMANCES.

porary and
are

with
not

"

Tristan

"

and

"

Launcelot," do
ideas. the author In
"

not

come
"

from

the

same

source,

inspiredby

the

same

Merlin

the marvellous

forms

by

far the

element, and largest

seems

to have

had

always in

view

Fig.

312."

The

Enchanter
"

Merlin, transformed

into

a a

Student,
Book

meets

in the

Forest

of Broceliande
of

the
"

Fairy Viviana.
Museum

Fragment
of

of the

Binding of

in Enamelled

Metal- work

Limoges.

In the

Antiquitiesat the Louvre.

the

imitation

of

the

Hible.

The

book, which

none

the

less preserves

the

387

purest traditions
with
S;it an
a

of

the

Gallo-Breton in the

legends, opens,
internal
to

like the

the

Hook

of

.Job,

council-meeting held
declares that he he
cannot
can

regions by

of spirits earth

darkness.

hope
to

counterbalance
born
who

upon

the influence

of

Christ, unless
This

cause

be

of

an

immaculate

virgin a

man-

demon.

man-demon after

is

Merlin,

takes

under

his

King protection
alive in

Arthur, and who,

having rendered

him

great services,is buried

Fig.

313."

Death GraU.""

of

Joseph

of Arimathea."

After

Miniature

from

the

"

History of Saint

Manuscript of the Fifteenth

Century." In

the National

Library, Paris.

stone

tomb
power

by

the

Lady
the

of the Lake, who

has

inherited

some

of his supernatural

(Fig.312).
of

The

"

Book

Grail
to
a

"

is

an

evocation

of the old

of legends religious
to

Brittany. According
Arimathea,
the latter

attributed pretended gospel,

to

St.

Joseph

of

was

said

have

been

the

original possessor

of the

388

ROMANCES.

"grail" (Fig.313),
dic'd upon the the
cross,

sacred
was

vessel

in which

the

blood This his and

upon

of

Jesus, when

He

received

by

the

angels.
and of

after having vessel,

passed into
concealed
in who

of Joseph's son possession

descendants, remained
his chevaliers set
out

for several

centuries, when
of the its

King

Arthur

quest of it,and
found

the honour of

discoveryfell
Pecheur. of the the

Perceval, the Gaul,

author of this curious
was

it at the court

King

The

romance,

composed
Robert de

in

the

beginning
in

thirteenth of

century,
several

the

trouveur,

Borron, who,

opinion

critics, was

assisted
The is known

by

Gautier

Map, chaplainto King Henry

to the
romances

II. of

England.
was

complement
as

of the Round
as

Table
and
as

the book

which of the

the

"Death

of

Arthur,"
least

"Bret,"
of them
into

the It

"Quest
was

Holy Grail," and

several Round

it is the
one

felicitous
to

all.

written

by
the

authors, whose
Table and
"

objectwas

bring

it all the

knights of

Perceval, Lionel, Hector, others,and

to

Palamede,
as

Gauvain,
in

Bliomberis,

Mordrain,
with wild

represent them
enchanters.

engaged
was

unceasing battle
till the fifteenth in the

beasts, giants, and

the romance-writers

It

not

century
books of of

that

lengthened

the

stories contained
and deeds of

the Round

Table

the by describing of

adventures

daring

Little

Tristan,of Meliadus,
the

of Constant, of Little Arthur, Perceforest,

of Isaiah The

Doleful, "c. century

end ushered in the decadence
an

fourteenth At the

of

the

romances

of
to
once

chivalry.
revive revised and
success even

of the
these

previous century
romances,

effort hud had been

more

been

made than

the and

popularityof
altered from
that of the the Thus le the

which

their
Round

the cycleof Charlemagne original composition, Table

being

no

longer

in

vogue.

Still less
were

attended
to

as provincial cycles,

the Gestes

thereto relating which the events

"

only

of interest took

inhabitants the

of the
"

province in
des

described Ilervis de

place.

graphic

Geste
"

Lorrains," comprising
et

Metz,""Garin

Loherain,"
the two other

and

Girbert
"

Anseis
de

"

the
"

"

Burgundian
and
et
"

of Geste," consisting le

romances,

Girart

Roussillon
as

Aubri

Bourgoing
de

"

and

equallyancient
"Aiol
et

Gestes,such
"Raoul
were

"Amis

Amiles,"
no

"Jourdain

Blaives,"
the

Mirabel,"

de

Cambrai," "c.,
of

longer excited
the

enthusiasm did not

care

of the

hearers,who
them

out

with patience
on

and jugglers,

to receive

into their houses in the

a

account

of

their bad misconduct

reputation. This
of their

bad

reputation was

great measure

due

to the

the singersand confreres,

and though story-tellers,

389

most

of

the

jugglersthemselves
were

led

respectablelives, their
and

contact

with

the

latter,who
them.

nearly all

thieves
was

drunkards,
of the
causes

told which

very

much

against
the

This, beyond
of
romance

all doubt,
as a

one

broughtabout

decadence The of the

branch

of literature. this branch

last features

of
a

importance in
few
romances

of literature

were

the

cycle
the

Crusades
of

and

which
had

appealed more
been
made

to especially

pride

certain

noble

families which

famous

by

the

wars

Fig.

314

"

The

Arming

of

Knight after the Ceremonial

of the Fifteenth

instituted

by King Arthur.
"

"

Fac-similo

of

Miniature

from

Manuscript

Century.

In

the

Burgundy

Library,

Brussels.

beyond

the

seas.

These
"

romances,

"Helias," the "Enfances

Jerusalem"

Godefroi," the

"Chetifs,"
extracts

and the

Antioch
same

and

(the

latter two

being merely
of France
; and

from

poem), were
of

recited in all the chateaux

a

the

jugglers,proud
a

having

won

fresh
and

thought they could popularity,

got
rid of

dispense with

musical

accompaniment,

their instrument-

390

ROMANCES.

players.

The

result of

was

that

the

romances,

being

no

longer
a

sung

to

the

accompaniment
became drawn

the in
a

harp
mass

or

the violin,but and

recited in

monotonous

tone,
were

submerged
out to
a

of marvellous

and improbable stories,

were new

wearisome

length.
Alexandrine

Not

only
lines

compositionswith
the ancient

thirty or
romances

forty thousand
written in

brought

out, but
the lines

verse ten-syllable

were

recast, and
all its

lengthened.

The

primitive work,
who
were

thus

lost disfigured, the

originalqualities.The
in

trouveurs
a

writing for belongs at

Crusades.
not
"

jugglers succeeded,however,
to the
romances

opening

fresh
to

which cycle, that of the

"

once

of Charlemagne's successors history of

"

and
"

The
more

Charles
the

the

Bald

"

and

of but de

Hugnes Capet
Baudouin
"

were

voluminous than The

than

ancient

romances,
"

"

de Sebourc

had

more

thousand thirty
"

and lines,

Tristan

Nanteuil of

twenty-four thousand.
tame

Lion
a

de

Bourges,"

which

consists which

fortythousand
is
no

and

is prolixlines,

riot of the

imaginationin

there

trace

of

the

traditions

relatingto Charlemagne's epoch, which

the writer This

was

to.portray professed
the

for the last time.

for theycould jugglers,
romances.

death-blow

to the

not

find any

one

to

listen to the of
on

recital

of these interminable
order
to

Nevertheless, as

many

them

turned

copyistsin
the

gain

the livelihood, of
romances

went manuscripts

and increasing,

longest and
romances

dullest

still found rather the than

taste

readers.

But

though
the

the

reading of
and

increased whom

diminished
for
ments, tourna-

amongst

wealthy

noble games

classes,with
and

and jousts,

other

institutions
romances

to chivalry appertaining

(Fig. 314) rhymed

grew

very
were

rapidly, only prose

condemned of them in the
as a

found the
no

any

favour.
was

The
a

romances

nuisance, and
There
was

consequence

rapid transformation palacesof

and
as

into prose.

lack

of scribes in the this work,

"

the

as kings,

castles of the
translation

to nobility,

undertake de Beaulandc

the anonymous his the

reason

author

of the

of

"

Aimeri

gives

for

having undertaken
the prose version of
he

the work
"

that de

it suits the
"

popular taste.
he

In
was

prefaceto

Anseis

Carthage
and

the actcitr, as of his

own

called, openly states

in

that

felt great hesitation

into prose,
"

mistrust

person

from transposing achievements

romances

rhyme

according to

the tastes

of the

day," the
The

of ancient in
verse

chivalry.
but fell into oblivion, the prose of the

old

disappearedand
the
tastes

versions, arranged according to

and

day, tricked
a mass

out

mental with senti-

and pedanticdigressions,

lengthened with

of

descriptions

392

ROMANCES.

(Fig.317). The
'such compilers,
as

text

was

much

abridged in
de

these

later

and editions,

certain
a

Pierre

Desrey

Troyes, obtained

for themselves than

great
The the

reputation
romances

for

this

work, which
had
not
a

exacted many been

patiencerather
new

genius.

thus

revised had

great
before
of

readers,especially among
see

middle the shine

romances

who classes,

able to

them. of

Chivalry, during
I., seemed
to

reigns of
with

Charles

VIII.,

Louis

XII.,

and its

Francois

renewed had

brightnesspreviously to
heralded its

final
so

and extinction,

the

which

triumph seemed,

to

speak,to

reflect its

last rays.

During Burgundy,
kind
tastes

the

reign of Charles VII.,

of real merit and

and

more

at especially

the

court
a new

of

writers

discernment persons
or

endeavoured of
more

to

create

of romantic

literature, appealing to
wrote

refined

and
were

elevated
not

(Fig. 316). They

for the grace
sentiments

love-stories
of the

satires which
than

less of

remarkable the

and

interest

narrative
romances,

for the realism

a

and passions

depicted.These
were

put togetherin
as

A-ery

plainbut ingenious manner,

in

as

great
it took for de

favour
two
'or

the

more

ambitious
to

to chivalrywhich compilations relating

three of this

months kind
was

read. his

Antoine
"

de
et

la Sale

furnished du
et

the Petit Vianne

model Jehan
sa

works

with

Histoire

Chronique
of
"

Saintre," which
of the
"

followed

by

the

histories

Parise

mie,"
of of

Chevaleureux

Comte

d'Artois," of
de

"Ferrant
"

de de

Flandres," Calais,"and

"Baudoin
"

d'Avesnes,"
de Paris." and It

of "Pierre

Provence," of

Jean

Jean

began

to be

understood

that the romance, varied and the

the discarding

marvellous become
"

fantastic elements,
the book

might
of the like

possess the most

"

characteristics and
"

like didactic, and

Sept Sages
"

"

Cite1 des Dames

Jean de

sententious
;
or

instructive,

the

Jouvencel," by
en

Admiral Romance he wrote

Bueil

like King satirical, with philosophical

to
to

Rene's

"Abuse

Cour."
when first,

became
"

satirical and

Rabelais,who
romances

at

Gargantua," intended
in
"

satirize

the

of

and chivalry,
own

who

continued

Pantagruel
of
;

"

criticize the

customs

of his

time.

Nevertheless,the

romances

chivalrycontinued
but after that the such

to be in vogue

until

the middle is
now

of the sixteenth

century
a

modern
as

romance,

which
de

only represented by
et de

few

works, insipid

the "Histoire
de

1'EscuyerGyrard
d' Amour," the the
or

Damoiselle

Alyson," the

"Amant
formed trans-

ressuscit^

la Mort

"Amours

de la belle the the

Luce," "c.,
of
of

itself into

Conte,
The
"

tale, after
"

fashion

the

"Cent gave

Nouvelles

nouvelles."

Heptameron

of

Queen

Navarre

ROHfANCES.

393

birth to the "Recreations

et
"

Joyeux
to the
" "

Devis" Matinees

of Bonaventure
"

des
"

Periers;
"

to

the

"

Discours
;

d'Eutrupel ;
to lastly,

and

to

the

Apres-din^es of

Cholieres
In

and,

the

Soirees," by Guillaume
romances

Bouchet.

the

meanwhile

the

ancient

of

in all originating chivalry,

Fig. 316.

"
"

How

the Actor

lost his way,

and

arrived held him

in front of the Palace back.'"

"

of from

Love, into which

the
"

Desire

bid him

enter, while

Remembrance
"

Miniature

Chevalier
"

Delibere," by Olivier de la Marche.

Arsenal Paris. Library,

Manuscript of the Fifteenth

Century, No.

173.

In the

France
or

and

bearing upon
into every and

them

the

impress of

that

had origin,

been Not

lated trans-

adapted

language since England, but

3
E

the thirteenth in Sweden,

century.

only
in

in

Germany, Holland,

Denmark, and

even

394

ROMANCES.

Iceland.
name

These
romance,
were

translations and
were,

imitations, which
to

preserved the

generic

of

however, fashioned

suit the taste the

of the nation for characteristics of

prose and
"

which
their

they

intended, though they

In the this
a

still retained

place of birth.
manner

Italythere
French crude

was

composed only one

of the

romance

after the centuries

;

of
from

romances

twelfth
was

thirteenth Reali
di

but

compilation,which
of

called
"
"

Francia," there issued

"

great number
"

long poems
"c.
"

on

chivalry
the

Rinaldo,"

Morgante,"

"

Orlando,"

Guarino," poetry
to

upon

which

Italian

genius

lavished
sentiments

all the wealth which

and

of its

the extravagant and affected disguise

too

it attributed
to the

somewhat

freelyto
took

the

rude

of paladins

Charlemagne, Spain, whose

the

Christian
were

warriors

who

part

in the the

Crusades.
of
; but

heroic

traditions

preserved in carefully
of

romances

Campeador Cid, showed

more

littlelikingfor the peers

romances

Charlemagne

she took

kindlyto
from
them

the Breton

about the

Knights of

the Round
a

Table,
romance

and

derived

her

for the composition of inspirations

soon

similar in characteristics, which

obtained This the

equal to, reputation

"

if not

greater than, that of

which

the French

works. claimed

romance,

Amadis

do

Gaule,"
was

Portugal has always

at all events

of possession

from

Spain,

composed, or
an

begun, in
wrote

the first years

of the sixteenth century books

names

by

anonymous took

author, who
up
to

only the
he
left

first four

of it.
are

The also

writers who

the work

where

it,and

whose

unknown,
of
"

added
and
was

these four books the

the stories of

of Florisande, Esplandian, Sword. The in

success

Catane,
"

of
even

Knight

of the

Burning
and

of

Amadis

greater

in France de

Italythan

it was

Spain,and
like

the
a

French

translation

of Nicholas

Herberay, Sieur des Essars, shone

of compositions
romances

beacon

light above
the
"

all the romantic

the sixteenth

century,

during which
of

Spaniards publishedmany
of

of

chivalry
"

"Primaleon

Greece,"
the

Gerileon

England,"

"c.

"

all of which

were

cast

into the shade

by

masterpieceof Cervantes.

The

English and
romances,
romance

the Dutch

continued
not
was

to

read
to

the translations of the old French

but in

they

did

attempt

imitate

them,

and

the

first national and

England

Sidney's
of

"Arcadia," published in 1591,

Pembroke.
of in the old The

continued had

by

his

the Countess sister,

a

Germanic
romances,

nations,which
were
even

also translated

great number
the

French
of

less successful national and

than

English
romances

this branch

and literature,

the

few

historical
to

which

they published in

the sixteenth

century only served

manifest

their

A'CAl/J.

VrA'.S. 395

inferiority.

Their

tendency
facetious,
such

was

ruther
"

towards

the

in\

ration

of

stories and

at

oiu-e

supernatural
or

and

such

as

Fortunatus,"
famous
romance

"

Ulespiegel,"
of
from
"

"

Faust,"
which data
of

satirical

allegories,
letters of

as

the

Renard,"
the

to

France

gave

naturalisation,

borrowing

Germany

this

fanciful

and

allegorical story.

Fig.

317." who and

Token

of

Antoine of

Verard the Romances

(1498),
of

Printer, Chivalry

Wood in

Engraver,
Prose

and the

Bookseller,

at Louis

Paris,
XII.

published Francois
I.

most

during

reigns

of

POPULAR

SONGS.

Definition the

and

Classification
"

of

Popular Sjng.

"

Songs
of

of

the Germans,
"

the

Gauls, the Goths, and

of the most

Franks.
"

They

are

collected

by Order
down

Charlemagne.

Vestiges Century
"

Ancient

Songs.
"

The

Historical
"

Songs

of France

to the Sixteenth

Romanesque

Songs.
Domestic
"

Religious Songs."

The of the

Christmas

Carols
"

and

the

Canticles.

"

Legendary
The
of

Songs.
of

"

Songs.

The

Music

Popular Songs.
"

Provincial

Songs.

"

Songs

Germany.

The

Minnesingers and
Countries.
"

the

Meistersingers. The

Songs of England,
of

Scotland, and

of Northern

The

and Songs of Greece, of Italy,

Spain.

the

words
born

Popular Song

we

mean

sort

of

poetry
and of
on

amongst spontaneously
anonymous,
to

the

people,
instead

therefore

and and

which,
such
a

being
the

ascribed

such work

poet, is,
unknown

contrary, the
We and may

of certain
upon of whole

authors.
collective

also look
work

it

as

the

successive the

tions, generaset

which, by
to music
mass,

adoption of this poetry feelingof

less intact

in which

is reflected the
more or

the
as a

have

it preserved

traditional souvenir

of

early ages.

Montaigne
which
he is

characterized, with
contemporary
"

striking truth,
the

this kind
and

of of

popular poetry, languages,

charms when of of

with
is

origin of

nations

said,

Poetry
grace

which
which may
to

popular and
are

wholly
to

natural

possesses with the

simplicity
artificial
and the

and

worthy by
the

be

compared

highest

beauties,as
songs M. Carols and
as
"

be
us

seen

of Gascony poetry (villanelles) pastoral

coming

from

parts." foreign
the says,
commentator
"

Eugene
of with La

Fennin,

of

the

"Burgundy
its

Christmas songs
;

Monnoye,
them
that

Every
must must

nation
have possess

possesses had
a

popular

all of

these these

songs songs

their certain

origin in analogous analogy

or

causes,

it follows

with

each

other.

They

were

either by public occurrences, always inspired

by religious

POPULAR

SONGS.

397

or feeling,

by

domestic

joysand

sorrows,

whence

we

have

the three

distinct

and and

marked

which categories

comprise the

historic songs,

the

religious songs,

the domestic

songa."

Fig. 318."
the

Poetry and

Music.

"

The

Nino

Muses
source

Arion, Orpheus, inspiring

of all

and

under Pythagoras, from the

"

auspices of the Personified Manuscript

Air,

Harmony.

"

Miniature

Liber

Pontificalis.""

of the Thirteenth

Century."

In the Public

Library,Rheims.

All nations

have

had

their

and singers,

the national

songs,

composed of
same

rhymed

word's with which

a corresponded

musical

melody that

had not the

POPULAR

SONGS.

of duration, were principles and beliefs, understand the how few ideas of each
most

the

primitive expressionof
human

the

the passions, It is easy

to

great

family (Fig.318).
were

of these

popularsongs
are now

lost

as

time

rolled on,

and

why only a
of
a

faint echoes
is that

of them

for preserved,

the very

essence

popular
to

song

it receives

no

written
than

but publicity, verbal

passes

from The says

mouth

mouth, leaving no
not

other the

trace

reminiscences.
"The

early peoples were

in

habit

of

writing.

Germans,"

Allegro.

Da

ikmabgwennDrouiz.o-re;

Da-ik

pe-lra

felld'id-de?

pe-lra ga-ninn-

"3=r-"-"--^Ei="d
^H-hJ-b-*-!
Ken
a

="=
bre-man.

me

d'irt -de?"

Kan

d'ineuz

eur

raiiu,

ouf-enn

"

Heb

rann

ar

Red

heb-ken

An

Kou
,

tad

ann

an-ken;Ne-

rfcfrt

tra

kcntne

tra

ken.

"

Da-ikmabgwenn

Drouiz.o

re;

Da-ik

pe-lra

felld'id-de?

pe-tra

ga-ninn
/TS

me

did-

de?

"

Kand'iueuz

zaou

rann,

Ken

ouf-enn

bre-man.

Fig. 319.

"

Song of the Druidic

"

Epoch, Words History

and

Music.

Translated

hy

Fctis in his

General

of Music."

some Tacitus, possessed

"

very deeds

ancient

poems,

in which

were

celebrated
were

the

warlike from
Druids the very

actions
to

and
son

noble
as

of their ancestors, and of their

which

transmitted
the Gauls the from

father

the
a

only annals

race."

Among
which

preservedas

sacred

depositthe religious poems

which

dated

earliest times, and

these

contained
were

the
no

mysteriesof
case

their
to

religion writing.

319),and (Fig.

religious poems

in

committed

400

POPULAR

SONGS.

Duke

of

Frioul,
the

in

799, by Paulin, Patriarch

the

of
over

Alexandria the

song
;
a

to

celebrate upon the

victoryof
of Abbot these that

Emperor
the

Otho natural

III.
son

Hungarians

song it is
"

death how song

song

Hug,
songs
were

of

Charlemagne.
the
"

But

doubtful the
so.

far of

really popular,and
we

Ludwigslied

is

only
This

period which
German,
the and

know

to

have

been

unmistakably by

is in
over

celebrates and it
was

the sung

great victory won

in the North

Louis
as

III. in 881
as

Normans,

of France

late
The

the twelfth
songs

century.
rustic

in

the Romance

language were

the

only ones

generally

Ma-ri

a.

Deu

mai

re,

Denies

fils

pai

re ;

rqnq*!:
"

d~
Domna

""

"-*-u "" J^*"

zgEH^=j'-

fil

lo

glo

ri

os.

lo

pair

ais

sa-men;

pre

ia

per

to

ta

2 Fv" "-"-"-*" .

1
"

"

~~_^

jcn, Fig.
320."

eel

ro

nos

so-cor;

tor

iia

nos

es

plor,.
set to Modern

Song

of

the Crusaders,

dating from
"

the First Crusade

and (1096), Music."

Music

by Fetis in his

General

History of

current

among
at

the
court

people
of the

at

time

when

the

German
and

language was
and when monasteries
to

only
the in

used clerks

the

Carlovingian kings
of these songs
the

emperors, the

used

the

Latin

in language almost exclusively number in

were

and

the schools. and the which historical

great

devoted

the

marvellous for

incidents the

legend of Charlemagne,and
de

they served
of

composition of they
were

early chansons

geste and
lost

romances

in chivalry,

gradually absorbed
any

and

(Fig. 320).
as

It is, therefore, existence of these

to impossible

advance

direct

and

certain

proof

to the

primitive songs.
There
are no

(See above, chapter 011 Romances.)

traces

of

historical

songs

in

the

vulgar tongue

of France

POPULAR

SONGS.

401

earlier than Latin song

the thirteenth
to relating

century,but there may

be instanced

very

singular

the story of Abclard, and

composed by

his

pupilHilaire

Fig. 321."
d'uu Court

Duke

Philipthe Good, being sick,intrusts

the Poet GeorgesChastelain, and Prince.""
"

the education

of his

son

Charles,Comte
the
"

de

to Charolois,

Chronicler."

Miniature

from

Instruction of the

jeune
of

Manuscript of the Fifteenth

In

Century,executed

by

the

Painters

Burgundy.

the Arsenal

Paris. Library,

about 1122, when

his illustrious muster, condemned 3

F

by the Council of Soissons

402

POPULAR

SONGS.

for his bold views

on

finally philosophy, gave

up tuition.

This song

is divided
:"

into

rhymed

verses

of four lines each,with the

refrain following

in French

"

Tort

vers

nos

li mestre."

at Seventy-seven years later,

the death of

of Richard

Cceur de Lion, who

was

killed while French

besiegingthe"Castle

of Limousin, the Chalus, in the province

the

jugglersremembered
prisonby
known
song,

that

valiant

King

of

England

had

been made A

delivered from himself

the aid of his

minstrel,Blondel
Richard
de

of Nesles, who

by singingan
in the of

air which
the
soon

had

composed

himself.

popular
about

styleof

chansons

geste,was

therefore

composed
and

the death

Richard, and
as

became

popularthroughout France,
were

doubtless in

England

well.

Amongst
dei tos dire
en

other lines

the

: following
"

"

Et

co

dont
a

en jors pleindre

plorant,

M'avient

chantant

et retraire

Que

cil

qui

est de valur

chief et

paire
morz.
. .
.

Li tres-valens Morz
est li

eat Richarz, rois des Engleis,

rois, et
ne

sunt

passe
ne

mil

ana

Que

tant

prodom

fust

n'est de

son

semblant."

The such
death

historical songs
as

from

the

thirteenth
wars

to

the sixteenth
and the

century recall

events

the

Crusades, the
Bertrand

of the

French

English, the
Le

of the Constable de

Duguesclin,and

other

popular heroes.
of

Roux

Lincy
French

has songs

published an
from
the the be

collection interesting
twelfth
to

historical and
and and
a

popular

the

eighteenth century,
VII.
and Louis

those of second, comprising these two which

ballads have

time

of Charles

XI.,

in

collections

are

to

found

all that remains

of these songs,
none

most

of

have

lapsedinto

oblivion.

It is very

strange that
of Arc

of the
at

numerous

which

the miraculous up, while upon

mission
there

of Joan

evoked
in the

the time

should

been treasured

is still extant of

neighbourhood of
Duke
not

Tournay a long ballad

from the

the death

the good Philip,

of

Burgundy

(Fig.321). Although language

"

this ballad

dates

from
may

1467,
be

it does

differ much the

extract

of the

present day, as

gathered from

appended :

"

Le

ton

due, avant
la mort

son

trespas,
de

Et

sentaiit

pros

luy,

Tout
Fist

bellement
ses

et par
en

compas, annuy
:

regres

grant

POPULAR

SONGS.

'

Las

!'

dit-il,je laisoe aujourd'hui

encor
a

'

Mu

chiere espouse dame

moy,

vivant.
!
"

Adieu, ma
Pries pour

qui je suy

jo voys

morant.'

The

importanceof
event

popularsong
which
gave

was

not, moreover,
It often
a

alwaysto
happened

be that

judged
great

by

that of the

it birth.

and political

national

questionsinspired only

few

insignificant rhymes,
the masses,
some

which while
a

lapsed into oblivion without

tournament,
a

evoking the sympathiesof

a

plenary court,
muse

public ceremony,

or

f"te at

feudal castle sufficed to evoke the fanciful

muse

of the

of this people. The inspirations

to the

were

often in

contrast striking
some

circumstances would
serve

which
as a

had

given them
for sarcastic universal

birth,for while
or

occurrence tragic

theme of The

flippant songs,
form

matter

which

seemed
some

to

be

cause

would rejoicing

the

for subject

doleful ballad.
songs, had

divisions in when from

in their popular opinion often found expression

and

thus,
driven the

Jacques Cle'ment assassinated King Henry III.,who

Paris

been

by

the

League, at

St. Cloud,
"

some

fanatical

people sang

murderer's

in the following lines : praises

"

le sainct

rcligieux, bienheureux,

Jacques Clement
Des Jacobins
par
sa

1'excellence,

Qui,
Ft

benevolence,

de par merite limit

le

Sainct-Esprit,
il vi.st."

A La

asseurance au

Ciel

ou

The

lines : with the following Politicians, or Royalists, rejoined

"

"

II fut tu6 par

un

meschant

mutin

Jacques Clement Jacques Clement,

Las
!
nous

qui estoit jacobin.

si tu estois
nostre
a

naistre,
maistre !
"

aurions

Roy, nostre

It would and solemn

any

sometimes

happen that
Thus

after

certain interval into

a

song

of noble

would melancholy
cause
or

be converted

burlesqueparody without
at (1525),

apparent

reason.

the battle of Pavia

which
was

the

flower of the French

around nobility perished for appropriate subject

a

Fran"oisI., who popularsong,

and

made

prisoner, was

most

amongst

4o4

POPULAR

SONGS.

other

touching incidents
was

was

the

death

of Jacques de Chabannes,

Lord

of La
in

Palice,who
his honour,

killed at the feet of his

"

sovereign.

The

ballad,composed

began

"

Monsieur
Est mort

de La
devant

Palice est mort, Pavie."

. . .

But

within

century this national

song

had

been
some

travestied
one

in such

way

that it had

become
a

to recognise it,and impossible

made

it ridiculous

by adding as

joke to

the above

two

lines"

"

Helas

! s'ilif estoit pas mort,

encore
en

II seroit

vie."

Sometimes, too, there would

was

reappear the
an

in

new

shape some

old song which which seemed

some

scarcelyremembered

by
with

older

but generation,
it
was

to

fresh youth when, acquire

altered name,

appliedto
the
rumour

other
of

subject. Thus,
death of the

after the battle of

Malplaquetin 1709,
the army,

the

English commander,
ranks
of the

Duke

of

having spread Marlborough,

had
a

through the

French

which

suffered

so

much

at his

out of revenge, hands, the soldiers began to sing,

was

sort

of comic "Convoi

which ballad,
du Due de

only

the imitation
all the

of

popular song
Le Balafre
are some

entitled

the

Guise," which
of

Huguenot

soldiers knew

by

heart

after the assassination the

Fran9ois de Lorraine, called

beneath with scars), (covered

walls of Orleans which

two most

(1563). Appended
the
"

of the

of couplets
and

this old song

was

resemble later

Chanson
court

de

Malbrough,"

which
Madame
:
"

revived

centuries
nurse

by

the

of Louis Marie

XVI., when
Antoinette

Poitrine,

the

of the

Dauphin, taught it to

"

Qui

veut

ouir

chanson due de

Guise, grand Doub, dan, don, dan, dou, don,

Dou, dou, dou, Qu'est mort
et enterre.

C'est du

Qu'est mort
Aux

et enterre.

quatre

coins de
"c.

sa

tombe,

Doub, dan, don,

Quatr'gentilhomm's y avoit.

POPULAR

SONGS.

405

Quatr'guntilhomm's y avoit,
Dont 1'un
son portoit

casque

Doub, dan, don, "o.

L'autre
sea

pistolets.

L'autre

sea

pistolets,
son

1'autre l-'.t

epee,

Doub, Qui

dan, don, "c.

tant

d'Hugu'nots a

tues

La

ceremonie

faite,
etc.

Doub, dan, don,

(,'hacun

s'allitcoucher.

Chacnn Lea
uns

e'allitcouchor,
avec

leurs femme

Doub, dan, don, "c.

Et lea autres
tons

seuls."

Genin Several critics,

amongst others,have attributed

de

stillmore

ancient

originto the
which may
be

"

Chanson

Malbrough," or
naive
are

at

least to part of this song, in

cast

the recognised

and

sentimental

of the

popular songs
cited of

of the thirteenth century. There

songs

many

instances which

might be

coming down
connected

from
them

all the souvenirs losing century to century,gradually

which

with of the the

the

distant

periodduring which
children
in the

they gushed
Poitou

forth from still sing as

the heart
an

people.

The

of villages

anthem

following verse,

half Latin, half French, which who

was

doubtless refers to the battle of Poitiers

of King John, captivity

taken

at prisoner

the

17th, 1356):" (September

"

Chrittiana De

Francia chef eat

le laquelle

prig, lya."

Splendent rtgnigloria
Aux
armes

de k

fleur de

By
must

the side of the historical songs, and

songs.

in the

same

category with them,

be cited the romantic

As

has been remarked

the
"

by one

of those who

have studied the most is

this poetry of deeply

people, the
in the

narrative in them

abruptand digressive, leavingsecondarydetails

the salient the

shade, and treating

several repeated
in Homer.

onlyof

points. The

same

forms

of

languageare
for word
as

times, and

are dialogues

word reproduced

The

406

POPULAR

SONGS.

refrain

is sometimes
most

unconnected entirely beautiful of these in different

short

with the
poems

of subject
is the

the

narrative."
has
as

Perhaps the
taken the
"

which following,

different forms

of France, provinces
poem

and

which

is known
:
"

Complainte de Renaud."
"

The

forms

complete drama

Quand

Renaud

de la guerre

vint,

Sa mere, Dit
:
'

la fenetre venir
mon

en

haut,
fils Renaud.'

Void

La

Mere,

Renaud,
Ta
femme

Renaud,

rejouis-toi,
d'un
mon

eat accouchee

roi.

Renaud.

Ni Mon

de

ma coeur

femme,
ne

ni de
se

fils,

pent

rejoui ;

Qu'on
Pour Et

me

fasse vite

un

lit Wane dedans.

son

que

je m'y couche
Renaud

quand il fut mis dans

rendit

lit,

Pauvre

1'esprit.
le

(Lescloches sonnent

trepassemem '.)

La

Seine.

Or, dites-moi,mere
Qu'est-ee
que

m'amie,
ici ?

sonner j'entends

La

Mere.

Ma

fille, ce
sortent

sont pour le

les les

processions Rogations.

Qui

(On cloue

cercueil.)

La

Heine.

Or, dites-moi, mere

Qu'est-ce
que

m'amie,
ici ?

j'entends cogner

La

Mere.

Ma

c' sont les charpentiers fille,

nos

Qui raccommodent

greniers.
le

(Lespretres

enlevent

corps.)

La

Heine.

Or, dites-moi,mere Qu'est-ce

que

m'amie,
ici f

chanter j'entends les de

La

Mere.

Ma

c' sont fille, fait autour

processions
nos

Qu'on

maisons.

La

Seine.

Or

dites-moi,

mere

m'amie,

Quelle robe
La

aujourd'hui ? prendrai-je quittezle gris.

mieux choisi.

Mere.

Quittez
Prenez

le rose,

le

noir,pour

La

Seine.

Or, dites-moi, mere

done Qu'ai-je
a

m'amie,

pleurer ici ?
le cacher
:

La

Mere.

Ma

fille, je n' puis plus vous

est mort

Renaud

et enterre.

4-o8

POPULAR

SONGS.

most

fruitful in
our

ingenuous works
in France

which
the that

bear

the

impressof
have

the faith and

been
were

piety

of

for forefathers,
to

people

always

sincerely
sometimes
a

attached
of
a

religion. It

is true and

popular religious songs

but this
was

facetious slightly of the

bantering tone,
character
and of

merely
The

natural very

emanation

Gallic the

temperament.

Church the

properly opposed though, as long

may held
we saw

introduction

profane

songs

into
"

sanctuary,
of the Ass
"

in the

chapteron

the Popular Beliefs, of councils

Prose and

its

own

the against in

condemnations
many dioceses

synods.

We
the

believe,therefore,that
in the

during
the

the

Middle

Ages

religious songs

vulgar tongue, known

under

generic title

of Noels

Allegretto.

tr.

Ai

lai

Na-li

vi

tai Chanton. je Clianton,je

tr.

vo

Levarbeam-

nos'hu mail-ld-taiJeusqueai
Ir.

mi

li

e,

Po

no

dechar-bd

tai

Duco-dou

qui

no

li

",.

Fig. 323.

"

Carol

in

Burgundy Patois,with

the Music

annotated. de La

"

After

the

"

Noel

Borguignon

de Gui

Barozai," publishedby

Bernard

Monnoye.

(Christmas Carols), were

celebrated
the

sometimes
in the

mixed

up

with

the sacred
These

hymns
songs
was

which
in the formed

birth of Jesus
were

stall at Bethlehem. solemn

vulgar tongue
of who

simg

during

the

which procession of instruments, and

Jesus

during the night

of Christmas, to the sound

the crib

in the dress The persons

as

around shepherds,

of the
are

infant said
"

(Fig. 323).
sung,
as

represented

the

shepherds

to

have

early

the

thirteenth century, a carol which

began

"

Seignors, or entendez
De loin Pour
sommes
venus

nous.
a

rous

querre

Noel."

Another

carol

of the

same

period,which

was

entirelyrewritten

in

the

I'oPULAR

SONGS.

409

sixteenth

century,described
gave

the
an

joy of

the animals

at

the

news

of the birth the

of the

Holy Child, and

the

opening

for musical

as effects,

singers
the
:
"

imitated

crowing of

the cock, the

ass,

lowing of
a

the ox,

the It

bleatingof
as

of the goat,the braying

and

the

of bellowing

calf.

ran

follows

"

Comme

lea bestes autrefoia mieux latin que

Parloient Le

francos, (leChrist (Ob, on,

est

coq, de loin
:

voyant le fuiot,
natna e"t

S'ecria Le

Chrittui

ne)

bieuf, d'un
:

air tout

ebaubi,
oil

Demande La

Ubi, M,
se

ubi ?

?)

chevre,
que

tordant c'est
a

le

groin,

Respond
Maistre De

Bethltem.

baudet, curiums
:

(curieux)
!
veau

1'aller voir,dit
sur sea

Eamiu

(Aliens!)

Et limit

lo pattes,

Beugle deux

fois :

Tola ! volo !

(jeveux

je veux

!)

"

This

was

onlyan
almost
were

for,as exception,

generalrule,the
for its pious and

carol

was

so

guished distin-

above that it

all other

religious songs passed for

a

touchingsimplicity
and picturesque

might

have

canticle.

The

most
over

emotional
as

carols

those of

Brittany, though all

preservedtheir
in men's
hearts.
at most

France,

in town
as

well

as

in country, the

carols
supreme

former The

characteristics whole
song
a

remained long as religion

was

devoted

to

the glorifying
to

Divine

Messiah,
miserable

and

it contained But this

final

praying God couplet

the

pardon
and

sinners.

human gradually

divine thoughts displaced

religious thoughtsin
to

popular song,

and

form their original while still retaining carols,

and and

became pretensions, the

changed

into

appealsaddressed personal
who
sang them.

