Maxwells Original Equations

Frederick David Tombe, Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom, [email protected] 24th December 2011

Introduction
Although Maxwells most important equations had already appeared throughout his seminal paper entitled On Physical Lines of Force [1], which was written in1861 in Great Britain, it was not until 1864 that Maxwell created a distinct listing of eight equations in a section entitled General Equations of the Electromagnetic Field in his follow up paper entitled A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field [2]. While Maxwell refers to twenty equations at the end of this section, there are in fact only eight equations as such. Maxwell arrives at the figure of twenty because he splits six of these equations into their three Cartesian components. Maxwells eight original equations, Jtotal = Jconduction + D/t curl A = H curl H = J E = vH A/t grad D = E E = RJconduction div D = div J + /t = 0 (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H)

will be discussed in depth in individual sections throughout this paper.

Displacement Current
1. The first in the list of eight equations appearing in Maxwells 1865 paper [2] is,

Jtotal = Jconduction + D/t

(Total Electric Current)

(A)

It is a statement to the extent that the total electric current is the sum of the conduction current and the displacement current, and it immediately introduces confusion. Maxwell believed that the electromagnetic wave propagation mechanism involves a physical displacement, D, in an elastic solid, and he conceived of displacement current, D/t, in relation to this
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displacement mechanism. Maxwell then added D/t to Ampres circuital law as an extra term, as at equation (112) in his 1861 paper [1]. Maxwell seems to have misidentified the physical displacement mechanism in electromagnetic radiation with linear polarization in a dielectric, and this misidentification has resulted in the phenomenon being misassociated with electric capacitor circuits . Electromagnetic waves however propagate sideways from an electric current, so we therefore require an alternative explanation for the displacement mechanism that is not confined to the space between the plates of a capacitor, and it is most unlikely that we would ever wish to sum such an alternative form of displacement current together with a conduction current in the same equation. (The situation became exacerbated in the
twentieth century when the aether was dropped from physics altogether. An aether free impostor for displacement current was devised in which its divergence is the negative of the divergence of the conduction current. Summing this impostor with the conduction current in Ampres Circuital Law is of course a corruption, by virtue of the addition of an extra term to one side of an equation. It is highly illegal to add an extra term to one side of an equation, because in doing so, the equation will cease to be balanced, and will of course cease to be an equation. See section 8 for further discussion on this point.)

The Fly-Wheel Equation

2. Maxwells second equation appeared as equation (55) in Part II of the 1861 paper, and it exposes the fine-grained rotational nature of the magnetic field. Maxwell identified Faradays electrotonic state with a vector A which he called the electromagnetic momentum. The vector A relates to the magnetic intensity, H, through the curl equation,

curl A = H

(Magnetic Force)

(B)

The vector A is the momentum of free electricity per unit volume, and

so to all intents and purposes it is the same thing as the vector J that is used to denote electric current density. The coefficient of magnetic induction is closely related to the mass density of the medium for the propagation of light, and it would appear to play the role of moment of inertia in the magnetic field. According to Maxwell in 1861, the electrotonic state corresponds to the impulse which would act on the axle of a wheel in a machine if the actual velocity were suddenly given to the driving wheel, the machine being previously at rest. He expands upon this fly-wheel analogy in his 1865 paper, in sections (24) and (25).
(The divergence of a curl is always zero, and so equation (B) can be used to derive

the equation div H = 0, which is equation (56) in Maxwells 1861 paper, and which appears as an alternative to equation (B) in modern listings of Maxwells equations.)

Ampres Circuital Law

3. In Part I of his 1861 paper, Maxwell proposed the existence of a sea of molecular vortices which are composed of a fluid-like aether, whereas in Part III, he deals with the elastic solid that these molecular vortices collectively form. Maxwells third equation is derived hydrodynamically, and it appeared as equation (9) in Part I,

curl H = J

(Electric Current)

(C)

Once we realize that the vector A and the vector J are in fact one and the same thing, it becomes clear that the two curl equations, (B) and (C), are jointly pointing us to an aethereal sea in which closed solenoidal circuits of magnetic lines of force are interlocked with closed solenoidal circuits of electric current . Part III of Maxwells 1861 paper deals with the elasticity of the medium for the propagation of light and the physical nature of the electric displacement that is involved in the electromagnetic wave propagation mechanism within this medium. At the beginning of Part III, Maxwell says In the first part of this paper I have shown how the forces acting between magnets, electric currents, and matter capable of magnetic induction may be accounted for on the hypothesis of the magnetic field being occupied with innumerable vortices of revolving matter, their axes coinciding with the direction of the magnetic force at every point of the field. The centrifugal force of these vortices produces pressures distributed in such a way that the final effect is a force identical in direction and magnitude with that which we observe. The magnetic intensity H therefore represents an angular momentum or a vorticity. In his 1865 paper, Maxwell showed that when the electric current term in equation (C) is specifically the displacement current, then this equation can be used in conjunction with equation (B) in order to derive the electromagnetic wave equation [2]. Equation (B) introduces the density of the wave carrying medium, while equation (C) introduces the elasticity factor through the displacement current. Maxwell further says in the same part I conceived the rotating matter to be the substance of certain cells, divided from each other by cell-walls composed of particles which are very small compared with the cells, and that it is by the motions of these particles, and their tangential action on the

substance in the cells, that the rotation is communicated from one cell to another. However, by 1864, Maxwell seems to have ignored this fine-grained rotational mechanism for electric displacement and focused instead on linear polarization in a dielectric. Maxwell seems to have made the serious mistake of blending together the two distinct phenomena of magnetization on the one hand, and linear polarization on the other hand.
(When equation (C) is applied on the large scale, electric current is a solenoidal flow of aether in which a conducting wire acts like a pipe. The pressure of the flowing aether causes it to leak tangentially into the surrounding sea of tiny vortices, causing the vortices to angularly accelerate and to align solenoidally around the circuit, hence resulting in a magnetic field.)

The Lorentz Force

4. Maxwells fourth equation originally appeared as equation (77) in Part II of his 1861 paper, and it takes the form,

E = vH A/t grad

(Electromotive Force)

(D)

Maxwell called the vector E electromotive force, but it actually

corresponds to the modern day electric field, and not to the modern day electromotive force which is in fact a voltage. The first of the three terms on the right hand side, vH, is the compound centrifugal force (Coriolis force) that acts on an element moving with velocity v in a magnetic field. The solenoidal alignment of the tiny vortices causes a differential centrifugal pressure to act on either side of the element when it is moving at right angles to the rotation axes of the vortices, and this causes a deflection in the path of motion. The second term involves the electromagnetic momentum A, nowadays referred to as the magnetic vector potential, and it comes from the torque producing effect, E = A/t, which appeared as equation (58) in the 1861 paper. As well as describing electromagnetic induction in a time varying magnetic field, E = A/t also provides the bridge which links the two curl equations, (B) and (C), in order to derive the electromagnetic wave equation [2]. We can therefore deduce that Maxwells displacement current was ideally supposed to be connected with a fine-grained angular displacement in the tiny molecular vortices. The second term, A/t, just like the first term, vH, also represents a centrifugal pressure, but in this case the pressure is transmitted by angular acceleration through the sea of tiny vortices in the form of electromagnetic radiation [3]. The third term is just an electrostatic term, where refers to the electrostatic potential. (If we take
the curl of equation (D) we end up with curl E = dB/dt, which is unfamiliar because of the total time derivative. If however we ignore the vH term in equation (D), 4

since it is not used in the derivation of the electromagnetic wave equation, and then take the curl, we end up with the familiar partial time derivative form, curl E = B/t. Heaviside referred to this partial time derivative curl equation as Faradays Law. Strictly speaking, it is not exactly Faradays law because it doesnt cover for the convective aspect of electromagnetic induction that is described by the vH force. The equation curl E = B/t appeared as equation (54) in Maxwells 1861 paper, and it also appears in modern listings of Maxwells equations. Interestingly, because it doesnt cover for the vH force, modern listings have to be supplemented by Maxwells equation (D) from the original list. And even more interesting still is the fact that Maxwells original equation (D) is introduced in modern textbooks, under the misnomer of The Lorentz Force, as being something extra that is lacking in Maxwells equations, and which is needed as an extra equation to compliment Maxwells equations, in order to make the set complete, as if it had never been one of Maxwells equations in the first place! Maxwell in fact derived the so-called Lorentz force when Lorentz was only eight years old. Using the name The Lorentz Force in modern textbooks for equation (D) is somewhat regrettable, in that it gives the false impression that the vH expression is something that arises as a consequence of doing a Lorentz transformation. A Lorentz transformation is an unfortunate product of Hendrik Lorentzs misunderstandings regarding the subject of electromagnetism, and these misunderstandings led to even greater misunderstandings when Albert Einstein got unto the job. Neither Lorentz nor Einstein seemed to have been aware of the contents of Maxwells original papers, while both of them seemed to be under the impression that they were fixing something that wasnt broken in the first place. In doing so, Einstein managed to drop the luminiferous aether out of physics altogether, claiming that he was basing his investigation on what he had read in the so-called Maxwell-Hertz equations for empty space! But whatever these Maxwell-Hertz equations might have been, they certainly cant have been Maxwells original equations. This is a tragic story of confusion heaped upon more confusion. The aether was a crucial aspect in the development of Maxwells equations, yet in 1905, Albert Einstein managed to impose Galileos Principle of Equivalence upon Maxwells equations while ignoring the aether altogether. The result was the abominable product which is hailed by modern physicists and known as The Special Theory of Relativity. Einstein himself knowing that something wasnt right with his special theory of relativity, attempted to make amends in 1915 with his General Theory of Relativity. But he only made things worse by virtue of spiking Newtons law of gravity with his toxic special theory of relativity. In later years, judging from his Leyden speech in 1920, Einstein realized that the aether was indeed needed after all, but by this time it was too late, because he already had a following.)