Jesus

Holy Virgin in
to

the interests of those In the Beauce

for instance, it is stillthe district,

custom

sing
"

"

Honneur De A

la

compagnie
maison.

cette

1'entour de votre Nous

voug

table,

saluons. v'nus de
:

Nous

sommcs

pais strange

Dedans C'est pour De

cos vous
a

lieux

faire la demande Dieu."

la part

There

is also

very

long carol

which 3
G

was

composedand

sung

duringthe

410

POPULAR

SONGS.

League, and
contains and
at
once

this carol, doubly remarkable

the way in which

with

regard to
staunch

the sentiments

it

they are
in

is in reality a popular song expressed, which Catholics

and political

and religious,
three

deplore the
an

evil of their time. of the

The

will give the subjoined couplets

"

reader

idea

generaltone

of this

pathetic lay :
te requerons, ou'ir
nos

"

Nous

mains

jointes,

Vouloir

griefvcsplaintes, pastoureaux
nous nous

Nous,
De On
toutes
nous

pauvres

parts on
detruit, on

saccage, ravage,

Et brebis

et agneaux.

Le En

soklat, tous los jours, sans

nos

cesse,

casettes

nous

oppresse, tout il
:

Pille et II
A
nous
son

emporte

compresse,

nous nous

r:m9onne donne

depart,souvent
un

Encore

meschant

coup.

Quo
Nous

si bientost
mettant

tu
sous

n'y prends garde,

ta

sauvcgarde,
noua.

Helas Oste-nous Fais Te

cesser

! o'est fait de

done
nos

de

ces

miseres,

civiles guerres,
!"

prions a genoux

The
even a

Christmas

carol
was

soon

assumed
to

different

to shape,and, ceasing

be of

religious song,

made

contain

allusions to
sarcasms.

the current
It became
more

events

the
cases

day, allusions repletewith epigrams and

and indelicate, impertinent, the arch

in

some

blasphemous,though

generallyit

was

but

of popular good-humour. expression

The
:
"

appended couplet

givesa

fair idea of the carol of the sixteenth

century

"

Messire Cure de

Jean

Guillot,

Saint-Denis,
pot

Apporte plein un
Du Tin of
et
son

logis.

Prestres
Toute

escolliers,

icelle nuictee,
mis
a

Se sont

sauter,

Chanter

Tit,re, mi, fa, sol,la,

Jala,
A

gorge

desployee."

POPULAR

SONGS.

411

The minded

canticles and religions devotion

much

ballads

preservedtheir characteristics of singlethe carols, and, unlike

the works and
factured manu-

longer than

by
set to

professional poet, they resemble

music.
The

rather the prayers

orisons of

church

the pilgrims,
in slow
"

relic showers, and

tones

the vendors the

"

consecrated

medals

chanted and
many

and
"

monotonous

interminable St. Roch," have

male stories of saints,

"

female other

Genevieve

de

Brabant,"

St. Antoine," and

of simple faith,which masterpieces

Fig. 324.

"

Ballad

Singer accompanying himself

upon

the Violin.

"

Miniature

from

Manuscript

of the Thirteenth

century, No. 6,819." In the National

Paris. Library,

come

down

to

us

in modern

form, and which

and song

survive centuries will,perhaps,

been

after much

of the modern

printedpoetry has

320). (Fig. forgotten

a

The

followingmodernised
"

dates,beyond all doubt, from

sainte

very

ancient

epoch :

"C'eet La
Son

Catherine,

filled'un
pere
im iv

grand

roi

etait paten,
no

Sa
Ave Dei

1'etait pas.
Sancta alleluia.

Maria,
mater,

CatKarina,

4i2

POPULAR

SONGS.

Un
Son
'

jour
pore

sa

priere
:

la trouva
o

Catherine,

ma

fillo,

Catherine, que fais-tu la?'

Ai'e

Maria, "c.

'

mon J'adore,j'adore,

pere,

Le

bon

Dieu

que de

voila.
ma mere :

C'est le Dieu Votre Ave Dieu

n'est pas la.'

Maria, "c."

The
.

relatingto legends
with
to

the

Virgin form
Several
and

class apart, and

are

many

of

them
were

.endowed devoted

charms. special mercy

narratives of the Middle

which is French
a

Ages

her celebrating

the influence There

she

possessed,
song

because

of her

motherhood,
Count de

over

God

himself.

Perigord
runs
"

brought to lightby

Mellet, which

in modem

"

Une

ame

est morte
sans

cette

nuit

Elle est morte Personne

ne

confession.

la

va

Toir,

Excepte
I,e Demon
'

la Sainte est
a

Vierge.
:

1'entour
fils

Tenez, tenez,

mon

Jesus,
cette pauvre ame.' ':

Accordez-moi
'

le

pardon de
que

Comment elle

voulez-vous
ne
a

je
de

lui

pardonne

Jamais
'

m'a

demande
mon

pardon.'
;

Mais

si bien
m'a

moi,

filsJesus

Elle
'

bien
!
ma

demande
mere,
meme

pardon.'
vous

Eh

Wen

le voulez

P
"

Dans

le moment

je lui pardonne.'

The

popular domestic

songs the

are

infinite both

in

regard
heart songs,

to

numbers

and

and variety,

they appealed
maternal love

most

directlyto
of

the

of the
in and
are a

people.
are

Conjugal

and

inspiredmost

these

which

depicted with

the joys and singular fidelity in its the open

sorrows

of home,
These songs

in which mixture the

the business of life is shown of

varying shades.
of expression

epigram

and and

of elegy,

the tendcrest

of feelings
different

human

heart

of the wildest
These

and fancies,

they depict the

may

tions grada-

of the social scale.

: the categories

domestic and

songs of

be subdivided the

into many and

songs

of the the

soldier

the

of sailor, the

shepherd

of the

labourer, of
such
as

fisherman
the

and

of the

hunter;
the

songs

of indoor and

workmen,

the weavers,

shoemakers,

the smiths, spinners,

POPULAR

SONGS.

4'3

the

carpenters;

the

songs

of the i-ompaynonnayes
such soil,
as

(trades unions) ;

the

songs

to relating

the culture
songs

of the

seed-time, harvest,and

vintage;
as

satirical son^s;

bearing upon

the various

such phases of family life,

"c. ; convivial forth. treatise

confirmation, marriage, death, widowhood, christening,

and all the

playful songs
these
""

;
are

and roundelays
to

songs

of childhood

; and

so

Types of
called

songs

be

found de la

in M.

Ampere's

excellent

I nst ructions

du Comite

Langue, de

1'Histoire et des Arts de la France."

Fig. 325."

The

Personification

of Music."
"

Fac-simile

of

Wood

Engraving

in the

"Margarita

Philosophica (BaleEdition, 4to, 1508).

All these songs, be it remembered,

were

which
and
not

had

no

known

authors, or

which

adoptedby
in

the

great

anonymous and
must

collective poet called the

be confounded them very

People,

arc

popular songs, reality

of written

with

the individual

productions

poetry, many

of

indifferent in

quality.

POPULAR

SONGS.

which

Montaigne contemptuouslydesignatedas being

Some of these

"

void

of honour

and and
seems

of value." their wrong,

popular songs,
very

for all their

errors

of grammar
metre

are incompleteness,

remarkable
a mere

works.

The
and

often
is
own,

the

rhyme
but

is replacedby

assonance,
a

the

meaning

badly
and the this

expressed ;
present

these

compositionshave trifling
of
not

charm

all their

the true

type
did

popular poetry.
think it beneath

The their

professional poets,even
to dignity

greatestof them,

borrow

from

popular poetry,which, couplet is Burgundy,

wrote

in

attemptingto improve,they often spoilt.A Georges

remember de Merode

ing charmof

that

which

de

a gentleman Lalaing,

of the court
in

who

happened to
of Helene

havingheard
:
"

it somewhere

Brabant,

in the album

"

Elle s'en Sa

va

aux

champs, la petitebergiere,
; son

quenouille filant
il la fait bon

troupeau suyt derriere.

Tant

veoir,la petite bergiere,

veoir."

Taut

il la fait bon

In

the

same

album

is

roundelay which preserveda village

was

sung

in the

Hainault

:
"

"

Nous Nous

estions trois alltmes

!
au

sceurs

tout

d'une

volonte,
. .

fond

du

joly bois jouer. heureux, qui

se

Array Dieu

Qu'il

est

garde d'aimer

!"

Most

of these
the

songs

were

set

to

popular
which
had

airs

which
cases

were

familiar
went at

to

and everybody, centuries.

time
as

unknown

of origin
the

in many been

back the

for
same

Sometimes, however,
also

music
to

composed

the words, and

belonged

the music and

of the

which people,

has

always been

remarkable

for its
town
were
"

exquisite grace
one

(Fig.325). simplicity
add every of

Every province and

might

almost

village
"

had

its
as

particular songs,
as safely

which

in preserved the

the memory

the These

inhabitants
songs idiom the

if

they were
ideas, the
this

depositedin
the beliefs, limited

local archives.

sented repreof the

the and district,

manners,

and, above

the all, them

to

idiom

the

preservationof
we

region in
which
every

which
have

they were
become

composed.
in

Hence the

have

mass

of

popular songs
date from

embedded The

various be
or

and patois,

which

period in history.

patois may Auvergnat,

How

Flemish, Picard, Norman,

Poitou,
alike
are,
one

Burgundian, Provencal,
hears the voice of the

Lauguedoc,
some

but

in

all songs

people.

ancient

of these

not-

4i 6

POPULAR

SONGS.

great many
Southern
more

of these France

lyricsongs,

differed but
the

little from

the

troubadours

of

(Fig. 326),while
with the

had (master singers) Meistersingers the

in

common

of jugglers the

tongue
to

of Oil. the of the

The

work

of the

Minnesingers beyond
the

did

not

reach, from
the

twelfth
the

fourteenth

century,
selves them-

courts

of

princes and

castles

nobles,who

and aspiredto sing love-songs, ancient the

who
The

waged unceasing war

work and of the the

the against

popular

songs

of

Germany.
for the

Meistersingers, upon
classes
branch

contrary,was

intended

middle

lower
a

(Fig.327).

These
more

poets and musicians, who

in

devoted German

their efforts to

of literature

conformity with
the

the

character, had

quite eclipsedthe
new

Minnesingers by
poetry which

fifteenth century, and within itself the

germs

populariseda
of dramatic

branch

of

contained

art.

(See below,

chapteron
The take
to
use

National

Poetry.)
of

popular songs

Germany

are

worth especially

studying when

they
ballad,

the

eminently poeticform
felicitous
be

of ballads, for there is in the German

M.

the
can

of expression than
it
a

Fertiault,something soft
be described
"

and
once

pensive,
vague and
at

which and fused

more

felt better
It

can

something at
in which and
a are

touching.

embodies, as
and

rule, a drama, slight

Pensive it
were

united

dramatic, lyric,
than it

familiar elements.
and

it hints mystic,

actually says,
the

it exhales

as

refined like

perfume

of the
her
more

soul

which

kindles
both

deepest emotions.

Germany,

France,

has
a

popular songs, complete state

and domestic, and historical, religious,

they are

in

of

preservation.
rich
as a

England,too, is
English ballads
them
are

in ancient

ballads

equal to

those

of

Germany.
many poem

The of in

are,
a

rule,somewhat
that may

epic in

and their tendencies, the

of

such

length

they assume
be their

proportionsof
manner

several cantos.

But, whatever
tender and

lengthor

of

composition,

they are

with replete

refined

sentiments also
a

culled from
number

the marvellous ballads

fables of ancient

Britain.

Scotland
her

has

of national

the poeticmajesty of reflecting and the

wild scenery,

of her

lakes, mist-enveloped
his

of

her

pine-covered mountains.
remarks that traditional

Sir Walter
tales and

Scott, in
songs,

"Songs

of the

Scotch,"
the

accompanied by
sources

flute and

harp

of the the
trace

minstrel,were

probably the
their

sole

of

ment amuse-

possessedby
In them
we

Highlanders during
the in
source

short

intervals of peace.
drew Ireland the fanciful less

may

whence mouth

Macpherson

utterances

which

he

puts

the

of his Ossian.

is not

POPULAR

SONGS.

4'7

proud of
the first

her

national

ballads,and Thomas
to the

Moore, who
ballads.

publishedthem

for

them time, preferred

Scotch
the

In the

Denmark,

Sweden, and

Norway
from

popular songs

were

for centuries all these

only history transmitted

had their
to

generation to
who Scalds,

: generation

countries

national

poets, named
combatants

sang

upon

the battlefields

in order

the inspirit

328). (Fig.

These

poets,themselves

to the sound warriors,improvised

of the

harp rhymed songs in which

they

related, after
achievements

fashion

at

once

simple and

the great military striking,

with

of their heroes,whom

they associated

the sombre

deities

Fig. 327."

German

Musicians

playingthe

Lute

and

the Guitar."

Engraved by J.

Amman

Century). (Sixteenth

of the Odin

mythology.

The

from peopledrank deeplyand incessantly

the and

of this wild and warlike,yet pensive poetry,and these anonymous, springs in the
"

true

sense

works popular,
M.

formed

collection known

by

the

name

of

Kemperiser."
Sweden
as

Marmier

out points

the resemblance of the

popular songs
The with

of

to

those

of Scotland, Germany,
were

Holland,
in

and

Denmark.

Danes,

he
to

remarks,

long enough

direct

communication

England

and love. of heroism, religion, the legends interchange

3
H

418

POPULAR

SONGS.

Russia

and

Poland
from
are

have the
same

popularsongs which, though

epoch
of the

dissimilar In
upon
are

from

one

another, date

Middle

Ages.
touch

Poland

the

popular
while

songs

mainly

historical and

warlike, or

chivalry,
used

in Russia
to

they are

rather

and religious and

sorrows.

domestic, and
Servia and

by

the

peasants

portray

their

joys
in

the

Danubiaii in
a

provinces arc
work called

equally rich
"Danitza,"

popular songs,
of them
war

which

have

been

collated date.

many

being of
songs,

very
are

ancient

They

for consist,

the most

part, of love and

Modern many

and

remarkable
a

for their

refinement. exquisite her ancient

Greece

has, like Servia,formed

collection of

popular songs,

of which, in the

shape of

legendary ballad

131
Hiug-gu
ver

mecih

hior-vi!

Hilt

lie

ir

mikjafu

au

"

"

it"

I
"

1
"

hr
i

"-"-"""

"itr:t:":
veit ek

4" q-t
at smul

S-f^
Bald-urs (oil
-

ur

bekk

"

bun

^SllraiSiill
1
.

^=pl-q"

^"B-3E
s^^
G
" "

I
"

Q
rau

C*
"

1
-

biiig
-

vid

"

haus

fm\

T\ _l I

1~

"

4"
" "

]~" J

LHJ" -h^II"H

|T|.

TT|T!r3ZI-i

a;

cig
of

Kern

ek mcdh

oedr-u
"

ord

til

\idr-is ancient

ball-ar. record of the of it We

Fig. 328.
M.

"

Song

the

Sword.

Original Melody of the

in his
"

Krakumal,"

an

Scandinavian

Scalds,published by Fetis
Each
of

History of Music,"
commences

after the version line

by

Legis.

the

coupletsof this

melody

with

meaning,

"

have

fought with the sword."

of the Middle

Ages, retain

perfume of antiquity.Some
of the

of these

songs

are

contemporaneous with the conquest

in the

Constantinople by occupation of
the

the French

crusaders which then

twelfth
a

century,

and

with

Morea,

became

French

principality.
well claim
as

Italycannot
poets, who
of the troubadours of

popular
in

songs

the

canzoni

composed by

her

themselves styled

reciters

rhyme and

love

swains, after the fashion

of Provence

and

Languedoc.

These

piecesof poetry, full

doubtless

concetti, metaphors, and

mystic exaggerations, were

considered,

POPULAR

SONGS.

4"9

by

the

and gallants de

ladies

of

the

court, to confer

great
the
rest

honour

upon

Guido
;

Cavalcanti, Cino
but them

Pistoia,Guido amongst
the

Orlandi, and

of the
not
measure

composers understand

they
or

took

no

root

people,who
and

either did
were

turned

them
a

into

jest.Rhythm
of gondoliers

song

in

tive instincAs

requirementsin
late
verses as

land where
the

the love of poetry and Venice

were

music

is innate.

the last

century

in the But

habit of these

singing
not

from

Tasso

while

plying the

oar

(Fig.329).

were

Fig.

329."

Venetian

Gondola."

From

the

"

Grand

Procession Frankfort

of tho

Doge

of

Venice," attributed

to Jost Amman,

publishedat

in 1597.

popular songs,
many
was

to find

which
not

we

must

search the

numerous

which patois,

were,

of them,
not
a

equal,if
or

to superior,

the correct

Italian

language.
which

There

town

which village

had

not

and its local literature,

of
some one or more

could

not

boast
In

of the clever and than

works poetical
other

of its

sons.

Spain,more
marked and

in any

country
and

of

Europe, popularsong
the form, not

had

very

special physiognomy,

assumed

of ballad,

420

POPULAR

SONGS.

dreamy
chansons

and
de

pensive,

or

light
in has

and

airy,

but

of

the

heroic

songs,
more

such

as

the

geste written
which the
"

Eomanic.
been

Nothing,

too,

answers

closely to

the the

best

definition of

given
"

of

popular
are

song.
not

M.

Damas-Hinard,
the
true

translator the Middle of

Cid,"

says,

Romances

only
The these

history people,
which and in

of
the

Ages
the

in

Spain, they

are

also
with

its

poetry.

Spanish
songs, of

poets

Romances,
are

composed
and

enthusiasm
For
to

they
each them."

themselves

the

subject

the
set

heroes.

many

centuries,
and
to

generation,
The of

the

greatest writers

themselves the

improve

embellish of the

most

important
which
but

part

of

Spanish
to

Romancero

consists the

romances

the

"Cid,"

date, according

the

critics, from

eleventh
songs A

or

the

thirteenth
must

century,
from the

long
of

before

this

Spain possessed popular

in the the the

which

date

reign

King
songs,

Roderick from
of

eighth century.
of

collection
Gonzalvo
a

of

the

Spanish
in but

popular
1492,
if
not to

conquest

Granada,
would lose
to

by
be the

of Cordova,
onerous

the

end

sixteenth
world will

century,

very

task,

undertaken

the

ultimately
used

beautiful
to

historical

romances

which
the

the

muleteers

of Andalusia

sing

the

accompaniment

of

mandolin.

Fig.

330.

"

French

Trouveur. of the

"

After Fourteenth

Drawing

from In

the the

Poems National

of

Guillaume Paria.

de

Machaut.

Manuscript

Century.

"

Library,

NATIONAL

POETRY.

Decadence

of Rutebeuf.

Latin

Poetry.
Thibaud
"

"

Origins
Navarre

of

Vulgar
and his
"

Poetry.
School.

"

Troubadours,
"

Trouveurs,
France.
"

and

Jugglers.
of the

"

"

of

Marie Rose.""

de

"Romance

Renard."" The
"

The
"

Guyot
"

Bible."" The

The

Romance

of the Petrarch. Villon. The

The Poets of

Minnesingers.
;

"

Dante.

Romancero." Alain

Meistersingers.
Charles Latin

"

"

English
Chambers of

Chaucer.
"

Eustache Poets of Clement of the the

Deschamps,
Court Marot Northern of and

Chartior,
Modern
"

d'Orleans, Poetry. Poems,

his School.
" "

"

Rhetoric. in

"

Burgundy.
his

Poems Camoens. under

Chivalry
Poets the of Valois

Italy.

"

School.

"

The

Epic
and

Tasso,

"

Germany Kings.

and

Countries.

Ronsard
"

Poetry

the

Barbarians
the

established of
M. the Roman

themselves

upon the

ruins

empire
Nisard, amongst
"

in his the

West,"

says

Charles

in

graphic
different of with
in his

history peoples
eloquence

of of
and

poetry

Europe,
of

the

fall down-

poetry
Boethius
on

occurred
wrote

startling rapidity. prison

the

treatise
and

the

'

tion Consolato

of

Philosophy,'
afterwards combines Christian of
the

was

put
This of
is

death

shortly
which

(524).
the

treatise,
ancient the
its

highest

morality
protest
of

with
an

the

tenderest
art

feelings
;

of

resignation,
swan

last
last

expiring
the

it

is

the

voice
to

exhaling

melody

beneath

knife

which
one

is about the

immolate who
of

it."
wrote

Boethius the
true

was,

in fact,

of

last the

Romans

Latin
the

verses

with
Latin it
to

classic had for

been her

ring

in

them.

Since

reign
the
most

Theodosius
had

Great,
to

poetry
except
the

gradually
sacred

declining,
This is

and

Church of the

ceased

use

hymns.
"

why

poets

from

the

fifth

seventh

century
Venautius The

St.

Paulinus,

Sedulius,
"c.
"

St.

Prosper,

Sidonius

Apollinaris,
or

Juvencus,

Fortunatus,
of

wrote

only

upon

pious
the

moral of the

subjects.

singing

hymns

was

calculated,

in

opinion

NATIONAL

POETRY.

Church,

to

put
or

an

end Romans

to

certain heretical of the

were

or

blasphemous

songs

which

the

Barbarians
and the The

the

decadence

were

in the habit of

repeating ;

hopes of
Romanic
from

the Church

fulfilled. eventually in various

language, which
to the

forms

was

current

throughout

Europe
than and the

the sixth

tenth century, produced

were

no

other

works poetical

popular songs which

not

transmitted

from

generationto generation,
songs
were

which,

having

been

collected,as the Teutonic

effaced
from The the

by

order

of

Charlemagne, soon

became

memory

of the

people. (See
was

chapter, Popular Songs.) previous

written poetry, which

to be

cultivated

by

few

men

of letters and words of

clerks,continued
new

in Latin

(Fig.331),but
century

it was

by disfigured

creation.

It is not

vintil the tenth

deatfirttttuitf

Fig. 331.

"

Horace's

Poems.-

"

Fragment
"

from

the

"Ode

to Maecenas."

"

Manuscript of

the

Tenth

Century.

In the National

Library,Paris.

that and

we

find the first poetical samples of the Romanic Romanic

are

language of
The poems oldest

the North

of the

languageof
the

the South

of France.

piecesof
script manu-

French

poetry
of

Cantilena

of St. Eulalie ; the two

to

of the

Clermont-Ferrand,devoted
and,
in the

St.
"

Leger

and

to the

Passion

of Jesus
In the

Christ

eleventh have

century, the
the
came
"

Chanson

de

St. Alexis."
and of the The the

Provencal

languagewe
of about these

Mystery
the
"

of the Wise

Foolish
a

to which Virgins,"previously

Poem

of Boethius."

latter is

piece in verse,
Boethius,
and

two

hundred
ten

and

lines,upon fifty
are

of captivity of This the

of lines,
stanza

each, syllables
the the

divided masculine

into stanzas

each unequal length, kind of poem the is

terminatingwith
to

same

rhyme.
Such
are

anterior unquestionably of French

tenth

century.

of origins

language

poetry.

NATIONAL

POETRF.

were

highly appreciatedby
its

Dante

and

the

poetry

of the of

troubadours

was

.notable for specially

of invention,science gracefulness

rhythm,
Most

infinite
sisted con-

varietyof form,

abundant and

imagery, and
but pastorals,

richness
were

of colour.
some

of it

of love- songs

there
severe,

and religious

satirical

pieces, many
When troubadours

of the latter

being very

known South

by

the

name

of sirventes. poems of the

certain

of strolling jugglers northern

the

imported
France

the

into the central and

of provinces

in the

beginning

Mouvement

anirni.

Us

gays

co-norlz

me

fai

gay

-a

men

far

ga-ya

chan-so

gai fag

"

-t-l
e

gai

sem-blan.

Gay de

zi-rier

io-ios

gai

le

grar.

Per

gai-

ton

ap

gai

cors

ben

es

tan.

Ab

cuy

tro bom

gai

so

latz

"6-

gai

ri

re.

Gai

ia

culh-ir.

Gai de

port.

Gai

io

vcn.

Gai-a

beutalz.

Gaichan-tar,Gai

al-bi

re.

Gaiditz

pla

zen.

Gaiioi, Gaipretz.Gai Fig. 332."

sen.

I-eu

soi

car gais,

soi sieus

li

na

men

Song

of the

Troubadour, Pons

de

with Capdeuil,

the Music."

Published

by Fetis,after

Manuscript in

National

Library, Paris.

of the thirteenth century, these

in

provinceshad long possesseda

also

native poetry
themselves had songs been in

the

vulgar tongue,

and

they

possessedpoets
from the

who

called

trouveurs

them 333), to distinguish (Fig. three

or

jugglerswho

the

habit,for

four

centuries

past, of singingpopular
As
soon as

while

playing upon language of

written

different Northern

stringedinstruments.
France
was

the
to
was

Romanic become
a

had

made

sufficient progress

language, poetry

its spontaneous

expression. It

to indicate

.v.i7mv.i/.

4*5

tlic line of

demarcation
the

which

the Tongue separated

of

Oil and

the Romanic

languageof
took the it must
name

South

that the Oc.

latter But

of the

Tongue of

be

mentioned expressly

that the

trouveurs,

certain notwithstanding

local

imitations of the have

poetry
in

of the
common

dours, troubawith

nothing

the latter in respect to

and
trouveurs

tion invenliterary
It
was

genius. poetical
who had

the

the honour

of

creating
earlier,
of

in the eleventh the chansons

de

century,or
geste and
have

even romances

which chivalry
into every

been

translated have
no

and language,

which

in the literature of the Tongue parallel of Oc.

chapter, (Seeprevious Romances.)

The

Tongue of

Oil had from

two

its very

produced inception
of
who and

families of poets

and different characteristics, utterly

so represented,

to

epicpoetry speak,
great trouveurs,

light poetry.
the

The

those who
and

collected the national

popular songs

traditions to convert
de

them
of

into chansons

gesteand

romances

chivalry, were,
lived all

in many

cases,

in the nobles
;

domestic

service of

princesand

they

together amongst

the the

warriors

for whom
poems

they composed
which

long national

wards they afterof the violin All that

recited to the sound

at

festivals and
romances

assemblies. has been

relates to in
a

treated of
333" the lesser Fig" upon

previous chapter. But

those who the
may,

Trouveur the Violin. Portico

of
"

accompanying
Sculptured Work
the

himself
upon

"ouveurs,

have perhaps,
of
were

the

Abbey

of 8t

Denis

been

subject to

influence
of whom

the
no

(Twelfth Century), better than created players, strolling

and many troubadours,

426

NATIONAL

POETRY.

the

gallant and

joyous literature

of

the

Tongue

of

Oil.

They had, like

;

the

their troubadours, their scrccntois, their

descors, their
were

rotmenges
the

they
of

borrowed

lays from

the

and singersof Brittany, the contcs, all of which the

inventors

ihejfitxThe of of

and partis,the fabliaux, fabliau the

are

French. thoroughly time

is (metrical tale) the

are

best,but
and

at the

same

the most
in wit

immoral,

productionsof
These abound fabliaux in their

trouveurs

jugglers who

wrote

the
and

Tongue

Oil.
and

many of In

of them

of masterpieces
the

insinuation,
are

strokes

humour,
most

while

lines eight-syllable

well

adapted to
sources

style.

of these

works their

it is easy

to trace

the ancient

from

which

the authors
were

borrowed
of their
own

of generallyindecent subjects
these latter
were

song.
not
men

Others, however, immoral,

invention,and

the least

for the trouveurs

of the

people were,

for the most

part,

of dissolute life. Rutebeuf

is the of
most

celebrated

cf these

trouveurs-

and jugglers, of which

are

he

has

left
upon
own

mass

and witty compositions, nearlyall exquisite and

satires

the

nobles,the monks,

the

clergy. He
how and he and

is doubtless his

depictinghis

life of poverty when

he describes with

companions journeyed
in
not

from

half dead castle to castle,

to

cold and

hunger, begging, often

Most
;

vain,
more

to be allowed

give their poetry

conduct upon than the

music.

of them

were

exemplaryin
Muset, made

their
an

Rutebeuf

himself

and

one

of them,
condescend
on

Colin
to

attack

King,
these

who

did not, however,

were

notice his violent diatribe. favourable

with
to the trouveurs

But
and

poeticexcesses
soon

not,

the

whole,

who jugglers,

found

themselves

repulsed

contempt
There
was

wherever

they went.
school with of trouveurs, the
most

only one
favour
or

of whom

were

themselves

of such

noble
men as

birth,in
Quenes

and royalty

and nobility,
Count

it

comprised

Conon

of Bethune of Navarre,

(Fig.334),and
who
was

Thibaud

of Champagne, all

afterwards

King

the most

illustrious of them The

(Fig.335).
of Thibaud

This found

school,in fact,rivalled
their way in his
as

that of the troubadours.

songs them of

far

as

and Italy,

Dante, who

had

got

by heart,
Navarre Thibaud lords may
as

mentioned
"

work,
in

"De

the Vulgari Eloquentia," One

King

an

excellent master
was

poetry."

of the

pupilsand
the
at

rivals of

of

Champagne
the

his

Gace vassal,

Brule.

Amongst
made

princesand
this

of whom be

of chivalryhad gallantspirit the de Lord of

poets
of

epoch
de

mentioned

Coucy,

Pierre de

Duke

Brittany, Jean
and many

Brienne, Guillaume

Ferrieres, Hugues

Lusignan,

others

NA

TIONA

POE

'I

'.

4*7

who

are

alluded

to

by

M.

Pauliii Paris

in

volume

xxiii. of his

"

Litteraire." These
trouveurs

of the
in

imitators of nobility,

the

troubadours, would
the

not

have probably
had been
cast

succeeded into

the poetry of rehabilitating

Tongue of Oil,which
the assistance
to
scour

discredit

by

the

but for trouveurs-jugglers,

of true
the

poets, who, decliningto emerge

devoted de their time
to
was

from

their

retreats

in order

country,

the
one

composition of serious and valuable

of this number,
at

works.
Norman

Marie

France, who

and

who

was

by birth, passed part of

Allegretto.

her

youth

the court

of

Henry III.,King

A -hi!

rnors,

com

du-re

de-par -li

Me

con-ven

ra

fe-re

de

latnei

lourQuionqucs

fust

a-me

ne'ser-vi

et

Dies

"

V^

j-

me

ra-inaiue

li

par

sa

dou-cmir.

Si

voi-rement,

qtn m'en para

doulour.

:$!-:"=
Las!

mi ja tie m'en |"ars-je qu'ui-jiidil?

Se

li

rot's

va

servir

no

stre si

gnour,
"

Li

cuers

remiint del

tout

en

sa

bail

li

e.

Fig. 334.

"
"

Serventois

of the

Trouveur, Quenes

of

Bethune, upon

the Crusade.

"

Published

by

Fetis,after

Manuscript in the National

Library,Paris.

of

England,who

had

asked

her

to

put

into

rhyme

the

legends which
and

formed

part of the traditions of

Brittany. In
to
a

addition

to

these sombre

tragic
for

lays,which
Count called
"

were

well suited
de

her

brilliant

she composed imagination,

William

Dampierre
we

collection of

fables, imitated
the naivete
were

after
grace

.^sop,
of La

Ysopet," in which
These the Middle

find

somethingof

and

Fontaine.

ingenious imitations of JEsop, which Ages, were

the
"

in much and

favour

during

preceded by
de Rciiard

a
"

great romantic (the

"

allegorical
"),

compositionentitled

Roman

Romance

of the Fox

NATIONAL

POETRY.

the
to

incidents principal

in which

were

also borrowed

from

the work

ascribed

.ZEsop.
"

This from the

"

Roman
same

de

Renard," which
without

branches springing comprised thirty-two

trunk, but

forming

connected

and and

homogeneous
at
or

whole,

was

undoubtedly composed by
the

different the

authors,

different sang it

epochs,according to
in the towns and The

requirements of
who lower thus

jugglerswho
it
a

recited

and villages, middle and and

acquiredfor

very

widespreading
a

popularity.
interest under

classes,more

took especially, of the

lively

in the
name

amusing
of Master

satirical adventures

personified rulpeoulits,
and

the

Renard,

and

vying in cunning

mischief

with

A-mors

me

fait

cowmen

cier U

ne

chan? on

no

ve

le
,

Ic

me

Tuet

en

sei-gnierA

mer

la

plus

be

"

le,

Qui soil el

mont

vi-vant,

-fc"-l
" m

C'cst la

be

leau corsgent, C'cst

ce

le

dont

je chant. Diex m'endoint

le

le

no

^^_

ve

"

le, Qui soil

"

mon

ta-Ient, Que

mc-nu

et

suvent, Mcscuerspor

11

sau

le Count

le.
of

Fig. 335.

"

Song

of

Thihaud,

Champagne,

with

the

Music.

"

Published

afler by Feti.i,

Manuscript (No. 7,222)in National

Library,Paris.

his uncle

the Wolf,
whose then

under personified has

come

the

name

of

Tseng r in.

The

only one

of

the authors

name

down the

to

us

is Pierre
were no

de St. Cloud.

Satirical discredited and

poetry was
and

in vogue,

and
a

writers,who time, were

longer the
upon

despisedjugglers of
of
men.

former

very

severe

all sorts

conditions One

of these

which generalsatires,
was

had
an

great

success

under

the title of de

the
whose

"

Guyot Bible,"
work

composed by
trenchant

ecclesiastic, Guyot
a

Proving,
He

displaysmuch

wit, but of

very

truculent

kind.

\.\rio.\AL

POETR}'.

may
one

be

called

the

Juvenal

of

the

Middle
work of of

Ages.
a

worthy
kind

eiti/eii of

Lille,

JaoquemartGelee, publisheda
Renouvtle."
to

similar of the

under

(he title of
century ri-es

"

Renart

This certain the

poet

the end where

thirteenth

almost which

eloquence in
to

passages

he

inveighsagainstthe

vices

he attributes remain

upper

classes.

Another

poet of Champagne, who

"

to preferred

anonymous,

reproducedthe original
entitled
"

Roman

de Renard

"

in

very

diffuse

and

prolix poem,

Renart

le Contrefait,"which,

fjf

"

-3

-J

i*

"i

vw

"*

vvi

IV

1(J*

IJ

VI

-vo ywnnaniitraiktu"ei\tl;dfte^c(?"efrbeinVicl7

Oer

Fig.

330.

"

i'oulicul and

ilusic-ul

Cungnss

ut

Wartlmrg,
of

in 1207.

The

Minneaingers,\Vnltner
iua

Vogclweide, Wolfram

of

Eschenbach, Reinmar

Zweter, Henry called the Virtu

from the Treatise
on

Writer,

and Klingsorof Hungary." Miniature Henry of Ofterdingen,

"

singers. the Minne-

Manuscript of

the Fourteenth

Century, in

National

Library,Paris.

like its
certain the

is original,

satire
"

upon

humanity, representedin
"

the

shape

of

animals.

The
ambition

Roman
of the had

de Fauvel

is also

an

satire allegorical

upon

luxury and
The
lettered

great.
such
a

public

taken

fancy to

these

satirical poems Guillaumede de

that

the "Roman
had

de la Rose"
\\as

("Romance
resumed and

of the

Rose"), which
Jean

Lori-is in
a

left unfinished,

completed by

Moung

very

430

NATIONAL

POETRY.

different

shape,and
author Amandi."

with

oppositeto meaning diametrically

had

that which

had

the inspired

of the first part, who

The
poem

merely
de
more

endeavoured had

to imitate

Ovid's
a new

"

Ars

of Guillaume

Lorris

caused

quite
siastic enthu-

sensation at the
in its

French

court, the ladies

the that

being especially
did de
not

favour, and
not

they regrettedthat
afterwards

author Jean

live to finish surnamcd

it.

It

was

till the

sixtyyears
work,
and

Meung,
and the
as a

resumed Clopinel,

though

man

of erudition which
were

philosopher,

he did not
features
an

possess

the

and delicacy de

refinement

distinguishing
continued, was
names as

of Guillaume

Lorris' s talent. that the

so

Thus

the poem, had the

new entirely

piece, except
It was, in

personages much Jean

an

same

in

the first part.

as a

fact,not

and elegant

picturesque poem
all he knew de

into rhymed encyclopaedia,

which

de

Meung

crammed

of

cosmography, physics, philosophy, alchemy,and

was

natural
a

history.

Jean

Meung
very in

not

bad, innately

but

he

was

scepticand
Yet

free-thinker, and

fond

of
and

at railing

the powers
that

that
was

be.

his poem,

though

ridiculous and

form

much containing
as

was heretical,

admired, greatly
fourteenth

looked Jean
reverse

upon de

the

masterpieceof

French

poetry
wrote

in the

century.
the

Meung,
of

like most

of the poets who

the fair sex, did
not
"

in the

Tongue

of Oil,was

to complimentary
so

in whose the

favour

Guillaume of of

de Lorris the
a man

had and

said the
"

much.

But

he

express the

general ideas

time,
of

"

Romance

of the

Rose

is but the

fanciful creation of
a

letters

not

the faithful

of portrayal
to seed

manners

whole

epoch.

Long
of France

before this
had

running

of French It

poetry, the national language

was

spread throughout Europe.

spoken
twelfth

and

written
many

in

and England, Italy, the chansons the latter

de

Germany,
romances

and

as

as early

the

century
or

of
in the

gestc and
In

of
was

were chivalry

translated
double

imitated

country.

fact,it
and

beneath

the

of inspiration

works poetical age

of the South
romance

of the North and

of France

that

began

the

golden
In

of the literature of

of

chivalryin Germany
of

(Fig.336).

the latter part of the than three

twelfth century the number

of whom

Minnesingers was
the

more

hundred,

most

composed
of Waldeck
the To

their

love-songsin
oldest

soft and

dialect graceful
who

of Swabia.

Henry

is the

of these
the
most

poets,
mental senti-

imitated
was

the

troubadours; while
of Eschenbach.

most

and prolific
same

Wolfram

the

epoch belong

the

great
and of

German
the

epodes,in

which

are

embodied

the recollections The

"

of the heroic age

"

historical

traditions

of

Germany.

Helden-Buch

("Book

432

NATIONAL

POETRY.

thirteenth Several

century

there

was

such scarcely written

thing

as

Italian prose-

writing.
the

poems

had, however, been

in the Sicilian II. ; his

dialect, amongst

first composers

being the Emperor

has been

Frederick

Pierre chancellor,

de la
;

Vigne, to
and
not

whom

attributed erroneously
of Sardinia, and that the

the invention of

of the sonnet

his

sons

Enzo, King

Manfred, King
the

Naples.

It

was

till nearly a century later into their native

poets of

Italian of Romanic

duced peninsulaintro-

language

the various

forms the

versification,
of (canzone), These
some

and

the characteristics of Provencal

poetry, in

shape of

odes

of lays, and of ballads, of ni.rfiin-s, dialogues(tenuous), poetical

of tales.

poets imitated
of their

not

only the rhyme

and

rhythm
more

of

the

troubadours, but
in

qualities, literary though they were

It is easy of
to
see

successful their

copying

their the

defects.

that

they did

not

derive

from inspiration

livingfountains

antiquity, though
and
come

the

names

of Guido

Ghisleri and Cavalcanti

Guido and

of Bologna, Guinicelli, Guitone of

of

the

two to
our

Florentines, Guido
own

Arezzo,.have
the
true

down

day.
also
a

Dante,
and he for
was

creator

of Italian

poetry, was

native

of had

Florence,
intended various with his

born

there

of
at

patrician parents
first he devoted
most

in 1265. himself
to

Nature the

him

poet, though
Love He of the
was

study of

sciences. first who

verses.

highest and
yet
ten

elevated kind

inspiredhim
Beatrix many

not
as

years

of age when
to

he met addressed his her

"

Portinari,
tender and

was

the

same

age

himself,and

whom

he

which pensivepieces, she died in her

he afterwards

in incorporated he dedicated
to

Vita memory

Nuova."
his

When immortal divided first

twenty-fifth year
a

"Divine
into three

Comedy,"

poem

at

once

and religious Paradise.

and philosophical, This in

vast

parts : Hell, Purgatory, and

is in every every way the

the trilogy,

part of which

best, is written
of human
the

tiercets, or
and

rhymed

triplets ;

it embraces
a

branch

knowledge,

presents in

allegorical shape
of the
of

striking pictureof

of history the that

the age, and pure and

especially image

poet'scontemporaries. Above
It is in this

all stands

radiant
a

Beatrix.

incomparable poem

Dante, by
into
a

judicious
and

selection

of Italian

dialects,and
in

them by transforming fixed

unique

regular type, language

hitherto of

succeeded

establishing upon

the literary principles

his

country, which,

though simple, clear, and

inchoate. Dante

powerful, had
the

been

somewhat

rough

and

remains, after

lapse

of six centuries, the None of the other

great poet of Italy.

nations of

Europe produced any poet

to

equal him.

In

NATIONAL

/'""/":/'A')-.

433

Fig. 338.

"

The

Mosque of Cordova, founded 3

by Abderam
K

I.,King of the Moors, about

692.

434

NATIONAL

POETRF.

England, where
the

the

Anglo-Saxon tongue
dialect,an attempt
in the way in

had
was

in

the end
to

become

merged
the
a

in

Franco-Norman
and
"

made

revive
is

national

songs, of the

all that

can

be cited
an

of
verse

English poetry
of the

translation
of

Brut," by Wace,

imitation

Chronicle the Romanic

Geoffroy language provinces

who
first

of Monmouth had
not wrote

by

Eobert

of Gloucester. since the

Spain,where

become invaded that

naturalised

eleventh
even

century, at least
know the
name

in the

by
poem

the

Moors,
"

did Cid
"

not

of the
with

author
the

of the
of her

which

she

pointed to

pride as

record poetical
whom had appear

legendaryhistory(Fig.338). Spanish poets,amongst

II.,King of
in
a

Alfonso

Arragon,and

Alfonso

XI., King of Castile,

somewhat

already celebrated
was

language which, though

rough
human

and

coarse,

and energetic courage

noble, the loftiest sentiments

and in love of

of the

heart,

warlike especially
ballads The and
romances

country.

The

union

of these

popular

formed
not

part the celebrated collection of

survive the extinction
of the

"Romancero." of the

did Minnesingers had

house

Swabia,
house
to

which

always
succeeded

accorded the

them

the

highestfavours.
the German failed for

When

of
take

Hapsburg
any

Hohenstauffens

ceased nobility
a

interest in arts and But towards

a

poetry, and Germany

end for

time I.

to

produce any
middle

poets.

the

of the

reign of Rudolph
the

(1291) the

classes created

demand

and singers, the

of song), Meistersingers (masters

a

whose

compositionsanswered
their
was

requirements of

public little
from

versed

in

literature,extended
as high-spirited

to poetry which, jurisdiction

sprightlyand
staid
are

it

in
tame name,

the and and

time

of the

became Minnesingers, The

and
not

measured,
worth the

not

to

say

tedious. it
was

poets
the

of

this

epoch

mentioning by

not

until

sixteenth

century

that

Meistersingers emerged
Dante gave the

from

their the

obscurity.
in
to Italy,
was

signal for

renaissance literary

which
born
to the

Francis
at Arezzo

devoted Petrarch, his contemporary, in which

were

his whole

life. The latter

Thanks

1304, and
he

died

at

Arqua,

near

Padua, in 1374.
to

example
and

set, classical
read
as

study began they

flourish been

anew,

and the

Virgil
of

Horace

eagerly as
had

had in

during
the had
upon

reign

Augustus.

Petrarch, who
first to his

been them

immersed
in

study of
after he

ancient
met

poets,
cle

attempted at
Noves
and at

imitate

Latin, but

Laura

Avignon
his with

thoughts were
and his

concentrated solely
"

pleasingher,
of her who had

he

wrote

"Rhymes"
a

Canzoni pure

"

in honour

him inspired

passionas

delicate and

as

that of Dante

for Beatrix.

NATIONAL

1'or.TRY.

435

Petrarch, ill the "Canzoni," has given ode, and

while he rises at
are

us

the most

perfect type
of of

of the Italian

times

to

the
an

height
accent

Pindar
sorrow

and and

Horace,

his

poeticaloutbursts
to peculiar

tnnprml
He did
not

1"\ lack

melancholy
came

himself.

but imitators, had

none

of them

up

to

the

original ; and

his friend

Boccaccio,who

Italian perfected

prose, wrote

Fig. 339.
some

"

The armed hands

Horse and
to

Pegasus.
some

"

Behold
arms,

Flying Horse, called Pegasus,and

and kings, princes,
not

several

Nobles,
lift up the
"

without
touch

of all conditions,

others, which
"

their
"

try and

the said
"

Horse, but

ore

able to do so."

Miniature

from

Enseignemcnt

de vraye

Noblesse."

Manuscript of the Fifteenth

Century (No. 11,049). In

the

Burgundy Library,Brussels.

but

small

number
"

of sonnets, and Decamcrone."

same

his first Italian

epode,the

"

Theseide," is

far inferior to his

Almost

at
an

the

period, a
in the

Scotch

poet, Archdeacon
upon the

of Aberdeen, achievements
of

composed
Robert

epic poem
the

Scotch

dialect

Bruce,

liberator of

Scotland.

Previouslyto

this the

first of the

436

NATIONAL

POETRY.

epic poems
poems

which

appeared
wars

in Great

Britain, there had

Edward
are

been

written

few

concerning the
II. of and France.

of

King

III.
not

againstPhilip of
to

Valois with

and John

John Gower

But

the

writers had

be

compared

GeoffreyChaucer, who
who imitated
to

taken

as

their models

the ancient

French in in the

trouveurs, and

them

without

citingtheir authority. Gowcr,

of

contributed particular,

purify the language

amount not to

poetry, and
that

Chaucer,
he
was

spiteof

his

which imitations,

showed plagiarism, do

if superiorin point of style, William The de Lorris, and Jean

in invention, to Marie

France, Rutebcuf,

de

Meung.
Jean de

literaryreputationof
after his death

Meung
French

lasted

for
had

more

than

two

centuries

(1320),though

poetry

taken

another

shape to

suit the

taste

of the

ladies, who, by becoming

queens
sort

of the tournaments

and
not

of other

fetes of

brought chivalry,

about

of

poeticrevival,
the
seen

onlyin France, but

in all countries where

more

French

was

the

language of
fair
sex

The aristocracy. their best

satires directed

especially againstthe Deschamps sought

Juvenal's
amorous

had

day, and

though
"

Eustache du

to

revive them
upon
women,

by

paraphrasing,in his
poetry
had
at
one once more

Miroir

Manage,"

satire

acquired the gallantand

the troubadours. The

characteristics which
who Froissart,
was

it

inherited from

chronicler, Jean
of

time clerk to Queen

that he of have of the and

Philippa of Hainault, wife

"

King Edward
or

III.
on

of

England, relates
The poems

narrated

to her

stories interesting the Rouchi-French school

run

treatises dialect

love."

Froissart,written
a

in

of dc

Valenciennes, often
Lorris's but
"

smack Rose."

of the troubadour
These poems,

and

of William

Romance
are

which

smoothly enough,
an

which

wordy

colourless,are
the author

from interesting specially is

biographical auto-

point of view, as
even

alluding to continually

himself

in his The

pastoralsand

his

nuptialsongs.
succeeded the
romances

professional poets
chansons

who
de

trouveurs

attempted

to

revive

the

literature of

geste and
usage
;

of

chivalry,which
no

they
abridge
more

revised and

adapted to
poems

modern

but, as they
their

made

effort to

them,
prosy. call

these

only became,
with the
even

under

treatment, which

heavier

and

They
the
name

did better of for

Chronicle
when in

in verse,

they continued

to

by

romance

they were
the
"

treatingof contemporary
de Bertrand du
are

subjects,as,
Guesclin."

instance, Cuvelier
the

Chronique

Moreover,
for their

poeticalromances length
and

of the unbroken

fourteenth
dulness.

century
The

remarkable

immense

court

NATIONAL

437

poetry
of

was

more

and graceful,consistingas lively

it did of nongs
who
wrote

and
an

ballads,
"Art dr

and viivlays

roundelays.

Mustache

Desrhamps,

Dietier," in which poelrv, iiil'onns

us
"

he set forth the rules of these various

but

kinds
"

of

fashionahlr

his statement

is

license poetical

that

formerlyno

Fig. 340."
From
In the
a

Legend of the
Miniature of

"

Trois
"

Morts

et des Trois

Vifs," Poetry of the Fourteenth

the Sixteenth

Century.-

an

Antiphonalc.""Manuscript of

Century, No. 6,614."

Burgundy

Library,Brussels.

one

ventured
same

to write

poetry

of this kind
a

"unless
a

he

was

noble"
a

(Fig.339). magistrate,
him
11'-

This whose

Eustachc extend

Deschamps,
over more

warrior,
than

traveller, and
has

writings
hundred

eighty years,

left behind
was

nearlya

thousand

lines of poetry, most

of which

ballad.

NATIONAL

POETRY.

appliedthe
the

ballad of the

to all kinds

of

and subjects,
was an

with
austere

him and

it sometimes serious

rises to

height
no

ode.
to vice

Deschamps
and
to

poet, who
his

showed
comes

mercy

abuses, and

the

of patriotic spirit he

poetry
a

out

in his maledictions his

against the English,while

to the

shows
the

himself

man

of in Danse

feelingby
this

allusions regretful

of sufferings the

people.
of

It the

was

mournful
"

period

that

was

written

popular

poem

"

Macabre

(" Dance

of Death

in Fig. 340. "),represented Charles the

Christina de
a

Pisan, daughter of the

ballads and

of astrologer
with

V., also composed

number
are

of

marked roundelays,

impress of melancholy, which

of

Fig.

341.

"

Alain

Chartier

comforted

by Hope.
in the

"

Cameo

Miniature VII."

from

the

"Triumph

of

Hope,"

Allegoryon
Sixteenth

the Political Events

Eeign

of Charles

Unpublished Manuscript of the

Paris.

Century.
"

In

the

Library of M. Ambroise

Firmin-Didot.

more

merit

than

her

long historical
her

and

moral
are

poems. noble

Most

of them

testify
the

to

her love for France, and

and
a

sentiments

and

elevated,though

styleis feeble
There
was

confused. in the number of French

to

steadyincrease
court

poets,and
Alain

the

poetry

the itself, especially whose about the

poetry, continued
made
at

improve.

Chartier,
to

immense

was reputation

the the that

French Nobles
"

court, did much

was a

bring

this progress.

His

"

Breviary of
affirms

sort

of

gospelfor
I.

and Jean le nobility,

Masle

during

the

reign of Francois

440

NATIONAL

POETRY.

of nobles,in spite

his

deformity

and upon

ugliness. It
him
one

is told how while

"

the

Dauphiness
him

Margaret
upon words One the and of his

-of

Scotland, coming
from

day

kissed asleep,
so

mouth,

which, says Etienne

He of died

Pasquier,

issued
age

many

golden

virtuous

discourses."
Charles

in 1458, at the taken

of

seventy-five.

Duke pupils,

Orleans,who,

at Agincourt, prisoner

remained

captivein England
and

for the rest

verses,

of his of the

youth, consoled

himself

by

writing

French many

English
of which Rose." in

most

them

and gallant,spiritual, of
as

into pensive, the his

"

he He

introduced had
a

metaphysical personages
him in of

Romance de

of the Blois vied

around

London,
love and and

as

well

at

Chateau

France,
each

sort

of court

poetry,

the

members
Charles Petrarch in many

of which of Orleans

with

other the

in

composing

ballads the

roundelays.
poets
"

often
others.

imitated His

troubadours

and

Italian gay, he

amongst
humorous

imaginationwas
his soul

livelyand
with

indulged
generous

and sallies,

overflowed

true

and

feeling.
The the
court

poetry led, by
a

the
was

natural
of

effect of contradiction
One

and

to strife,

birth

of

poetry
kind

which of

popular origin. truly

emanated
a man

of the

first

essays

in this

new

poetry,which
made

from

the

genuine emotions Regnier,

of the

mind,

was,

however,

by

of noble
birth

birth, Jean
and his

Seigneur de Guerchy, who, notwithstandinghis

not

fortune, did

think

it

beneath
was

him the

to

declare in

his

sentiments
at

with and

pathetic
he him he
was

He sincerity. about
to

at

time
treason.

prison
His he
"

Beauvais,

be
as

tried
a
"

for

high

painful positionmade
the
muse.

poet, and,
bemoaned

for death, preparation

Fortunes
et Adversitez

evoked he became

After his

had

his up
a

resignedto

fate,and
doubtless does
not

he drew

will in

rhyme,
"

half

which earnest, half jocular,

"

was

the type taken

imitate he

for his two word his

"

Testaments

by Villon,who, though he
his work
before in the Chatelet student several where prison, of the

Regnier
to write

for word,

undoubtedly had
"

him

when he
was

began

Petit Testament

under

confinement

for his misdeeds. committed

to
was a

Villon, a
murder the and

Universityof
after
some

Paris,was

said to have

robberies, and
was

being

fortunate

enough
he

escape

he again gibbet,
at

guiltyof
there
to

misdeed, for which

imprisoned
the
"

Meung.

It

was

that and

lie
to

composed
the his

his

best

work,

Grand
of

Testament," owing Orleans, he

obtained of wild

which,

intervention
sentence.

of Duke work

Charles is
a

commutation
of gaiety,

of keen

This

singularcompound

.\.\no.\AL

44'

of satire,of profound sensibility, A'illon is is

calm
a

judgment,

and
at

of
once

choly. pensive melannatural

and his

beyond all

doubt

great poet,

independent ;

he

for distinguished

his

his wit, and imagination, lively

good feeling ;

and

though

the form

of his

poetry has become

the obsolete,

Fig. 343."

The

Castle of Loves."

Miniature

taken from

the

"

Champion

des Dames.""

Manuscript

of the Fifteenth

In the National Century (No. 12,476)."

Library, Paris.

matter
were

itself has lost

none

of its freshness.
two

It would

seem

as

if scapegraces Baude
as

pools by nature, for

the
was

of Villon's
were
"

Henri companions,

and

Jourdain,surnamed
The former

Unfortunate,
the author

his rivals in poetry Debat

de la Dame

in misconduct.

of the 3
L

et de

1'ficuyer,"

442

NATIOXAL

POETRY.

and

of

numerous

other

clever

while pieces,

the latter

composed by

the

"

Jardin

de

Plaisancej"which
to those

contained

several

verses

written

his friends

in addition

of his

own

composing.
set

The students

example
of the

by Villon,

whoso

was popularity

greatest amongst
a

the

of Paris, led University anonymous

to the

of publication
were

host

of other

satiric poems,
the middle
a

mostly by
lower
as

authors, which

propagated amongst

and

classes
to

by

the

newly

discovered

printing-press.This is
M.

strikingproof
de

the and

popularity of these fugitive pieces,which

Baron

Anatole

Montaignon
one

James

de Rothschild these
are

are

endeavouring to
"

into incorporate

vast

anthology. Amongst

the

Complaintes,"
"Sermons
with poems

"Dits," "Debats"

(Fig. 342), "Monologues," "Testaments,"

which the

Joyeux," "c., brilliancy.It

retailed looked from
upon

in

sharpness of
of these

French trenchant

wit and

shines

great
were

is certain the

that many

comic

and players, stage by strolling

.as

peoplecertainly respectable
not to

them

scandalous,and
counteract at

took
use

care

read

them.
was

It

was

accordinglysoughtto
several
were
"

the bad

to which

poetry

put, and

in

French

towns,
"

Toulouse, Amiens, Games,"

"

and

Caen of

amongst
"

others,there

instituted
and

Floral

Chambers
to

Rhetoric,"
their

Puys,"

and the

Palinods,"

poets

were

appealed to
moral works. and

devote These

to inspiration

and compositionof edifying

poets

set

themselves

more

the blessed Virgin to glorify especially

her
were

Immaculate

posing Conception,com-

and cantos, which royal songs, ballads, different in France. The French Martin revive
at the

awarded, after
and

competition,

prizes.

This

was

the

origin of

the

academies

societies literary

school united poetical

of great variety
des Dames Guillaume

talents in the fifteenth

"

century. attempt
to

Franc, in his "Champion

the
same

(Fig.343),made
Lorris and
Jean

an

style of allegorical

de

de

Meung,
the his
"

but de

periodOlivier Basselin,master

fuller of Vire, created

Vau

Vire,"

an

and libertine song, while drinking convivial, epicurean,

JSTormaii cider.
and

These

songs

have

unfortunatelyonly

reached
a

us

in and

modernised

disfigured shape.
at

Guillaume full

though Coquillart, play

to

clerk and

ecclesiastical doctor
Gallic

Rheims,
farcical

gave

his

caustic wit of

free
set
to

Immour
the

in his of

"Monologues;"
but
set

Martial his
to
verse

Auvergne
is rather the
was
"

rhyme

"Vigils
;

King Charles VII.,"

of

dull

and des
as

monotonous

Jean the

Meschinot,
Duke of

Nantes,

poetry

Lettres

Princes

"

for

Brittany, to whose

household

he

attached

.\.\TIOXAI.

POETRV.

443

"ducal

]"ort;"

and

Andre
of

de

la

Vigne
But the

and

Guillaume

Cretin

did of

the

for the

royal house
of

France.
to

deplorableinfluence
futul effect upon

the poets of

the court

Burgundy began

tell with

French

poetry.

Fig

344.

"

The

Vanity
upon

of

Human

Things.
of Charles
"

"

Miniature

from

the

AllegoricalPoem,
"

"

Le

Chevalier

d"libere,"
Fifteenth

the

Death 173.

the Hold,

by Olivier de la Marche.

Manuscript of the

Century, No.

In the Arsenal

Library,Paris.

Pierre Jean

Michault, Olivier
conceived
gave

de

la Marche

(Fig. 344), Georges Chastelain,and

of

Molinet which

the idea of
their

creatingdifficulties
a

rhythm, metre,

and

rhyme,

poetrv

mongrel

and

barbarous

physiognomy.

NATIONAL

POETRY.

Guillaume
Louis

Cretin
went

and
even

Jean

d'Auton, both
in this

of whom

were

chroniclers
Jean

of

King
at

XII.,

further

and direction,

Lemaire
some

(born

to whom Beiges,in Hainault),

French

prosodyprobably owes
bad

beneficial

reforms, had

in avoiding these great difficulty

not
so

examples.
In

Poetry was
the works

in flourishing troubadours

other
were

parts of Europe.

Spain, where
was

of the Provencal
of

still imitated, this for

a

the

era

of

gallantpoetry, one
which
the

the favourite forms every

were
resource

poem

being the rcdondilla,in language

at to

writer
These

exhausted poems

of the

describe of John
were

his

sentiments.

in the

favour especial
most

the

court

II.,
the

King

of

Castile,and

amongst

giftedcomposers

of them

Fig.

345.

"

Extract

from

the

"Cancionero"
In

of Juan

Alfonso

de

Baena.

"

Original Manuscript

Century)." (Fifteenth

the National

Library,

Paris.

Marquis
and

de Villena

and

Juan

de Mena
no

(Fig.345). Part
less than
a a

of these sentimental and

lackadaisical poems,
collected

to which

hundred

forty authors
General."

contributed, were

in 1516 her
even

into models

book

entitled "Cancionero
among But

like Spain,sought Portugal,

it was

from

the troubadours, whom these timid efforts ended

striven to imitate, and of the

and

to translate.

in the invention of the

pastoral romance, shepherdesses.

more

which This

representedthe love-passages
artificial

shepherds

which, though style,

destined
"

sometimes

was pleasing,

often

flat and
"

tiresome,was

to take

its

placein

the literature of all lands, and

so

great is

the force of habit

to retain

NATIONAL

POETRY.

445

it for since

long time.
death
to

England, however,
poets,or

was

an

exception to the

rule ; and confined

the

of Chaucer, her
"

had rather her versifiers,

to

themselves
histories of In

the imitating

Romance

of the Rose," and

paraphrasing the

mythology.
the death

after Italy,

of Petrarch, poetry declined

to

in

spiteof all
A

the

efforts made
on

by Coluccio,Burchiello,and Arispa
as
"

revive it.

few poems
be

such chivalry, without

Buovo

d'Antona,"
led up

"

La

Spagna," "c., might

brilliant

passed

over

notice, had

they not

to the

of writings

Boiardo

Fig. 346."

Portrait

of Sannazar."

Fac-simile, on

reduced

Scale, of

an

anonymous

Engraving

of

the Sixteenth

at Borne by Ant. Salamanca." Century, published

In the

Library of M. Ambroise

Firmin-Didot, Paris.

and

Ariosto.

Laurenzio

de'

Medici, however,
the

the

of gonfalonnier
in 1469

the
his

Florentine
"

Republic, awoke
"

spiritof Italian poetry

he
was

by

Canti Carnavaleschi
and the

("CarnivalSongs "),and
the former
was

seconded of the
it may

in his efforts

by Politien partisansof
many staunch of centos

Pulci, though
ancient

one

most

fanatical

classics.

Latin

poetry had,

be

remarked,
ing consist-

votaries of

throughout the Middle

and

Ages, and their works,

in continuous and

Horace, Virgil,

Lucan,

were

numerous

446

NATIONAL

POETRY.

circulation

throughout Europe.
century
modern

The

renaissance in favour

of ancient of

literature in

Italy
the

during
Latin the

the fifteenth
to

told much

their efforts to

apply

language
Christian
"

subjects. Thus
more

Sannazar with

(Fig. 346),
his poems, with
"

surnamed De Partu poems

Virgil,excited
"

enthusiasm

Virginia
written in

and

Lamentatio
In

de Morte

Christi,"than
was

his beautiful

Italian. the

fact,there
the

throughout the
century, kind,
which
a

whole
Latin
were

of

learned
sisting con-

Europe,
of

from
a mass

fifteenth to

sixteenth varied

poetry
welcomed

of works

of the most

and

praised, especially by
Next
poems in
we

the most old

;

highly educated.
of of

have
ottava

the
rima

romances

chivalry, appearingin
"

the

shape of
the
we

the

romance
"

King

Arthur

of

Brittany and
Peers." Pulci Here writes

Knights of the
have
the

Round

Table,"
a

Charlemagneand
of
grave is
a

his Twelve and gay.

Italian

epode,

mixture

his the de

"Morgante Maggiore,"
Blind
Man

the hero

of which
his the
"

Bello, called great jester;

who
pursues Renaud

of Ferrara, writes amidst

a

Mambriano,"

Montauban
Boiardo the
court

series of

most

fanciful and Chronicle

burlesque adventures.
of

also of

seeks

for

in inspiration his
"

the

Turpin, and
would

depicts
be
a

Charlemagne in
the the

Orlando it not
so

Innamorato," which
curt at

of masterpiece

were poet's style,

and

so

affected. in

Ludovico
not

Ariosto, called
undertake
"

Ariosto
the
one

(Fig.347), born
of

Reggio
but he

1474, would
it with

to rewrite

epic poem
of the
"

Boiardo,
remarkable

continued

the

Orlando

Furioso,"

most

productionsof picturesque
Ariosto's poem
grace Ariosto and
was

poetry, and far before the

every of the charm
"

Orlando

Innamorato."

combines

of imagination, variety descriptive power,

elegance
surnamed the

and powerful dramatic style,

incident.

Like

Homer,

Divine,
was

and

his

poem

remains

the type of the

Romanic

epode, as

Iliad

the

masterpieceof
his
"

the heroic
"

epode.
and his many

Ariosto, in

Amorosi Capitoli his

lightpiecesof poetry,
of wfiom ventured the
"

preserved his superiority over

to

numerous

imitators, none
Berni
rewrote

compete
and

with

him

in

epic poetry.

Orlando

morato," Inna-

he had
was

perfectedthe burlesquemode
called

of

and composition, had

to
more

given
than model. and the

his
a

name

to what

Hcniesqttepoetry.
of whom could
come

Yet up of

Petrarch
or near

hundred

imitators, none poetry spent

of the which
"

their

Didactic
the poem

itself in
"

pale imitations

Virgil and of Juvenal,

of the

Bees

is

literal translation

fourth book
in the
"

of

Georgics,of

Alamainii

presented

mere

counterfeit

Colti-

NATIONAL

POETRY.

fouronnees,

which bqtelees,

Guillaume

Cretin made
"

use

of with

all the
"

cunning
revived
de

of

juggler. The

reminiscences
de

of the

Eomance

of the Rose Marot's

were

by Gringore's "Chateau Cupidon," by

Prince Octavian
Charles the

Labour,"

by
and

Clement

"Temple
du

"Loups
le

Ravissants,"
de Bonne
verse

by

the

"Espinette
Jean

Jeune and

conquerant
de VIII. de

Royaume
put
XII.

Renommee."
the

Marot

St. Gelais
and

into The

diary

of

the

expeditionsof
poets
"

Louis
and

popular muse
in

only two inspired

every branch of

Roger

Collerie

Pierre of
his

Gringore, who proverbialand

the

poetry
of

preserved the
Francois

stamp
to

witty style.
not

The

epoch

I. seemed

renew

language,if
at

the
a

form, of poetry, by
frank, simple, and
of

imposing upon
French

the writer Clement had

Gallic
not to

who
Marot the

aimed
was

being

read

sprightlystyle. style.
and

the

real restorer

this

eminently
he
was

He

geniusto
of

write

great works, and

poems

too
one

buoyant
would

too

think

composing long
latter
was

which

no

have

read.
.

He

chants epistles, elegies, composed merely roundelays,

royal,ballads, epigrams, and epigrams also,as

Marot
was so

which madrigals,

were

as

yet

called

in the

Greek

anthology.
all other

It

in

epigram that

Clement his and

much

the

superiorof

poets,and
him the

for fifteen years admirers

and delicate,graceful,

witty style found

placedhis

numberless of disposal into

imitators

but

when
at

he

services at

the Reformed the Psalms

Church, and,
of
a

the

request of Calvin, translated

as a

hymns

David,
few

he

lost all his merits

versifiers
"

poet.
des

His

school,which

numbered and

charming
Fontaine

Bonaventure
"

Periers,Victor
with
was

Brodeau,

Charles
to

amongst others
friend
and

remained

in favour It
verse

the court, thanks that

Fran9ois I., the

the

pupil of

Marot.

monarch
and

who
Latin

conceived

idea of

into translating
Salel ; de St.

French

all the Marot

;

Greek

poets : Homer, by Hugues

of

Ovid, by
Gelais
;

Clement and

Virgil, by

Michael Habert.

Tours

and

Octavian
de

Horace, by Francois
looked upon the
a as

The

poetry

of Mellin

St. Gelais,who

was

the

only rival

of

showed Marot, already

signsof being imitated

correct, the

from

and Italian,

though

the ideas
affectation The

were

and ingenious

was style

mixture

of

pretentious

and

of Italian concetti. it must

a

Reformation,

be said, was

everywherefatal
blow
at German

to

language
Hans hand

and

and literature, the

it dealt

severe specially

poetry.

Sach,
at all

Nuremberg shoemaker,
of

is perhaps the
to

onlypoet who, trying his

intolerance.

branches

poetry, ventured

brave

the Lutheran

In

England,

NATIONAL

POETRy

449

whither

Protestantism
:

had

not

yet reached, several

his

poets of

were society

in

great favour

William

Ihuibur, with

allegorical poem
with

of

the

"

Golden Lord

Buckler,"

and

David

Lindsay and
blank
verse

Wyatt,
into

their satires ; while

Surrey had
-^neid. Petrarch In

introduced

English poetry, and

never

translated the

too, which Italy,

to

the

Reformation

reached, the school of

was

seemed

springinto

renewed

life. Bembo
own

the

of instigator

this resurrection
were

of

amorous

poetry ; for thoughhis

"

imitations of Petrarch rather

to

but
"

feeble,the Petrarchists
his

or

Bembists,

as

theyought
or

be

called

respondedto

to appeal

the number

of five

six hundred.
to

Other

poets, though not

different
returned

the despising
new

sonnets

of Petrarch, endeavoured Costanzo

to

embody

in subjects
to

forms.

Angelo de
Balbi

and

Camillo

Peregrini
Bentison

lyricpoetry,
Pietro Aretino

Bernardino
to

didactic poetry, and

voglioand
Bernardino the

satirical

poetry. TorquatoTasso, the

his poem

of

Tasso, who

obtained
to

for great celebrity the

true

of
of

chivalry upon
times,
like that of the

"Amadis,"

undertook

write is
a

great epic poem

modern

"Jerusalem

Delivered."

This

epic poem,

based, not
upon

Virgil, upon
Ages.
But

the fabled traditions of the

of Troy,but siege the

positive,

to though almost miraculous,facts appertaining

of history is

the Middle the Iliad. traits

Tasso
"

is not

inferior to Homer: admirable

words.

his poem
as

equal to

his

and style noble,poetical, and

it is
"

is often

spoilt by

of bad

taste

playupon by insipid

Yet

we

may

say that the

glory

of Tasso

lighted up

the sixteenth century.

was

After this every nation

several good possessed

desirous of

havingits epicpoem.
as

which Spain,

cancione

such writers,
an

and Lope Herrera, Castillejo,

de

Vega, found
useless

Alonzo

de Ercilla to write

epic poem

called

"

Araucana

"

upon and

the conquest of Chili

marred episodes

by

his

fellow-countrymen ; but
fortunate voyage

endless

digressions
in for the
he
nected con"

the brilliant
more

and descriptions contained style

;

this work.

Portugalwas
his the

for Camoens, who

de

chose

of subject
with upon

national

epode the

of Vasco

Gama, which
of
"

of generalhistory

his country,wrote
his hero.

his poem

Lusiades

the very

spots still redolent of

The

defects of Camoens
are

in the

arrangement of his story and patent,but

his abundant of the
scenes

in his choice

of the marvellous
and

only too
character
in
some

the

grandeur of
harmonious
the

his ideas attracts lends style

the reader,while delights

and and

itself well to the dramatic

a

of highlycoloured descriptions Camoens 3 died in

M

work

which
extreme

passages

reaches

the sublime.

and obscurity

poverty.

450

NATIONAL

POETRY.

Germany
the Northern Peter

seemed

to

have

become

to impenetrable

the rays of poetry, but The Danes

peoplesbegan
a

to feel their

influence.

possessedin

Laland

national poet in the first years Swedes

had

of the sixteenth

century,while,
chronicles to
than the
were

the to this, previously

had

Eric does

who Ola'i,
not

set their

rhyme.

Poland, whose

national

poetry

date

further

back very

fifteenth century, possessed a certain scarcely known

and
to

number
;

of poets whose

names

the

rest

of

Europe

amongst

others, Nicholas
of Poets, who
In
a

Rey

dc

Naglovice
a

Jean

Kochanowski,
Ronsard national while

called the

Prince
in

formed
Dirk

friendshipwith
created

staying

Paris.

Holland few

Koornhert of the

poetry, and, following upon

and
that

translators

Psalms, Roemer
It the
was

Wisscher in

Spiegel laid
the

down

the

of principles
was

versification.
brilliant and

England

movement poetical
a new

the

most

most

active.
in

Spenser
the

invented

kind

of

in pastoral, of in that

which

the

shepherds spoke
His

language of shepherdsinstead
the
"

of courtiers.
success

allegorical poem,
"

Faery Queen,"
His

had

an

even

greater

than

the

Shepherd's
and
Green Robert

Calendar."

contemporaries,Sidney,

Raleigh, Marlowe,
and simplicity drew the of their grace.

Watson,

composed

light poetry
and John the the

full

of

Southwell, Samuel

Daniel,

Davies close
"

from religion and inspirations

"

philosophy; while, at
Venus and

of

century, there appeared two Lucretia," the

The second of author half

poems,
was

Adonis

"

and

Rape

of which

the immortal

Shakspere.
a

of the
in France. who

sixteenth A in been few

century

witnessed

complete
true to the

morphosis meta-

poetry Marot,

poets had remained

school

of

Clement of

died have
to

poverty abroad.
one

Marguerite

de

Valois,
this

Queen

Navarre,
her and

would

of

the most

charming types of
had
not

school,if
her ideas

attachment

the doctrines

of the Reformation Two

clouded

depressed her

style(Fig. 348).
women
was

other

female
"

poets
du of and

retarded Guillet Olivier

the decadence
and de

of Marotism, viz. two the

of
the
some

Lyons

Pernette

Louise

Labe,

latter of whom
Forcadel

mysterious muse
neat

Magny.

Etienne
of of Le

composed
had his his
an

epigrams
mania in

clever

Peletier epistles;
new

Mans, who

unfortunate

for

a constructing

way
;

wrote spelling,

Poetical Works
"

plain and
the

excellent French

while

Maurice

Sceve, in

poem

Delie," followed
is
no

teachinggiven anything
and about

him
such

by

his friend Clement

as

Marot.

There

need des

to say

feeble poets
whose

Artus

Desire, Guillaume
involved
and

Autels,

BarthelemyAneau,

compositionsare

obscure.

By

NATIONAL

POETRY.

4S,

this time du

the Italian influence

gave
to

was

everywhere apparent,
the

and

it

was

Joachim

Bellaywho

the

signalfor
the

his revolution,by advising literary

and the

youthful rivals
himself
a

imitate

Greeks
the

Romans,

while

declaring
was

devoted

partisanof
The

French

language,which
to

being

sacrificed to the the

mark

Italian.

poets who
were

responded

his

appeal overshot

without

hittingit, and
of

only inaccurate

translators of the

instead ancient classics,

it with intelligence and fidelity. imitating

It

was

in

small Paris

that Joachim college

du

Bellayformed,

under

the

Fig. 348.

"

Portrait

of

Margueritedo Valois, Queen

Time.
"

of Navarre,

after

Pencil-

Drawing

of the

In the Museum

of (he

Louvre, Paris.

eyes

of

his

professorof humanities, Jean

seven

Daurat,

the

association, poetical
Pleiad.

of consisting

members,
Du

which

was

called the

These

seven

poets

were

Baif,

Thyard,and
their supreme
of French
a

Ronsard chief.

Remy Belleau, J. Daurat, Jodelle, Ponthus de Bellay, 349 to 355), who was proclaimedunanimously (Figs.
For half
a

century Pierre Ronsard

remained
the

the master

poetry.

While
to

stilla be

youth he
the

had
"

formed

of writing project the

national

epic poem,
he

called

Franciade,"
cantos

upon

model

of

.ZEneid, but Virgil's

only published four

of this

epode, which

452

NATIONAL

POETRY,

was

to

have

had
to

twenty-four.
figureby
of France,
their the

His

Francus,

son

of

Hector,

was

not, in
was

truth, worthy

side of ^Eneas,
was

son

of Priam.

Ronsard

called the Pindar

His

though he
accumulation

inspiration. lacking in lyrical utterly

of

odes, with

strophesand

were antistrophes,

Fig.

349."