Elasticity, Dielectric Constant, and Permittivity

5. Maxwells fifth equation is the equation of electric elasticity, which first appeared in the preamble of Part III of his 1861 paper, and then again at equation (105) in the same part,

D = E

(Electric Elasticity Equation)

(E)

Maxwell believed that his sea of molecular vortices constituted an elastic solid, even though the aether within the individual vortices is fluid-like. The permittivity is related to the elasticity of the solid. (Maxwell actually used a dielectric constant which is inversely related to the permittivity) Electric particles move around the edge of the tiny aethereal vortices, and equation (E) is a simple harmonic motion equation for these electric particles which Maxwell used as a device for introducing the elasticity into the mathematical analysis. The physical geometry of the displacement, D, is crucial to our understanding of the physical nature of electromagnetic radiation, while the elasticity associated with that displacement mechanism, along with the density of the solid, is necessary in order to link electromagnetic radiation numerically to the speed of light. Knowing that Newtons equation for the speed of a wave in an elastic solid involves the ratio of transverse elasticity to density, Maxwell set out to link this ratio to the dielectric constant and the coefficient of magnetic induction. In Part I of his 1861 paper, Maxwell established an equation for the coefficient of magnetic induction, , in terms of the density of the sea of molecular vortices, while in Part III he established an equation for the elasticity of his sea of molecular vortices in terms of its dielectric constant. Although Maxwell had no way of putting an absolute numerical value to the density, that didnt matter, because he was only concerning himself with ratios. He showed that the ratio of the dielectric constant to the coefficient of magnetic induction was equivalent to the ratio of electrostatic units of electricity to electrodynamical units of electricity, and the latter ratio had already been determined experimentally in 1856 by Weber and Kohlrausch by discharging a Leyden jar. A Leyden jar is the equivalent to a modern day capacitor, and the Weber/Kohlrausch experiment produced a numerical result which was closely related to the measured speed of light. Maxwell was therefore able to produce a numerical result in Newtons equation and hence conclude that waves in the luminiferous medium travel at the speed of light, and that hence light must be a transverse undulation in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. In his own words he stated, we can scarcely avoid the inference that light consists in the transverse undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena In establishing this fact, Maxwell had inadvertently demonstrated at equation (132) in his 1861 paper, that Newtons equation for the speed of a wave in the luminiferous medium is equivalent to the famous equation E = mc that is normally attributed to Albert Einstein more that forty years later. This Newtonian equation can alternatively be written as the well known equation c = 1/. The latter equation is often
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wrongly attributed to Maxwells theoretical analysis, but it should be made quite clear, that on the contrary, it follows from the 1856 experiment of Weber and Kohlrausch. The genius of Maxwells theoretical work was in exposing the physical significance of the Weber/Kohlrausch result using Newtons equation in relation to a sea of molecular vortices.

Ohms Law
6. Maxwells sixth equation is Ohms law,

E = RJconduction

(Ohms Law)

(F)

where R is the specific resistance referred to unit volume. Ohms law is an equation which is of interest in electric circuit theory, but it holds no interest value in terms of the connection between the electric current and the magnetic field.

Gausss Law
7. Maxwells seventh equation appeared as equation (115) in his 1861 paper,

div D =

(Gausss Law)

(G)

Gausss law is an equation of aether hydrodynamics, and the quantity is the density of free electricity. Free electricity can only mean the aether. While the aether itself behaves like a fluid, the luminiferous medium in its totality is a solid that is comprised of densely packed aether vortices. The repulsive electromagnetic forces and the inertial forces are based on the centrifugal pressure that exists between neighbouring vortices as they press against each other while striving to dilate, but Gausss law deals with the flow of aether on the large scale, through the sea of vortices. The large scale flow of aether causes the attractive tensions that arise when unlike electric charges attract, and when two gravitating bodies attract . An important feature of Gausss law is the fact that it involves the elasticity factor of the luminiferous medium, because the large scale aether flow causes linear polarization in this medium. The linear

polarization of the molecular vortices induces an aether pressure which acts as an impedance to the large scale aether flow (Lenzs law). This induced pressure, or charge, is the elasticity factor, which in modern textbooks is catered for by the electric permittivity , and in conjunction with the coefficient of magnetic induction, it allows the numerical connection to be made to the speed of light. For this reason, Kirchhoff was able to make a numerical connection between the equations of electromagnetism and the speed of light in a paper which he wrote in 1857 [4]. However, Kirchhoff did not apply his mathematical analysis to the correct physical context and he wrongly believed that he had established the speed that an electrical signal travels along a wire.
(Maxwell knew that gravitational field lines must involve a lateral pressure as is the case between two repelling like magnetic poles, but he failed to realize that this pressure in the gravitational field is actually the inverse cube law centrifugal repulsive pressure as opposed to the inverse square law gravitational attractive tension.)

The Equation of Continuity

8. Maxwells eighth equation, number (113) in his 1861 paper,

div J + /t = 0

(Equation of Continuity)

(H)

is the equation of continuity, which like equation (G) (Gausss law), is another equation of hydrodynamics. This equation is used in modern textbooks in conjunction with one of the greatest scientific deceptions of the twentieth century. It is used in conjunction with Gausss law for the purpose of deriving a term that has the outward mathematical form of Maxwells displacement current, but which cannot connect with the curl equations that are used in the derivation of the electromagnetic wave equation. The actual displacement mechanism, as occurs in electromagnetic wave propagation, involves the rotational electromagnetic momentum A and the moment of inertia , and hence the associated displacement current should be using the rotational equation E = A/t in the electric elasticity equation (E), and not the irrotational equation E = grad. Electromagnetic radiation is a fine-grained flywheel mechanism. The modern textbooks however have been diverting attention to the irrelevant issue of conservation of charge and using Ampres Circuital Law in conjunction with a broken electric circuit in which charge accumulates, even though Ampres Circuital Law applies strictly in connection with unbroken solenoidal currents. Displacement

currents irrotational impostor, in a highly illegal move (see section 1 above), is then inserted alongside the conduction current in Ampres Circuital Law. This is then supposed to make everything right, on the grounds that the divergence of the combined result will now equal zero. Modern textbooks then force fit this irrotational displacement current impostor with the rotational curl equations in order to derive the electromagnetic wave equation. Its quite amazing just how many top physicists and mathematicians fail to notice this deception and fail to realize that the curl equations require a displacement current which uses the rotational relationship E = A/t. It seems that they are all quite content to use the irrotational relationship E = grad, and to derive the electromagnetic wave equation as if this irrotational electrostatic force were one and the same thing as the time varying electromagnetic force. This sleight of hand is in fact a mathematical conjuring trick that enables the modern textbooks to purport to derive the electromagnetic wave equation without involving Maxwells sea of molecular vortices, hence furthering the cause of aether denial.