Portrait Bai'f.

of

Fig.

350."

Portrait

of J. du

Bellay.

Fig.

351."

Portrait Belleau.

of

Eemy

Fac-simile

of

Engravings by
In

Leonard

Gaultier, from
Ambroise

the Series known

"

as

Chronologiccollee."

the

Library of M.

Firmin-Didot, Paris.

but

feeble counterfeits and

Latin

of the odes
too

of Pindar

; his

overladen language,

with

Greek

words, is far
Yet he

and hyperbolic, the

is obscured

by

the

array

of

lore. mythological

possessedin

of style highestdegree nobility

Fig.

352."

Portrait

of

Fig.

353."

Portrait

of Jodelle.

Fig.

354.

Portrait

of

J. Daurat. Fac-simile of

P. Ronsard.

Engravings by Leonard
In the

Gaultier,from
M.

the Series known

"

as

Chronologie collee."

Library of

Ambroise

Firmin-Didot, Paris.

and

harmony
;

of
but

rhythm,
he

and

he

imitated

with

success

both in his

Horace imitations

and of

Theocritus

himself distinguished

the

most

Anacreon,

whose

writingshad

just

been

exhumed

by

Henri

Estienne.

NATIONAL

POETRY.

453

Ronsard
here and

was,

beyond

all

doubt, a poet

but

his

writingsarc vigour
and

tedious, though
His brilliancy. hours

there
a

lighted up European

by
one,

some

trait of

was reputation

and

Mary Stuart, who

sent

beguiledthe
des Muses."

of her with

by reading his works, captivity

"

him la

Parnassus

in solid silver,

the

de A Ronsard, 1'Apollo inscription,

most

source

The du
"

poet of distinguished
founded
it.
"

the

Pleiad

was

Joachim unquestionably

who Bellay,
is
a

His

language,"remarks
of Marot, with
more

the critic Ge'rusez, attention

was
as

imitation perfected Latin

or

of that
Du

to
a

the

copying of

Italian."

Bellay had good taste,which

point

Pig. 353."

Portrait

of Ponthus Leu." In the

de

Thyard."

Reduced

Fac-simile

of the

Engraving

of Thomas

de

Library of M. Ambroise

Finnin-Didot, Paris.

in

which

Ronsard

and

the

rest

of the of

Pleiad

were

lacking; and
deserved
:

he

also of

and possessedsensibility

elevation

and feeling,
very

the

surname

the French

Ovid.

The

remainder

were

inferior to him

Ba'if was

heavy,

and pedantic pretentious, ; Remy

BeUeau,
did not

surnamed
to

the gentilBellcau, had

nothing pedanticabout him,

verses

and

attempt

write

anythingbut pretty
in France, wrote
wrote
more

Jodelle,who
of French

was

one

of the founders
;

of the Theatre

mixture
verse,

and

Greek

Ponthus

de

Thyard, who
;

prose

than
a

got

out bishopric

of
rest

the former

while

Daurat

composed only
and Latin.

few

French

verses,

all the

of his works

being

in Greek

454

NATIONAL

POETRY.

But

around

the

Pleiad de
"

there la

were

several
the best

poets
bucolic
"

superior
poet
Olivier
"

to

those the

who

posed com-

it-:
of the
"

Berenger
d'Or

Tour,
the
"

of de

age,
a

author

Siecle

and

Amie

Rustique
his
"

Magny,
"

great
and of his in

lyric poet,
"Gaietes;"
several
master

as

may Amadis

be

gathered
Jamyn,

from

Amours,"
favourite

Odes,"
and
than

Soupirs,"
the

Ronsard's
have the
more

pupil,
in them

writer of

charming
;

pieces

which
du

life of

those

and
upon

Guillaume
the

Bartas,
of
and that the the

creator

descriptive poetry,
"

who,
reached

his almost

poem
at

creation
sublime

world,
ridiculous.

entitled

La

Semaine,"

once

the

It and and the

is

most

wonderful disorder should

them

France,

amidst

her

civil the

and

religious
of Charles that

wars,

terrible

which have all.

prevailed produced Everybody

during
such
a

reigns
of admired alike.

IX. it
at

Henri

III.,
to
name

number and

poets

is

impossible
court

wrote

poetry

the kind

of

the

Valois ambitious

"

kings,
and works

princes, nobles,
familiar,
of merit,
: amorous

and and

ladies

Every
"

of

poetry

"

melancholy
afford
a

was

sented repremention

by
the bare

one

or

more

and

we

can

only
de

space native

to

names

of

few
an

writers Italian

Marc-Claude
who had been

Buttet,

of

Savoy
See vole

Flaminio
de

de

Birague,
a

naturalised des

French

St.

Marthe,

Loudunois of Blois

gentleman
;

Madame

Roches,

of

Poitiers
"c. excelled of Jean A

Guillaume

Belliard,
must,
;

Jean

Passerat of

Etienne

Pasquier,
who

special mention
in and

however,
Jean

be

made

Philippe
in

Desportes,
the
same

gallant poetry
Jacques
de

of

Bertaut,
better be

distinguished
known
as

way
;

la

Taille,
who
may

dramatic
Petronius

poets
and

and

lastly, of
of
the

Agrippa
sixteenth
But

d'Aubigne,
century. Malherbe,
upon

termed

the

Juvenal

who Ronsard the

had

just

been
to

born,
form

was

destined,
new

in

the

course

of
of

his

attacks
his odes

the

school,

the

French

poetics,

which

represent

most

perfect

model

and

style.

456

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

city lie
and Urbis
a

was

a prefect, History of

the

Emperors, beginning from Augustus,

men

summary

treatise of the illustrious

which has

of Rome
to

(" De

Viris

Illustribus
and
piled com-

Romae"),

often been

attributed
was a

Pliny the
a

younger

Cornelius
an

Nepos.

Flavius

who Eutropius,

soldier and Rerum the

statesman,

Abridgment

of Roman

History("Breviarium
of Rome
to

Romanarum") Emperor
Valens
wars

in ten books, from and Ammianus the

the foundation
a

the

reignof

Marcellinus,

native in Gaul

of Antioch, who
and

took

part in the

waged by
an

Emperor

Julian

Germany, completed in
the

after life
to that

immense

Historyof

the Roman

Emperors, from

reignof
lost.
to the

Nerva This

of

Valentinianus,but

the first thirteen books

of which

are

History,

is uncouth, though its style histories of the

But the Old

forms

brilliant termination

series of Latin

empire.
century, while the barbarian
of hordes
were

in the fifth

pouringin
they
founded

upon

World

by

way

Spain,Gaul,
became
a

and the

where Italy,

fresh

states, the which

empire of

the East for

asylum
of

for

new

historic school,

grew

remarkable

number
to

great
the

works

emanating
of the

from

Christian

thought, and

intended
in the

celebrate
a

triumph

Christian

wrote Philostorgius religion.

Greek

generalHistoryof
it made

the

Church,

which

is onlyknown
the born

to

us

by

abridgmentof
Eusebius
an

by Photius
the year
306

; Socrates

continued

Ecclesiastical
in

History of

from

to^439;
Church,
of

Sozomen,
in nine

Palestine, compiled
the year 324
to

excellent
;

History of

the

books, from
an

439

and

Theodoret, Bishop
same

Syria,
It

also

edited
appear

Ecclesiastical
as

in History,

five books, of the

concentrated keen
as

period.
the annals
were

would
the

if the
arose

was genius of history

upon

of

Church, when

quarrelsand

disputesas
This
or new

those which

alone. provoked by politics formerly

kind

of

seems history

better

adapted to
to have

Greek

literature, though three

best traditions of with St.

four

of the Latiu
The

writers appear

the preserved been

their

language.
who had

Rufinus, priest
in

who

had

intimate
he

Jerome, and
the

lived in retirement Eusebius into

where Sicily, Latin

;

died

(410),translated
his

Historyof
a more

passable
correct

SulpiciusSeverus,
in

contemporary,
who

elegant and
left

writer, althoughborn
followed
the

and Aquitaine,

never

Gaul,

where

he

had

of apostleship

St. Martin,

composed
year

an

Abridgment
A.D.,

of Sacred

Historyfrom
book earned

the creation of the world the

surname

to the

410

and

this excellent

of the Christian Sallust. existence of which

was

The

Greek

language,the

henceforward

inseparable

CHRONfCI.KS,

///.S7YMYA-.V,

.IfKMofRS.

457

from

the

empire of
a mass

the

East,

was

with perpetuated, written

most

of its essential
to the

in qualities, of had

of historical works II.

;

in (iivt-k, clown

capture

Constantinople by Mahomet
been

but the Latin

language,on

the contrary,

to the inevitable mixture subjected

of the national

idioms

of all the

barbaric The
none

which peoples

had

collected in different parts of the Roman and

more

empire.

Latin

though more language,

and changed,continued corrupted

and clergy

the less to be the officiallanguage of the

of the

highercivil
Thus

administration.

Nothing

but

Latin

was

spoken at

the court

of Odoacer, King books

and of the Ileruli,

at the court

of Theodoric, King of the Goths.

of It

rather political
was

than

of

continued history religious

to be written

in Latin.

in this semi-barbarous

tongue

that the Western

historians of the sixth

Greek

and
were

seventh

centuries

while the compiled their Chronicles,

historians Dion

of Folybius and publishingexcellent Histories after the style the History of Agathias the Scholastic, the

Cassius:

Reign

of Justinian; his
Time
;

the History of Procopius of Cacsarea,secretary to Belisarius,

of Simocatta,the History Thcophylactus

The

the

Emperor

Maurice, "c.

Latin
none

Chronicles, composed during this dreary epoch of the Middle

the less valuable and rather
to the

Ages, are
relates to

The interesting.

most

ancient of them
Franks
:

France, or
of Autun,

part of Gaul occupiedby the

It

that, the

of Marius

Bishop of Avenche, in Helvetia.

in 581
:

beginswith
clear and

reignof
and

Avitus

in 455, and terminates

more

written

in

simple

it relates style, contains

some

to especially accurate

the

reign of Gontran, King of Burgundy,

as

information
to sequel

to the

geographyof

Gaul.

It had

been written to

serve

as

the

Abridgment of
is in consequence

the Universal

History

and by Prosperof Aquitaine, compiled

most

like dry and concise,

Chronicles
freer
we

of the time.
to

Cassiodorus,the minister of King Theodoric,

a

gave which Rebus

scope possess

his

rhetoric in excellent

voluminous

History of the Goths, of

Gothorum

only an

abridgment(" De

Origineet

Gestis

") by Jornandes, Bishop of Ravenna, who also composeda short

in 636, also wrote

Universal
a

who died History. St. Isidore, Bishop of Seville, from the time of Adam,
and
a

Chronicle

History of the Goths, the Vandals,

he had his passed

the

amidst whom Suevi, and the Visigoths,

The
most

life.

ancient

and

valuable record
in his
"

of French

is the great work history

"

of
a

Gregory of Tours, who

faithful

Histoire in
had
N

des Francs Ecclesiastique which

he took

gave

descriptionof the
a

events

part.

Born

in and

Auvergne, of

patrician family

which 3

producedseveral

senators

CHRONICLES.

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

he prelates,
was

was

brought
Bishop

up

by

his

uncle, St. Gall, Bishop

in 573. The
esteem

of

Clermont,
he
was

and held

himself
court

made

of Tours

in which
to
;
was

at the

of

Chilpericand

Fredegoiideenabled

him

play a conspicuous
been mixed with
up

affairs of the Merovingian monarchy part in the political in the most

secret

he had

transactions of

and Chilperic's reign, the rival

conversant

all

the details of the Brunehaut.

deadly strugglebetween
doubt,
was

Queens, Fredegoiide and

induced him
to

This, no

the

reason

which

write

his

Fig.

356

"

Equestrian Statue

of

Clovis, King

of

the

Franks

(465 511), by
"

Erwin

de

Steinbuch

(Thirteenth Century),placedover

the Western

Portico

of

StrasburgCathedral.

History.
of 174

His book, from

commencing
the

with

the

of France, embraces origin Franks in Gaul about

period

years, The

establishment

of the

the year

429.

first part of this

of

History is
"

written after Sidonius

St. Apollinaris,

Remy, Bishop
tradition recorded

Rheims,

the

Acts

of the
to

Saints,"and,
events

above the

all,after oral

(Fig. 356).
in his

With

regard

the

of

last

fifty years
seen,
or

Gregory History,

of Tours

writes what

he had

himself

r//Avy.v/r/./-;,s, ///STORIES,

MKMOIRS.

459

what
man

he had
of very He

ascertained

from

trustworthysources.
ho
was

He with

was

not,

a perhaps,

but deep learning,

endowed

judgment
are so

and

gence. intelli-

possessed, moreover,
"

the

which qualities
and

often

wanting
His

in

historians

good faith,candour,
no means

the

desire to

be

impartial.
not

though by style,

correct

and

almost
some

uncouth, is

devoid

of

colour, though simple and

with

and artless,

of his
had age

are descriptions

traced

great

power.

Gregory
Nor

of Tours, who
in
an

read

Sallust,and Virgil,
the

Pliny,doubtless sought to
was

imitate them is he
of which
to

when

studyof
full.

literature
his work

almost

extinct.

be blamed all his

for

into introducing

the

and legends

miracles

were contemporaries

Fig. 357."
de M.

The

Seven

Sainta of

Brittany.
"

Fac-eimile

of

Wood

Engraving

from
"

the

"Chroniqucs Library of

Brctagne," by Alain
Ambroise

Bouchard Paris.

Galliot (Paris,

da

Pre, 1514, in 4to). In the

Firmin-Didot,

This work,

and unique of priceless than

its

kind, was

more

often

to

be found

in

the libraries of the monasteries

and it must the have had
a

in the archives the

of the

Merovingian kings,
in 593,
the

great notoriety upon

of the
seventh

death

of its author

for

best historian

century,
from

surnamed Fre'de'gaire,

his history borrowed Scholastic, continuing and

Eusebius, Julius Africanus,

the third

other Greek
an

and

Latin

chroniclers, composed for

of

book

of this

Chronicle who
was

analytical abridgment

Gregory

of Tours' book.
to

Fredegaire,
in 660.

a apparently Burgundian,brought his story up

his death

46o

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

The

fifth book the

of this work

contains

some

very

valuable Clovis

information the

ing concern-

reigns of
states

Clotaire II., Dagobert I., and

that preface he
can

younger.
or

The heard works. that

author from It

in his in whom

he

relates what

he has either seen,

taken

persons is the

or place reliance,

from

standard

only

historical record

of what

took

place in

France

during

obscure

period. give an
and

It is difficult to

for explanation

the

of contemporary scarcity
we

Chronicles

in the

seventh

when eighth centuries,

remember

that the

bishopswere
monasteries
events

the true

and guardians of history,

that monks

in all the the

large

made

order in chronological point of collecting

principal
were

of civil and

religious history.It

is true

that

these

Chronicles
more

diffuse and is devoted

and loosely put together,

to the

in these

monastic

Chronicles
to

space

internal affairs of the

rumours

community than
them.

publicoccurrences,
of these
Chronicles historical have

of which
are

only vague

often reached

Some of the
mass

nevertheless

valuable

(Fig.357),on
;
as

account

of scarcity of them

documents been

to earlyages relating

and the

amongst the
most

which

we published

may

cite
de

those interesting

of

Moissac,
and

Fontenelle, St. Medard

Bertin.
the Nor do
we

St. Gall, Soissons, Fleury-sur-Loire,

to the
names

St.

know

anythingas
we

of the authors of the

of the

who

wrote

the diary as dailychronicles,

should

say, and

ordinary incidents nobility, except

that their that

which
two
were

occurred of those

in the households

of the

King

who

succeeded
the
one

Fredegairein
order

his work

say

labours

undertaken,
of the anxious
many

by
other

of Childebrand, uncle of order of

Pepin d'Heristal,

mayor
were

the palace,
to possess

by

Nibelung, son
There
wars

of Childebrand, who
is
reason

annals

of the First Race.

were

for

believing
of these

that

of the Chronicles

lost in the of which

most

and

devastations
towns

barbarous
were

epochs,in
and

the
to

course

of the

and

monasteries
de

burnt

put
"

sack.
age
was

This is to be
so

for,as regretted,
but what the

Lacurne

St.

Palaye observes,
useful

No the

barbarous

French
to

felt how
men,

might

be

knowledge of
to forefathers,

their

in history, and

order

stimulate

by

the

example of
not

their

lead virtuous the ancient

honourable

lives."

It

must

be

however, supposed,

that

Asiatic and
fifth and
to

Northern
sixth

peoples

who
no

had

invaded successively

Europe during the

not
were

centuries had of

history.
and

Their

history,although
which from
a

committed transmitted
remote

consisted writing, from

warlike

religious songs,
which
dated

to generation

and generation,

very

period.

These

were

the

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

461

national

songs

which
had

Charlemagne
become

had

collected

from,

the

mouths
his the

of their

descendants, who
It
was

merged

in the native

of populations

empire.
Saxons,
for his

from

the national

songs,

also,of the ancient

Venerable
Bede

Britons, of
the

and

of

the

Anglians

that

the

drew him

materials

Ecclesiastical

History of England, composed by

Durham,
where he died with in 735. the honour
to

in the

Monastery of

Jarrow,

near

Charlemagne is credited
chronicles formed
bv which
were

of

having instituted the monastic

all monastic
the

ordered
In

be

in preserved it
was

foundations
was

the

crown.

each

of these

monk

who

most

Fig.

358.

"

Coronation

of

Charlemagne.

"

Miniature

from

the

"

Chroniques de St. Denis." Library, Paris.

Manuscript of

the Fourteenth

Century." In the National

for distinguished

his

learning and

who uprightness
events

was

intrusted

with

the

order the in chronological duty of enregistering the death which

was

of each

reign; and, at
a

of the

King,

his

notes

served

for the

of compilation The
famous

Chronicle

in deposited

the archives

of the monastery.

Abbey of

St. Denis

doubtless
thus

of privilege with dead which

a

to all other monasteries, the in preference possessed, composing the posthumous historyof the Kings (Fig.358),
one

reminding authority degree of religious Egypt,

famous
and

of the

judgment

of the

in ancient
were so

of

keeping the depot

Middle

of these national archives,

One

throughoutthe

Ages.

of the oldest of

462

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

English historians
court

relates that

the

kings
were

had

in constant the

attendance task of

at

their

certain

men

of letters who

intrusted with
order
to

recording
their

their memorable

sayings and

doings,in

transmit

them, after

of Charlemagne, held the secretary (notarhis) death, to posterity.Egiiihard, this confidential the education himself

post,and

he

was

also

selected

by
no

that

monarch

to

supervise
to

of the heirs to his throne.

It was,

doubt, in

order retired

acquit

of this task that the learned favourite

of

of the the

Emperor
materials

into the

Monastery

where Selingstadt,
This

he best

arranged
of

for his Life

he

of

Charlemagne.

work,

the

all those

which

has

left,was
Caesars.

apparentlycomposed
In

in imitation
see easily

of Suetonius's

Lives
was a

of the Twelve

reading it

one

can

that the author

member

of the Pauline endeavoured

to

Academy, and that,in spiteof

It is be
so

his

rugged

and

he faultystyle,

imitate the historical writers of ancient Rome.

strange that
that

the historical monuments

of

epoch should Charlemagne's

who

few, for

was sovereign

fond

of

those and encouraged literature,

cultivated
historical works

it, and

he He

must

have

followed

with

interest
to

the the

progress

of

study.
he

may
not

not, however, have

himself

cared
a

be

subject of
of the
is
no

which

could

revise, and,

as

matter

of fact,most

Chronicles evidence
him read
were

of treating

his

reignare
his

to posterior

his death whom

(814).

There

that any ordered

of the
to

scholars distinguished
own

he had his

collected meals of
a

about
had

write

history. During

he

to him

the historical songs he

of the nations of the North had

and for

Germany historyof
of the written

which historicce), (cantilena

the

got togetheras
with
not

materials

past,and
who

he

probably listened
his warlike
but

less interest to the

in poems which

songs
were

bards in the

celebrated

achievements
were

vulgar tongue,

which
chansons

afterwards

translated the

into

Latin, and
twelfth in the

finally paraphrased into

de

gcstc in
were

language
or

of the

century. But, exceptingEginhard, there

no

scribes
the

secretaries

palaceintrusted
the officialrecord

with

the

duty

of

under writing,

Emperor's supervision,

of his had

publicand privatelife. long

in his grave

Charlemagne
believed generally
the evidence
a

been
a man

when

the

monk
two

of St. Gall,

to be

named

Necker, published in
Werinbert he and

books, after

of two

Priest contemporaries, Gestis Caroli This

Chevalier Adalbert,
to

Chronicle

(" De

Magni ") which

dedicated
a

Charles and

the

Fat, Emperor of
years after the

Germany.

Chronicle,composed
the author of which

hundred

seventy
memory,

Emperor's death,and

his glorified

464

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

romances

of

relates chivalry,

the

fabled

expeditionof Charlemagne
parts :
the first five in the

and

his

paladinsinto Spain.
written in the middle twelfth century.
Here

It is in two

distinct

chapterswere
the de

of the eleventh, and

is the
no

the others of the the

beginningof
"

place to speak
to

beautiful of

Chanson the

Roland,"
Philomene

but

there

is

need

mention

narrative
at

pseudoand
at

concerning
his

the

doings of

Charlemagne
the

Narbonne
to

Carcassonne, and
Patriarch

fabled

expedition to
the Arabs
are

Holy
out

Land

restore

the

of Jerusalem, whom Paul Diacre Paul

had

driven

(Fig.359).
of the
he had

Eginhard and
of Charlemagne. deacon's lived at
Monte

the

historians onlytrustworthy surnamed Lombard

reign
taken

Warnefride,

Diacre, because

orders, was
the court

secretary to the
of

king, Didier, and

went

afterwards of

Charlemagne before he
he

into the

Monastery
De ('"' It would

Cassini,where

completed his History of

Roman

the Lombards

Gestis
be
a

Langobardorum ") and his Abridgment of

mistake
to suppose

History.
to

that

barbarism, which

appeared

have

been

arrested its sway

to

in in the

its onward the

progress

during the reign of Charlemagne, resumed

followed. made There
was
a

troubled

reignswhich

rapid addition
in this

number

of historians,who
and

their voices heard

even

century (tenth)
every of

of disorder
had
wrote

social transition.
In

Every reign,every
century, Ermold
; and

epoch, and
Noir, Abbot
a

abbey

its chroniclers.

the ninth

le

Aniane,

the Life of Louis

was

the Debonnairc born took in 790

Nithard,
in

soldier and
wrote
a

grandson
the

of

Charlemagne, who

and

died

858,
sons

historyof

and quarrels The of

at

strife which

placeamongst

the

of that
in

sovereign.
country

tenth

century producedmany
In

good historians

nearlyevery
twice

Europe.

Italy, Luitprand,Bishop of Cremona,

the

and

ambassador

wrote Constantinople,

History of contemporary Germany (862 to 984) ;

near

Witikind,

monk

of under

an

abbey
the

Paderborn,
and

wrote

the

Annals

of

the

Imperial House
the

Othos

Dudon,

Canon

took of St. Quintin, underwas an

History of

the

earlyDukes

of

Normandy.
Abbot

There

abundance

of

in fact historians, of

; and

while Abbon,

of the old Benedictine in

"

monastery

Loire (died in 933) described Fleury-sur-

epic verse
a

the

siegeof Paris by
he
was an

the Normans
"

("De

Bello Canon
are

Parisiacsc
of

Urbis")

of siege in

which

witness eyelocal

Flodoard,
which

Rheims, who
many events

died of

966,

wrote

some

Chronicles,in
Most and

recorded

interest. general

of the

numerous

historians
may be

of

the

eleventh

century

were

prelates

monks, among

whom

mentioned

Dithmar,

Bishop of Merseburg

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

465

in 1009, author monk of

of

Chronicle

of

Germany

from

876 900

to 1018 to

Raoul

Glaber,

Cluny, whose Chronicle,extending from

the Middle had
a

1046, is one

of the most

interesting produced during

in

Ages

and

Aimoin,

of Villefranche the

Perigord (diedin 1008),who

at

well-deserved

in reputation
who

history

school of the Benedictines

in

and Fleury-sur-Loire,

spent part

of his life

composing, after

documents

preserved in
he himself

that celebrated

ahhey, a History
to

of the

which Merovingiankings, which his successors,

hrought

down

the

reignof
to

Clovis, and

also Benedictine

monks, continued

the

Fig. 360."
of the

Coronation

of the Great

Khan,

First

King

of

Tartary." Miniature

from

the

"

Flear

dcs Histoires

de la Terre

d'Orient," compiled by
of the

Brother

Haycon

or

Hayton

(Hethoum), Lord Century." In

Cort, Cousin-German

King of Armenia."

Manuscript of the Fifteenth

Library of M.

Amhroise

Firmin-Didot, Paris.

year

654. heen

This fused

is a

and well-arranged history,

a

one

in which

the

Chronicles of
;

have

with

view
upon

to

logical sequence.
same

Thegan, Archbishop
of Louis the Debonnaire of

Treves, composed,much
and

the

plan,a

Life

Helgaud, a
It
was

monk till the

at

Life an abridged Fleury-sur-Loire, close of the twelfth

King Robert.

not

century that
while it was

the

vulgar tongue

passedfrom

and popular poetry into history,

in its first hesitating

466

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

utterances, the historians,all of whom

abandon their the
use

were

clerks

and

monks,

did

not

of

Latin, in

which

they recorded, without

and

stoppingto weigh
But the

the probability,

wildest

stories

legends (Fig. 360).

a

Crusades, the
and writing, of the

first of which

dates from and

a

1096, gave
was a

fresh

impulse to

historical

for

century

half there them

long succession languages,but

of historians

Crusades, who

described

in various

principally

Fig.

361."

Alfonso de

X., the Wise, King of Castile (1252"1284),the supposed Author Espafia."

"

of the famous
"

"Cronica

Votive

Statue

in

the

Toledo

Cathedral.

"

After

the

Iconografiu

Espanola," hy

Carderera.

in Latin

(Fig. 361).
themselves

These

historians relate, for the most

some

part, facts

of which the Each who

they were

and witnesses, animated

of them took

import into
part

their works

pious enthusiasm
of these writers

which has his

those who

in the Crusades. de

from characteristics, special

Guibert

Xogent,

CHRONICLES,

///.S/WvYAX

MKMtt/KS.

467

wrote

the

Historyof
wrote

the first Crusade, down

we

to

William

of

Tyr.

Amongst
of de Odon

those who

in

Latin

may

mention

Bernard Foucher

the Treasurer, Albert of

and Chartres,

Robert Aix, Jacquesde Vitry, Deuil. both There

o'f whose
are

the

Monk,

also two have

French become

historians of the fourth and household words

"

last

Crusade,
and the

names

Villehardouin

Sire de Joinville.

But, before

speaking of
the form

the

French

historians

who
must

brought

about

completechange in
and
Latin

of historical
a

works,

we

refer to the Greek

and writers,

also to

few

historians

in

the

vulgar tongue, who

Fig. 362.""
"

How

the

Due

d'Alan";ontook
Martial

the

said

Town

of

Miniature Alan";on."" dated 1484

from

the

de Charles Vigiles

VII.," by

d'Auvergno." Manuscript

(No. 5054)."

In

the National

Library,Paris.

contributed

not most

little to

the

revival

of historical science.

Cedrenus
with
own

and

Zonoras, like

of the historians of the Middle

Ages, commenced
down
Greek
were

the

creation of the world, and

the
one

brought their
to

Chronicles Another there

to

their

day,

to

1057, the other

1118.

historian,Nicetas

commenced Choniates,

his Annals, of which

twenty-one books, with

with
the

the death

of Alexis

Comnenus,
The
fill

and

terminated
were

them
so

death
a mere

of the
list

Emperor
of their

Baldwin.
names

Latin
more

historians than
ten

numerous

that

would

pages,

and

the

only writers

we

need

468

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

allude

to

are

William
;

of

Malmesbury, Henry
of

of

Huntingdon,

and

Roger
Conrad
Roderick

of of

Hoveden,' in England

Otho
;

Otfrid Frisingen, Cardinal

the of

of Viterbo, and

Lichteiiau, in Germany

Leon,

Ostia, in Italy; and

in the

Ximenes,
most at

in

Spain (Fig..361). Of

Chronicles

vulgar tongue
in
a

the

remarkable Kieff about

is that of Nestor, written 1116.

we

in the Slav who

tongue
these

monastery

To have
are

the
not

historians space
to

succeeded

in the various
to

countries of Europe
do
so as

allude,and

it is the less necessary

their
must
was

names

remembered. scarcely
over

We

not, however, pass

a

the

universal

Chronicle

of

Matthew

Paris,who
in the

monk of his

and

historian and who

in the Benedictine gave

Abbey

of St.

Albans,

diocese
"

Lincoln,

the

title of

"Historia
from Paris his the is

Major
various

Anglorum
Chronicles
one

to

historyof
and

the

English, composed
Matthew

of the eleventh remarkable

twelfth centuries.

certainly

of the most
not

historians of the Middle

than

Ages, and
had

great work
the latter
events

concerns

less France
he

with regard to England, especially

what death he himself in 1259.

part, in which

described,after
1235 be had

witnessed,the
this time

occurring between
historians increase
more were

and found

his in

At

the

best
to

to

France,
a

and

their numbers
which history,

continued became in of

when

they
as

created
was

school

of

the

importance
As

Latin

graduallyreplaced by
middle

French

general

conversation. before
had

early as
his

the

of the
of well the

twelfth

century, fifty years

of of

Villehardouin, in
that the

Chronicle
was

conquest

Constantinople, history, Suger,

proved

vulgar idiom
Louis had be

suited to works

Minister that the this upper

of State

under

VI.

and been

Louis
in
to

VII., had,

it is said, perceived
court

idiom, which classes, might

been

long

general use

at

and

among

employed
for the

advantage
three

in the

Royal Chronicles,
at

which

had

compiled
he died in

last and

centuries
he
was

the

Abbey
This

of fact
a

St. Denis, where

is not

1152,

of which
had

abbot.

but certain, absolutely obscure the style, deserves

Suger,who
Life
to

written in Latin, though of

and

somewhat Louis French

The the

of

Louis
a

the Fat

part of
in

the

Life

of

Young,

be

given

prominent place

the

list of

historians.
Latin and

Chronicles there
were

of

the

royal Abbey
most

of St. Denis

had

long

been

famous,

depositedthe

valuable

manuscripts of

French

history.
The writers of the
romances

and

chansons

do

with gcstc,

view of

obtaining

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MKMofRS.

469

greater
that

credence

for

their works their

entohvn

of

did imagination, from (stories)

not

scrupleto

declare

they had

derived
on

the uivhive.s
prose

of St. Denis. "Beufve Charles

(See chapter
d'Antonne,"
Miirtel
as are

Romance*.)
"

The

author
a

of

the

romance,

says,

Materials

for

narrative

of the deeds d'Antonne chronicle."

:
"

of

King
and

to

be found

in the Chronicles there de is

of Beufve but
says

elsewhere,
author of

also at
romance

St. Denis, where

in verse,
"

nothing

The

the

Doolin

Mayence,"

"

Les
En

saiges clers d'adonc, par leur scnifiance,

limit
en

lea

Croniques qui

sout

de

graut vaillance,
France
;

Et sont

1'abbaie de
este

Saint-Denys en

Puis, ont
De latin

estraitcs, par moult

.

bele ordonnance,

en

roman."

The
the

first historical

romances

were

originally givenas historyin rhyme, and

and the

who jugglers,

visited the chateaux of the

plenary courts
Round

to

recite and other

as

chant

the

adventures to,

Knights

of the and

Table

and

lays
as

alreadyalluded
any of
"

taught their
to
"

credulous

uneducated

hearers

much
romances

of these nobles cared Rou

"

learn

concerningancient history.The
a

and

"

Brut," of

Godfrey de Bouillon," and

were

host

of others of

of

kindred

sort, composed in verse,

result
was

accepted as
the
true

documents

able unimpeachto

veracity.The
the

that

historians,in order

prevent
metrical

jugglersfrom

having a monopoly
Chronicle

of

publicfavour,
purpose.
to

invented

which histories, Guiart

"

did, in fact, effect that

a

In

this way he

Guillaume entitled the

set

to

rhyme

(from 1165
"

1306) which
Paris
;

Branche

cles

Royaulx Lignages;
the

Godfrey

de

composed a Chronicle,
Philippe Mouskes
a

of his

time, under

le reign of Philippe

Bel

and

Universal
of history

thousand of thirty-two Historyconsisting Flanders from the earliest ages had

a

and lines,

relatingthe

to

the end

of the thirteenth century.

the lovers of

These

metrical Chronicles
and
two

class special

of readers among

poetry,
further

centuries

later the

lawyer-poetMartial
by composing
the

d'Auvergne
"

still Roi

the perfected

metrical Chronicle and

du Vigiles

Charles VII."
while his

(Figs.362

363), one

of the best histories of that

canon

prince;
Saintefrom

contemporary, Guillaume
set to

Cretin,precentor and
at

at the

Chapelleof Vincennes,

work

rhyming

the Chronicles of France

Charlemagneto

Francois de

I.

Sire Geoffrey,

ViUehurdouin, Marshal

of

Champagne,

who

had

taken

47"

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

an

active

part in

the

fourth

Crusade, furnished
upon the

model

for

prose

in history the
a

his

Chronicle,or
in 1202. and

rather It

Memoir,
is

by conquest of Constantinople
in
so

crusaders faithful
was a

surprisingto
of the
as

find

ancient

work

such

account spirited

great

events
seen

which

this nobleman, who

His have
a

warrior

and

statesman

well, had

happen.
which
has

work

is,so

to

for speak,the starting-point

those and

memoirs private of which

there

always been
large supply
than

highly appreciatedin France,

ever

been
more

since.

The

Chronicle

written of the Sire de Joinville,

seventy

years

after that

of Villehardouin, also
the

belongs

to

the

category of private
old age,
had

memoirs, though

worthy knight,who

composed

it in his

Fig.

363.

"
"

How

the Comte

de Foix

took

strong Places in Guienne."

"

"

Miniature 1484

from

the
"

"

Vigiles
In the

de

Charles

VII., by Martial

d'Auvergne.

Manuscript

dated

(No. 5,054).

National

Library, Paris.

intended had
not

to

write the Life of St. Louis

keen

rather than

of history

his

own.

He

the assuredly written He

was one

penetrationof Villehardouin, but

most

unconsciously
literature of

he has

of the
not
a

works exquisite
he surpasses the

in

the

ancient

France.
the

writer,yet
the

all the writers of his

day by
of

charm, the

grace,

and sensibility,

piquant

artlessness

his

narrative
These

(Fig.364).
excellent

Memoirs,

written
at

of unquestionable by eye-witnesses
time have in

had authority,
success

not, however,
their authors

the

they appeared, the

expected. Eomania,

amount

of
in

which archives
of

may

well

They remained
and in those

the

the

Sire de Villehardouin

of the

472

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

At

the

same

time

an

abridged French

edition

was

in being prepared, this edition This is how

was

the

Abbey
to

of St. Denis, of the Chronicles pace with

were

of France, and
the

modified it
came

keep
that

the

changes

in

language.

to

pass

there

several different versions of these Chronicles.

some

It would
Abbot

appear,

according to
in the these

verses

attributed

to

Mathieu
the

de

Vendome,

of St. Denis

thirteenth century, and

placedat
des

head

of the oldest

manuscriptsof
order, about

Chronicles,that they were

the

translated into French Hois."

These
verses

by

his
are

1274,
the

under

title of

"

Roman

explanatoryof

to profit

be derived

from

reading the

Chronicles

:
"

..."

L'on

ne

doit

ce

livre

(decrier), mcspriserno despire

et de 1' empire. et

Qui Qui
Bien

est fait des bons sovent i voudroit

princes dou regne

estudier

lire,

et choisir). puet scavoir qu'ildoit eschiver et eslire (esquiver bien et dou des

Et dou
Par

raal
bons

puet chascun
se

son

prou

faire : (profit)

1'exemple

doit-on

au

bien traire
le

(tirer) ;

Par

les faits des mauvais

dou

qui

sont

tout

contraire,

Se doit chascuu
Mains

mal

esloingner et retraire (retirer) ;

ce

bons

enseignements puet-on prendre en

livre."

M. says

Paulin

Paris,who
truth,
of
"

has The

publisheda
Chronicles

very

excellent edition of this work,

are

of it with

of St. Denis

probably the by
any in

most

monument glorious

ever history

raised in any
These

language or
were

people, reality
had

with

the

of exception

the Bible."

Chronicles, which
as

not

publisheduntil
been almost

the fifteenth

century,but which

earlyas
to

the fourteenth been Church French book.

shown

to

kingsand great personages,

as

appear

have
the

regardedwith
and
court

veneration religious

the Golden

Book

of

of the

French
asked

monarchy.
to

When
to
see

came foreignsovereigns

to the

they
a

be

allowed
these

and

to

handle
to

this the

venerable
Due
:
"

Upon

manuscript of
Charles V., may
said the

Chronicles
the

belonging

de
"

Berry, brother
which
to

of the
to

be read

followingmarginalnote
taken from the Church also
to

The

book

Seigneurde Berry had

several
iipon

of St. Denis

show
V.

Emperor Sigismond (in1415), and

copy." King

Charles he

had

had previously had

a

copiestaken, illustrated
his desk,

with miniatures,and

always

copy

open

by

the side of the Bible.

to

The each took

monks

of St. Denis

continued

write in Latin
their

an

official account

of

reign, according to
the form of very

the

of privileges

royalabbey.