Linear Polarization, Charge, and Cable Telegraphy

9. Maxwells papers of 1861 and 1865 make no explicit mention of the concept of electric charge. Maxwell talks about free electricity and electrification. By free electricity, it would appear that he is talking about a fluid-like aethereal substance that corresponds to the vitreous fluid of Franklin, Watson, and DuFay, and it would appear that when Maxwell is talking about the density of free electricity that he is talking about a quantity which corresponds very closely to the modern concept of electric charge. Charge would therefore appear to be aether pressure and aether tension. Such a hydrodynamical approach to charge enables us to explain how net charge enters an electric circuit when it is switched on, and also why the linear polarization process in a dielectric results in a net charge. These things cannot be explained using the modern idea that charge is a fixed property that is attached to a particle. The hydrodynamical approach to charge also enables us to see the true nature of magnetic charge and the fact that magnetic intensity H is a kind of vorticity. On knowing this, nobody is going to be asking questions like why can we not find magnetic monopoles? The equation div H = 0 describes the solenoidal nature of the lines traced out by the rotation axes of neighbouring vortices, and magnetic charge is simply the tension along the magnetic lines of force. Each vortex is actually a dipolar vortex in
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which a positron acts as an aether source, and in which an electron acts as an aether sink. The magnetic tension along the axial direction, which was never explained by Maxwell, is caused by a bi-directional aether flow between the electrons and positrons of neighbouring vortices, which are aligned in a double helix along their mutual rotation axes [5]. There are no magnetic monopoles. There are only electric monopoles, and in a magnetic field, positive electric monopoles and negative electric monopoles exist in equal numbers, leading to overall electric neutrality. It is the double helix alignment of positive and negative electric monopoles that is the secret of magnetic charge in relation to magnetic attraction. The magnitude of the magnetic attractive force will depend on the concentration of magnetic lines of force, and hence it will depend on the magnetic flux density, B, which is equal to H. Magnetization is something that is connected with wireless telegraphy. It is a rotational effect associated with the angular acceleration of the molecular vortices. Electromagnetic waves radiate from the side of an electric current. The tiny vortices in the magnetized state are acting like fly-wheels. Linear polarization on the other hand is slightly more complicated, and it involves the dipolar nature of the molecular vortices. It is more analogous to a mechanical spring. It is the subject that we are dealing with in connection with cable telegraphy, and it falls outside the jurisdiction of Maxwells curl equations even though modern textbooks attempt force fit these curl equations wrongly in the context. An electric current begins as pure pressurized aether flow. It may or may not involve the flow of particles as a secondary effect. Positive particles may be pushed along with the aether flow and negative particles may eat their way in the opposite direction towards the source, but the primary event is the flow of pure pressurized aether. Hence when we first switch an electric circuit on, there will be a net injection of charge into the circuit from the power source. The pressurized aether will flow in a closed circuit which will inflate and expand until it settles inside the conducting wires. Conducting wires act like arteries for aether flow. As the current is initially expanding inside the circuit, there will be a step, or a bore, of pressurized aether flow advancing laterally between the wires. Linear polarization of the luminiferous medium will be occurring at this step, and this will actually induce more charge which will in turn act to oppose the driving current. Hence the current will go wide of this impedance, causing the step to advance in a wave like fashion. This is the principle behind cable telegraphy and capacitor circuits.

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Conclusion
10. The electromagnetic wave propagation mechanism depends upon the existence of a sea of tiny molecular vortices as advocated by James Clerk-Maxwell in 1861. Maxwells equations were derived using hydrodynamics and elasticity on the basis of the existence of such a physical medium, and these equations therefore cease to have any meaning in physics once that medium is removed. Weber and Kohlrausch first made the connection between electromagnetism and the speed of light in 1856 by discharging a Leyden jar (capacitor) and measuring the ratio of electrostatic to electrodynamical units of electricity. The significance of Maxwells original papers is that they provide a physical meaning to this experimental result in terms of an elastic solid which acts as the medium for the propagation of light. It is a common error to believe that the equation c = 1/ follows from Maxwells equations, having been derived theoretically by Maxwell, and it is generally forgotten that the equation c = 1/, equivalent to E = mc, exists in the first place only because of the 1856 Weber/Kohlrausch experiment and Newtons equation for the speed of a wave in an elastic solid. Unless we establish the electric permittivity, , experimentally using a discharging capacitor, we can have no basis whatsoever to assume the existence of an equation of the form c = 1/. The main weakness with Maxwells theory is the fact that he didnt distinguish clearly enough between the rotational magnetization mechanism on the one hand, and the linear polarization mechanism on the other hand, in relation to the physical nature of the displacement that is involved in electromagnetic radiation. Nevertheless, Maxwells original works are pioneering works of enormous value which pointed us in the right direction, and any shortcomings within these works pale into insignificance when compared with the errors that followed in Maxwells wake. A series of derailments culminated with Einstein taking us into a mad world of relativity where two clocks can both go slower than each other, and where electromagnetic waves can propagate in a pure vacuum without the need for any physical displacement mechanism. Since 1983, the situation has degenerated even further still. The speed of light is now a defined quantity rather than a measured quantity, and the equation c = 1/ has become a meaningless conversion formula without enquiry as to its physical origins. Hence the physical elasticity (electric permittivity ) that is connected with the electromagnetic wave propagation mechanism has been eaten up by one big mathematical tautology, and to make matters worse, those supporting Einsteins theories of relativity have the audacity to claim that they are a natural consequence of Maxwells work, when in fact Maxwell and Einstein were not even remotely working along the
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same lines. Maxwell is quite clear about the fact that the vH force is a centrifugal force (more precisely a compound centrifugal force (Coriolis force)), and that the velocity, v, is measured relative to the physical medium for the propagation of light. Modern physics is languishing in a totally misguided relativity based paradigm in which physicists have been brainwashed into believing that neither centrifugal force nor the aether exist [6], [7]. This nonsense needs to end. We need to go back to Maxwell and start again.

References [1] Clerk-Maxwell, J., On Physical Lines of Force, Philosophical Magazine, Volume XXI, Fourth Series, London, (1861)
http://vacuum-physics.com/Maxwell/maxwell_oplf.pdf

[2] Clerk-Maxwell, J., A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. London 155, pp 459-512 (1865). Abstract: Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 13, pp. 531--536 (1864). The original eight Maxwells equations are found in the link below in Part III entitled General Equations of the Electromagnetic Field which begins on page 480,
http://www.zpenergy.com/downloads/Maxwell_1864_3.pdf

Maxwells derivation of the electromagnetic wave equation is found in the link below in Part VI entitled Electromagnetic Theory of Light which begins on page 497,
http://www.zpenergy.com/downloads/Maxwell_1864_4.pdf

[3] The 1937 Encyclopaedia Britannica article on Ether discusses its structure in relation to the cause of the speed of light. It says, POSSIBLE STRUCTURE.__ The question
arises as to what that velocity can be due to. The most probable surmise or guess at present is that the ether is a perfectly incompressible continuous fluid, in a state of fine-grained vortex motion, circulating with that same enormous speed. For it has been partly, though as yet incompletely, shown that such a vortex fluid would transmit waves of the same general nature as light waves _i.e., periodic disturbances across the line of propagation_ and would transmit them at a rate of the order of magnitude as the vortex or circulation speed - - - -

[4] Kirchhoff, G., On the Motion of Electricity in Conductors, Philosophical Magazine, Volume 13, pp. 393--412 (1857) An English translation of Kirchhoffs 1857 paper can be viewed on this link,
http://www.ifi.unicamp.br/~assis/Apeiron-V19-p19-25(1994).pdf

[5] Tombe, F.D., The Double Helix Theory of the Magnetic Field, (2006)
http://www.wbabin.net/Science-Journals/Research%20PapersMechanics%20/%20Electrodynamics/Download/252

[6] Tombe, F.D., The Centrifugal Force Paradox, (2011)

http://www.wbabin.net/Science-Journals/Research%20PapersMechanics%20/%20Electrodynamics/Download/3371

[7] Tombe, F.D., Centrifugal Force, (2011)

http://www.wbabin.net/Science-Journals/Research%20PapersMechanics%20/%20Electrodynamics/Download/3775

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The Double Helix Theory of the Magnetic Field

Frederick David Tombe Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom [email protected] 15th February 2006, Philippine Islands

Abstract. In 1856, Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch performed an experiment with a Leyden jar which showed that the ratio of the quantity of electricity when measured statically, to the same quantity of electricity when measured electrodynamically, is numerically equal to the directly measured speed of light. In 1861, in his paper entitled On Physical Lines of Force, James Clerk-Maxwell equated the above ratio with the ratio of the dielectric constant to the magnetic permeability. In the same paper, Maxwell modeled Faradays magnetic lines of force using a sea of molecular vortices that were composed partly of aether and partly of ordinary matter. He linked the dielectric constant to the transverse elasticity of this vortex sea, and he linked the magnetic permeability to the density. Since Newtons equation for the speed of sound involves the ratio of the transverse elasticity to the density, Maxwell was able to use the 1856 Weber/Kohlrausch ratio to show that light is a wave in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. It will now be suggested that Maxwells molecular vortices are more accurately represented with rotating electronpositron dipoles that are aligned in a double helix fashion with their mutual rotation axes tracing out the magnetic lines of force.