These

accounts

detailed

annals, all the materials

for which

had

been

"

'HRONICLSS,

HISTORIKS,

Ml'.Mo/Rs.

473

collected writers
wrote

with in the

scrupulouscure,

:m"l
was

which,

were

put togetherby the best

that (iuillaimie
us

community.
of St. Louis
The

It

in this fashion
of

"lc

N;miris
thai
of

the

Life

and

the Bold, Philip

did 15ig""rd

PhilipAugustus.
were

Lives of the latter's successors,

the
same

down

to

Charles
"

VI.,

also

w7-itten upon

plan
"

that

is to

say, in great detail

by

Fig.

365.

"

Betrothal

Interview
"

between Miniature
"

the from the

Archduko the
"

Maximilian

nnd

Mary
"

of

Burgundy

at

Ghent, April 18th, 1477.

Fifteenth

Chroniques de Flandre."

Manuscript

of the

Century (No. 13,073). In

Burgundy Library,Brussels.

monks

who when

remained the
the

anonymous,

and
was

whose
three

works

are

said to have

peared disap1410 is

Abbey

of St. Denis

times
and

between pillaged the

and
some

1429

by

Burgundians, the Armagnacs,

for

English.
had

There

reason,

however,

thinkingthat
3
P

the monks

themselves

concealed

474

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

or

destroyed their originalworks,

France and

in

which
as

the

historyof
civil
wars

the

deadly wars
and

between factions
terms.

England,

as

well
was

of

the

political
ful sorrow-

of the fourteenth All from Charles been.

was

century,
to
us

narrated

in too

indignantand
of the

that remains Louis VIII.

of these

valuable V. is the

Chronicles

Kings
of the
rest

of

France

to

Charles
a

generalHistory
idea of what

reign of
must

VI., which
Nor do
we

givesus
even

very

favourable
were

the

have

know

who

the authors

of this

History,

the last which From

written of

in Latin. VII. there the

was an

the time the monks

Charles

official chronicler held Chartier. in this

of France
was

amongst

of St. Denis, and

brother

first who

post
We
owe

Jean
to him

Chartier, younger
an

of the

royalpoet, Alain

excellent

Chronicle
and

of the it is

reignof Charles VII., written

that this
was

French,

but

too

much under

abridged;
the

supposed

the
;
a

last Chronicle

compiled

of supervision
of and France became

the

Chapter of
Jean

St. Denis

for Jean monk At of

Castel,appointed
St. Martin in des

chronicler

after Abbot

Chartier, was

Champs,
all his Louis

of St. Maur
a

des Fosses. and

his death
to St.

1482,

manuscriptswere
XI.

placed in
the said be Jean held
one

casket

transferred

Denis, but
to

ordered
his

that

which manuscripts, returned

to
as

doubtless

related Jean the

the

historyof
Abbot Louis
were

reign, should
succeeded Jean Mace

his

Seal Office.

d'Auton,

of

Angle,
while

Castel
that

in Chronicler-Royal Francois I.

reign of
Valois
were

XII.,
not

office under

The there

content

with

having

chronicler, and
in

henceforward
chronicler

three and

Histriographersof
this

France which Pierre

place
was

of

the

of the
to

King,

post, the salaryof

held

raised

from

1,200
du

2,400 livres
Pierre

in 1610, was (francs) Mathieu. The

"

by

Paschal, Bernard

Haillan, and

Chroniques
the end

de

France

"

"

or

de

Saint
VII.

Denis,"
;

written

in

French,

stopped at
work cradle

of the

reign of Charles

and

this

great historical

long retained its renown,

of the

notwithstanding the
trace

fables which
son

envelop the
who is

monarchy,

and

it back

to

Francus,
The

of

Hector,

said to have lives of the of the

were

settled in Gaul and saints,

races,

after the fall of

miracles the which
we

Troy.
find the be

the religious legends, the

the

in interspersed age
on

history
annals

first two

represent
are

of spirit
to
as

in which
one

these

and put together, very

not

documents upon

set

side,though they
honest

have

been erroneously which

looked

the simple and discrediting But it must

in compilation

they are

embodied.

nevertheless be allowed

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

Ml'.MOlRS.

475

that,for
St.

the fourteenth

and

part of

the fifteenth and

century, the

"

Chroniques de they were

the moderation Denis," notwithstanding

not

with precision
even

which

are compiled,

equal to

the Chronicles is

of Froissart, or of the

of Monstrelet. attractive
the

Jean

Froissart

(Fig. 368)
more

one certainly

most

of

historians;he is
of the
;i

the

chronicler Bom
at

of

the

chevaliers about
an

than

historian
son

fourteenth

century.

Valenciennes himself
no

1337, the
heraldic

of

painterof armorial
a

bearings,and
to

doubt

writer,he

as

youth attached
took this

himself
to

the Church, and

his position notwithstanding

as

clerk, soon

about Europe. travelling admittance

to

He

was

also
of

poet and

musician, and
afterwards
to

gained him
of

the houses

the nobles,and
own

all the courts

Europe.

He

after his began by rewriting

co mm'

\' fempift ct ijmi KM-

fmC ton

dwfc/iirtflfe tefyutf} fa tojfwnuwit

Fig.
366."

Fragment

of the

"

Genealogy o;'the Kings

Century.
"

of France

and

of

England.""

Manuscript of

the Fifteenth

In the National

Paris. Library,

fancythe
being

dull and

involved with

Chronicle

of Jean

Lebel, Canon

of

Li"ge,but, shape,and
in the

dissatisfied

his first version, he

and

put
to
"

it into another he

throughout
course

his life

it perfected As he

added
says, had

it what

had

learned

of his travels.

himself

Wherever

I went, I
in the wars,

questioned
and
to

the

aged

chevaliers
me

and

who esquires

been

engaged

who

could and

tell

all about what I had

them, and
heard.
a

also the ancient Thus did I

heralds,in
the

order

verify
noble

control

compose

high

and

history."
the

His

historyis
to

vivid, animated,
with
it is that in the

and

Chronicle, and picturesque

a

only fault

be

found
is very
are

it contains

few
which

and repetitions he

mistakes.
to this

Froissart

happy

varietyof

tone

has

given

in which picture,

portrayedfestivals

of the court,

of gatherings

476

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

the His

and tournaments, chevaliers,

as

well

as

feats sieges, anecdotes several

was a

of arms,

and

battles.

narrative is interlarded with

of which Chronicle,
break from 1326
to

amusing
there
1400.
are

and

and dialogue, witty

his immense
without
a

different texts, extends laborious and

honest

He

very de

remarkable writer,
him
as

for his

; and impartiality

Michel

Montaigne speaks of
and

"the
a

who worthy Froissart,

has

been always

frank

artless, who,
it
as soon

if
as

he makes it is

mistake,
to

never

hesitates to
and

and acknowledge

correct
rumours

pointed out

him,

who

gives the

various

which
raw

were

current, and
and history, Like
were

the different accounts every

one can

ho has heard.
it
to according

It is the

material for

by profit

his

understanding."

de Monstrelet Froissart,Enguerraiid

and

Georges Chastelain,who by adding thereto

to

his engaged in continuing simultaneously

Chronicles
and

of their the- history Duke of

time, both belonged to

where historians
were

Flanders

the court
as

of the

Burgundy,
Monstrelet died
he

encouraged as
1390,
he He may, may
was

well

poets and
known

artists.

(Fig. 369), born

in

perhaps,have
even

who Froissart,

to 1410, and subsequently to write

have
a

received his
a

advice when
and

began

Chronicles. held up the

a

not

poet,but
of

consult jurisand

and archivist, He he

he

posts

of

Provost which

Cambray
where

Bailiff of Walincourt. Froissart

to

drew

Chronicle

began
of

that of

left up

and off, for what

into interpolated be

it a great number
in
a

original pieces
in his
own

make

might

wanting

the

way

of talent

work.

while alive, had Georges Chastelain,

;

much

than greater reputation

an

Monstrelet

but

which his Chronicle, which has not

as

has

been printed, and onlyrecently

importantpart of
he had

yet

been

found, was
whose

almost

unknown,

as

written it

for Philippe le Bon, exclusively after

secretary and official

in

chronicler he became
France is and

having

undertaken

several

missions diplomatic from

1419
to

England.

This

long Chronicle

extended

1474, and

mainlyremarkable
the elevated The number
course

for the clear and

the writer.

the discernment, impartial judgment,

and

of style

of historical works

written

in French
the

so multiplied rapidly

in the the

of the fourteenth
which
was

century that

Royal Libraryof
the

the

Louvre,

of inventory

taken than

by

the

keepersof

at library

the death in folio

of Charles and in

V., contained

more

two

hundred

manuscriptvolumes

quarto,historical works, most

covered

of them

bound magnificently

in wooden
were

boards

with

silk and

with

silver

clasps. Amongst

these works

several French

translations

of

Valerius Maximus, Lucan, Livy, Julius Caesar,

7/AVy.V/r

Y. A'.V.

//Y.S/VMYA'.Y,

/":.}/( HRS.

477

Fig. 367." Entry of Charles

Fifteenth
1450 Wifu

VII.

into

Rouen

in

1450.

"

Miniature Years'

from

Slanuscript of the
which of Anne terminated of
in

Century,containing the
the

Account

of the Hundred

War,

by

entry of Charles
XII."

VII.

into Eouen.
of M.

Binding with
t,. Double, Paris.

the Anns

Brittany,

of Louis

In the Collection

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

Suetonius,and
There
were

other

Latin

writers, undertaken
the
"

by

order

of

King

Charles
or

V. five

six handsome de Beauvais'

copiesof
"Miroir

Chroniques de

France

;" four

of Vincent

Historial ;"
;

eight Lives

of St. Louis, comprising,

and Chronicles

doubtless, that written by Joinville

of events
or

various

Histories
as

beyond

the

seas

("Chroniquesd'Outre Popes
;
a

Mer,"
;
a

they were

called) ;

five

six Chronicles and

;

of the the

and

the

Emperors

number

of Lives

of the

Fathers

of

Saints

few

Chronicles foreign and of

war,

translated But in

into French

(Fig.366)

narratives

of battles

"c.

these inventories

Fig.

368.

"

Portrait

of Froissart, after Town

Red

Chalk

Drawing

pretcrved in the

Library,Arras.

there

is not

single
been
read
or

work

of

history written
expense

in

Latin.
Charles

Most

of

the read
one.

manuscripts had
them
or

acquired at great
to

by
his

V.,

who each who

had

them seized

him,

and in

who 1425

appended by
the

autograph to
of

They
them

were

purchased they

Duke

Bedford,

took the

to

England,
the French

where

were

either

destroyed or
to be

and dispersed,

of library
The

kings in

the Louvre

had

reformed.
much
to

fondness

of Charles

V. for the

study of historydid

aid

the

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

Due of

d'Anjou, did

not

confine

himself

to the

of sumptuous composition rich

volumes in his

with ct /n'yforit'-s, history,bien rsrrijif* several

"

bindings,for
Jean de

he

had and

household du

translators
to

"

amongst others,
he gave orders
;

Vignay
or

Laurent works he

Premier- Fait
to have

whom

what he had

Latin
no

Italian

wished official

translated he

into French the monks his

but

chronicler

holdingan
their task of

and title, Latin

allowed

of St. Denis

to continue

writing in

the

historyof

reign
"

historywhich
from this

has

tunately, not, unfordates the

been

preserved.
each

It is nevertheless

reign by
at
once

that

personal historyof
of the

King

of France, written
de

in French
was

the chroniclers
a

King's household.
an

Christina

Pisan, who
and she

poetess,a
Thomas
to

and philosopher, de her

historian

371 (Figs.

372),was
was

the

daughter of

to Pisan, astrologer

Charles

V.,

and

therefore

enabled, owing
the
not
"

at court, to collect personalposition et

all the

for particulars which she

was

Livre

des

Faits

Bonnes At

Moeurs this

du

Roi

Charles

V.,"

did

terminate

until 1404. and he

was

period the poet Eustache

in

Deschamps
the

royalchronicler,

engaged

writing a History of
the
wars

reign of Charles VI., which, appeared,though

some

interrupted probably by
traces
name

of that

time, never

of it may, of
"

perhaps,be

found

in the curious

Historypublishedunder
was

the
an

Jouvenel

des Ursins."

The
the

author

of this latter work

not

official chronicler, for he

was

held

dignityof Archbishop of Rheims,

which
he describes. in Jean

and

he him

concerned

in many mentioned

of the

events stirring
a

After

we

have,
his

as

above,
the

true

French

chronicler
VII. and

Chartier,
Joan

though
d'Arc

of description
not

reignof
it

Charles
have

of the

doings of

has

the fire which

might

possessed.
of France

During
for
a

each

reign the officialchronicler

the but sovereign, this

prepared the
not

materials

of history less

historywas
to have

written, necessarily

much
his

published. Thus
from

Louis

XI.

appears
events

hindered systematically

chronicler

completingthe
end

of

his

reign, and
the under

that

which

appeared
title of Jean de
"

towards

the

of the
du

fifteenth

century with XL,"

and

inappropriate
the
name

Chronique Scandaleuse Troyes, was merely

the

Roy
outline

Louis

of

of the
Louis it

work

compiled by
and the

Pierre

Desrey, of Troyes,chronicler
for this entitling

of France scandalous

under
was

XL,
was

only reason
the prose

Chronicle Pierre
the

that de la

publishedwithout

royal assent.
and

After
in
verse,

Desrey, Andre

Vigne wrote, partlyin

with reference The
to
wars

partly

"Vergier d'Honneur,"
for the

the bold

expedition

of

Charles

VIII.

conquest

of

Naples.

of the

HISTORIES,

MI-:.M,"IKS.

48,

Fig. 370."
in;ikes St.

Fabled
a

Origin of
to out

the St.

Burgundy
Victor of

Cross."

fiticnne, a legendary King

whom who had he has raised carried him

of

Burgundy,
Cross of his Mother

Pilgrimage
of This the M.

Marseilles,to

the

Andrew,

gratitude to St. Mary Magdalene,

Cross afterwards

and of

from

the Dead. from

figured in the Shield of the House

Burgundy Century." In

Miniature the

"Chroniquesde

Bourgogne."" Manuscriptof

the Fifteenth

Libraryof

Ambroise

Firmin-Didot, Paris.
3
ci

482

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

French

in

Italy during
in his

the

reign

of

Louis

XII. of

were

recorded

by
a

Jean very

d'Auton, 'who,

character

of chronicler

France,
was

compiled

complete Chronicle,the styleof which, however,

This of
was deplorablestyle

pedanticand

involved.

brought

into fashion Jean Low

to

by

the historians the

of the court

Burgundy,

and

especially by

Canon

Molinet,
Countries

of historiographer

Margaret of Austria,who
Henri and

governed the
down

(Fig.305). Fran9oisI.,
their chroniclers

II., and

their successors,

Henri

IV., also had

ever

who historiographers, labours. about

a

received One

their salaries without

publishingthe
Paschal, had
year,
were

result of their
made upon than
a

of these

Pierre historiographers, year after there

great stir

History of France, which,

when be died

ho

was

the

point of publishing, yet

pages

in 1565

not

more

twenty

of it found
its

among

his papers. in

History,as
and

it extended the
one

domain, graduallyincreased
the
lives of

of variety
statesmen

tone
were

style. Upon by
and hand
to

hand

warriors

and

related houses other

the

and heralds, the esquires, witnessed the

events

the

who secretaries,

lived

in upon
wrote

their

had

which and the

they described
courtiers memoirs
so

; while

the
or

these

warriors, statesmen,
and
servants
so-

themselves

dictated

their secretaries
and

of their

time.

These

privateChronicles
are

Memoirs,
that

varied

and

some interesting,

of which
the desire

anonymous,
one outdoing

show

their various
a

authors
the

were

animated

by

of
had
was

another

by

of description

events stirring

in which

they

The participated.

ancient Chronicle
one

of the Constable
in arms,

Bertrand and the

to
"

Duguesclin Chronique religious

doubtless

compiled by
"

of his

companions by
a

de la Pucelle service of Joan when

must

have and

been who

written

clerk

attached
her

the

of

Arc,
the

had

followed
the

her from

entiy into Orleans,

VII. de
at Rheims.

besieged by

English,to
wrote

coronation
Arthur

of Charles

Guillaume Duke
wrote

Gruel, who
was Brittany,

the

Historyof
to

III.,Comte
Jean

Richemont,

of

chronicler deeds

the

latter

; prince

who d'Oronville,

the life and

was

heroic

of Louis
a

II., Due
of
was

de

Bourbon, great-grandson
of Bourbon under

of

St. Louis,
VII.

secretary to
we

prince
who

the the of

house

Charles Jean
le

; but

do

not

know

author
France

of the
; and

History of
it has

Maingre, surnamed
discovered

Boucicaut, Marshal
Lefevre
de St.

only
the

been recently

that Jean

Remy, King-at-arms of
Jean We de

Golden which known

Fleece,composed
had the

the Chronicle attributed

to

of the

good Chevalier
Chastelain.

Lalaing,
never

always
name

been
"

Georges
"

have

of the

Loyal

Servitor

who

was

secretaryto

the Chevalier

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

483

Hayard;
of tlic

but the

"

II

of isfory who
is

the

and Deeds, Achievements, Triumj)lis,

1'rowess

good Chevalier,
do

is without

Fear

and

without

Ueproach,

the

gentle

Seigneur
time

Mayard,"
I.

rightlyregarded as

the historical

of the masterpiece,

nl' Francois

The furnished

best

of the

Memoirs
are

of which rewritten

the Sire de Joinvillc had,

at

so

to

speak,

the model

those

the

end

of the fifteenth
1524 und

century

by Philippedo Commincs

and (Fig. :J7'3),

published in

10*28 under

Fig. 371.

"

Miniuture

from

the

"

Livre

de Fails d'Armes the

et de

Chevulerie,"by Christina
SI. Ambioise

dc 1'isan.

Manuscript of the Fifteenth

Century." In

Library of

Firmin-Didot, Paris.

the title of
truth

"Chroniques."
lie
was

M.

Ludovic
to

Lulunnc write

has
the

pointedout

with

great
with

that

the

first

Frenchman

of history
a man

his time had

the

the discernment,and profundity,

of impartiality
these

who

passed
tortuous to

his lil'ein and

public afYairs.
not

The-

styleof

Memoirs, though rather

wordy, is
of

lacking in vigour
XL's of

and
can

intensity. In
do de
no

addition

the the

.Memoirs

Louis

favourite,

wo

more

than

mention

Chronicle-memoirs

Pierre

Feniii, Mathieu

Coucy, Olivier

de la Murche

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

and Jacques (Fig.-574),

du

Clercq,all
The

of whom sixteenth

were

attached

to the

court

of

Burgundy

in the fifteenth from

century.
of

a century possessed

brilliant

series of Memoirs, and

those

the Sire de

Fleurange,of
his

Martin

du

Eellay,
the

of the

Seigneur de
Francois

Vieilleville
Henri

(compiledby

in Carloix), secretary, of

reigns of
Tavannes,

I. and

II., to the Memoirs

Gaspard during

de

Saulxrest

Montluc,
The

Castelnau, and
Memoirs of

Marguerite
were

de Valois

the

of

the century.

Brantdme

the last of the

Valois

dynasty,

Fig. 372.

"

Miniature

from

the

"

Livre

de Fails d'Armes
"

et de Chevalcrie," Ambroise

by Christina

de Pisan. Paris.

"

Manuscript of the Fifteenth

Century.

In

the

Library of M.

Firmin-Didot,

and

are

in

strikingcontrast
the Due de

to

the

"Economies the for

Royales,"or
reign of long
de

the IV.

political
and
fallen had

Memoirs But books into of

in which the

Sully described
cared
most

Henri

sixteenth

century
The

historical

works
had

general history.
discredit with him from

"Chroniques reign
an

St.

Denis"

undeserved

since the
Verona

of

Louis

XII., which
wrote

king

brought back

Italian

historian who

in Latin

CHRONICLES,

///.S/WvY/.'.S.

4"S

"

Paolo
to

Emilio,
rewrite

or

Paul

us

^Emilias,

as

he

was

then

called

"

and

commissioned

him had

in rhetorical

the History style

of France, which His

Robert
Rebus

Gaguin
Gestis
not

obscured

with
was

the

jargon of

scholasticism.
the

work,

"De

Francorum,"
success

by highly appreciated
which
was

Humanists, but it had

the

of

Gaguin'sChronicle,
by
the

reprintedten times, and

booksellers

translated ordered

into French from

Pierre Desrey. The indefatigable

had

the above, and from

several other writers, different historical

compilations

Fig. 373.

"

Portrait

of

Philippe de Commines,
Town

after

Red

Chalk

io Drawing preserved

the

Library,AIM-.

entitled and
one

the

"

Mer

des

Histoires,"the
who

"

Rosier

"c. Historial,"
out
so

The

chroniclers
that

of France, historiographers

turned
with
one

many

bulky

volumes

might imagine they had

written
;

both

hands, nearly all composed

their universal
was

History of France by
Nicole
"

and

of the first efforts in this direction

that

made

Gilles, notary and

Annals
numerous

secretaryof
"

the

King,

who

had

no

little success,

for the

and

Chronicles
editions

of this old historian, who the end

died

in 1503, went

through

until

of the sixteenth

486

CHRONICLES,

HISTORIES,

MEMOIRS.

century, thanks
Gabriel Histories

to

the additions But

and
was

supplements written
soon

by
the

Belleforest
more

and

Chapuis.

this work

eclipsedby
the de

complete

published

almost du

simultaneouslyby
Haillan,
Francois

King's historiographers,
Belleforest,and
Jean do

Bernard

Girard, Sieur

Fig. 374.

"

Death

presidingover Manuscript of

Battles.

"

Miniature

from

the

"Chevalier

delibere," by Olivier

de la Murche."

the Fifteenth

Century (No. 173)." In the Arsenal

Library, Paris.

Serres.
no more

The than

folios succeeded

each the

other

with

yet they did amazing rapidity,

the who public, read every line
was

keep

pace

with

of curiosity
was a

of

these

ponderous volumes.

There

sort

of historicalfever, which the civil

wars

only aggravated by

interminable

incidents

of

recorded

by

the

THE

DRAMA.

Disappearance

of in

the the

Ancient Churches.

Theatre." The of
tlie

First Latin Theatre of

Essays
of

of

the

Christian
The
"

Theatre."

Pious of Adam." in

sentations RepreThe Paris.

"

Drama
in

Hiosvitha.

Mystery
of
the

Great Public "Jean

Theatre

Mysteries.

"

Progress
"

Europe.
Louie. The
"

"

Brothers

Passion Thirteenth
sans

"

Representations.
de in
la Halle.
"

The Farce

Mysteiy
de

St.

Comedy
"

since The

the Fnfants in the

Century.
Souci.
The
"

The in

Pathelin." of

Bazoche.

Spain

and

Italy.
"

Creation

the

Literary

Theatre,

Sixteenth

Century,

in

Fiance.

CTING

on

the who the

example
has

of

M.

Charles
useful

Louuudre,
treatise
we

written
of the of

very dramatic the As

upon divide

origin
the

art,
Theatre

will
four

history periods.
"

into

distinct first of

he

says, from

during
the dawn

the

period

that
to

is to the

say,

Christianity

seventh

tury cen-

"

the

Greco-Roman

traditions the twelfth the second

reigned
from

supreme. the seventh

During
to

period,
the in

the

century,

fane pro-

element
modern

gave

way
of of

to

Christian

inspiration

theatre,

the

acceptation
ceremonial
as a

the

term,

disappeared
preserved
the

altogether, and,
nothing
and but

absorbed

in

the

public worship,
of

the

Latin

language
the
next

souvenir

Rome. the the

In

twelfth,
ceased
to

still

more

during
of

two

centuries,
;

sanctuary

have

monopoly

scenic driven

representations
from
still

priests

and

the

monks and

were

gradually
Christian

the
the

stage

by

professional
feature bore
traces

actors,
the of the

though
dramatic
of

thought
of

was

dominating
of them in

in

great

tions composi-

the

time,

some

spirit

raillery which
art

afterwards
its and

prevailed.
definite

And

the

sixteenth

century
alliance
at
once

dramatic Greco-Roman

went undertions tradi-

transformation,

and,

by

an

of

Christian
and

inspiration, it
classic.

became

chivalrous,

religious,

satirical, national,

///A'

DRAMA.

489

Beyond

the comedies

of Pluutus

and

of Terence
to

376 (Figs. be

to

380) and
some

h"-

of Seneca, which tragedies

towns

doubtless where

continued
correct

played in

of the know
of

of the old Roman

a

world feeble

Latin

was

stillspoken, we

nothing except

few
to

attempts

at

Christian
;

drama,
now

such

as

C/irixt is

attributed Suffering,
said to have
iinil En" in
were

Gregory
by

Nazianzen

Susan,
a

extinct,which
Ailnm

been

written

John

Damascenus;
it is

/nfmni Di/i/n///t/'

/'///"//"//""," "c. ; and tin' i'nrtli/1/

not

that these quite possible

dramas

written for the stage.

had Christianity

condemned

all kiiuU

Gtt/v/

Fig. 376.

"

The

Slave

and

the

Lawyer.

"

Representative Characters
of the Tenth

of the Ancient

Theatre, from

the Comedies

of Terence."

Manuscript

Century." In the National

Library, Time.

of theatrical games.

and circensian comedies, pantomimes, : tragedies, representations

The

which, amphitheatres,
of the Roman

with

the pagan

constituted temples,

the

ornaments principal
as

cities, were,
that

like the

abandoned temples, the

the

new

faith in 577

spread. It
a

is true

King of Chilpe"ric,
at Soissons ; but
were buildings

Franks,

constructed
art

and circus at Paris, unknown

another

the dramatic

being at

that time

in Gaul, these

merely arenas,
in

in which which
in the
were

appeared buffoons,dancers,and
still giventhe combats ancient of wild

dogs and horses, and performing

animals.
The theatre

disappeared

shipwreck of

society.
3
R

4QO

THE

DRAMA.

From
document's the other

the seventh
two

to

the

tenth

century

are

to
"

be

found
one

in

contemporary
and
or

kinds

of scenic

the representations
; the

nomad
more

popular,
less with
a new

and religious

permanent

former

connected

the traditions of and

paganism,the
art.

second
The

betokening vague
and
name

of aspirations

Christian essentially

nomad this

were popular representations

who given by histrions,

exchanged
for that
which

of

reproach

first for that

was

of

chantcurs, and
them

afterwards

of jugglers
retained

which (jongleur*),

given
Ages.

by

the

public,and

they

throughout

the

Middle

Fig. 377.

"

The from

Old

Man

and

the

Maid-servant.
"

"

RepresentativeCharacters
the Tenth

of
In

the

Ancient

Theatre,

the Comedies

of Terence.

Manuscript of

Century."

the National

Library,

Paris.

Mounted

upon

common

and trestles, their

surrounded with
or

by buffoons, mimics,

and

musicians, who
wind acted
can
"

accompanied

utterances

gestures, grimaces, and

"

or

stringedinstruments, they declaimed

serious
or

sang

it

can

be scarcely
as

said
as

comic from

plays.

About

the

ninth in

century, however,
of that

far

be

ascertained
of the

certain

passages

historians
their

time,

the the

performances legends of
the

who jugglers,
a

mostly took

repertory from
Plain

assumed saints,

certain dramatic

character.

narrative

THE

DRAMA.

49'

was

succeeded

and by diuloguc,

several
were

singersat

once

r"

JIK

-nited,or
as

rather
we

intoned, religious scenes,

translate it,songs theatrical
taki-

which

called

ui'/mi/n'

c/mli/rntB, or,
These may

may been

intended

to be

sung

in the streets. the Church

have

but it is quite certain that pieces,

even

forbade

her

clergyto

part in, or

to witness
were

them.
at

Nevertheless

there

given in the churches

this

period,upon
appear
to

the have

regulardramatic principalfestivals,

which representations,

Fig. 378."

The

Parasite

and
"

the Soldier."

Representative Characters

of the Ancient

Theatre, from

the Comedies

of Terence.

Manuscript of the Tenth

Century.
"

In the National

Library,Paris.

formed which Christ.

even

an

integral part of
the sole

the

and service,

the the

in clergy

these

representations,
the life of

they had
For

charge of, acted

in episodes principal

at Christmas, instance,

the manger,
were

the

the magi, and shepherds, the mass, and

at

the star which

led them

to

Bethlehem

at represented

it is in the conversational

shape of certain parts of

Pentecost

the that

service celebrated
are

the festivals of Christmas, Easter, and

to

be found

the

originof

the

Mystery-plays and Miracle-playsof the Middle

Ages.

492

THE

DRAMA.

Yet,

while

taking into
it liturgy,
not

account

these be

which representations, that from either

a

long
to the

held

placein
century
works To

Catholic there
was

may

affirmed

the sixth
or

tenth

throughout Europe
the word. of

theatre

any

theatrical

in the strict

of acceptation
nun

Hrosvitha, a
honour and

in the Convent

Gandersheim,
the crude

and

native of
works

Saxony,
of

belongs the
the the
was name

of

having composed
these works
an are

first dramatic and

worthy
none

though

barbarous, they are

less very the

from interesting
of six Latin the
nuns

artistic
dramas

point

of view. from

It is said that she

authoress

imitated

Terence,

which

were

before represented end of the tenth of

of her

abbey, in
idea

their

about chapter-house, dramas

the

century.

The

dominant be said

in her

is the

tion glorificarude and

and chastity, it may

it must

that this

primitivedrama,
would be

imperfectas

appear,

contains and

passages

which

admired

in the

greatestmasters
From in the

of the ancient
to the

of the modern

stage.
the custom
to celebrate

the eleventh

thirteenth
even

century it was
within
were

porches of churches, and

which the

the

sacred

dramatized building, the

in services,
canon

principalparts
which
were

played by
as an

clergy,from
to, and

the

to the

deacon, and

used

introduction

ment adornthe

of, the
Resurrection

holy liturgy. One

of
our

of these has Christ,

was

services,entitled
come

Mystery of
with
the

Lord

Jesus it

down the

to

us,

ticulars parThree

of the way

in which in

got

up,

and

music

pricked.
with

deacons, arrayed women,"

vases

dalmaticas, and

their

heads

covered

veils "like
with bent

says the
their

text, and
to

representingthe
middle
of the

three choir:

Marys, advanced,
with

in

hands,

the
to

their heads
"

downwards, they proceeded

away
"

the desk, singing the anthem,

of

Who

shall roll

for

us

the
manner

stone

from
an

the tomb

the
a

? sepulchre

"

chorister-boy,
"

after the

of

angel,"arrayed in
this
"

white

alb and ye

holding a palmto

branch, addressed
the three deacons

them

: question

"

Whom of

seek

here ? Thus

which

replied, We
seemed
were

seek

Jesus

Nazareth."

the

mystery

of the
before

resurrection whose
eyes

to be

accomplished in
the

the presence

of the

people,

unfolded
kind
era

majesticscenes dialoguewas

of the formed

gospel.
under the
name

Henceforward
of
at

new

of scenic

Mystery,and

new

opened

for theatrical art. into the

Written

in solely
so as

Latin
to

the mystery first,

was

gradually put
half

vulgar tongue,

be

understood
called

by

the

and general public,

this led to the creation of certain upon solemn

pieces
not

half Latin, farcitures,

French,

subjects. It

was

THE

DRAMA

493

until the thirteenth kinds of

century
from Latin

that that

Latin

disappeared altogether ;
Latin and

but

the three

play adopted
of

time, the

mystery, the mystery fur,-,the the

(or

combination
were

and

French),

mystery altogetherin

French,
from

simultaneouslyuntil represented
and
"

migrationof
to the

the

drama and

the ceremonies

of processions

the Church

publicstreets
a

squares

of the

for city until, in fact, it exchanged its religious

secular

character. It is
no

easy

matter,

amidst

the

chaos

of theatrical

in productions

the

BA C

\\\f

Fig. 379."

Bacchis

and

the

Fisherman."

Characters Representative of the Tenth

of the Ancient

Theatre, from

the Comedies

of Terence."

Manuscript

Century."

In the National

Library, Paris.

Middle

between Ages, to distinguish precisely each

them, and however,

the Bible,

to

lay down
the Miracle male saints,

the

of special principles

dramatic
a

school. fact taken

from

It may,

be
as

said that the

is
or

mystery
the

is the

of representation
a

from the

of representation

fact borrowed
the

of legends

the

from female, especially

at

story of their martyrdom.

title of

It is

worthy

of remark, in its those

the

same

time,

that

the

very Mystery, originally

limited

application, was
to

afterwards
was

very appliedto compositions

different from dramatic

which

this

name

at first

given. It

was

even

to applied

works,

"'

494

THE

DRAMA.

the

of subjects

which

were

taken

from
ct

the traditions

of the

such chivalry,

as

the

Mi/xtere cle Berte, the Mystere d'Amis

d'Amile, and

Mystere

cle

Griselidis,
as

played in
Mystere

1395

or

to

the

pagan

and

such traditions, mythological

or even

the of

cle la Destruction

cle

Troie, played in 1459;

the

to

the

events

such contemporary history,

as

Mystere
or soon

du

Siege d' Orleans,played either

during the
With
a

lifetime few
rare

of Joan

of Arc,

after her death.

the miracles
were

and the mysteries exceptions,

composed
the
bers mem-

or by priests

by monks,

which

is to be attributed to
educated the
most

the fact that the

of the

generallybetter clergy,
sacred

than

considered laity,
of

the

of representation

pieces as

means practical

educating
more

their, flocks, who

welcomed

instruction in this attractive

these

form

all the
towns

heartilybecause, during
laid continually
and famine. There is
a

semi-barbarous

periods, their

were

waste

or

menaced

by

the

triplescourge

of battle,plague,

rather

long

list of the

authors

of

and mysterymiracle-plays The first of these the authors is

plays from

the twelfth to the fifteenth

century.

of Abelard, who Hilaire,disciple

imitated piecesin dialogue,
name

composed, under
the Old

title of Ludi Testaments. that

(plays),
The
"

from

and

the New

last very

in the

at list,

the

close of the
"

fifteenth
more

century, is

of the

eloquent and Bishop

another
his

very

scientific

and

still

doctor, Jehan prolific Mystery of

revised and
art the

Michel,

of

Angers, author
Michel,

of the

celebrated
or

Passion, which
in represented

Jehan

his brother oldest

and
we

nephew,

had

native

city. The

vestigeof

dramatic

in about

France

is, beyond
of the

doubt, a Mystery of Adam

twelfth century, which

Ere, written

in French in
a

the middle
at

discovered

in 1845 the

manuscript by
Victor

the Tours in

Library,and
1854. This

which

was

published for
drama held

first time

Luzarche

mystery

or

is the most
at the

characteristic type of the dramatic

which representations
The

were

church

porticos.
is divided in of of

Ade piece entitled Representacio

acts
or

of Adam) (Representation
a

into three
an

parts,which
first act

are

accompanied by

chorus, and
second
announce

terminate murder

epilogue.
;

The

comprises man's
of the

fall ; the

the

Abel the

and

the third

the appearance

prophetsto

the advent and The the

Saviour.
a

At
sermon

intervals the
upon

chorus

singsLatin

verses,

epilogue

consists of

the

necessityof penitence.
more

manuscript
it

containingthis

Bible

mystery

is all the for

curious The

because is

gives the
a

complete stage arrangements

playing it.

whole

preceded by

496

THE

DRAMA.

an

eminence, and is bright with

flowers sweet-smelling
a

and

fruit-trees. Eve
a

God

is

represented as wearing
silk. into It is to the be

dalmatica, Adam
remarked

red

tunic,and
God
to
us

peplum

of white
goes

that whenever indicates

quits the stage,he

the place precisely
scene

back
the

church

"

fact which The

:"

where

was representation

held.

opening part of

the

is

as

follows,

after the

text original

in old French

"

FIGUHA.

Adam!

ADAM.

Sire!
FIGUIU.

Fourme
De limo
terre.

te ai

ADAM.

Ben

le sai.

TIGURA.

Je A

t'ai founne
m'

a
ne

mun

semblant,

image:
devez

t'ai fait de terre.

mover

Xe

m'

jamais

guerre

ADAM.

Nen Mun

mais ferai-je,
creatur

te crerrai

obeirai.

FIOURA.

Je t'ai dune
Ce Ce est ta est ta

bon

coinpainun
Eva
e a noun

femme, femme,

tun

pareil.

Tu
Tu

H deis estre bieu aime

serez

fiel (fidele). toi

:

lui, e ele aime

ben
a

Si
El'

ambdui

(tonsdeux)de moi.

seit
vus

tun

comandement,
a
mun

E
De

ambedeus

talent.
:

ta coste pas

je

1'ai fourmee

N'est

estrange, de toi est

ton

nee.

Je la
De

de plasmai (creai)
pas par de

cors.

toi eissit, non

la gouverne entre
vus

fors.
;

Tu

raison

N'ait Mais Tel

ja tendon (quenlle) ; grand

conservage
:

grant amor,
soit la lei de

mariage."

God, after having

thus

addressed

Adam

and

Eve, withdraws,

them leaving

THE

DRAMA.