Introduction
I. The idea that space is dielectric can be inferred from Keplers second law of planetary motion. This law, which is essentially the law of conservation of angular momentum, can be used to show that centrifugal force is an outward radial pressure that obeys the inverse cube law. Whereby the inverse square law of gravity indicates a monopole field, the inverse cube law suggests that space is an electric dipole field as well. The dielectric nature of space might also be inferred from the electric capacitor circuit in the dynamic state. It is unlikely that the surrounding magnetic field will discontinue in the capacitor region. When there is a dielectric slab in the space between the capacitor plates, we acknowledge the existence of a
1

polarization current. There is no reason to assume that the situation should be any different when the dielectric slab is not there. Since a wave requires a medium of propagation, and since light exhibits wave behavior, it is reasonable to assume that a dielectric luminiferous medium pervades all of space. It then becomes necessary to explain how such a dielectric medium permits the inverse square law of gravity to act in tandem with the inverse cube law of centrifugal force.

The Aether
II. ET Whittaker wrote - - - All space, according to the young [John] Bernoulli, is permeated by a fluid Aether, containing an immense number of excessively small whirlpools. The elasticity which the Aether appears to possess, and in virtue of which it is able to transmit vibrations, is really due to the presence of these whirlpools; for, owing to centrifugal force, each whirlpool is continually striving to dilate, and so presses against the neighbouring whirlpools - - -. [1] In 1861, James Clerk-Maxwell attempted to explain the magnetic field in terms of a sea of such excessively small whirlpools. In his paper On Physical Lines of Force [2], he used such a concept to explain magnetism on the basis that these vortices are aligned solenoidally with their rotation axes tracing out magnetic lines of force. He explained magnetic attraction between unlike poles on the basis that a tension exists along the lines of force that connect directly between the two poles. In the case of magnetic repulsion, magnetic field lines spread laterally outwards in the space between two like poles. Maxwell explained the repulsion on the basis that a centrifugal pressure exists in the equatorial plane of the vortices, hence causing a lateral pressure between the lines of force. Maxwells model can be better understood if we replace his molecular vortices with rotating electron-positron dipoles, each of which consists of an electron in a mutual circular orbit with a positron. [3] Such a vortex will then double for both an electric dipole and a magnetic dipole. Electrons will be considered to be sinks in the aether. An unknown force pulls the aether into these electron sinks, hence causing a tension in the surrounding aether which will cause a pull force to act on other particles. A positron is an aether source from which a pressurized fountain of aether emerges. Once again, the force that pushes the aether out of these positron sources will remain unexplained. The aether itself is a mysterious substance that is dynamical, compressible, and stretchable. There will be a vector A equal to v, where is the density of the aether, and v is the velocity of an element of the aether. Modern textbooks refer to A as the magnetic vector potential, but it more
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accurately constitutes a momentum per unit volume. The vector A can represent both gravity and electric current, although electric current is commonly denoted by the symbol J. Maxwell identified the quantity A with Faradays electrotonic state. If we keep the aether density constant in time, we can expand the force term F = dA/dt to obtain,

F = A/t vB + (A.v)
where B =A. See Appendix A.

(1)

Eq. (1) is recognizable as the Lorentz force, but the terms in the Lorentz force appeared in Eqs. (5) and (77) of Maxwells 1861 paper, which was written when Lorentz was only eight years old. Taking the curl of Eq. (1) we obtain,

F = B/t + (v.)B = dB/dt

(2)

which is a total time derivative extension of Eq. (54) in Maxwells 1861 paper. See Appendix B. Oliver Heaviside always referred to Maxwells Eq. (54) as Faradays law, even though it is not strictly speaking Faradays law. Maxwells Eq. (54) is similar to Faradays law, but it doesnt account for convectively induced electromotive force. The first term on the right hand side of Eq. (1) represents the force due to tension or pressure in the aether. Around a sink or a source, this tension or pressure can be split into a radial (irrotational) component and a transverse (angular) component. The irrotational radial component can be represented in the form , where is a scalar potential function. The second and third terms on the right hand side of Eq. (1) can both be either the Coriolis force or the differential between two opposing centrifugal forces. These inertial forces can manifest themselves in a number of fashions. The transverse Coriolis force arises in cyclones and in non-circular planetary orbits in conjunction with the conservation of angular momentum. We can also have an axial Coriolis force that arises when bodies rotate about an asymmetrical axis or when the rotation axis is forced to precess. The axial Coriolis force can reverse a rotating rattleback or prevent a gyroscope from toppling under gravity. Differential centrifugal pressure between air molecules, above and below a wing, keeps aeroplanes in flight. The magnetic force on a current carrying wire in a magnetic field is caused by differential centrifugal pressure on either side of the wire, while the Coriolis force is behind the induced electromotive force in a wire that is moving at right angles through a magnetic field.

The Double Helix Alignment

III. Lenzs law can be understood on the basis that any stretching of the aether will have a tendency to tighten the electron sinks and to widen the positron sources. This will result in the generation of aether pressure that will oppose the tension that has created it. Tension in the aether may be caused by 1) stretching the dipoles linearly, 2) stretching the dipoles torsionally so as to increase vorticity, 3) causing the dipoles to precess, or 4) dilation of the dipoles on the leeward side of an object in motion. Linear stretching causes the electron orbit and the positron orbit to become like two intersecting circles. This effect is called polarization. The angular effects at 2) and 3) lead to the centrifugal and the axial Coriolis pressures of magnetization. When a dipole is caused to precess out of its solenoidal alignment, it will be forced back into line again by induced aether pressure, and during this process, the circumferential motion of the electrons and the positrons will be deflected at right angles into the axial direction. This fundamental axial Coriolis force underlies Ampres Circuital Law. In the solenoidal equilibrium state, the electron-positron dipoles will be aligned in a double helix fashion, with their rotation axes tracing out magnetic lines of force. A tension will exist along these lines of force due to the fact that the electrons and the positrons will be alternately stacked. See Fig. 1,

Fig. 1. A single magnetic line of force. The electrons are shown in red and the positrons are shown in black. The double helix is rotating about its axis with a circumferential speed equal to the speed of light, and the rotation axis represents the magnetic field vector H.

The tension in the lines of force is the cause of magnetic attraction between unlike magnetic poles. The double helix lines of force will behave like helical springs and pull the two unlike poles together. There is an element of flexibility as regards the magnitude of the tension in the lines of force, in that the helix angle can vary. In the equilibrium state, the tension along the lines of force will be counterbalanced by a centrifugal aether pressure in the equatorial plane between two adjacent dipoles. The mutual transverse speed between adjacent dipoles will torsionally stress the aether, hence leading to vorticity. This will widen the positron sources and generate centrifugal aether pressure. Aether pressure will be considered to be positive charge, whereas aether tension will be considered to be negative charge. Charge will be dependent on aether density, and it can manifest itself in a number of guises including electrostatic (polarization), gravitational, inertial, and magnetic charge. In the absence of rotation, tension
4

will dominate in the universe, which is why we have gravity. The electronpositron sea will be referred to as The Electric Sea, in order to distinguish it from the pure aether itself. The electric sea will therefore be somewhat reminiscent of the striking surface for a safety match. If we disturb it, it will cause an ignition of energy.

The Speed of Light

IV. Let us consider the equatorial elasticity of a single rotating electron-positron dipole of radius h. Hookes law appears at Eq. (105) in Maxwells 1861 paper in the form,

R = 4Eh

(Electric Displacement Equation)

(3)

where R is electromotive force, E is the dielectric constant, and h is displacement. If we consider the electric sea to be uniformly dense with the distance between neighbouring dipoles being in the same order of magnitude as the dimensions of the dipoles themselves, then these dipoles will be pressing against each other with centrifugal force while striving to dilate in their equatorial planes. This centrifugal pressure between neighbouring dipoles will be the source of the elasticity, and since the dipoles are all spinning in the same direction, the effective speed for the purposes of centrifugal potential energy will be the mutual transverse speed, which will be twice the circumferential speed. Centrifugal potential energy is the same thing as transverse kinetic energy, and summed over the two particles of the dipole this will be equal to m(2v), or 4mv, where m is the average mass of the two particles and where v is their circumferential speed. Mass is considered to be a measure of the amount of aether. This centrifugal potential energy will be equal to the maximum linear kinetic energy as resolved along a diameter in relation to the projected simple harmonic motion. This in turn will be equal to the maximum potential energy that we obtain from Hookes law. Since we are dealing with shared elasticity over the two particles within the dipole, this maximum potential energy will be 2Eh. Therefore,

4mv = 2Eh
and hence,

(4)

2mv = Eh

(5)

The centrifugal potential energy, 4mv, is the resultant of an inward centrifugal force and an equal and opposite outward centrifugal force. As such, if we double the outward centrifugal force we will split the dipole. The input energy needed to split an electron-positron dipole is therefore 2mv. We also know from the 1932 Carl D. Anderson experiment that this energy is the 1.02 MeV associated with Gamma radiation and that it corresponds exactly to 2mc, where c is the speed of light. [4] Hence it follows that the circumferential speed of the electrons and positrons in the dipoles of the electric sea is equal to the speed of light [5], and that,

c = E/

(6)

where is the areal density, 2m/h, of an electron-positron dipole. Eq. (6) is equivalent to the Eq. (135) in Maxwells 1861 paper which he derived from Newtons equation for the speed of sound at Eq. (132). Taking the areal density to be the magnetic permeability and using any established system of units, we can then calculate that the diameter of the electron-positron dipoles is 1.35 picometres, which is very close to half of the wavelength of the Gamma rays which can split these dipoles apart. This means that the rotating electronpositron dipoles of the luminiferous medium are about one thousandth the size of an average atom, and it follows that Gamma rays must be a stream of pressure pulses such that one half of the wave cycle is positive and the other half is neutral.

The Electromagnetic Wave Equation

V. In a rotating electron-positron dipole, the circumferential velocity, v, leads to the equation,

v = H

(7)

where H is vorticity, or magnetic field strength. We know that for a single particle moving in a circle with angular velocity , the vorticity is equal to 2. Taken over the two particles of the dipole, the vorticity is therefore related to the angular momentum per unit surface area through the equation,

H = 4(hv)/h

(cf. Biot-Savart law)

(8)

If we define the vector D as a kind of displacement density, 4h/h , Eq. (8) then simplifies to,

H = Dv
6

(9)

The divergence of H will be zero because H is a solenoidal axial vector which is the curl of v. The only monopoles involved in magnetism are the electric monopoles that wind around each magnetic line of force in a double helix fashion. Taking the curl of H we obtain,

H = v(.D) D(.v) + (v.)D (D.)v

(10)

The last three terms on the right hand side of Eq. (10) vanish because v is a transverse vector perpendicular to D, and v is not a vector field. In the first term on the right hand side of Eq. (10), the divergence of D is 4/h. Hence we are left with,

H =4v/h

(cf. Ampres Circuital Law)

(11)

Comparing Eq. (7) with Eq. (11), we can see from the two reciprocal curls that we are dealing with interlocking solenoidal lines of electric current and magnetic tension at every point in space. When a dipole is subjected to a simple harmonic angular acceleration, the circumferential velocity v will obey the relationship,

v = (2m/4E)v/t

(12)

where 2m/4E is the inverse transverse elasticity (electric permittivity) taken from Eq. (3). Substituting Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) leads to,

H = (/E)v/t
Finally, taking the curl of Eq. (13) and using Eq. (7) we obtain,

(13)

H = (/E)H/t

(wave equation)

(14)

Although Maxwell simply defined the density to be unity in air, he established a theoretical equality between the ratio of density and elasticity to the ratio of electromagnetic and electrostatic units of charge. The latter ratio was determined experimentally by Weber and Kohlrausch in 1856 using a discharging Leyden jar, and it linked to the directly measured speed of light, hence confirming Eq. (6) in the previous Section. On discovering this, Maxwell stated that, - - - we can scarcely avoid the inference that light consists in the transverse undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena - - -. It follows from all of this that Eq. (14) above is therefore the electromagnetic wave equation. The derivation of the electromagnetic wave equation above tells us that electromagnetic waves are a propagation of angular acceleration or precession through a sea of tiny aethereal vortices [5], and that these undulations correspond to oscillations in either centrifugal pressure or axial Coriolis pressure. These
7

pressure oscillations are caused by an excess outflow of vitreous aether from the positrons of the electric sea. The excess outflow from an angularly accelerated dipole causes a torque between itself and the next dipole along the line. This causes an excess outflow from that next dipole while restoring the first dipole to its equilibrium position, and the cycle is then repeated. When the first dipole returns to its equilibrium position, the excess aether will disappear into the electron. Electromagnetic radiation is therefore an in/out wave which causes a net flow of pressurized aether. This net flow of pressurized aether accounts for the associated linear momentum and the associated radiation pressure, as well as helping to explain the photon nature of electromagnetic radiation. It should be noted that the above derivation of the electromagnetic wave equation did not involve Maxwells displacement current. Displacement current is a linear polarization effect and its mathematical form can be used in the derivation of the electromagnetic wave equation. However, when we use displacement current to derive the electromagnetic wave equation, we are actually using an angular displacement current that differs from the linear displacement current in that it utilizes the transverse electromotive force of electromagnetic induction rather than the irrotational electromotive force of Gausss law. Electromagnetic radiation is a magnetization (rotational) effect that can radiate wirelessly from the side of an electric wire. It is an angular displacement effect which is perpendicular to linear displacement current. Linear displacement on the other hand propagates along in the space between two electric wires and is associated with cable telegraphy. The inability to make this distinction in modern physics is of course due to the denial of the existence of the very medium which becomes magnetized and/or linearly polarized.

Radiation Pressure
VI. Light exerts a force on a physical target. Maxwell calculated the force associated with radiation pressure to be,

F = dp/dt = (1/c)dE/dt

(15)

where E is energy, c is the speed of light, and p is momentum. By substituting p = mc into equation (15), where m equals aethereal mass, we obtain the relationship,

cdm = dE

(16)

which implies that electromagnetic radiation is a net flow of aethereal mass which is related to energy by the equation,

E = mc

(17)

But just because Eq. (17) relates numerical values, it certainly doesnt mean that mass and energy are equivalent. The speed of light is the Mach number for the electric sea by analogy to the speed of sound in air, and it is only in connection with electromagnetic radiation in the electric sea that this famous equation possesses any physical significance. Gilbert Lewis published this approach to E = mc in 1908. [6]

Electromagnetism and Keplers Second Law

VII. The 1887 Michelson-Morley experiment strongly suggested that the gravitational field of the Earth entrains an extended region of the electric sea while it is undergoing translational motion in its orbital path around the Sun. The entrained region of electric sea which surrounds a moving planetary object will constitute the gravitosphere, and it will extend to the shear region which exists at the boundary with neighbouring gravitospheres. A planetary object and its surrounding gravitosphere move as one, in like manner to an egg yolk and its surrounding egg white. When a planet and its gravitosphere are in motion through the electric sea, there will be a compression, and hence a contraction of the electron-positron dipoles on the windward side of the motion. There will also be a rarefaction, and hence a dilation of the electron-positron dipoles on the leeward side of the motion. This will result in a transverse vorticity gradient, and the rarefaction on the leeward side will cause a tension that will open the positron sources wider, and hence induce aether pressure (positive charge). Interestingly, the compression on the windward side does not involve Lenzs law, and the associated increase in pressure is attributed simply to the decrease in volume. This compression phenomenon is of interest in that it involves a disturbance in the aether which lies outside the realm of electromagnetic radiation. It will involve a pressure wave in the pure aether itself as opposed to an in/out flow of excess pressurized aether from positrons to electrons, and this phenomenon becomes relevant in the motion of rigid bodies and in rigid body collisions such as are observed in the Newtons Cradle. In the case of two-body planetary motion, there will therefore be pressure acting on both the leeward side and the windward side of the transverse motion. These two pressures will cancel out mathematically, hence giving rise to Keplers law
9

of areal velocity and the law of conservation of angular momentum. But this mathematical cancellation does not correspond to a physical cancellation of the two transverse effects. The two transverse effects are both pressures which cannot physically cancel each other, and neither does the mathematical cancellation have any bearing on the transverse vorticity gradient that is generated in the electric sea by the motion. In a non-circular orbit, these two transverse pressure components can be individually observed. Consider a comet in the downward stage of an elliptical orbit. The pressure on the windward side of the motion will cause a Coriolis force to act. This Coriolis force will cause the inward radial motion to be continually deflected into the leeward transverse direction. The induced transverse pressure that is pushing from the leeward side will meanwhile cause an increase in speed in the windward direction. This leeward transverse pressure appears like a transverse component of gravity, although it is actually an inertial effect caused by aether pressure from the positrons. Ultimately however this inertial force is fed by radial gravity, in that gravity causes kinetic energy to accumulate. The aethereal pressure that is associated with this accumulated kinetic energy in turn supplements the transverse inertial force, A/t, which causes the transverse speed to increase at the expense of the downward radial acceleration. The transverse motion causes a shear stress in the shear region above and below the planet and also on the inner side of the orbit. This shear stress increases the vorticity in the electron-positron dipoles and generates axial Coriolis force above and below, along with centrifugal force on the inner side. (In an unperturbed two-body orbit, the two axial Coriolis forces will cancel mathematically and there will be no vorticity gradient in the axial direction.) The increasing transverse speed then gives rise to an increasing centrifugal force which eventually exceeds the inward radial gravitational force, hence causing an outward recoil effect. The Keplerian orbit will therefore be characterized by a constant transfusion of aether from positrons to electrons in which the fine-grained swirling motion of the aether is acting like cog-wheels in the planetary orbital mechanism. It is often argued that if a luminiferous medium existed, it would cause friction in space and the planets would fall into the Sun. But rather than causing friction, the electric sea actually causes Keplers laws to be the way they are. Gravity itself is a large scale aethereal effect which is not technically an electromagnetic effect, but the electric sea nevertheless plays an important role in interacting with and shaping the gravitational field. In the case of an electron and a positron which are spiralling inwards in a positronium orbit, the accumulated aether pressure does not cause them to recoil at the moment of closest approach. Instead, they take their place inside the double helix magnetic field structure, and the accumulated aether pressure itself
10