49?

to

walk

about

the

"/, "In-lmiti .""). Tlie (lumcxtigarden,playing innocently

demons The Adam makes away,

approach them, and

Devil then appears,

show

Eve

the fruits of the tree of Adam

to

good

and

evil.

and and

counsels the Devil

to his

pluck the forbidden

to

fruit.

repelshim, angrily
but but
a

then

addresses himself

Eve, who
to go

feeble resistance
seen

tempting.Adam
the

compels the Devil

a

the latter is

assuming

form

of

serpent (a mechanical
the which stage), of

it was as compositus serpent,artificiose

crawls

called, appeared upon

evil. Eve
to yields

close to the tree of

good

and

the

advice crafty

and Satan, plucksthe apple,

eats part of eventually

offers it to

Adam,
sees

who,

after

to refusing

take it,

it.

He

at

once

his

and hides fault,

assume

in
a

bush, in
of
to

order

to take

off his festal garments

and

and (solemnes vestes) in

a

costume

leaves. appear calls to appear, them earth.

Eve

himself, concealed
is
seen

corner

of

Paradise, are

afraid

before Adam ashamed

God, who

robes. walking arrayedin pontifical

He

in Latin, "Adam,
and

ubi

es?"

At

length the
another. which

two

culprits
drives
them
om

one repentant,mutuallyaccusing

God

from

Paradise,informingthem

of all the and

In

sorrows

await

An
at

angel, robed
the

in

white

waving
the

flaming sword,
Adam and
their

stations Eve
are

himself

gate of

Paradise. and

last
corn,

scene

the ground laboriously tilling Devil behold

sowing

but

during
When in the

sleepthe
and their

plantsthorns
the

and

thistles among

the wheat.

they awake
dust, beat
calls

Devil's work,
abandon load Adam the
two

they prostrate themselves

to

and breasts,

themselves and

despair. The

Devil

togetherthe
of

demons,

who

Eve

with chains, and drive them

are

to the brink

hell,into which
which yells which
of

sinners

amidst precipitated,
is the

the

laughterand
the first act,

issue from
a

the

abyss. This flaming

of analysis

forms

and which embodies completeplay of itself,

opera.

the three elements

tragedy, pantomime, and

The

dramatic

movement

which

took

in place In

France

in the twelfth the the

century
poet
de

was

not

peculiarto

that

country.

the

year

1110

Norman
Miracle

Geoffrey had
which Catherine, is made
1218. and the

played at Dunstable,
was

in

Bedfordshire,

St.

very

much

admired of the

by the Anglo-Normans. Mention

of a representation Latin mystery in of Vienna,
in the Cathedral about

in
In

Chronicle

of Frioul

Germany

the Passion Our Lord

Play
in the

was

given

Sepulchreof
Armorican this,
in the

heart

of Bohemia

1437.
a

Long
mystery
certain

before

Brittany had
dialect upon
3

provided the faithful

the
s

with

written

national

Life of

St. Nonne,

which

498

THE

DRAMA.

critics hold

to be

of earlier date

than

the

twelfth

century, and

which

is still

represented in
These

the
"

country districts of Brittany. French, German,

of spirit
fervent in almost and English,Italian,
were piety,

dramas
same

Breton
at almost
were

"

all the

posed com-

in the time in all

produced

same

and countries,

the

same

shape. They
But
the

conceived,
in
course

written,and
time

or played by priests

by

monks.

laymen

of
be

competed
the

with whole

the

clergyfor

theatrical
then

and representations,

it may

said that the

of Christendom

took

part

in the

performanceof

mysteriesand
In
most
or

the miracles. from the twelfth

European countries, notably in France,

trade
was as organized a

century,
as

each art
it had

association religious
or

as soon (confr"rie)

constituted

itself into

an

industrial

trade

corporation. Having
associations
of the
were

their in

originin
many and
to

local

feelingand
dramatic

these political emancipation,

instances

companies,enjoying the
Moreover,

favour

magistracy
invited
in
so

clergy of
take
as

the town.

all classes of the

populationwere

of these great sacred dramas, parts in the public representations

many
as

which
severe

six

hundred
to

persons the

sometimes

figured.
her

The

Church,

at

first with

regard

secular theatre,relaxed who

took

in regulations in spectators,

and this respect, these and

encouraged

those

part, as

actors

or

which edifyingspectacles,

revived

the

facts principal

of Bible

history,

popularisedthe triumph
part, encouraged and

of the Christian remunerated

religion. The
the authors
and

municipalities,
the

for their had

numerous

actors, and
of

copies taken
in deposited the

of these

the pious compositions,

official text

which As

was

the archives of the town. miracles

their exclusively liturgical preserved
as

long as

and mysteries

character,the
exercise any from

persons

who

figuredin

them
a

actors

were

not

considered

to

but special profession,

rather

sort

of

function. religious

Thus,

the fourteenth

century, the champions

had
not
as

of the

dogma

of the the

Immaculate formed

which Conception, dramatic

the

yet

been

proclaimed by

Church,

associations Our

for the purpose

of

this dogma by playing propagating honour

Mysteries of
without

Lady, composed

in

of the

Virgin Mary,

who

conceived
wore

sin

(Fig.381). Amongst
as a

these

confreres,all of whom
there origin,
were

the

ecclesiastical dress entitled

a

symbol
"Brothers in the

of their of the

clerical

some

who

themselves
theatre theatre

Passion," and
St.

they

soon

established

permanent
This

of village
at
once

Maur-des-Fosses, near

Paris, in 1398.

was

almost

closed

by

order

of

the

THE

DRAMA.

499

Provost

of

Paris, doubtless
their the

at

the request of the

clergyof
But

the

who capital,
to

complained that
see

parishioners neglected the Church

Brothers

services

go

and

the

play

of VI.
no

of the
them

Passion.

four

years

afterwards

King
and
After

Charles

accorded

letters patent, dated

with in

December

4th, 1402,

they were

longer interfered
these

the exercise

of their vocation. continue their

of

having obtained, by
to

letters patent, permission to

plays and

show

themselves, even
from the

in theatrical costume, in the streets of the

Paris, they obtained

monks

Hospital(in the Trinity

room,

Rue

St.

Denis, oppositethe Rue

the first

Grenetat), a long low

covered

in which

they opened
here

permanent

and

theatre which

was

founded

in Paris, and

Fig.
"

381."

The

Hermit

forces

Robert

le Diable le

to declare
"

his

Miniature Identity." the Fourteenth

from

the

Miracle

de Nostre-Dame

et de Robert

Dyable."

Manuscript of

Century.

"

In the National

Library,Paris.

they gave

representations every Sunday and fete day from

twelve

to

five in

the afternoon. and Long after this the mysteries

miracles

continued

to

be

represented
scenic
as

in the The

the places selected being consecrated ground and graveyards. provinces, of Orleans
even

SynodicStatutes
stook and

show

that the

of representation
the
as portico,

play
1525

place in
1587.

the

cathedral,probablyin front of
was

late

The

same

the
the

case

all

over

Europe
Innocent

up

to

the middle

of

the sixteenth century. Lorenzo

de'

Under

of pontificate of the

VIII., about 1490,

a

Medici,

upon

the occasion

marriage of his daughter to

Soo

THE

DRAMA.

nephew
which

of

the

Pope, himself composed

Mystery of St.
of his

John

and

St.
one

Paul,
of the

he had

representedby several members

family inside

Florence

churches.

The
was more

people of
monotonous

the

Middle
than

Ages,

from

the very the

fact that

their

existence all the

that

of the

people of

present day, were

the solemn

more

ready to
of the

seize

an

for amusement, opportunity

and

tions representaThe

mysterieswere King
or

amongst
into
a

their

most

cherished
a

enjoyments.

entrance court

of the

Queen
as

town, the birth of

the princeor princess, and the

well as festivals,
were an excuse

the for

ecclesiastical solemnities
these

feasts of the

Church,

popular spectacles.The
were

representations, public crier,like

the town.
not

prepared
the

long

time

beforehand,

announced

by

the

royaland municipaldecrees,at
had
not to pay

the most

of places frequented

The
seat

who spectators, themselves The nobles

a

anythingfor witnessingthe play,did

each person

but promiscuously,
or

according to
which,

his rank
as

and

station.

occupiedplatforms, dignitaries upon

had their meals

the

representations

lasted
upon

long time, they sometimes

of the

served, like the old Romans

The

the balconies lower

or

amphitheatre or

circus.
seated the
or

plain bourgeoisand
the bare

the

classes
the

occupied places,either
as

standing, upon being

local
to the

earth the

pavement,
to the

the
same

case

might be,
in church.

men

and right, order

to

women

the left,

as

The

in clergy,
whole

let their advanced

have congregations
or

an

the of witnessing opportunity

spectacle,
of the

put
these

back

the hour

of divine
so

service.
that

In the

fact,the fondness
houses
to
were

public for

was spectacles

great

left almost

deserted,and

armed

watchmen while the

as

paced the silent streets

protect the property

of the inhabitants

was taking place. representation

There dimensions
number

were

not

yet

any

permanent
erected
upon the

theatres
were

in

the

towns,

but

the
the

of the temporary theatres

who

regulatedaccordingto
a

of actors
as

had

to appear

stage. As

matter

of course,

when,
were

in the thirteenth and such

so

fourteenth
as

the only pieces represented centuries,

de

dramas, episodical
not

the

Miracles

Noire-Dame,
there
came

these

theatres
sented repre-

were

nearly so
great

large or
or

as complicated

when
the Old the

to be

the and the

poems

of mystery-plays The theatre lasted

Testament, the

Passion,
for these been of

Acts

of the Apostles.

and

platformsused days, must

expense.

which public representations,

often

several

have

immense
M.

dimensions, and
Charles

have in

entailed

considerable

Magnin,

his work

upon

theatrical

archeology, says,

"

The

THE

DRAMA.

de
one

Notre- Da

me

did

not

require more
upper and the

than

two

stories

or

the stalls,
which

raised above seated The upon

the other.
a

The
God

Paradise, in story represented

surrounded Virgin,
scenes,

were

throne

by

their celestial! divided there

court.

lower

story was
as

reserved many
The

for the human

or

and
as

by

and tapestry into partitions different the lower

chambers
upper

compartments

were

placesto represent. (Earth)by

was means

story (Heaven) communicated

each

with

of two

staircases placed at spiral and

side of the

stage.
the

It

by

these that

descended

reascended

in

processionGod,
to

Virgin, and
of Earth.

the

Angels, when
The

they manifested
theatre,the
turf of
the
a

themselves
or,
as

the

bitants inhanow

floor of the formed

area,

it would

be

called,the pit,was

of the
in which

meadow

or

graveyard;"
to

unless,that

is to say, the town of

some

was representation case

take

place

the remains possessed

ancient
use

theatre,in which
pagan
over

it was
for the

utilised

for the occasion.

This

indirect
took

of the

theatres

religious

plays of
of the
covered

the

Middle
and

Ages
other

place all

Europe before the Brothers

Passion

similar associations had

the

acquiredpermanent
fifteenth century the
as proportion

and
manent per-

buildings.In
and

about

middle

of

the

theatres increased provisional in represented mystery-plays

were

in size in them became

the framework the two

to

of the

enlarged.To

primitivestories

superadded

number

of compartments
at

intended

represent in perspective, upon

different

planes and

different

elevations,

Heaven, Hell, the World, Jerusalem, Egypt, Rome,

"c. The

the

house
into

of St.
one

Joseph,
of these

actors, while

they were

upon

the stage, moved

or compartments, designated by placards

inscriptions, every
after

time

that

the

place in which

the

scene

was

laid their

changed, and,
place upon

having

"done

their

resumed play,"they leisurely As there

far
were
as can

the raised seats

of the theatre.

be kinds

judged by
of scenery

the
;

few documents the

or
one

relatingto this subject, painted as

in the present
had
a

two

kind

day,

the

other

constructed

of wood,
the

even

stone, which

regularly

embossed
much upon

surface.

Moreover, as

spectatorswould
the host
one

often have
of persons

experienced
who

in following the plot amidst difficulty

appeared

the stage,and in
an

the

frequentchange from

placeto another, the author

which
enabled
"

alwaysoffered
them
are

prologuesome explanatory
what
was

notices general would

Let
us

to

understand
to narrate

going on.

He

say, for instance, first arrange

. .

We

about

the blessed Resurrection.

the
on

stage
this

accordingly.Here

the Cross,and

there the Tomb.

Hell will be
.

5oz

THE

DRAMA.

side ; the

house

upon with

the him

other

then

Heaven.
. .
.

Caiaphas will

take
.

his
. .

placehere, and
In the fourth the town In the

the Jewish

people; next, Joseph of

seen

Arimathea.
shall also represent

compartment
of Emmaus,

will be
in which

Nicodemus. Christ
was

We
.
. .

Jesus

entertained." the author short their

a or

addition to these of the

prologuesaddressed
meet

to the

publicby

by

"director

play,"we

in

some

of the upon

with mysteries
the

sermons

in prose excite would

a

delivered

who by priests, of the actors the

appeared
and

stage

in
even

stoles to
mass

the devotion be held

audience.

Sometimes
a

high

justbefore
was

as representation,

for witnessing preparation

the

piece in
or

which

to

be
of

given an
some

episode in
When

life of

our

Lord

(Fig.
were

382)

the

martyrdom

saint.

these

dramas religious

still played in the churches

terminated they generally when

he

with

Te

Deum of his
to

or

Magnificat, sung
As
a

by

the

actor principal not

as

reached who

the end
were

part.
in

rule,the
"

play was
the

begun
it
was

until

all the actors

on

appear

it had

done

show,"

called, either
exhibited
mechanical

foot,or

on

horseback, or
costumes
on

in
to

; that carriage worn,

is to say, had

in the streets not

only the
to

be

but

the

enginesor
the

contrivances
actors

be
not

used

the

stage.
the

The

once representation

begun, the
to intervals,

who

were

requiredon

stage were

compelled,in
benches
to

remain

in view

of the audience,
"

seated upon
not

placed at
increase

each the

side of the theatre,for the

slips

"

were

then

invented

illusion by favouring the entry optical time

was as altogether disregarded,

or

egress
as

of the

players. The
child of four the

unityof

well

the

unity of place. Thus,

a or

for instance,in
five years

of representingthe history take the in the

Notre-Dame,
the

old would

part of Mary

in

beginning of

and piece,
or

would
years

be

succeeded,as
would

play progressed, by
her
to turn

another

girl fifteen by
a

sixteen
to

old, who

be

ceeded suc-

third

person The

represent Mary when

married
was

Joseph,and

the

mother

of Jesus.
upon

result of this
three

triple change
incarnations
and dress.
no

that the spectators had

one

before them
each

the benches
age,

of

and

the

same

person,

of

different be

appearance, there
was

It may in these

guessed that

great accuracy

with

regard to

dress

The representations.

and actors, or playwrights

Caesar

dramatic

poets,who
crucifix

represented the funeral

and

of Julius

with

choristers

bearingthe
said

holy water,

did not

trouble themselves

about

historical and be safely

archaeological
that the

truth.

these primitive But, excepting errors,

was

it may

theatre of the fifteenth century

in little inferior,

point of splendour and

So4

THE

DRAMA.

to magnificence,

the

modern

stage. There
Thus

were

some

very
were

quaint costumes
always in black,
was

by assigned
and the

tradition to certain parts.

the devils the

angelsin white, blue, and

as

red ;

while, as
was

priestly garment

looked
cope

upon

the most
a

worthy

of

respect,God
or
"

with always represented The

actors

and

and stole, dead

mitre bishop's
"

pope'stiara.
that black is to say, for the

who

had

to

represent the
with
a

dressed for the

as

souls ;

they covered
lost. In blood

themselves
du

veil

"

white

saved, red
it
was

or

the Mistere of Abel

a

Vieux

Testament, in which
the
actor

desired to represent the

shed

by Cain,
red

who

had
at the

to

represent this blood

was

wrapped in
"

large
!
"

cloak, and
The

writhed

feet of the

murderer, crying, Vengeance seventy

to
or

some mysteries,

of which

contained weeks

eighty thousand

lines,
order

would
to
was

have

taken

several consecutive
the

play through, so that,in

interval of

give players and

given after
was
"

an public breathing-time,

several
resumed

days
the

each
as

and representation,
as

when

the

play was
As M. in

attendance

numerous

at

the

beginning. public
of the

Louandre
a

justly
and

observes,
animated first God. sacred

Could

it

be

otherwise ?

The

beheld

living

form

the world

of the past and

in which

future,the Paradise
one

of their

parents,and

the Paradise

they would

day contemplatetheir
the influence of this of belief.
once

They looked
drama
were was

at all this with not

a

the eyes of faith,and

but
a

triumph of art,
flashes in these

miracle

Of

art, in
and

fact, there
and artless,

but

few
were

at compositions,

barbarous

in which

reflected the real and

the

fantastic world, sacred

historyand profane."
The

miracles, which
are

so contained, like the mysteries,

many

touching and
historian
tion accumulawe

graceful passages,
should
on no

filled with overlook.

did
not

which singulardetails, This

and simple-minded the shrewd humour It is
on a

the careful confused which

account

of dissonant all the French say that the

ideas poems

exclude

find

in

of the fifteenth century. contained

numerous

to mistake, therefore,
nor

miracles

neither

satires

manners

allusions

to

contemporary events, and Thus,

in the miracles of

instances

might be
the

cited in contradiction. Charles

composed and played in

her

reign of

VI., Queen

Isabeau

Bavaria, and
the

brother-in-law,the

Duke
;

of Orleans, are
the

severely
is

assailed ;

court, too, is very

and
even

roughly
noble
an as

handled
not

military party
escape. In many

inveighed against;
parts
of these the

the

clergy do

always
the

popular piecesthe
coarse

of inspiration

poet bursts forlh

It will

beneath

envelope

of

yet imperfect language.

be

THE

DRAMA.

to

walk

about

the

The garden,playing innocently (honente delectantcs).

and

demons The Adam makes away,

approach them,
then

show

Eve

the fruits of the tree of

to

good and evil.

fruit.

Devil

appears,

and and

counsels Adam
the Devil
to his

pluck the forbidden

to

repelshim, angrily
but but
a

then

addresses himself

Eve, who

feeble resistance
seen

tempting.Adam
of
a

compelsthe
the

Devil to go

the latter is

assuming the form

serpent (a mechanical
which stage), of

it was as OOHipOttttU serpent, arfijiciose

called, appeared upon

evil.
to

crawls close to the tree of

good

and

Eve

to yields

the

advice crafty

and offers it Satan, plucksthe apple,

eats part of eventually

Adam,
sees

to take it, who, after refusing

it.

He

at

once

and his fault,

hides in
assume
a

bush, in
of

order to take off his festal garments leaves.

appear calls to appear, them earth.

and (solemnes vestcs)

in
a corner

costume

Eve before Adam

and

himself, concealed
is
seen

of Paradise, are

afraid to
He

God, who
in

robes. walking arrayedin pontifical

Latin, "Adam,

ubi

es?"

At

length the
another. which

two

culprits
drives
cm

ashamed

and repentant,mutuallyaccusing one of all the

and
sorrows

God

from

Paradise,informingthem

await them

An
at

angel,robed
the

in

white

waving
the
last

flaming sword,
Adam and

stations Eve
are

himself

gate of

Paradise. and

In

scene

the ground tilling laboriously

sowing corn,

but

during their sleepthe

When
in the

Devil
behold

plantsthorns
the

and

thistles among

the wheat.

they awake
dust, beat
calls

and
their

Devil's work, abandon

load Adam the
two

they prostrate
to

themselves
The

and breasts,

themselves
and

despair.

Devil

togetherthe
of

demons, who

Eve

with chains,and
are

drive them

to the brink

hell,into which
which yells which
of

sinners

amidst precipitated, is the

the

and laughter

issue from
a

the

flaming abyss. This

of analysis

the first act,

forms

and which completeplayof itself, opera.

embodies

the three elements

tragedy, pantomime, and

The

dramatic

movement

which

took

placein France
In in the

in the twelfth century the

was

not

peculiarto

that

country.

year

1110

Norman
Miracle
de

poet
St.

Geoffreyhad
which Catherine,
is made 1218. and the in In
a

played at Dunstable,
was

Bedfordshire, the

very

much

admired of the

by

the

Anglo-Normans.
the Cathedral about

Mention

Chronicle

of Frioul

of a representation

Latin mystery in of Vienna,

Germany

the Passion Our Lord

Play
in the

was

given in

Sepulchreof
Armorican this,
in the

heart

of Bohemia

1437.
a

Long
mystery
certain

before written

Brittany had
dialect upon
3

provided the faithful with

the
s

national

Life of

St.

Nouns, which

498

THE

DRAMA.

critics hold

to bo

of earlier date

than

the

twelfth century, and

which

is still

in represented These

the
"

country districts of Brittany. French, German,

of spirit
fervent and English, Italian,
were piety,

dramas
same

Breton
at

"

all
the

posed com-

in the
time

produced

almost
were

same

and in all countries,

in almost

the

same

shape. They
But

conceived,
in
course

written,and
time
said the

or played by priests

by

monks.

the

laymen

of
be of

competed
that
the

with

the

clergyfor

theatrical then

and representations,

it may

whole

of Christendom

took

part

in the

performance

and mysteries In
most
or

the miracles. the twelfth

European countries, notably in France, from

trade
was

century,
as

each it had

art

organizedas
an

association religious
or

soon as (confrerie)

constituted itself into

local

industrial

trade

corporation. Having
associations
of the
were

their in

originin
many and
to

feelingand
dramatic

these political emancipation,

instances

companies,enjoyingthe
Moreover,
all classes

favour

magistracy
invited
in
so

clergyof
take
as

the town.
in
as

of the
these

populationwere

parts
many

the

of public representations
persons the those secular who

great sacred dramas,

The

which
severe

six hundred

sometimes

figured.
her

Church,

at

first with

regard to

theatre,relaxed
part,
as

in regulations in spectators,

this respect, and these and

encouraged

took the

actors

or

which edifyingspectacles, the popularised

revived

facts principal

of Bible

history,

triumph of
and

the Christian

religion. The
the authors

municipalities,
the

for their had which As

numerous

part, encouraged

remunerated

and

actors, and
of

copies taken
in deposited the

of these

the pious compositions,

official text

was

the archives of the town. miracles their exclusively liturgical preserved

as

long as

and mysteries

the character, exercise any from

persons

who

figuredin

them
a

actors

were

not

considered

to

but special profession,

rather

sort

of
the

function. religious

Thus,

the fourteenth

century, the championsof

had
not
as

dogma

of the Immaculate

which Conception, dramatic

the

yet
purpose

been

proclaimed by

the

Church,

formed

associations for the

Our sin

of

propagating this dogma by playing

honour

Mysteries of
without

Lady, composed in

of the

Virgin Mary,
of there origin,

who

conceived
wore some

(Fig. 381). Amongst

as a

these

confreres,all

whom
were

the ecclesiastical dress who entitled

a

symbol
"Brothers in the

of their clerical of the

themselves theatre theatre

Passion," and
St.

they

soon

established

permanent
This

of village
at
once

Maur-des-Fosses, near

Paris,

in

1398.

was

almost

closed

by

order

of

the

THE

DRAMA.

499

Provost

of Paris, doubtless their

at

the request of the

clergyof
But

the

who capital,
to

complainedthat
see

parishioners neglected the Church

Brothers

services years

go

ami

the

play of the

of the Passion. them

four

afterwards

King Charles VI.

and
After

accorded

letters patent, dated

in

December
of their

4th, 1402,
vocation.
their of
St
.

they were

no

longer interfered with

the exercise

having obtained, by these letters patent, permission to continue

and
to

plays

show

themselves, even
from the monks

in theatrical costume, in the of the

streets

Paris, they obtained

(in the Trinity Hospital

low room,
was

Rue

the Rue Denis, opposite

the first permanent and

Grenetat), a long
covered

in which

they opened
here

theatre which

founded

in Paris, and

Fig.

381."

The

Hermit

forces

Robert

le Diable le

to

declare
"

his

Miniature Identity."

from

the

"Miracle
"

de Nostre-Dame

et de Robert

Dyable."

Manuscript of the

Fourteenth

Century.

In the National

Library,Paris.

they gave

representations every Sunday and

fete

day

from

twelve

to

five in

the afternoon.

Long
in the The

after this the

and mysteries

miracles

continued

to

be

represented
scenic
as

the places selected being consecrated ground and graveyards. provinces,

of Orleans
even

Synodic Statutes

show

that the

of representation
as portico,

play stook place in

1525 the and 1587.

the cathedral,probablyin front of the

same

late

The

was

the

case

all

over

Europe

up

to

the middle

of

sixteenth century.
de'

Under

the

of Innocent pontificate of the

VIII., about 1490,

his

Lorenzo

Medici,

upon

the occasion

marriage of

daughter to

5oo

"-'

THE

DRAMA.

nephew
which

of the

Pope, himself representedby

composed
several

Mysfrry of
of his

St. John

and

St. Paul,
one

he had

members

family inside

of the

Florence The
was more

churches.

people of
monotonous

the

Middle

Ages,

from

the very the

fact

that

their

existence

than that of the

an

people of

present day, were

the solemn

all the

more

ready to
of the

seize

for amusement, opportunity

and

tions representaThe

mysterieswere King
or

amongst their
into
a

most

cherished
a

enjoyments.

entrance court

of the

Queen
as

town, the birth of

the princeor princess, and the

festivals, as
were an

well
excuse

the

ecclesiastical solemnities

feasts of the

Church,

for these

The popular spectacles. announced

representations, public crier,like

the town.
not

prepared
the

long time beforehand, were

the most

by

the

royaland municipaldecrees,at
had
not to pay

of frequented places for

The
seat

who spectators,

anything
each

witnessingthe play,did
his rank the and

themselves
The nobles
a

but promiscuously,
or

person

according to

station.

dignitaries occupiedplatforms, upon which, as

had

representations

lasted
upon the earth the

long time, they sometimes

of the

their meals
circus. seated

served, like the old Romans

The
or

the balconies

amphitheatre or

and plain bourgeois the

lower
or

classes

occupied places,either
as

standing, upon

bare

the

pavement,
to the

the
same

case

might be, the

in church.

men

being to
local

the

and right, order

to

women

the left,

as

The

in clergy, whole

let their advanced

have congregations
or

an

the of witnessing opportunity

spectacle,
of the

put back
these

the hour

of divine service.
so

In

fact,the

fondness

public for

was spectacles

great

that

the houses
to

were

left almost

deserted,and

armed

watchmen while the

as

paced the

silent streets

protect the property

of the inhabitants

was representation

taking place.
theatres
were

There dimensions
number

were

not

yet

any

permanent
erected
upon the

in

the

towns,

but

the the

of the

temporary
who had

theatres

to regulatedaccording
a

of actors
as

to appear

stage. As

matter

of course,

when,
were

in the thirteenth and such

so

fourteenth
as

the onlypieces centuries, represented

de

episodical dramas,
not

the Miracles

Notre-Damc,
there
came

these
to

theatres be sented repre-

were

nearly so
great

large or
or

complicatedas when
Old the

the and the

poems

mystery-plays of the
theatre lasted and

Testament, the

Passion,

Acts

of the Apostles. The

often

platformsused for these days, must

expense. have been

which public representations,

several

of

immense M.

dimensions, and
Charles

have in

entailed considerable
upon

Magnin,

his work

theatrical

archaeology, says,

"

The

THE

DRAMA.

501

Miracle*
one

df Notrc-Damc

did

not

require more
upper and

than

two

stories

or

the stalls,
which

raised seated

above
upon

the other.
a

The God

Paradise, in story represented

were

throne

the

Virgin, surrounded
scenes,

by

their celestial divided

court.

The

lower

story was
as

reserved many The

for the human chambers

or

and
as

by
were

and tapestry into partitions different the lower

compartments

there

placesto represent. (Earth)by

was means

upper

story (Heaven) communicated

each

with

of two
that

staircases placed at spiral and

side of the

stage.
the

It

by

these

descended

reascended

in

processionGod,
to the

and Virgin, of Earth.

the

Angels, when
The

they

manifested

themselves
or,
as

bitants inhanow

floor of the

theatre,the
a

area,

it would

be

called,the pit,was

formed

of the turf of in which ancient

use

meadow

or

graveyard;"
to take

unless,that
the possessed

is to say, the town

the

was representation

place

remains
This

of

some

in which theatre,

case

it was for the

the

utilised

for the occasion.

indirect

of the pagan
over

theatres

religious
Brothers and

plays of
of the covered

the

Middle
and

Ages
other

took similar

place all

Europe

before

Passion

associations had
of the

acquiredpermanent
as proportion

buildings.In
and

about

the middle increased

fifteenth century the permanent the framework the two

to

theatres provisional

in size in them became of

of the

in represented mystery-plays
were

enlarged.To

primitivestories
represent
in

superadded a

number

compartments
at

intended

perspective, upon

different

planes and

different elevations, of St.

one

Heaven, Hell, the World, Jerusalem, Egypt, Rome,

"c. The

the house
into

Joseph,

actors, while

they were

upon

the

stage, moved

of these that the

compartments,

or designated by placards

inscriptions, every
after

time

place in

which

the

scene

was

laid their

changed, and,
place upon
few the
or

having

"done

their

resumed play,"they leisurely

the raised seats of the theatre.

to relating

As there

far
were

as

can

be

judged by
of scenery;

the

documents
one

this

subject,

two

kinds

kind

paintedas

in the present
had
a

day,

the

other

constructed

of wood,
the

even

stone, which
often

regularly

embossed
much upon

surface.

Moreover, as

spectatorswould
the host
one

have

experienced
who

in following the plotamidst difficulty

the

of persons

appeared
author enabled
"

stage,and
in
an

the

change frequent

from

placeto another,the
notices general

always offered
them
are

prologuesome explanatory
what
was

which

to

understand
to narrate

going on.
there

He

would
Let
us

say,

for instance, the

on

We

about

the blessed Resurrection.

first arrange
.

stage
this

accordingly.Here

the Cross,and

the Tomb.

Hell will be
. .

'

S02

THE

DRAMA.

side ; the house

upon

the him

other

then

Heaven.
.
. .

Caiaphas will

take
.

his
. .

placehere,and with
In the fourth the town In the addition

the Jewish be

people; next, Joseph

seen

of Arimathea. shall also represent

compartment will
of Emmaus,
to these

Nicodemus. Christ
was

We
. . .

in which

Jesus

entertained." the author short their

a or

prologuesaddressed
meet

to the

by public

by

"director

of the

play,"we

in

some

of the

with mysteries
the

sermons

in prose

delivered

who by priests, of the actors

the

appeared upon
and audience.

stage

in
even

stoles to

excite the devotion would

a

Sometimes

high mass

be held

just before
was

for witnessing as a preparation representation,

piecein
or

which

to

be
of

given an
some

episode in
When

the

life of

our

Lord

(Fig.
were
or

382)

the

martyrdom

saint.

these

dramas religious

stillplayed in the churches

terminated they generally

with

Te

Deum of his
to

Magnificat, sung by
As
a

the

actor when principal not

as

he reached who

the end
were

part.
in

rule,the play was

"

begun
it
was

until

all the actors

on

appear

it had in
to
a

done

the

show,"

either called,

foot, or

on

horseback, or
costumes
on

carriage ; that
worn,

is to say, had exhibited

in the streets not

only the
to

be

but

the

engines or

mechanical

contrivances
actors

be used
not

the

stage.

The

once representation

begun, the

who

were

requiredon
audience,
"

the stage were

seated
not upon

compelled,in
benches

the

to remain intervals,

in view

of the
"

placed at each
to

side

of the

theatre, for the

slips

were

then

invented

increase

the

illusion by favouringthe entry optical

time
was

or

egress
as

of the

players. The

unity of
for

well as altogether disregarded,

the

unity of place. Thus,

Dame,
a

the history of instance,in representing take the in the

Notre-

child the

of four

or

five years old would be

part

of

Mary
be

in

the

beginning of

and would piece,

or

succeeded,as
would

play progressed, by
her
to turn
ceeded suc-

another

girlfifteen
by
a

sixteen
to

years

old, who

third

person The

represent Mary when

married
was

Joseph, and

the

mother

of Jesus.
upon

result of this

triple change

that
one

the spectators had the

same

before them each of

a

the benches
age,

three incarnations
and
was no

of

and

person,

different be

appearance, there

dress.

It may in these

guessed that

great accuracy

with

regard to

dress

The representations.

and actors, or playwrights Caesar

dramatic

poets,who
crucifix

representedthe funeral of
and

Julius

with

choristers

bearingthe
said

holy water,

did not

trouble themselves

about

historical and
be safely

archaeological
that

truth.

these primitive But, excepting errors,

was

it may

the

theatre of the fifteenth century

in little inferior,

point of splendour and

THE

DRAMA.

to magnificence,

the

modern
to

stage. There

were

some

very
were

quaint

costumes

assignedby tradition
and the

certain parts. Thus

and of

the devils the

alwaysin black,
was

angels in white, blue,

as

red

while, as
was

priestly garment
The who had

looked cope

upon

the most
a

worthy

respect, God
or
"

with always represented

actors to

and

stole,and

mitre bishop's
"

pope'stiara.
that is to say, black for the

represent the dead

with
a

dressed

as

souls ;

they covered
lost. In blood

themselves
iln

veil
"

white for the saved, red it

was

or

the Misten of Abel in

a

Vieux

Testament, in which
the
actor

desired to represent the

shed

by Cain,
red

who

had
at the

to

represent

this blood

was

wrapped
"

large
!"

cloak,and
The

writhed

feet of the murderer, contained weeks

crying, Vengeance
or

some mysteries,

of which

seventy
to

eighty thousand

lines,
order

would
to
was

have

taken

several

consecutive

play through, so that,in

interval of several

give playersand given after

was as

the

time, an public breathingwhen

days
the

each

and representation,
as

the

play was
As M.

resumed

attendance

numerous

at

the

beginning.
public
of the

Louandre in
a

justly
and

observes,
animated first God.

"Could form

it be the world

otherwise?
of the

The

beheld

living

past and

future,the Paradise
one

of their

parents,and

the Paradise

in which

theywould

dav

contemplatetheir

They

looked
was

at all this with not

a

and the eyes of faith, of art, but

a

the influence of this of belief.

once

sacred drama

triumph

miracle

Of

art, in
and

fact,there
and artless,

were

but

few
were

flashes in these

at compositions,

barbarous

in which

reflected the real and

the

fantastic world, sacred

historyand profane."
The

miracles,which
are

so contained, like the mysteries,

many

touchingand
historian
tion accumulawe

graceful passages,
should
on no

filled with
overlook. did
not

which singulardetails,
This

the careful

account

simple-minded and
the shrewd

confused
which

of dissonant all the French say that the

ideas

exclude

humour
It is
a

find

in

poems miracles

of the

fifteenth century. neither

satires

to mistake, therefore,
nor

contained
and
numerous

on

manners

allusions to

contemporary events,

instances

might
the

be cited in contradiction. Charles

Thus, in the miracles composed and

Isabeau
of

played in

reign of

VI., Queen

Bavaria, and
the

her

brother-in-law,the

Duke
;

of Orleans, are
the

severely
is

assailed ;

court, too, is very

and
even

roughly

handled
not

military party
In many

inveighed against ;
parts of
beneath these the

the

clergy do

always escape.

popular
coarse

piecesthe noble
an as

of the inspiration

poet bursts forth

It will be

envelope of

yet imperfect language.

THE

DRAMA.

505

sufficientto cite, as between

Judas and

model

of sombre
:
"

and

the following force, tragic dialogue

the Demon

"

LE

HKMOJf

Meschant,
A

que

veulx-tu

qu'on te fasse
?

quel port veulx-tu

aborder

JUDAS.

Je

in'

sals.
ose

Je n'ai ceil en

face

Qui

les Cieulx

regarder.

LE

DEMOX.

Si de

mon

nom en

veulx
auraa

demander,
demonstrance.

Briefvemeut

JUDA8.

D'oii viens-tu ?

I.K

Du

parfondd'enfer.

JUDAS.

Quel eet ton

nom

LE

DKMON-.

Desesp^rance.

Terribilite de Horribilite de
et
me

vengeance! dangier !
doune deuil

Approche
Se mort

allegeance,

peut

mon

al!6gier.

LE

DliMllX.

Oui, ti^s-bien."

In
we

contrast striking
a

with

this

grand scene

between artlessness
"

Judas the

and

the Demon,

will quote the

model

of

and gracefulness the

scene Shepherd's

in

great Mystery of

Passion, by the brothers

which Jehan Michel

Arnold
on

Greban,
the
same

mystery far superiorto

: subject
"

that

composed

S"6

THE

DRAMA.

"

UN

HEROER.

Est-il liesse Que Et de

ces

plus eerie (joie plus sereine)

beaux

regardorces
doulx
a

champs

paissans, aignelets
? praerie

iSaultans

la belle

SECOND

HEROER.

On

parle de grand seignourie, donjons, palaispuiss.-ms ; plus serie

ces

D'avoir

Est-il liesse

Que
Et

de
ces

regarder
doulx
a

beaux

champs,

aigneletapaissans,
? praerie

Saultans

la belle

THOISIEME

REROEB.

En

gardunt
Pasteurs

leurs ont

brebiettes,
bon

temps

11s

jouent de leurs musettes,

Liez
et (joyeux)

esbatans

La

dient leurs
sont

chansonnettes, bergerettes
chantans,
. .

La

les doulces
vont

Qui
Et

bien

belles fleurettes
ont

Pasteurs

bon

temps !