recoils in two opposite directions in the form of gamma photons. The angular momentum is transferred into the fine-grained angular momentum of electromagnetic radiation. No actual electron-positron annihilation takes place as is commonly believed. The electron and the positron are still physically present in the magnetic lines of force. Although large planetary objects entrain the luminiferous medium while undergoing translational motion, we know from the 1925 Michelson-Gale experiment that this does not appear to be so either in the case of rotational motion, or in the case of small objects that are undergoing translational motion. In these cases, it seems that the inertial forces overcome the bonding forces. When a wire moves at right angles through a magnetic field, we would expect the electric sea to flow through the inter-molecular spacing in the wire as like water flows through a basket. The input force that moves the wire will generate aether pressure from the positrons on the leeward side of the molecules of the wire, due to dilation of the aethereal dipoles. This aether pressure gives rise to an electromotive force, A/t. The aether pressure on the windward side of the motion will be due to compression of the electron-positron dipoles. The resulting vorticity gradient in the electron-positron dipoles around the molecules of the wire will therefore cause a Coriolis force which will deflect the newly generated leeward aether pressure at right angles along the wire, hence giving rise to an electric current. Convectively induced electromagnetic induction is therefore closely related to Keplers second law of planetary motion . In the electromagnetic case, the vector B in Eq. (1), which is equal to H or 2, represents the concentration of magnetic lines of force, and it is known as the magnetic flux density. In the Keplerian orbit, the radial pressure only acts in the outward direction and so it then follows that as compared with the electronpositron dipole orbit, the centrifugal force reduces to (A.v) or to vB. The aether hydrodynamical approach therefore exposes the source of centrifugal force as lying in the fluid-like aether between two electron-positron dipoles, hence explaining why the electric sea can behave like a liquid for the purposes of planetary motion and yet still behave like a solid for the purposes of electromagnetic radiation. In a planetary orbit, the shear region is cushioned by a centrifugal hovercraft effect, while in electromagnetic radiation the particles maintain their positions in the double helix solid.

Orbital Stability and Magnetic Levitation

VIII. Gravity is an all-prevailing aether tension that is associated with the large scale radial and irrotational percolation of aether through the electric sea, and into the sinks of atomic and molecular matter. It is therefore a monopole field
11

which obeys the inverse square law. The gravitational field has no rotation axis, which means that all large scale vorticity has been absorbed into the magnetic field by the tiny electron-positron vortices of the electric sea. Gravitational field lines between two objects spread outwards and away from each other. This means that a pressure must exist laterally between these field lines. This pressure is due to centrifugal force in the equatorial plane of the dipoles along the path of flow and also due to polarization of the electron-positron dipoles due to this flow, and hence it obeys the inverse cube law of the dipole field. The difference in power laws between gravity and centrifugal force gives rise to the stability in a planetary orbit. Transverse motion causes shear stress in the electric sea and this gives rise to an increase in centrifugal pressure that can overcome gravity. Gravity is a mild negative charge. If we have two negatively charged bodies and we increase the negative charge on one or both of these bodies, the linear polarization of the electron-positron dipoles in the electric sea will increase, and hence the aether pressure emerging laterally from the field lines will increase. A reversal threshold will be reached in which two negatively charged bodies will repel each other, and the repulsive force will obey the inverse cube law of the dipole field. In the case of magnetic repulsion between two like poles, the field lines spread outwards and away from each other, and the repulsion pressure acting laterally between the lines of force is due to the centrifugal force acting in the equatorial plane of the rotating electron-positron dipoles. Magnetic repulsion will obey an inverse cube law within the extent of the magnetic field, since it is a dipole field. The difference in the power laws between the repulsive forces and the attractive forces means that it is possible to have both electrostatic and magnetic levitation. Electrostatic and magnetic attraction arises from aether tension along the lines of force that connect directly between the unlike charges or the unlike poles. In the electrostatic case, the attractive force should obey the inverse square law. In the case of magnetic attraction, we dont have spherical symmetry, and the inverse square law will only arise on the microscopic level between electrons and positrons along the double helix lines of force.

Electric Current
IX. The aether has very important implications for electric current. When electric current is understood in terms of a flow of aether, it then becomes clear that a wire loop that is rotating in a magnetic field is actually screwing aether out of the positrons of the electric sea. Aether will be pumped outwards from the generator and into the circuit during both halves of the AC cycle. The thing that changes during each half of the cycle is the direction of the circulation of
12

the aethereal current. Electric current is a circulation of aether which begins at a source and ends in sinks that are dotted all along its path. If the input pressure is greater than the outflow tension, then the electric current circuit will inflate. This inflation often expands outwards between two wires, with a connecting bridge of current at the step. This joining current causes a linear polarization of the electron-positron dipoles in the electric sea, and this linear stretching in turn causes impedance. The aethereal current will therefore advance laterally in order to circumvent this impedance. When Maxwell first conceived the idea of displacement current, he hinted at a rotatory effect, but the concept later became associated with linear polarization. At any rate, if the linear polarization effect at the advancing step is what Maxwell eventually had in mind for displacement current, it certainly isnt the same thing as the angular displacement current that can be used in the derivation of the electromagnetic wave equation. When the aethereal electric current has totally expanded within a conducting circuit, the aether pressure will then flow entirely within the conducting wire, and it will push any free positive electric particles along with it. Free negative particles will eat their way towards the positive source, and hence the negative and positive particles will screw their way past each other in opposite directions in a double helix fashion. [7] The existing particle model of electric current as is taught in the textbooks does not work, because it implies that alternating current is a backwards and forwards unidirectional motion of particles of one kind. Such a situation fails to address the net input of energy that arises with alternating current. Although alternating current reverses direction cyclically, there is still a net input of aether into the circuit in each cycle, and it was Tesla who worked out how to siphon off this energy into the AC motor. Without the aether, this fundamental reality cannot be adequately explained. The aether is in fact the original vitreous electric fluid of Charles du Fay, Benjamin Franklin, and William Watson, and electrical terms such as voltage, charge, and current are merely alternative words for the hydrodynamical quantities of pressure and flow. Modern electromagnetism has become aether hydrodynamics with the aether hidden from view, and electric current is another casualty of the abandonment of the aether.

Conclusion
X. The aether has been sacrificed in modern physics to make way for Einsteins erroneous theories of relativity. Einsteins theories of relativity came about as a result of a number of illogical steps of reasoning. In 1889, Oliver Heaviside attempted to analyze electromagnetic radiation that is being emitted from a
13

source which is moving relative to the luminiferous medium. His resulting equations superficially resembled the equations of relativity, and if they corresponded to any physical reality at all, it was to the bunching up effect of the Doppler shift. Heaviside however proceeded to extrapolate this result to the electrostatic field. Meanwhile, the 1887 Michelson-Morley experiment had been causing problems. Many believed that the experiment confirmed George Stokes entrained aether model, but George Francis Fitzgerald suggested that the null result was due to the fact that physical contraction occurs in the direction of motion through the aether. A few years later, Hendrik Lorentz independently made a similar suggestion. Despite not having any idea at all about the physical composition of the luminiferous medium or the electromagnetic wave mechanism, Lorentz argued that Stokes entrainment model presented hydrodynamical problems in relation to stellar aberration. Based on Heavisides work, Lorentz figured that since matter is bonded together by electrostatic forces, it will perhaps contract along its direction of motion. Lorentz then produced a modified version of Heavisides equations, and when Lorentzs equations got into the hands of Einstein, the aether managed to disappear altogether and we ended up with a theory which allows for the absurdity that two clocks can each run slower than the other. Dr. Carl A. Zapffe [8] was a fierce critic of Einsteins theories of relativity and he once said that anybody who has ever observed the Aurora Borealis should have realized that no aether wind blows. Dr. Zapffe concluded that Lorentz had not considered the idea that the entrained region of luminiferous medium has an absolute cut-off boundary. Maxwells sea of molecular vortices was abandoned prematurely. Space is densely packed with electrons and positrons which act as sinks and sources for the aether. These electrons and positrons are mutually paired in dipole orbits, and they form double helix chains around their mutual rotation axes. These double helix chains constitute magnetic lines of force. Space is hence an electric sea of tiny aethereal whirlpools, and the aether pressure that emerges from these whirlpools when the electric sea is disturbed, accounts for both the electromagnetic repulsive forces and the inertial forces. The electric sea is about thirty-two times more dense than lead. In the steady state, magnetic lines of force are solenoidal, yet they are riddled with sinks and sources. In the dynamic state, these magnetic field lines are breaking and rejoining, with the sink of one line re-connecting with the source of another line. Centrifugal force plays an important role in electromagnetism despite the fact that modern physics claims that centrifugal force is not a real force.

14

Appendix A
The gradient of the scalar product of two vectors can be expanded by the standard vector identity,

(A.v) = A ( v) + v ( A) + (A.)v + (v.)A

(1A)

Let us consider only the vector A to be a vector field. If v represents arbitrary particle motion, the first and the third terms on the right hand side of equation (1A) will vanish, and from the relationship A = B, we will obtain,

(A.v) = vB + (v.)A
Hence,

(2A)

(v.)A = vB + (A.v)
Since,

(3A)

dA/dt = A/t + (v.)A

it then follows that,

(4A)

dA/dt = A/t vB + (A.v)

(5A)

Appendix B
The curl of the vector product of two vectors can be expanded by the standard vector identity,

(vB) = v(.B) B(.v) + (B.)v (v.)B

(1B)

Let us consider only the vector B to be a vector field. If v represents arbitrary particle motion, the second and the third terms on the right hand side of equation (1B) will vanish. If we consider the vector B to be solenoidal, the first term on the right hand side will also vanish due to the fact that the divergence of B will be zero. Hence,
15

(vB) = (v.)B

(2B)

Notes and References

[1] ET Whittaker, A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity; The Classical Theories (London; New York, American Institute of Physics, 1987) p.6 [2] Clerk-Maxwell, J., On Physical Lines of Force, Philosophical Magazine, Volume 21, (1861)
http://www.vacuum-physics.com/Maxwell/maxwell_oplf.pdf

[3] The idea that space is densely packed with electrons and positrons was originally conceived in 1982 in an attempt to explain Maxwells displacement current without altering Ampres Circuital Law. The idea did not come about in relation to any considerations of the concept of the Dirac Sea. It has since come to light that quite a number of other scientists are advocating such an approach. Since 2004, with the advent of the Internet, discovery has been made of the works of Dr. Menahem Simhony in Jerusalem, and Dr. Allen Rothwarf in the USA, both of whom advocate that space is densely packed with electrons and positrons, and who are referenced at [4] and [9] below. Ian Montgomery and Peter Whan in Australia are jointly working on a model in which gravity is caused by the flow of a sea of electron-positron couplets into matter, and in which the electron-positron sea, which they term The Norton Sea, acts as the luminiferous medium. Arden Barker ([email protected]) advocates a sea of electron-positron dipoles to act as the carrier of electromagnetic radiation. Ray Fleming in Texas advocates that space is filled with electrons and positrons, and John C. Polasek advocates an electron-positron lattice theory along similar lines to that of Dr. Simhony. [4] Simhony, M., The Electron-Positron Lattice Space, Cause of Relativity and Quantum Effects, Physics Section 5, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem (1990)
http://web.archive.org/web/20040606235138/www.word1.co.il/physics/mass.htm

[5] Long ago he (Tesla) recognized that all perceptible matter comes from a primary substance, or tenuity beyond conception, filling all space, the Akasha or luminiferous ether, acted upon by the life giving Prana or creative force, calling into existence, in never ending cycles all things and phenomena. The primary substance, thrown into infinitesimal whirls of prodigious velocity,
16

becomes gross matter; the force subsiding, the motion ceases and matter disappears, reverting to the primary substance.(PRODIGAL GENIUS, Biography of Nikola Tesla, by John J. ONeill , Freeport, Long Island, New York, 15th July 1944) The 1937 Encyclopaedia Britannica article on Ether discusses its structure in relation to the cause of the speed of light. It says, POSSIBLE STRUCTURE.__ The question arises as to what that velocity can be due to. The most probable surmise or guess at present is that the ether is a perfectly incompressible continuous fluid, in a state of fine-grained vortex motion, circulating with that same enormous speed. For it has been partly, though as yet incompletely, shown that such a vortex fluid would transmit waves of the same general nature as light waves _i.e., periodic disturbances across the line of propagation_ and would transmit them at a rate of the order of magnitude as the vortex or circulation speed - - - - It was not made clear from the article whether or not they were referring to Teslas theory. [6] Lewis, G.N., A Revision of the Fundamental Laws of Matter and Energy, Phil. Mag. 16, 705-17, (1908) [7] Leedskalnin, Edward, Double Helical Electromagnetic Interaction
http://www.magneticuniverse.com/

[8] Zapffe, C. A., A Magnetospheric Ether-drag Theory and the Reference Frames of Relativistic Physics, Speculations in Science and Technology, Volume 2, No.4, pp. 439-459, (1979) [9] Rothwarf, Dr. Allen, An Aether Model of the Universe (1998)
http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0703280

1st July 2010 amendment

17

The Centrifugal Force Paradox

Frederick David Tombe, Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom, [email protected] 27th March 2011
Abstract. It is commonly taught nowadays that centrifugal force doesnt exist, except as a fictitious force that is only observable from a rotating frame of reference. This belief is based on Newtons law of inertia which states that a body undergoing straight line motion at constant speed experiences no net force, and that curved path motion involves only a centripetal force. However, if we split the net zero force of straight line constant speed motion into polar components, we find that one of these is a centrifugal force component which can physically react with constraints, hence revealing an underlying pressure associated with inertia. Further evidence that centrifugal force is a real physical force arises when inertial pressure becomes asymmetrical, as happens in a radial gravitational field or in a solenoidal magnetic field.

Newtons First Law of Motion

I. When an object moves in a straight line with constant speed, the net force acting upon it will be zero, yet if we consider the motion relative to any point origin that does not lie on the trajectory, we will observe an acceleration that is directed radially outwards from that origin. This acceleration is the centrifugal acceleration which can be shown to obey an inverse cube law with respect to the radial distance from the origin. However, there will be an equal and opposite acceleration relating to the rotation of the line connecting the object to the origin, and the resultant acceleration will be zero. Hence it is believed by some that the outward centrifugal acceleration is merely a fictitious effect which can only be observed from the rotating frame of reference.

Reaction with Constraints

II. An object moving in a horizontal plane and tied to a tethered string will pull the string taut, hence resulting in circular motion. Likewise a wall of death rider pushes against a surface resulting in curved path motion. In both these situations, the inertia physically reacts with the constraint and induces a centripetal force. The component of the inertia that reacts with the constraint to cause curved path motion is of course the centrifugal force, and it is quantified by the product of mass and centrifugal acceleration. These situations are a rotational analogy to when
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the force of gravity pulls on a weight on the end of a fixed string, or pushes a weight against a horizontal surface. Both gravity and centrifugal force share in common the fact that neither of them are physically felt until there is a reaction. The magnitude of the reaction, which is the apparent weight, will be determined by the degree to which the constraint yields or opposes. For example, in an elevator that is accelerating downwards, or in an elliptical wall of death where the rider is moving away from the origin, the yield will make the apparent weight less than the causative force. The opposite will be the case when the constraint is opposing. The fact that the centrifugal force component of inertia can physically react, means that, just like gravity, it is a real force and not a fictitious force. Inertia involves an actual kinetic pressure, and in the case of an object moving in a straight line at constant speed, the kinetic pressure will be equal all around the object. Since the inertia of a moving object is also a measure of its kinetic energy, it would seem therefore that kinetic energy is actually a pressure. This idea would be further confirmed by the fact that the transverse kinetic energy in a rotating system is equivalent to the centrifugal potential energy.