"

Nothing
St. Louis, in

can

be

more

touching than
de

the

scene

from
savage them

the

Hyutere

de

which

Enguerrand

Couchy,

the

hunter,
over

having
without
once

three youths shootingat surprised

remorse

his

rabbits, hands

to

the

executioner.

The

latter,with
without with

his assistant's

help, at

hangs them
which forms

to the

gibbet, not, however,

strikingcontrast

of pity a feeling manifesting

the most
"

the

of unflinchingseverity

his

sinister

: profession

"

DEUXlfcMB

ENFANT.

(Aprei
.

que

le premier

ete

pendu.}

Helas

! que

diront
sauront
amere

Nos

nobles
mort

parens, quand tres-dure

et

Nostre

TROISIBME

ENFANT.

Je

mon plains

pere.

DEUXIEME

ENFANT.

Et

moi,

ma

mere.

THE

DRAMA.

507

i),

au

bourreau.

Meshui

! paillart (" present] depescho-lc,

(Le

bourreau

c'est-a-dire le pend.) Itjttte,

LB

BOUHKF.AV.

Le

voila f

depesche souduin.

L'autre

Je le tiens par la main. II est tendre Le

comme

rosee,

jeune enfant.
LB

BOUHHEAU,

I'l SOU

Vttltt.

Tay-toi!
A Mon
: I'enfant

Tay-toi!

amy,

muntez
a

apres !"

moi,

Et pens-z

Dieu

Thus

all

are styles

to

be

found

mixed

up
are

the
at

one

with

the other

in the

great
sombre

dramas

of the Middle trivial joyous,

pass in

Ages, which
and solemn.

once

mystic and grotesque,

the

and of

and Men, angels, earthly kings,

King

kings

turn

before

the audience, and

appear

for several centuries sacred then in

to
are

all the
so only,

theatrical
to

which compositions
"

by

the side of the

term

detached speak,
did
not

to employ the chapters branches,

use.

Tragedy
that the

exist in the Middle

Ages, and

it is a mistake

imagine

Proven9alpoets or troubadours, Arnaut

de Parasol
were

Daniel, Anselme
the

Faidit,and
twelfth and
not
assume

Berenger
thirteenth definite
Thomas

the

principal factorsof tragedy in

of dramatic of the

centuries. until

This
the

form

composition did
century, when

shape
Sibilet

middle few

sixteenth

Bai'f and when

produced a

imitations of the Greek

must

and tragedies,
as

Jodelle French

which in 1552, Cleopatra, represented,

be considered

the first

tragedy in
had

verse.

Comedy
may
come

alreadybeen
the vein
of

in

existence
is

for

considerable

for period, the

nearer

it
we

be said that
to

comedy

Gallic,and essentially
this vein
a

the

Renaissance, the faster does

has In

expand

itself upon of

our

stage, which
of

continued

to

be

without

rival in the way

de

tragedy as
the Jen
a

comedy.

the thirteenth

century,

Adam

la Hale, nicknamed
called

Hunchback

of Arras, produced the first French

d' Adam,
or

comedy,
the

the
opera,

de sort

Manage
of

the Le

Ji-u de

la

Fmiller, and
d

first comic

entitled pastoral,

Jcit clc Rubin

"/"" Marion, of

which

he

composed the,

THE

DRAMA.

words
de

and

music.

These and

two

ancient

as pieces,

well

as

the second

famous half

Farce of the in all

Pathelin

383 (Figs.

384), which

dates

from

the

fifteenth

century, and which

long enjoyed a

universal

are reputation,

respectsvery remarkable
were

productions.
rank

If the author

of the Farce

do Pathelin

known, his
The comic

name

would
the

beside that of Moliere.

piecesof

Middle

Ages, which
for their

were

called

jeur, soties,or
and

farces,are

for the most

part notable

fund

of humour

gaiety.

Fig.

383."

Pathelin

taking the Piece of Cloth

the

Fig. 384.

"

Pathelin before

pleading for the Shepherd

the

which

he steals from

Draper.
of the "Farce de Pathelin"
in

Judge.

Fac-similes

of Wood

Engravings

(GothicEdition, Paris, Germain

Beneaut, 1490,

4to).

They

may

be
we

considered,accordingto
must

the taste

of the present

day, rather

too

broad, but
did not
court

make

allowance

for the time, as

these crude

expressions polished

offend the taste of the age, and

passed muster

with the most

the

in

Europe.

The

Moralites

stand
the

midway between
of mysteries,

of which farces,

they possess
certain
extent

the satirical
the moral

and spirit,

which
were

they imitate
not
more

to

and

tendencies. religious

They

than

THE

DRAMA.

5""9

sometimes portrayal,

even

criticism, upon

the

Church
even

in it* human
are

and

temporal aspects ;
and of the actor the
"

canons,

and cardinals, bishops,

"

popes

not

spared,

that is to say, the author faults

shows discern

no

mercy
them.

in his condemnation

vices and

which

he

can

in

The

moralite

also

Fig. 385.
the

"

The

Actor

(Author) listeningto the Personification

of his

Thought.
the

"

Miniature

from

"

Chevalier

delibfireV' by

Olivier

de

la Marche.

"

Manuscript of

Fifteenth

Century

(No.

173, B.L.)."In the Arsenal

Library,Paris. often

deals with

the

kings and
them
to

and, temporal nobility,

account

assuming

political
times, Somethe

calls character,

for their
the sacred

conduct. publicor private

some

again,a

fact taken

from

books, or

idea

to occurring

5io

THE

DRAMA.

poet, furnishes

the

theme

for

sort

of moralite
de

which

may

be

described Laz d'Amour

sages

as

legendary. For instance,the

Divin,
tons

Histoire

V Enfant

Prodigue, the
toutes

the

Histoire

de

Ste.

Suzanne, exemplaire de
in and

femrnes

et de

les bons

juges, are

moralites

which

religious mysticismis
in which
"

allied to

the
and

of practical wisdom, teachings Good Renown

"

the characters

Envy Reason,
of ancient the of of

are

introduced

into

the

like plot,

the Chorus

tragedy, to control, judge, and

personages
or dialogue,

appreciatethe respectivepositionof
which
the author then the

in

the

drama,
and

into

introduces
Chevalier

sort

moral

allegorical poem,
moralites

similar to

deliMre

Olivier de la Marche
The

(Fig.385).
were

soties, farces,and
the

never

put
a

upon

the

stage with
number

the

splendour of

and mysteries,

save

with

few

the exceptions,

Fig. 386.
the

"

Portrait
known

of Clement
as
"

llarot.

"

Fac-simile
"

of
In

an

Engraving by
Library of

Leonard

Gaultier,fiom
Firmiu-Didot,

Series

Chronologic collee."

the

II. Ambroise

Paris.

of

the

personages

introduced

was

always very
these two

small. kinds

Moreover,
of

capital
that

difference the

is to be established

between
to

viz. spectacle, for

were mysteries

so represented,

speak,by everybody and

whereas the

everybody,
moralites
were,
no

under
were

the

patronage of
a

the

Church,

and farces, soties,

played for

special public by privatecompanies of laymen, who

comedians. doubt, regular

The and

who jugglersand tale-tellers,

poems, which

were

many

of them

authors

of satirical
the

amusing

they went

about be

from reciting

to place to place,

accompaniment pieces ;
their scenic

of the

violin, might

regarded as
the

the first actors of the

of secular
to

for not
but

only did they sojourn in

castles

nobles
were

recite

poems,
romances

they performed plays in character,which

and such dialogues,
as

in

reality
and

the

metrical

tale,

"

Aucassin

5iz

THE

DRAMA.

excellent the

poet, Pierre

Gringore,herald-at-arms
and the manager of the

to the

Duke

of Lorraine, was Enfants

sans

author principal

troupe

named

Souci,

the members
set

of which, recruited

amongst
of

the the

had wealthybourgeoisfamilies,

up

in

oppositionto
close
to

the
are

Brothers
now

Passion.

theatre, Gringore's
was

established

what Louis The

the and his his

Paris

markets,

in

great vogue

during during

the the

reign of
Carnival.
at the
severe

XII.,

took place representations generally

pieces in

repertory,though interlarded
of

with

sharp hits
somewhat

higher clergyand
upon the quo
score

the court

Rome,
he

were

for the most taken

as

part

of

for morality,

had

his motto,

"Raison
The

partout,rien

raison"

(Reason everywhere,nothingbut reason).

for of spectacles
in every kind the

people had Ages,

and and

keen

liking

during

the

Middle
pomps,

always turned
In

out

crowds

to

witness

cavalcades,

which processions
ceremonies. the
a

accompanied the
history of
the the the

tournaments,
theatre

plenary courts,
fore, there-

and

feudal

it is necessary, the

to mention

plays in dumb-show,

and allegories,

pantomimes,
of

which

were

representedupon principally
celebration of
some

occasion
or

of

or visit, royal

in publicrejoicings the volume

"

great local

event. political

in (See,

on

Manners, Customs,
the Dance
was

and

Dress," chapteron
known
as

Ceremonial.) Then,
Mucttbrr, which
the in

again,there
the fifteenth

was

of Death,
one

the

Dame

century
the
common

of the

which spectacles

produced
certain

greatest
first and

effect upon this Datise

388). people (Fig.

was a

It is almost

that at music it

Macabre in the

sort

of

pantomime, a compound
masters to

of

singing;

and
in

1424,

the

then English,

of Paris,had celebrate their

publicly

performed
Verneuil.
Another

Cemetery

of

the

Innocents,

at victory

pantomime,
Paris
two

but

of

less

lugubriouskind,
of

was

offered

to

the

people of
of

in 1313,
sons

by

order of
the

Philippele Bel, in

honour

of the reception

his

into

Order

Chivalry. Godefroy de Paris, a

as

rhyming

chronicler

of the time, describes it

follows

"

"

Vit-on
Kostre Et Et Its

Dieu,

sa

Mere
manger

rire

Seigneur Anges
au

des pommes,
. .

paradis

lea Ames

dedans
et

chanter

Enfcr

y fut noir y ot

puant,
cent."
. . .

Diables

plus de

In 1437, when

Charles

VII.

entered

was Paris, a representation

given

of

////.

DRAMA.

S'3

the Combat

of tin'

.S'/w//

tin' Cn^itn! ,SY//.vnijaiii^t

Tin-*,'

I'ii-tH' Tlfitlmjii-iil
entered
a

tin- J-'niir Curt/iiiii/ firfiifx.

When

Charles culled

the

Bold

town
was

in the

Netherlands
in his honour.

sort

of tn/i/i-im rimut

the Jitifi/iiiriit ""f I'urix

at Rouen

given
of

In the famous

entcrfuiiiments

in

1550, in honour

Fig. 388."

The

Actor

conducted (Author),
"

by Fresh-Memory,
from the
"

is shown Chevalier

the

Burial-placesof the
"

Chevaliers, Kings, and Emperors. Miniature

the Fifteenth

delibeie."

Manuscript of

Century (No. 173,

B.

L.)." In the Arsenal

Library.

the and

entry of King Henry II.,there Virtue, Olympus

France from
and the

were

at represented

the

same

time Faith

Parliament

of

Normandy, the Muses, and all

all

Kings of

Pharamond's

time.
3
u

Thus

epochs and all kinds of

5/4

THE

DRAMA.

belief

were

put

under

contribution

by

the

inventors

of

pantomimes,
were

so

as

to

give

more

attraction and
to

splendour to

these

which spectacles,

solely

intended

the gratify middle

eye. and soties, century, the farces, the scenic tradition of the moralites

Up

to the

of the sixteenth the and public,

as

continued
was

to attract

Middle

Ages

still much Paris

the

same

it had

been

two

centuries
who upon

previously.But

in 1541

the Acts
even

Parliament

forbade
open

the actors
theatre
was

representedtin- Mi/xtv-y of flir

saints'

of the Apostlesto
upon Provost

their

days
a

and

Sundays, and
which

certain

week-days.
and the

This

the

of origin

hot

in dispute, which

the

of Paris

King

himself
a

intervened,and

terminated,
the Rue
were

after, many

by delaysand difficulties,
took The up their

definite the Hotel

authorisation de

granted to
in the

actors, who Francoise.

confirmed the express

quarters

at

Bourgogne,
of
the

ancient decree of

of privileges
the
"

the

Brothers November

Passion

by

Parliament for the

no

dated

19th, 1548, upon

condition decent

that

future

they

shall

play only secular, playsanything

the

lawful,and

and subjects,

longer introduce

into their

touching the mysteries or

moralites
were

religion." The
from

miracles, the

and mysteries,

accordinglyeliminated
had the

their repertory. The

Brothers

of the Passion, who

with (narratives

rightto represent yrandes Mstoirea par

in them Millet such personated),
as

peraonnages

the characters

the Destruction "if

Troy

the

Great,

by Jacques
ceded there the their

(Fig. 389), abandoned

a

their

dramatic

undertaking,and
actors

to play-room and privileges

troupe of regular
The
a

who

gave

of tragedy and comedy. representations

to

Hotel

de

Bourgogne, over
bas-relief with
Theatre Thus

entrance principal

which

was

stillretained
the

sculptured

the

instruments

of Christ's

Passion, became

cradle of the

Francais. exiled from the in took refuge the mysteries capital, the the

provinces,
of and soties

where
the

of they held possession

stage,in

some

few

towns,
with The

for the

the whole buffoons and

sixteenth

century, competing for public favour

who attended the In order fairs 1516

mountebanks had

(Fig. 390).
the

farces
were

also

been

proscribed.

Bazochiens

forbidden any
1536

by
sion allu-

decree,and by parliamentary
to
were

of the Provost

of Paris, to make

the

royalfamilyin
to
"

the

pieceswhich

they represented. In

they

forbidden

exhibit

taxing or spectacles or^writings

Two years later

noting (blaming compelled

or

anv criticizing)

person

whatsoever."
the

they were
before

to

submit

their

piecesto

of censorship

Parliament

putting them

THE

DRAMA.

upon

tin- slagi1 ; clerks

and,

as

the satirical boldness Bazoche Such of who

did
not

of these
conform

piecescontinued
to

to

the increase, threatened and soties,

of the

this order
to

wnv

with
at

the
about

gibbet.
the end

severities
the

were

fatal necessarily

tin-

sixteenth

century they disappeared

altogether.
These
dramatic accelerated

restrictions upon
censure,

the

of liberty

the

stage
"

the

establishment
"

of

and

the

of piecesrepresenting sacred subjects prohibition

the

of disappearance

the ancient

drama, and

there then dawned

Fig. 389.

"

The

Abduction de

of Helen.

"

Fac-simile par

of

Wood

Engraving

from

the

"

Istoire de

1"

Destruction Jehan

Troye

la Grant, mise

Personnaiges," by Master

Jacques Millet

(Paris,

Driart, 1498, in folio, Goth.)." In the Library of M.

Firmin-Didot, Paris.

new

period in
were

dramatic

art

all

over

Europe.
under the and

By
names

the

side

of the

mysteries,

which

stillrepresented in

Spain

of autos de

sacramentales,

appeared the brilliant dramas

at the
same

of Calderon
the

Lope

Vega.

Shakspeare

time

appeared upon
a

English stage,and
At
In

in

ItalyMachiavelli's
court

Mandragora
classic
was a

revealed

modern

Aristophanes.
Sophonisba.
of ancient

the

of

Leo

X.
there

tragedy revived

in Trissino's

France, too, where

and

reawakening of

the

souvenirs

Greece

Rome,

Sibilet,

Si6

THE

DRAMA.

Guillaume Octavian
translated
"

Bouchet, and
de

Lazare

de Bail

translated
des

Sophocles and Euripides;

and had

St.

Gelais,

Bonaventure and
verse

Periers,
Eonsard
verse

Charles

Estienne

Terence

into prose

; and

terminated scarcely

his
and

studies university
he and he had

when

he

translated

into

the Plutus
at

of

Aristophanes, College,

several of his fellow-students

been this the
a

played

the Boncourt

where
out

student. kind

This

is

favourable

for pointing opportunity

new

that with
;

new

of dramatic

piecesthere appeared a
the

class of

actors

for in

universitystudents, under
of their The
;

direction

of their
even

teachers,
admitted

played

the

improvisedtheatres
the court. in Hamlet

and colleges,
same

were

to play before occasionally

as

thing occurred
were

in

England,
in and

is shown

by

passage
were

and

there Latin

theatres university of Reuchlin

Germany,
Conrad

upon

which

representedthe
Farce

comedies
and

Celtes,imitations of the
and

de Pathelin

other French

soties.

Tradition
was

imitation for
a

held successively

the

upper

hand,

and

tragedy
The

at

and first, of

considerable
"

far above time, preferred

comedy.
de la

authors

the first classic

tragedies Etienne, Jodelle,Jacques

"

Taille,

Charles Toustain,and
Greek

Jacques Grevin

minutely observed
to

the traditions of the

to

drama, conforming themselves

the

rules

as

unity of

time

and
to

the dialogueswith place,interspersing

lyricchoruses, and
Robert Gamier

so resisting,

speak, every produced

the

kind first

of innovation, as

from
to

(Fig. 391), who

the

piecein 1573,

down

Rotrou, who
of the

marked definitely
are

of starting-point after
mould.

modern

tragedy,the
their the

ideas

tragic poets
are

framed the
same

the

same

pattern, just as
two

Alexandrines
were

cast

in

For

centuries

French

all for

tragedy,though
did
not

the

tragicwriters,when
to

inventing a subjectof
and
to

their own,

limit

selves them-

Greece

Rome.
one,

Pierre
so

Mathieu's
as

Esther

and

Vashti, and
the

P. Bardou's

St. Jacques,remind
the

far
form

the

subjectis concerned, of

but mysteries;

composition and
French

of

these

piecesdid

not

outstep

the
the

rules of

and rhetoric,
the while limit

stage,within
even

of

tragedynot unfrequentlyintroduced upon and French these well-defined rules, subjects

for instance, Joan
of the Arc, Coligny,

personages

living, as,

Guises, the League,"c.

The old comic de

which plays,
Pierre

were

cultivated with

more

or

less

success

at the

Hotel

Bourgogne by

Remy Belleau, Honore Leloyer,

Pierre d'TJrfe,

Larivey,and

fab/i* pastorals, others,developed into comedies, tragi-comedies,

the
tieris (waggish sayings).Some saui pkrisants gross),

of bocageres (fables

of

THE

DRAMA.
5'7

Si8

THE

DRAMA.

the

poets, too, who

had First

succeeded

at

also tragedies,
imitated

tried

their and and

hand

at

the

less serious in and

many
cases

style.

of

all

they
full of

Menander

Plautus, and

produced works
verse

amusing situations
for

witty sayings,
less than for

with

dialogues in
and
are

remarkable
must

their ease, not

that the than

their animation

brilliancy.It
not

be allowed their

comedies
the Greek de

of the and

sixteenth Roman
of

century
;

less broad
one

in

language

comedies

but, as

of the best writers of the time, Pierre

one

Larivoy
bo
to

Champagne, opinionthat

remarks there is
an

in

of

his

prologues,"If

any

man

should him

of

occasional
to express

departurefrom
the correctly
must

I beg propriety, fashions and

remember

that, in

order
acts

tendencies

of the present
The

day, the
of

and

the words

be of

ness." correspondingwanton-

authors

that

periodcomposed their comedies

in

after the models morals of

which

they had

before

their eyes, and

the corrupt representing

Fig. 391.

"

Portrait

of Robert
"

Gamier.

"

Fac-simile

of the

an

Engraving by

Leonard

Gaultier, from

the Series called

Chronologiecollee,"in

Library of II. Firmin-Didot, Paris.

their

time

they did
of the

not

offend
not

either

the

eyes far
as

or

the

ears

of their audience.

Besides, these piecesdid

the Abuses Sienna

go

nearly so

the Italian into

comedies, such

as

Academy, translated
into

French, and
over

Ariosto's

Supposes,also
The Italian

translated had

French,

and

all represented since the

the

country.

comedy

also

come

into favour

performance at Lyons
the court, But the

of Bibiena's

Calandm, which
actors, whom

was

representedthere
de' Medicis had been

in 1548, before had

sent

by

some

Italian

Catherine
in Paris

for. from

first Italian

troupe which
of
the

settled

brought
them
to

Venice, in
sentations repre-

1577, by

order in

King Henry III.,who

Hotel the du

allowed This

give their
became

Petit-Bourbon.
which

troupe

sedentary,
and in

and

Italian

comedy,
the

repertory of

surpassed in licentiousness
drama, remained
in existence

extravagance Paris, almost

farces of the

old French

without

to interruption,

the close of the seventeenth

century.

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

Major

and

Mamcrtinus

Minor, Nazarius, Dropanius,and

several

Gauls

from

Aquitaine.
Eloquence had
the Gauls. made
men

from
ancient

the earliest Gauls

been period
to

held

in great honour

amongst

The

paid worship
whom

Hercules, of whom

they had

the with

god

of

and speech,

in allegory as attacking they represented

his mouth.

golden chains
the

from issuing

Thus
very

the art of

oratory was

in their esteem

and highest of all,

they were Emperor

were

fond

of

hearing good Lyons

the

speeches.
oratorical

This

will

explainwhy
defeated
in

the

Claudius

instituted at
efface
cast

the jousts,

which

compelled to penalty
are

with

tongue their
Rhone.
natural

unsuccessful and

speeches,under

of

being

into the

Juvenal
talent
at

St. Jerome Gallic

race

(Fig.392)
for

the agreed in recognising In the

towns principal
"

of the

speaking.

of

Gaul

"

Toulouse, Bordeaux, Marseilles, Troves, Besan9on,and Autun

of

there

existed
rather

public schools
of

oratory, which
left
was
no

produced thousands
of

of

orators, or
or

but which rhetoricians,

permanent record of civil

a new

purely
"

literary eloquence. paganism

had
never

The been

reason

that

stamp

such eloquence,

as

able to

was inspire,

suddenlycalled
were

into being with

into like silence,

the Christian the

religion. The

pagan

rhetoricians

awed
the

oracles of the false

gods, at

its first accents, and

pulpit of
Forum.

sacred

oratory henceforward
For

stood the
art

alone in the midst of

a

of the ancient annals

the

centuries

oratory had

no

in

life,and political
of ancient

speaking,which
does
not

held
more

such than

large place in
few pages

records

history,
of

occupy

in the

histories of the

earlyages

the French
makes
store

monarchy.

Gregory
that words.

of Tours, in his of these

"History
barbarian

of the Francs," times set

more

it

clear sufficiently deeds fresh than

the warriors

by

by

King Clovis, when

to

urging his pains me

the

warriors
to
see

to

undertake

conquests,
a

merely said
of Gaul.

them, "It
us

the
the into

Arians
aid of
our

in

of possession and

part
have

Let

march let
us

them, against
reduce undertake

with

God,

after
the of

we

vanquished them
forthwith
and

country

power."

And Count

Franks

prepared to
the

the

campaign.

Mummolus,
said to the
overrun,
"

Auxerre,
after
cross

of patrician devastated
to

troops

of

King Gontran,
which
of

Saxons, who,
about
to

having
the Rhone

all the laud

the

they had Sigebert,

were

invade my

kingdom

You

have the

depopulatedthe

land

of the
to

King

master,

carried off the crops

down the

and and

delivered cattle,
up the vines.

the You

houses

the flames, cut

set

the olive-trees, other side of the

rooted

shall not

foot upon

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

stream

until

you

have

made

compensation to
my

those whom

you

have

reduced

to

misery.
wives,
master." the

If you

refuse,the weight of
your

sword the

shall be felt wrong

by

you,

by

your my

and

by
This

children, to
utterance

avenge

done

to
no

the
way

King

proud

is full of
the

but it simplicity, Greece

was

resembles
to

allocutions addressed
"

by
real

generalsof

and

of Rome
to

their
of

soldiers

allocutions of

of

in eloquence,
and

which

united

beauty

diction the power In

moving

carryingaway

popular feeling.
must

certain circumstances, however, the Gauls

have

employed

the

Fig. 392."
Choses Arsenal

St. Jerome Mondaines."

and
"

two

Cardinals.

"

Miniature Fifteenth

from

the "Petit

Traite

de la Vanite

drs
th"

Manuscript

of the

Century (No. 30, Sc. and

A.).
"

In

Library,

Paris.

gift of speakingwith

success,

but

we

possess

no

written record

of their civil

even pleadings, oratory. This oratory they undoubtedly employed in judicial

at

the time when

who

the Germans

and

the Franks the

were

established in Gaul.
even

The
the bar

Franks,
customs,
in

did not

hesitate to

assume

language,and

to imitate

of the

peopleswhom
the sixth

found they had subjected,

the Gallo-Roman

regular practicein
as

century, and

far from
a

an fettering

institution

which,

has been

ingeniously suggestedby

modern

historian,appearedto

522

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

them

like

mimic
was

battle-field, they were

a

the first to declare

that the

sion profesto

of barrister

noble one,

and

they soon

sought to

obtain

admission churches

it, by asking to
monasteries
"

be

given the

title of advocate, or

aimi^, to the

and

offices which

compelled
but privileges,

them

not

only

to

defend when

by

force

and ecclesiastical territory

also to protect
were

them,

necessary,
at questions

by

word

of mouth,

at

the

pleaswherein

debated publicly
most

in presence of issue,

the

leudes,or
we

of the richest and

on

influential
even

freemen
we come

of the district.
down
to

This

is all

know is of

the

and subject,

when
a

reign there Charlemagne's

administration barristers. involved
in In

nothing extant
but justice,

except

few
no

capitularies
allusion to
bar St.

which
the
a

regulatethe
the

which

make

speechesof

fact,the doings of

the French the

were

(touse
Louis,
be

modern
we

term) are
are

until complete obscurity

reignof

though

told that
the

the advocates
be

of the Church

enjoinedto
to

conversant

with

law, to

to gentleand peaceable,

fear God, and

love

their country. This decadence barbarian need of

an was

the natural took the

consequence the Roman prove

of the Code.
their

promulgation
The
accused

of the
had
no

laws which
advocate the

placeof
order

when,

in

to

innocence, they had

to
no

submit
use

to

ordeal

red-hot of fire,
were

iron,or boilingoil.
decided

Speech was
The

of

in

which and disputes quarrels

man

by

duel.

best advocate it
was

was

the
"

who

could wield the sword abolition of the duel

existence.

and with the greatestskill,

not

until

after the

and

of the

ordeals

by

fire that

the

bar

resumed

its normal

We

look must, therefore, the

back

through

many

centuries of barbarism, in order

in

to behold

triumph

of Christian

eloquence

Europe (Fig.393).
It

would

be

to interesting

read

the but the

speeches and they were

edicts
of
not

sermons

of

the

first the the It is

in of Christianity apostles end of the fourth

the

West,
when

preserved until
enabled

century,

Constantine

Christian Church
in this fourth delivered

to raise its

voice

the against found the

then

expiringpaganism.

century that

is to

be

cradle of Christian
St.

eloquence, Gregory
of
St.

in Greek

by

St.

Athanasius, St. Gregory Nazianzen,

John

Nyssa, St. Epiphanius,St. Dionysius,St. Ephrem

sublime
as

Chrysostom ;

in

Syriacby
"

and

in Latin

by

St. Ambrose,

St.

Augustine,and

St. Jerome.
"

The

of proportions other
"

Christian

oratory," says Villemain,

And after
erect

seem

to increase

the

kinds

fade

away."

the citing amidst the

orators

named of the

above,

he

adds,

Their

genius alone

remains

decay

empire.

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATOR

r.

5*3

They
zeal
secret

look

like

founders

surrounded

by ruins."

Nothing
has when

could

damp
In
us

the the

of of

these

and spirits, apostolic undaunted

Chrysostom
courage

revealed he

their

and consistency

exclaims, in

RKTO

TRlrflNIVMfPHILOSO

Fig. 393."

the different Degrees of University Teaching." representing Composition, Allegorical Wood of he 1 of a Fac-similo Margarita Philosophies (Bale Edition, in 4lo, Engraving
"

"

1508).

presence
power

of the great whose

he

vices he

whose condemned, and of the princes

are

braved,

"All

earthly terrors
do
not

in contemptible

my

sight,

disdain

all

worldly goods,and

fear

poverty;

I do

not

desire riches,

524

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

and

I do
"

not

dread

death

only

wish

to

live

in

order

to

save

your

souls."

From oratorical
numerous,

its birth the

Gallic Church
the fourth had the the
are

was

associated the

in

this

great work

of

proselytism. In
and their We

century
an

preachers were
influence upon
the

already
ful the faith-

word inspired
can

immense

(Fig. 394).
must

estimate
we

which authority Greek

now
sermons

Catholic
to

pulpit

have

when possessed
in

read which
a

ascribed
to

Eusebius,

of Emesa Gaul.

Syria
"

sermons

said

have

been

delivered in

His

oratory
very

is

of

very
are

simple kind,
had

and

yet

these their

primitive
minds the of
a

whose preachers,

names

unknown,
when

vividlyin
the In

recollections of pagan

literature

they related
a

combats spiritual
one

saint,or
upon of the
with better the

the

blood-stained
of

of struggles

martyr.
man

of these
to

sermons

resurrection
and

Christ,God

made

is

compared

Antaeus, son

Earth,

like that

whom giant,
is

mythology representsas struggling

Hercules, the Saviour

to

representedas

only touching the ground, the

In
another
sermon

triumph

over

Sin, the father of Death.

as

the black

preacher depicts Tartarus

wardens Son

in

state

of with

consternation,and

the

of the
"

obscure
comes

prisonsas
there
to

struck

dismay
not

at

the

arrival of the

of God,

who

command,

and

to suffer."

These
most to

ancient

sermons

form, togetherwith

the

legends of
ages. had
no

the

the saints, the fourth of brilliant

important part
the""seventh

of the literature Roman

of the barbarous
the stood Church St.

From
lack

century, in
In the

Gaul,

orators

(Fig. 395).
surnamed

the
"

first rank Rhone

of of

Hilary

of Poitiers,whom

St. Jerome
his

eloquence,"so rapid and majesticwas

was

speech,and

St. Martin
he
"

Tours, who

the

most

perfectmodel
consisted

of

Christian
and

charity ;

who See

said to his this

which congregation, has

come

of herdsmen

shepherds,
fulfilled the
to

sheep which
of the Go ye

back
has

from

the

shearing.
of her

She

has

commands naked.

gospel;
and do

she

given part
And poor he
man

garments
an

clothe

the

likewise."
to
a

set them

example by dividing his cloak, and

cold.
as

giving half

who

was

with shivering
was as

In his

the fifth

century appeared St. Eucher,

St.

whose

ing learn-

great

eloquence;

Paulinus, who Mamertus,

of the

has left and St.

us

magnificent

sermon

upon

almsgiving; St.
filled with the

Hilary,St.

Valerian, whose
love

speeches are
for his

purest sentiments

ardent Christianity, sixth

neighbour, and

boundless

charity.

In

century

we

have
most

the famous

St. Cassarius of

Aries, who, while preaching the purest

and

Fig.

394."

Preaching of an
to Fra

Apostle of Christianity After

"

Picture

paintedupon

Wooil, attributed

Angelico.
"

In the late Collection

of M.

Quedeville, Paris.

526

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

doctrines consolatory

of

morality,inveighed with, tellingforce of language

were

against the
the heresies

heathen which

which superstitions
were

again raisingtheir heads, and

the Christian faith. His

the dogmas of assailing and

are gentleness,

utterances, full of unction

strictures upon
which of the
was

remarkable, even
their

in his severest

the well

adversaries calculated
as

of
to
"

the

Church, for

kindness
cause.

of tone,
He God

very

win
stars

souls to the Divine fallen from

to

speaks
may

most

daring heretics

the may

sky, which
restore

perchance recall to the

of brightness In the
same

firmament,

and

which

He

the

primitive

their twinkle."

century, St. Germain, Bishop of Auxerre

St. Avit,
the

St.

Remi, Bishop

of Rheims

and

Bishop

of

Vienne,

occupy,

with

St. Csesarius,a

prominent place in
say'sof St. Remi
In he the had
course

of religious oratory. history

and equalled,
even

Sidonius
orator

Apollinaris
of his

that he

surpassed, every
extended
over

day.

of his

episcopal career,

which

seventy-two
of his

years,

many

of demonstrating the opportunities

influence

speech ;
and the

when amongst others,

preaching upon
yet been
with
"

the Passion

before

King Clovis
he

Franks, who
of sufferings
his

had
our

not

baptized into
force pathetic
my

the that

Church,

depicted the
hand
to

Lord

such but

Clovis,layinghis
there the the !"

sword, exclaimed,

Had

Franks of the

and

I been
was

Preaching,in
of the modern
sees.

the
some

early ages
cases

Church,

attribute special

bishops.

In

they would

travel about

country, like

the

missionaries Most of them the

in

others

they remained
two
or

in their episcopal stationary times

a

preached
steps of
the church the

three

day.
it
was

The

sermon

was

delivered

from

altar,except when
an

preached

in

the

graveyard,or from
would take that

porch. Sometimes preacher and

whose

animated and

conversation
it would ill brook
even

place between
the
new

the

his audience,

happen
severe

converts, Christian
the

savage

passions could
sermon

the their

of injunctions and

morality,interruptedthe
church.

by

murmurs,

abruptlyleft
his

Upon

one

such

occasion St.
in
to

Hilary
not

of Poitiers, seeing that

to

prepared congregation
the doors

to withdraw

order

hear

his

chiding voice,ordered
"

of the the

church Divine

be

shut, and
now.

said, in indignanttones,
when able order hold
to

You you
so

refuse to hear
suppose,

word

But

you

are

in

hell, do
you

miserable These

sinners,that
words restored
had

you

will be

leave when
the

feel

disposed?"

silence and such

a

in
over

congregation.
and

The

which eloquence, religious

great

rebellious

depraved natures, owed

anything to art, and scarcely

528

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

everythingto
human The barbarians and the
not

the

Divine

of faith, to inspirations
to all,

the

nohle

impulses of feeling.

the

conscience, and, invasions,which

into

above
were

the ardour

of Christian
a

continuallylettingloose strugglesof
pagan
was

fresh
and nowise

torrent

of

Gaul,

the

intestine of

conquerors in

invaders,
checked had

the

laborious

transformation

had society
then that

impulse of long
since

Christian

It proselytism. the

Ireland,which
to

received
turn

Gospel

revelation noble band

conveyed

that

country by

St. Patrick, in her

the

supplieda

of missionaries

who

preached
"

Christian

religion. Amongst
the founder
the

them

shone

in the first rank of

(540

615),

St. Columba,

of the
most to

Monastery

Luxeuil, whose
marked In and
one

utterances,
a

bearing the impress of

of ideas which
he

burning zeal, were speak, his

Thou An
art

by

vehemence
sermons

so anticipated,
"

words.
the way,

of his

exclaims,
from
;

life ! Oh, fragile

not

the life.

Thou

startest

sin to arrive at death.

arid

road, long

for some,

short for
all ;
a

others many

sometimes

dreary,and

sometimes whither

but pleasant, thou

alike

rapid for

follow

thee, without
it is beset

asking

leadest.
like
a

Human
a

life is

to dread, and tiling

by dangers ;

it passes

bird,like
had

shadow,

like in

an

image,like nothing."One
mind

might imagine
write

that Dante

this passage

his

when

he

began

to

his "Divine

Comedy."

These

Irish also

missionaries made, devoted

themselves the

in especially
to

Northern

Gaul,

numerous

who disciples,
were

preachingthe Gospel. They

and the and
as

to

be

met

with

everywhere,in placeon
road.

towns

from travelling country districts,

place to
on

as donkeys, preaching they went,

stoppingat

the houses

the, the

The

people humbly
it
an

saluted
to accord

them them

they passed,the
and hospitality,
even

rich and

great esteemed

honour
at

kings were

proud

to

give a

seat

table to these
of the the

holy men,
house, and
the

who,

as

has hagiographer

said, "placed beside

festive board, served word."

the master also

to

amidst

the

pleasuresof
of the

the

guests

wholesome

food

Divine

Germany,
Ireland. Michelet
so

like Gaul,
most
as

was

visited

by
was

these

Catholic

missionaries

from

The

celebrated
"

of them

St. Boniface the

(675
"

755),whom
the It and
sea

described that he
was,

hero who
the
came

crossed

Rhine, the Alps, and

between

often

as

it were,

connectinglink
to
an

nations.
Rome

was

through him
other

that

the

Franks He
it

understandingwith
these nomad

the

Germanic
of

tribes.

was

who

attached

tribes to the soil

way

by

means

and religion

and civilisation,

unwittinglypreparedthe

for

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATltR}'.

5*9

the

armies

of

Charlemagne,
to

as

the

missionaries

of

the

sixteenth

century

opened

America

the armies
not

of

Spain."
arena

Preachingwas
battle. The

the sole

in which
so

religious oratory had

to

do

Councils,which faith,and

were,
to

to

speak,the guardiansof the

the

sacred in the

depositof

orthodox

which

Middle

Ages

owe,

even

Fig. 396.

"

Preaching of

the

first

MissionaryApostles.
"

After

Tapestry in Tournay Cathedral,

made

at Arras

in 1402.

civil

order,the wisest
the

of their laws

"

which these Councils,

have

been

so

happily

termed
vast

Champs
the

de Mai

of the what

Church,

offered

to

ecclesiastical speakers a
possess. Whatever

field for

display of
these

they might ability

was

subjectwas

laid before

illustrious assemblies
3
Y

studied, and carefully

530

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

often gave
discussions that

rise to

eloquentdebates.
the text
were

nothing is Unfortunately
which

extant

of these
It
seems

except

of the decrees less but

they had prepared.

these

spoken

utterances
we

preserved in easily
records know

periods of

social from

renovation, for

possess

few
we

of

religious oratory dating

such celebrated llaban But

Charlemagne's reign,though
Alcuin, St. Anscaire,
must

that

preachers as
Maurus, "c.,
was

St. many

Agobard, lladbert, Hincmar,

sermons

have

delivered
course

worth
the

recording.
spontaneous
mind. The of

scholasticism of the

alreadyin
were

of formation, and

outbursts
was priest

heart the

kept under

by
it

the

subtleties of the
the

lost in
to

rhetorician,and
the the ardour and

needed

imperious force earlytimes

circumstances the

revive

enthusiasm

of

; as, for

instance,at
a

period of

Norman

when invasions,

the

bishops preached
has
more

holy

war

against the forgotten.

Northern
This the
more

forces with

eloquencewhich patriotic
of
was

not

been

irresistible power

speech was

all the the

a

strange because, during

age
was

tenth than he

century, which
one

justly called

"iron

of

the

Church,"
to

clerk
not to

frankly admitted, when

how with
to

holy book

shown
year

him,

that
was

did

know

read it the

literas). The (ncscio

1000, which
near,

expected
all

bring
The

day

of dated

judgment,
from
"

was

drawing
time
near

and end and

publicand privatecontracts
Christian

were

the

to

the

of the world." sobs of the

preachersmourned,
death of the

amidst

the lamentations
race.

people, the coming

were

human and

In

all the

churches

homilies dead.

pronounced
the
out

upon

the Antichrist

the resurrection
was

of the

When

dreaded of

epoch had
God

fervour passedby, religious

new

and again displayed, which the

gratitudeto
the

churches

were

built,in

preachers announced
be said that

of holy enterprise created the

a new

the Crusades.

It may which

the Crusades world

kind

of

eloquence, religious
thirteenth of

filled the This

to

whole

during

eleventh, twelfth, and

two

centuries. both

eloquencewas
the
same

represented by

different

kinds
were

orators,
the true

working

end, but by different

means.

There
over

full apostles, the East

of faith and

enthusiasm, who
infidels and the

travelled

all

Europe preaching
in Christianity the who for

holy war
;

against the
there the the the
were

oppressors
more

of

and

the

and priests, and in the

to

the especially

monks,
had
come

in proclaimed, the order tomb

churches

that the time cloisters, abandon go

a

clergy and
to

orders religious

life of
to

in contemplation,
to

form

great

army

of Christ,and
of Jerusalem.

Palestine

deliver

his

the by dispossessing

Saracens

Religious eloquencenever

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

531

wielded
with
one

wider

influence than
"

then.
"

The

whole

West

answered

to the

appeal

voice,
two

Dieu

le volt !

The

great orators
The
former
cross

of the first Crusade

was

were

Peter the Hermit

for he and traversed

and the

Pope
land

Urban
upon It the
was

II. his

the

people'sorator,

mule,

in

hand, preaching,weeping,

beating his

breast.
climax

Pope

Urban

II. who, at the Council

of Clermont, the warmth

who

broughtto

resolution in favour Chronicles

the
"

of the Crusade
have

by

of his utterances. him

As

contemporary
that

it, "Those

heard

preach

believed with
the

they heard

heavenly trumpet."
Dieu le veut
or

His

speech was
of

answered

unanimous
the East

shout,
with
an
no

"

Thus

thousands

pilgrims started

for

other

hope

thought save
It
was

of

obtaining remission

for their

sins and

eternal

recompense.

Christian

eloquence,too, which,
the
"

during

the

hardships of
and

this distant
his

sustained expedition, volume

on

courage

of

Godfrey

de Bouillon

companions. (See,in Crusades.)

in 1146

and Military

Life," the chapter on Religious

The which

second Crusade

was

resolved upon

at

the

of Vezelay, assembly

St. Bernard, Abbot

of Clairvaux, had endeavoured

convoked
to

by
new

order of Louis Crusade

the
name

VII.

Suger,the King's minister,had

in the interests of the

get the

adjourned
of the the recent

State,but

St. Bernard
was

in protested,
necessary

Church
disasters
over

and

of the national honour, that it The

to avenge

of Christians.

eloquence of
was

the Abbot

of Clairvaux his

prevailed

that of St.

Denis, and

Suger

compelled to
inflamed of his

abandon
a

to opposition
once

the
to

popularmovement.
raise

St. Bernard, the

mere

by

holy zeal,at
Wherever

set out went

armies
and

by

power

word.
not

he

the

churches
the rude
was

the

placesof assembly were public

which

largeenough
he then

to contain

excited

crowds

pressed around

him,

and

preached

from he the

erected platforms

for the purpose

and doctors

in the middle he the

of the fields. When

addressingthe
Romanic
that

clerks

spoke in Latin, only employing

; people

vulgar or
felt

tongue
when

to address

and

so

great was

the

respect

for him

he

and preachedat Mayence, Cologne,

not

his Spires,

hearers, though they could

inflamed
the French The de
same

understand

word

of what
arms

he
as

said, were
aa eagerly

by

the

enthusiasm

and of his gestures,

flew to

crusaders. enthusiasm
authorised
was

reproduceda century later,when

Innocent
to

Foulques
Crusade of

Neuilly was
"

by Pope

III.

to

preach

the

1198.

When

Foulques opened

his mouth

preach,"relates

the chronicler

53*

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

Jacques
conferred

de

Vitry, who
upon him
a

was

himself

an

eminent

preacher,
Those who
was

"

it had

was

God heard

who him

his

persuasive accents.
his garments, and

struggledto get
new

piece from
He
was

he

compelled to
with
a

have

frock which

every he did

day. kept
not

obligedto provide himself

crowd
at

stout

stick,

with him.

off the
murmur

which

would

otherwise

have blows
own

suffocated which he

They

the wounds

inflicted by the
their

dealt them, and, in the ardour

of their

faith,they licked

blood, as if

Fig. 397."
Fresco

Portrait

of

Pope Honorius
the

III.

(1216"1227), who
instituted
in 1216

exhorted the

Louis

VIII.

to undertake

the Crusade

against

and Alhigenses,

Order

of Dominican

Friars.

"

Paintingupon

Gold

Ground

in

Mosaic, in the ancient

Basilica

of St. Paul-without-the-

Walls, Home.

it had had

been

sanctified because

made of

to

flow

by

this

man

of God."
the

Foulques
end One
"

all the

outspoken boldness sparing no

man

the

popular preachersof
and he

of

the

fifteenth century,
when

in his criticisms of

anathemas.

day,

preaching before Richard, King

name

England,

exclaimed,
three

I advise

you, in the

of

God,

to marry
"

as

quickly as possible your

daughters,
"

lest

some

evil befall

you."

You

are

the King mistaken," rejoined

I have

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

533

no

daughters."

"

I tell you and

"

that

you

have

three," said the preacher;

the

"

they

are

Pride, Avarice,

Luxury." give Pride

my

Whereupon,
to the

himself King, addressing

to the

to

the barons, said,

and

I
to

Templars, Avarice
"We
need

Cistercian

monks,
after
no

Luxury
de

grand feudatories."

merely mention,
with de

Foulques
success,

Neuilly, of other doctors who

preached the Crusade

of Le

less

Geoffrey of Bordeaux,
of

Hildebert
of

Mans,

Jean of

Bellesme, Ame'dee
Jean de

Lausanne, Eudes
of Arbrissel.

Chateauroux, Geboin

Troyes,

Nivelle,and

Robert

Fig.
"

398."

Portrait the

of

Gregory
See.
"

IX.

(1227"1241),

Ihe

eloquent Defender
Gold Ground in

of

the

RighU

and

of Privileges Basilica

Holy

Fresco

Painting upon

Mosaic, in the ancient

of St.

Paul-without-the-Walls, Rome.

Sacred
in the way combat seemed the in
to

oratory,which
of

in the twelfth and

thirteenth centuries
the

did wonders had

to

armies, almost raising

for instantaneously, the

Crusade,
These

those

days

the

profane oratory of
from

heretics.

heretics of

derive encouragement All rebellions and

the brilliant

triumphs of
had

the orators

Church.

insurrections religious
had but
too

their upon

beginning
weak and

in mischievous

addresses,which

great influence

S34

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

fanatical minds.
and heart dead. condemned of

Thus

Pierre de of

Bruys

ventured
the dead
come

to
;

deny
and

the Eeal

Presence,
the the who

the custom

prayingfor
he had the

Eon the

issued from

Armorica, declaringthat
other
to

to

judge

quick

and

In

placeswe

had

of Flanders pitblicains

and

Burgundy,

endeavoured and the

revive the monstrous

half

doctrines of Manicheism, the Valdenses, half political, who, religious,

of

dissenters Albigenses,

after

having

preached humility and

among overthrow the lower

renunciation

worldly goods, found

cessation
of

more

response

classes

by preachingthe
and authority,
was

manual

labour, the
As

of ecclesiastical
orator arose,

the

community
an

of

goods.

each

schismatic
became the

he

at

once

opposed by

orthodox and of

orator, who
Bernard

eloquentchampion

of the Church his motto

He

399 (Figs. the maxim

was

400). St.
Christian

fought in
"Let
us

the first rank, but persuade,

;

takingfor
not

charity,
Pierre of de

constrain."
;

supported by
Abbot

Castelnau
vaux;

Cardinal

d'Albano

Jacques de Vitry ; Arnauld,

of

Clairthe of

and

William, Archdeacon
was

Paris.

But

the

most

eloquent of
of
ten

Catholic Dominican southern

was one

orators

the

Spaniard St. Dominic,

who
never

founder

the

order

Friars

(Fig.399). Dominic,
and

preachedfor
showed
any militant. his

years
to

in the

provincesof France,
of the
most

who

mercy His

heresy,

heroic soldiers of the Church

such that
a

irresistible

eloquence produced
the

effect prodigious
was

upon

that contemporaries

people

believed
to some,

he

the

direct

exponent
when he

of
he
was

the

heavenly will.

According
to

flames

issued

from

his mouth

spoke ; according
about
to

others, the church

it was
been

bells rang that

of themselves

when
sermons

preach ; Virgin
did
not

and had

also affirmed
seen

during one
as

of his

statue

of the who

to

lift out

its arm,

if to threaten

the

hearers

hearken

to his words.

Nothing
the
sermons

remains

to

us

of these
favour

celebrated of the
to

denunciations
;

of
were

heresy,nor

of

preached
and
were

in

Crusades

they
we

all delivered
a

extempore,

never

committed

writing. But

have

somewhat

large number
which
were,

of

those

belonging to

the

and mysticalschool,and theological

therefore, carefully prepared beforehand.

this time
de

Here, again,we
Richard de With

have

St. Bernard, surrounded

by Hugues
of Paris
"

and

St. Victor,

Abelard,

and his

Maurice

Sully,Bishop
to

(Fig.400).

Abelard,
we

notably in

Latin

discourses

the

Virgins of

the Paraclete,"

have

the dialectician of the

always ready to
the Church.

call in the
With

of philosophyin support authority

upon the other

of authority

St. Bernard,

hand,

we

536

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

Sacred

oratory

had

attained
which

its apogee

in

the

sermons

of

the

twelfth
of

century (Fig.401), from scholasticism,of

it the

time it
of

hegan
vague

to suffer

from "We the

the intrusion may say

formula, and
its downward

subtleties. towards

that

alreadyhad

begun

progress

decay

into which

it fell before into money of

the end

of the thirteenth

century.

Numerous

abuses, too, crept

clerks
a

the ecclesiastical system.

of their sermons,

Not

only did laymen

vied

certain with the

no

simoniacal them in

make trade of
a

but
to

mere

making

preaching,and offered
sum.

take

the

place of

priests upon

payment

certain formed

Associations
purpose of

of

having preachers,
to

character,were religious
even a

for the

farming, so

speak,a parish,or
be wanted. her of

diocese,
Church

undertaking to supply as
would
efforts
not
were

many
so

preachersas might
a

The
most

countenance not

scandalous
to

but proceeding, these

acts

stremtous

always sufficient
excused

prevent
for

simony. Many
them upon the

priestsand ground
who had of

curates

themselves

having

allowed Some

their

to preach incapacity true to

themselves.

talented

preachers composing
for
posing com-

remained
or

their mission,then
the
most

conceived
obtain

the idea of the materials

manuals,

grades,in
sermons.

which

could priests
esteemed

their those

The
de Romans

of these

manuals preachers'

were

of Humbert this

and of

Alain

of Lille.
was

While

decadence

pulpit oratory

taking place, the

scholastic

art

of

speaking,with
come

regard

to

and politics, jurisprudence,

had teaching,

under twelfth

the favourable

influences of the intellectual progress universal

in any all

which,

from

the has

century, was

spheresof

civil

society.History
of the the efforts of

not,

preserved unfortunately,

written

record

eloquence which
up of charters
were

accompanied
franchise,or

the

establishment

of

communes,

drawing

of

the reunion

of local and the

generalassemblies, at
nobility, clergy,and

which

present the
a

elected

of representatives
an

bourgeoisie ; in
trammels of in
are

word, all the strugglesof

feudal

incipient liberty against the

the the
severe

the the

system.

The

oratory of

bar

was

doubtless of the

still first

enveloped
Parliaments
were

fetters of

scholasticism,and
to
us

advocates

only known

through
eminent money

the

satires of which
Le

they

made

the

subjects. An
with of the widow

theologian,Pierre
from both

Chantre,

reproachesthem
the betrayed talents cavils in
to
cause

having extorted
and the

sides,with

having
their of

orphan, with having employed inventing

of all
manner

prolongingand
obscure the truth

suits, and multiplying

and

prevent

the

triumph

right. Another

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORMUR)'.

537

denounces theologian

their unbounded discredited

to reform
were

and avarice,
a

declares indignantly
so

that

by

their

venality they have

endeavoured

once profession

glorious.
the Jews, hen-tic-,

St. Louis and

the abuses

of the bar;
;

excommunicated

persons had

all excluded

and

afterwards

men

of

evil lives,and

those who

been

sentenced

to

the punishments entailing rules

as

stamp of infamy, were

expelled. The King himself arranged the

to

to

pleadings, enjoiningthe advocates

expose

their

case

with

the

utmost

Fig. 400.

"

Sacred

by Oratory,represented
upon

Bishop, a Doctor
After
1466."
a

of

Theology, and
from the
"

Clerk."

The de

Supplicant goes
la Vanite and

her Knees

before them."

Miniature

Petite Traictd

des Choses

Mondaines," composed in Library, Paris.

Manuscript of the

period(No.

30, Sc

A).

"

In the Arsenal

clearness possible moderate

not

and

concision
towards

only

to

take

honourable

causes

to

be

and

courteous text

their

opponents,using no
and

language, insulting
use

the distorting

of the decrees
under

customs,

or

making
the

of any

false

the allegations, and the

whole

pain of being deprived of

title of advocate the discipline,

This right of followingtheir profession.

of which has been in part
to perpetuated

severe

tradition

the

present day, restored

538

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

of portion

its lustre to the French be cited

bar, amongst
;

the members

of which, at this

epoch,may
afterwards

Pierre

de

Fontaines
and became caused

Gui

Foulques,or
Clement
to

Fouquet,
;

who of the

entered

holy orders
Christian
whom

Pope
him

IV.

and

Yves

Brittany,whose
number of of

virtues
the

be
as

placed amongst
their
was

saints,and

advocates

adopted
but

patron.
not

The
same

study

jurisprudencehad

revived, certainly
the

there

the

revival in the art of oratory ; and which

were

advocates, upon

leaving the
themselves

schools in
in endless of

lost and philosophy, taught dialectics, logic, with bristling

true

discussions

Latin

and quotations,

utterlydevoid

method,

and simplicity, The reforms

eloquence.
nevertheless
St. Louis boast

had profession

acquired great importance,owing

institutions. judicial de The bar

to the

introduced

by
can

into the

of the

fourteenth de

century

of

having produced Pierre

others who exercised
Jean he Bel's
an

Arnaud Cugnieres, upon for

Corbie,Regnault d'Acy, and

in

influence

public

affairs due

part

to

their

oratorical talent.
way in which

de

Meheye,

instance,
of

himself distinguished
in advocate-general rand de the

by

the

discharged the

functions

trial of and

Philippele

unhappy minister, Enguerselected in 1329 of the

to defend

Marigny (1315);

Franfois Bertrand,

the

ecclesiastical

jurisdictions against the

of this task with
him with the of
so

encroachments zeal and

nobility,

himself acquitted
of Rome awoke
a

much

discretion that the court

trials great political

rewarded

cardinal's hat.

These

general sentiment
Parliament The but

curiosity.The
such

presented imposing spectacle always

attracted home
a

by

sittingof

under nobles

circumstances

numerous

attendance.

at quittedtheir hunting parties

to

assist at the

pleadings ;
from

the ladies, even

the

those of the Parliament. these

rank, highest
The talent

lously scrupu-

abstained advocates and

a

appearing in
with the of the

of

the

had

much

to do

of popularity

tournaments, judicial
the
a
"

well-known

formulary
the
"

courts,

entitled

Style

of

the

Parliament,"
which
were as

enumerates

of professionalqualities
need possess
a

good advocate,
an

follows

"

He

noble

have carriage,

open

and

good-humoured physiognomy,not
himself

affect

presumptuous
in
a

assurance,

demean
so

soberlybefore
In of spite this

the

tribunal,speak

loud

and

clear

voice,"and

forth.
the bad

good advice,many

advocates in the

by justified

their conduct

opinion

of

the

public conveyed

popular proverb,

"Much

little conscience." eloquence, But

with

the

fifteenth century the

field

was

opened to

every

of species

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

539

born exaggeration

out

of the The

dissensions political
the

which

occurred

during the
the
two

reign of Charles VI.

in parties In presence
one

preachersbecame
as

principal agents of
and the pay

(Fig.403), known preachersnamed

the Armagnacs

Burgundums.
of the Duke

1402,

of these

in the Courtecuisse,

Fig.

401."

Flemish of

Doctor

haranguing
the
"

the

People

in the

open

Street In

Century)." (Fifteenth
the

Miniature Brussels.

Manuscript from

Chroniques de Hainaut.""

Burgundy Library,

of

Burgundy, solemnlydeclared
of Orleans,
was

from

the

that pulpit

the

King's brother, the

In

Duke

the

partisan and

supporter of the schismatics.

540

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

1405, Jacques Legrand,an

of and In

Augustine monk, preaching before Queen exchange

of Paris
the

Isabeau

Bavaria, exhorted
walk another

her to the streets

her sumptuous attire for

to

plaindress,
of her.
same

through
sermon,

hear

what
at

the

people said
St.

preached before

court

the Hotel caused Duke

Pol, the
and

preacher boldlyreproachedCharles
groans of the

VI. with
Jean

having

the tears of

the had

people.
of

But

in

1408,

Sans-Peur,

Burgundy,
at the

his enemy, of the

the Duke who

was

and Orleans,assassinated,

he convoked

residence the of the

King,

insane,a

numerous

in congregation,

whose

presence murder and

to

Grey Friar,Jean
the murderer.
whole had of

Petit, pronounced a solemn

In this
set

of the justification
was

which discourse,
a

addressed indirectly the Duke of of

France,

Jean

after Petit,

pompous for
reasons

eulogy of

Burgundy, Burgundy's
the

the audacity to set forth his He I

reasons

takingup the Duke

is that him.
a

defence.
oath

said,
took

"

The three
was

first of these years ago

am

compelled by
second is that year, been

which

to

serve

The

he,
to

seeing how
assist
to
me

poorly I
in

paid,has given
my from schools, expenses, and

me

large pension each

pension I
have

keeping up
After

which

able

defraya largepart
of his

of my

shall continue the

to do orator

so, if it still set

:

please his grace."

division

this fulsome

exordium in four

forth

the

a major, speech,comprising

parts,to

prove

1st,that

covetousness

is the

mother

of all evils ; 2nd, that

untrue to

it leads to apostasy ; 3rd,

; 4th, that sovereign

that

it makes
to

and disloyal subjects

their

it is

lawful

kill

and traitors, apostates,

subjects. This disloyal

fourth

point,

composed
formed the He

of

and eight principaltruths,eight corollaries,

the

twelve

syllogisms,
to

the

capitalobject of
dialectics to

discourse.

Jean

Petit had
and

recourse

all

quibbles of
invoked
the

the justify

murderer and

the glorify in of
crown

murder.

examples of Lucifer,Absalom,
that showed, finally,

Athaliah Duke the

support of
had he
;

his detestable
fallen
was,

doctrines ; he
sin

the usurp

Orleans
;

into

the

of covetousness

by trying to

that
treason

an therefore,

of high a a traitor, guilty subject, disloyal apostate,

and the

that

the

man

who
and of

had
man.

killed

him

had

done

what

was

praiseworthyin

sightof
This

God

discourse disgraceful
it
over

so

excited
the

that publiccuriosity from of

a

Jean

Petit

had

to

pronounce the

again upon
of the

following day
in presence
man, to

platform erected
enormous

upon

square

in front of

Notre-Dame,
murdered

an

crowd.

Nevertheless, the
obtained

widow

Valentine
herself

of and

Milan,
her

had

permission from

King

Charles

VI.

have

children

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

54'

by represented
with
to dignity

an

advocate the the

of the

courts

named

Jean

Cousinot, who
created behalf
a

replied profound
blood

and apologistof assassination, audience

to

who

impression upon
which
criminal

when

he

appealed upon
the

of the
This of

had

been
was

shed

the
to

justiceof
remain

King of France.

great

trial

destined

pending before the tribunal

was

public

opinionuntil
years
not

the

unpunished murderer
the eyes of the

in his turn

fifteen assassinated, This

no

under later,
to any

heir to the throne.

Jean Petit had

did catastrophe

give rise

oratorical debate, and

imitator.

But

Huxor.

Fig. 402.

"

Portrait of Jerome
Vinci

Savonarola. in Vienna

"

Reduced

Fac-simile

of the

Engraving

of Leonardo

da

Museum

Collection). (Albertine

few years
of

in another later,
new

more trial, political

memorable

and

more

worthy
unlettered
and

notice,a

kind
drew

of

eloquence was

suddenly revealed in
her

an

young heart.

girl,who
In
this

her

solelyfrom inspiration
which every rule of

conscience

her

trial, during
of

was justice

disregardedor
no

violated,Joan
assist her, and of her

Arc, taken
defence
The

by prisoner
was

the
to

English,had
her
to replies

advocate

to

all her

confined
rather

the

tories interrogahardened

accusers.

or judges,

the torturers, the most

542

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

of the doctors

of

the

school,were
and

more

than

once

touched of their

and

confounded and upon

as

they listened
of

to the

proud
of

simple utterances

prisoner ;
a

Joan her

accused Arc, cruelly

imaginarycrimes, returned
her

with
upon
an

smile
as a

face to her
"

saying to prison,

who gaolers,

looked
am

her

sorceress,

Do

not

be afraid ; I shall not

so

flyaway
mission.

; I

not

angel."
true, are

Her
not

replies,
the least

so

simple,and yet

often sublime, and telling,

Divine

always

evidence striking

of her

In the meanwhile license of

to

the art of The

same

oratory seemed

to authorise

the most fear of

extreme

speech.
in turn

speaker could venture,

without

discredit,
it that

support

the most

opposed doctrines. diametrically

and Dialectics,

So willed

sphinx
did the
not

of the

schools
one

called
as

these Thus

statements contradictory

strike any
or

being blamable.
considered
to
account

all

whether speakers,
no one ever

of

bar

of

the

were pulpit,

to be

and inviolable,

thought of calling any

Louis
the

of them
was,

for what
to
same

they

had

said.

Even of

XI., despot as
The

he

did not
not

dare
the

interfere with

the utterances

preachers.
in but

latter had

which immunity in Italy

control Jerome
not

they

enjoyed

France, for they were

kept

under Thus

only by

siastical, the eccle-

by

the

civil authorities.
and

Savonarola
led him

402), (Fig.
to attack

whose
the

abundant, original,
most

indomitable
of human

eloquence had
was institutions,

greatest and
to

powerful

more

than

once

compelled

quit

the
was

and pulpit,

after

having
order

been

and interdicted,

even

excommunicated,
and condemned The
to

he

imprisoned by
alive
was ao a

of the

of Florence, Seigniory

be burnt
the

heretic

(May 23rd, 1498).

and

oratory of
and

bar

more

restrained

dignified. In truth, the

not

involved

sententious their

of prolixity

the

lawyersdid

deserve

the

name

of
from

oratory,and

with pedantic language,bristling

not
a

subtleties borrowed away their hearers.

scholasticism,was

calculated to few

move

or

to carry

We

must, however, cite

and in
a

who, pleaders
with

like

La Vacquerie, Jacques ilarechal,

Antoine
some cases

Duprat, combined
of elegance, and

the science of the

But
most

force,and jurisconsult
who preachers, affected

diction.

of the

sort

of

rough
the

uncouth

eloquence appealing
which
had the

to

popular intelligence,
had created It
was

belongedto
Naples,where
after
reduced this

trivialist school

Gabriele
an

Barletta

at

his

burlesque sermons
that

success. extraordinary

jack-pudding type
one

art

of

preaching

was
"

everywhere ("No
one

to this

axiom

"

Nescit

predicare qui iiescit barlettare ").

Barletta's

knows

how

to

preachif

he cannot

imitate Barletta

example was,

544

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

different

patois.

At

Toulouse he had

lie

repeated in

the

local dialect his

at

"

General
; and
at

Confession," which

first delivered

in Poitevin

Poitiers

which Bruges, in 1502, he repeateda Savoy bergeronette

the

he had
was

delivered
so

from

Toulouse

pulpit at

Whitsuntide.
the vices and of Latin

Michel

Menot

not

poetic as

Maillard, but

he denounced
a

follies of all classes of

society. At
"

Tours, preaching in
of

medley

and

French,
The have friends

he

exclaimed,
of
a

Oh, city
wears a

Tours, pride dishonours

like and that of
a

thy daughters ! People who

have
are fifty

wife

shoemaker
a

tunic
horses

duchess.

twenty pounds
with the

year

keep keep

dogs ;
and

those who

nobles, and
to

their town

country

house."
"

himself Then, addressing

It is
now

the ladies who you

are

always came

in late to church,

nine

o'clock

and (A.M.),

Fig.
Fac

404."

Portrait

of Claude

Despenco. by
the Leonard

Fig.

405."

Portrait

of the Cardinal

de

Lorraine.

simile of Line

Engravings
In

Gaultier,in the Series called "Chronologic collee."

M.

Library of

Firmin-Didot, Paris.

still in bed.
were

Forty horses
in their

might
lot of

have

been you
are

bedded

up

while

all your

pins

being put
who

places. When

at your

toilette you

resemble And

the cobbler while the

requiresa

pieces to put
Host in hand above

his work

together.
young
customs

if,

priestis elevatingthe
at her

the

altar, some
the

dandy
of the

presents himself
must nobility,

seat, Madame,
offer him her

compliance with
! Let such

rise and
or

be put privileges

down

without The

form

ceremony" (Fig.403).
for all his
an

Luther, fiery

double

merits

as

theologianand

man

of he the the

letters, belonged, as
himself
common

eloquent preacher,to
as

the
as

popular school, and

to be

said,

"

preach

so simply as possible,

understood

by

people, by
;

the children, and their books."

by

the servants.
most

I do not

preach for

learned

they have

The

powerful agency

of the Reforma-

17177.

A.\7"

RI'.l.lC.IOUS

ORATOR}'.

545

tion was,

in

fact, preached
Theodore

and

brought within
the

the

comprehension
of

of the
at

people. Calvin,
Geneva
were

de

Be/c, and

leaders

Protestantism
not

also

but they did indefatigable preachers,

do

more

than

Fig. 406.

"

Portrait

of Sixtus

Quintus

(1521 1590).
" "

Reduced

Fac-simile

of

contemporary

Etching, by

an

unknown

Italian Artist.

and paraphrase,
that principle did
not

that

rather

the drily, had

no

text

of the
of

Gospel ; and, taking as

their

the Word
to
move

of God
men's

need

profane ornamentation, they imaginations. The

seek

hearts,or
4
A

appeal to

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

Catholic

who preachers

rose

in all directions to defend

the Church
to their

againstthe
mission,for

efforts of the Protestants

a

were,

for the most

part,unequal
the Cardinal

few
and
as

only, such

as

Claude

Despence

and

de

Lorraine

(Figs.

404 such

themselves 405),distinguished

by

real oratorical talent. remarkable

for the end then the

Many others,
violence and

Vigor

and

Seneschal,

were

only

hastiness of their

It rejoinders.

may

be said that

by

of the sixteenth
were

century
France

true

and eloquence had disappeared, religious

renewed

in the

the

pulpit
The

scandals

of

the

epoch

of

the

Bxirgundians and
to

Armagnacs.
authorised
even

preachersof
Sixtus

the

League, who

claimed
to

be

inspiredand
which
not

by Pope

Quintus
could

(Fig.406), went
excuse.

excesses

the disorders But

we

of that time
from this

may

turn

to spectacle unedifying

consider what

was

the

Fig. 407."

Portrait

of

Fig. 408."

Portrait

of Pibrac.

Fig.

409." J.

Portrait

of

B. Dumesnil.

Faye.

Fac-simile

of Line

Engravings by Leonard
collee."
"

Gaultier, from
of M.

the Series known Paris.

as

"

Chronologic

In the

L:brary

Firmin-Didot,

condition
off the

of civil oratory during this troubled

of had scholasticism,

period.

The
a

bar, as

it shook

yoke

undergone gradually
of the
sixteenth

complete literary
century naturally
advocates flowers of

transformation.
made
were

The

classic renaissance

its influence

first felt in the courts, but

to
an

unfortunatelythe
of the

addicted

to

and prolixdiscourses,

use unstinting

rhetoric.

From

the year

1550

the

of reopening

the

sessions of the Parliament,

after its annual

vacations,was
1557

made

the

occasion
an

for

harangues carefully
upon

prepared.

In

Baptiste Dumesnil

delivered
du Faur

oration

Asconius

Pedianus, while

in the

following year Guy

to

de Pibrac

ceeded spoke,being suc-

407 by Jacques Faye (Figs.

409),and

the illustrious

Jacqiies-Auguste

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATOR}'.

547

de Thou.
was as

In
at

1585 the

Jacques Muiigot spoke

finish
as

"

for throe

consecutive

hours,

and

fresh

at

the

beginningof
and printed,

his discourse," says

Esticnnc
"more

L'asquier.These
to agreeable

harangues were
"

they were
and

considered

read

than

to

listen to. the

names

Advocates of

magistrates alike
the first of
to

themselves, and distinguished

the

Dumoulin, Seguier,
Pithou and

Lamoignons,Leraaitre, Cujas,Chopin, Brisson, and

a

(Figs.410
the bur.
at

414), shed

lustre upon
are

the

historyboth

of the Parliament

If

their discourses

not

and literary

oratorical

masterpieces, they are

all

events,

as

argument, sentiment, and regardslogical

is instinct in Jean de la

sincerity, worthy

of all

praise. There
and

them,

at all

times,a consistent tradition

President
of the Paris
we coine

of honour

from virtue,

First Vacquerie,

Parliament,
remit
our

boldly replyingto

the threats of Louis

XI., "Sire,

to

Fig. 410."
P.

Portrait

of

Fig. 411."

Portrait

of C. Dumoulin.

Fig. 412.G.

Portrait

of

Seguier.

Lemaitre.

Fac-simile

of lane

Engravings by
collee."
"

Leonard

Gaultier, M.

from

the Series called Paris.

"

C'hronologie

In the

Library of

Firmin-Didot,

functions

into your
us,

hands,

and

to suffer
our

what

it may

be your

to good pleasure

inflict upon

rather than offend

members of the
"

consciences,"to the Chancellor

Parliament
as

Olivier he
He
to

the enjoining

Normandy
remember,

(Oct.8th, 1550), as
that charges, you

showed
to

them

the

to crucifix,
are

you
;

fulfil your
to whom sentence

whom
an

all hearts
account

open

is in your

midst

He

will have

render if you

of your

judgments,and
King
and in

whose

is inevitable, even

escape

the hand

of the

of
a

justice."
when degree political
to

Parliamentary eloquence became

bodies magisterial listened
to

the

great

addressed

themselves But

the

who sovereign,
freer

generally
course

them

with

deference.

political eloquence had

in

548

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

the grave when the

circumstances

which

led to the convocation

the represented

of the nation

States-General,
deliberated with

deputiesof
as

the orders which

closed doors
resolutions

to

the
were

wording

of the

Cahi6ra,in
to

which

they expressed the

in the
gave

which

afterwards
remonstrances.

submitted These enabled

the

King

shape

of

and plaints,do/efiiices,

deliberations often
the

rise to very

harangues in

Latin

or

French, which
It
was

speaker to indulge in
of Tours

high-flowneloquence.
one

thus

that,at the States-General

in 1484,

of the

of the Burgundy nobility, PhilippePot, Seigneur of representatives

a

La

Roche, pronounced
and

Latin

speech, in
which
"

which
were

he
not

enunciated understood
not
an

with until

great
two

boldness

doctrines logicpolitical
"

centuries afterward*. and privilege,

it should

Royalty,"he said,
not

is

duty, and

hereditary
relatives.

always pass,

like

property, to

the nearest

Fig.

413."

Portrait

6f

Fig. 414."

Portrait

of P. Pithou.

Fig.
M.

415."

Portrait

of

J.

Cujas.
of Line

de

PHospital.

Fac-simile

Engravings by Leonard
collee."
"

Gaultier,from
M.

the

Series called

"

Chronologic

In

the

Library of

Firmin-Didot, Paris.

The

State, deprived of
and disorder. the

chief,will,it
at

may its
to

be

remain objected,

exposed

to

accident the

Not three

for all,
not

safetymay
govern

be left in the hands

to

of

Assembly of

orders,

it themselves, but the the

select

persons
were

capable of governing. Originallythe suffrageof

masters, created
able. Each

people,who
most
own

the

kings,and

the

people

selected

virtuous interest upon the

and and

the most for its

own

nation, in selecting a king, acted

for
are princes

in its

advantage ;
make them

made

princesnot

to prey

but people, fail to do thus

so

to

richer

and

improve

their condition.

The

kings who
their

are

tyrants and
not

bad

because shepherds,

they devour

sheep ;

they

are

wolves, and

shepherds."

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIONS

ORATORY.

549

At
do

the Orleans

States-General,in 1560,
the first

the Chancellor
a

of France, Michel

(Fig.415) opened 1'IIospital

he

with sitting

very

powerful speech,
as

in which

declared,as
were

PhilippePot
useful
to

had

clone,that

institutions such
and that than the the

the of

Stuirs-General France could

very do

the

monarchy,

Kings

not

better, in certain circumstances,

all the illswhich he advised

consult

their
torn

subjects. After
as

enumerating

desolated
the

kingdom,
to

it

was

by

civil and wise

religious wars,
tolerance
the and

Crown reforms.

combat

this

social
he

anarchy by

well-conceived assailed

"We

have,"
with
all

declared, "been

like

who captains

their enemies

Fig. 416."

Portrait of Henri

III."

Reduced M.

Fac-simile

of

an

Engraving by (faultier." In

the

Library of

Firmin-Didot, Paris.

their forces,leavingthus
with

our

homes
assail

unprotected. It
the

is for
arms

us,

fortified

virtue

and

to morality,

enemy

with
were

the

of

charity,
years person

prayer, before
at

and persuasion,

God's

Word."

These

words the
a

uttered nine

the

massacre

of St. Bartholomew.

Later

in kings presided

the

openingof
been

the States-General,and

delivered

speech.
Henri

These

speeches

have
to

and, amongst preserved,

of

others, those
1576 fond

of

III.

(Fig. 416)
relates that

the

States-General

Blois

in

and of

1588.

Mezeray

Henri

III.,who

spoke well, was

very

and these speeches, delivering

55"

CIVIL

AND

RELIGIOUS

ORATORY.

also that

his

to unpremeditated replies

the

ambassadors

aud

whom deputies

he received
Henri found with

were

much did
not

better convoke

than the

their set

speeches. during
could his

IV.

States- General that he

reign,but
as

he

other

for showing opportunities

speak

readilyand
He able
to

greater

sinceritythan
true

his

in public predecessor
as

assemblies.

possessedthe persuade and

unstudied
not

kind

of

political eloquence,inasmuch
in of
a

he

was

stir his
at
a

hearers

few the

words.

his Take, for instance, of Kouen for you

brief

speech

meeting
my

Notables

(1596) :
to

"I

have

called you

as together,

did, predecessors

ratify my

will,

Fig. 417."

"How French

Oergean

was

taken.""
1481

Miniature

from

the

"

Vigilesdu

Roi

Charles

VII."

Manuscript of

(No. 5,054)." In the National

Library, Paris.

but

to

receive your

advice, to put confidence

hands
"

in it and is not

to

follow done

it,and

to

place myself in

your
or

thing

which

often

by kings,

grey-headed men,
Henri IV. it

victorious soldiers."
in

also excelled
was

militaryeloquence.
stimulated
their
names

In the

the

earlyages

of the
of their warlike

monarchy

not

the

who generals stimulated embodied

enthusiasm

but soldiers, songs

or

the

soldiers who
were

own

enthusiasm
of

by

in which cries,
has

the

their

chiefs. respective
to

History, however,

the speech enregistered the battle of Bovines

delivered

his

army

by
there

PhilipAugustus, before

and (August 27th, 1214),