Centrifugal Force in a Radial Field

III. While Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) is credited with having discovered the inverse square law relationship for gravity, what is not so well known is the fact that his arch rival Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) independently discovered this relationship too, as well as also discovering the inverse cube law relationship for centrifugal force, and hence the complete radial planetary orbital equation [1],

d2r/dt2 = k/r2 + l2/r3

(1)

where k is the gravitational constant and l is related to the angular momentum. The two body planetary orbit is where gravity and centrifugal force come face to face, and it involves two gravitational fields which dont mix. On the nearside between the two planets, the field lines meet laterally and spread outwards. On the far side of the two planets, the field lines extend backwards in a long tail. The gravitational tails mean that the centrifugal pressure, in the shear region where the two gravitational fields meet, only acts to push the planets apart. This asymmetry exposes the centrifugal force as a real inverse cube law force acting outwards. It acts in competition with the inward inverse square law
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force of gravity, and the two different power laws give rise to stable equilibrium nodes, and hence provide the basis for orbital stability. Since gravity and gravitational potential energy are a tension, whereas centrifugal force and kinetic energy are a pressure, an elliptical planetary orbit shows some degree of rotational analogy with a mechanical spring that oscillates between tension and pressure.

Centrifugal Force in a Solenoidal Field

IV. James Clerk-Maxwell (1831-1879) utilized the concept of centrifugal force in order to explain magnetic repulsion [2]. He believed space to be filled with tiny aethereal vortices pressing against each other with centrifugal force. These vortices would be mutually aligned such that their rotation axes trace out the magnetic lines of force. Hence if an object moves perpendicularly across magnetic lines of force, the mutual speed as between the moving object and the edge of the surrounding aethereal vortices will be different at each side of the object, bearing in mind that all the vortices are spinning in the same direction. This will lead to an asymmetry in the centrifugal pressure in the direction transverse to the motion, and hence the object will be deflected. This compound centrifugal force will actually be a centripetal force which makes the object move in a circle or a helix. The magnetic field strength is a measure of the vorticity H of the aethereal vortices, which is directly related to the angular speed of the ensuing circular or helical motion through the equation,

centrifugal force = mv = qvH

(2)

The large scale centrifugal force will of course be totally undetectable as such, being absorbed in the centripetal force [3], [4].

Conclusion
V. Unfortunately the centrifugal force paradox has been exacerbated by the fact that in some of the modern literature, the fictitious force in the rotating frame of reference has been extrapolated by bad mathematics to apply to all objects in the rotating frame, whether or not those objects are co-rotating. This has reduced centrifugal force to a false system of accountancy which is used to describe motion in a rotating frame of

reference, and which has lost all connection with the physical effects of inertia which it is supposed to be describing. It is case of mathematical physics having become de-railed from the actual physics. And the situation has been further confused by the fact that in other parts of the literature the concept of centrifugal force is seldom considered outside of the particular context of circular motion. And in such circular motions in which the inward centripetal force is supplied by a constraint, the physical reaction is rightfully acknowledged, but the centrifugal force is wrongly said to be the equal and opposite reaction to the centripetal force, as per Newtons third law of motion, even though the centrifugal force is clearly the pro-active force in the circumstances. Newton himself was largely responsible for this error. Leibnizs equation in section III above makes it quite clear that the centrifugal force and the centripetal force are not an action-reaction pair. They are not even the same magnitude in general. Planetary orbits are still solved today using Leibnizs equation, albeit that the identification of the inverse cube law term with centrifugal force is very much played down in the modern literature. Newtons erroneous ideas about centrifugal force arose as a reaction to Leibnizs equation. It is believed that Newton knew fine well that Leibniz was correct, but due to the intense rivalry between the two, Newton could not bring himself to support Leibnizs equation. Newton objected to Leibnizs equation on the false grounds that the centrifugal force in the equation was not in general equal to the centripetal force, and he then went on to wrongly claim that the centrifugal force is the equal and opposite reaction to the centripetal force as per his third law of motion. So Newtons law of inertia and Newtons own application of his third law to explain centrifugal force lie at the root of two of the conflicting explanations for centrifugal force which appear in the modern literature, both of which are wrong.

References
[1] Tombe, F.D., The Cause of Centrifugal Force (2008) http://www.wbabin.net/science/tombe43.pdf [2] Clerk-Maxwell, J., On Physical Lines of Force, Philosophical Magazine, Volume 21, (1861) http://vacuum-physics.com/Maxwell/maxwell_oplf.pdf [3] Tombe, F.D., The Coriolis Force in Maxwells Equations (2010) http://www.wbabin.net/science/tombe4.pdf [4] Tombe, F. D., The Double Helix Theory of the Magnetic Field (2006) http://www.wbabin.net/science/tombe.pdf

Centrifugal Force
Frederick David Tombe, Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom, [email protected] 10th November 2011

Abstract. It is nowadays taught that centrifugal force is a fictitious force that can only be observed from a rotating frame of reference. This teaching is based on the argument that when no inward centripetal force is acting, a particle will proceed in its straight line inertial path. In situations where the physical effects of centrifugal force are detected, this is dismissed as being merely the effects of inertia. Polar coordinates relative to a point origin expose a centrifugal force acting on a particle that is moving in a straight line, but this centrifugal force tends to be masked from view by virtue of the fact that the radial position vector is rotating. This article will examine ways to expose the physical reality of the centrifugal force.

Introduction
I. If we rotate a pale of water relative to the background stars, the water rises upwards at the sides of the pale, yet no officially recognized upward force is deemed to be acting on the system. The upward effect is dismissed as being due to the tendency of particles to carry on along their straight line inertial path. When a stretchable solid rotates, the tendency of the molecules to proceed in their straight line inertial paths can oppose the inter-molecular bonds. Many different straight line paths will be pursued, which arent parallel to each other, and as such, the solid will expand outwards. It is taught wrongly, that when the inward acting centripetal force yields, only tangential motion ensues, and that no outward radial motion is involved. But outward radial motion clearly does occur as well, albeit that the radial vector is rotating. Inertia can be identified with kinetic energy, and it seems to be an inflation of pressure which is ignited by some kind of interaction with the all pervading medium for the propagation of light. This inertial pressure can manifest itself as an outward radially directed centrifugal force, especially where the pressure is asymmetrical. Centrifugal force is however only induced in connection with the rotation of the radial line itself. This rotation of the radial line then masks the induced centrifugal force from view in the inertial frame of reference, unless the centrifugal force causes a physical reaction and exposes itself, as in the case of the rotating pale of water. When such a physical reaction occurs, we certainly dont need to be in a rotating frame of reference in order to observe it. Other examples of such physical reactions are when a wall of death rider

presses against the wall, or when a weight is being swung in a circle on the end of a string and causes the string to be pulled taut.

The Magnetic Field

II. When a particle moves through a magnetic field, at right angles to the field lines, it experiences a force of the form F = qvB, which causes it to undergo circular motion. This force could therefore be said to be an inward acting centripetal force. No centrifugal force appears to be involved, because if the magnetic field were not present, the particle would simply continue in its straight line inertial path. On the other hand, Maxwell has argued that the existence of the magnetic field is due to the presence of a dense sea of tiny molecular vortices, all striving to dilate, and hence pressing against their neighbours with centrifugal force. [1], [2], [3] It could be argued that due to the solenoidal alignment of these vortices, the centrifugal pressure on one side of the moving particle is twice that on the other side. Hence the centripetal force would in fact be a compound centrifugal force with the angular velocity of the tiny vortices being related to the magnetic flux density B. The inertia of the particle, which is manifested by the so called fictitious centrifugal force F = mv, where is the angular velocity, is intricately linked mathematically to the magnetic centripetal force F = qvB. The ratio of the angular velocity to the magnetic flux density will be determined by the charge to mass ratio.

The Gravitational Field

III. If we now consider a particle moving through a gravitational field, we will not be restricted to circular motion as in the case of the magnetic field. In the gravitational field, we can have hyperbolic, parabolic, elliptical, or circular orbits. As in the magnetic case, it would appear as though the inward centripetal force is the only force acting, because if the gravitational field were not present, then the particle would simply continue in its straight line inertial path. However there is a significant difference between the magnetically induced circular motion on the one hand, and the gravitational orbits on the other hand. In the magnetic case, the centripetal force in question is actually induced by the motion itself, and it acts specifically to deflect that motion, whereas in the gravitational case, the force of gravity is not induced by motion, and it acts exclusively
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to change the speed of a particle along the radial line, whether the radial line is rotating or not. It makes no difference to the magnitude of the gravitational force whether or not the radial direction is rotating. In the gravitational case, the deflection is actually caused by the so called fictitious centrifugal force F = mv, where v is transverse velocity, which acts to deflect the transverse motion of the particle into the radial direction in opposition to gravity. The centrifugal force would therefore seem to be similar in mathematical form and physical nature to the magnetic centripetal force F = qvB. The centrifugal force acting outwards along the radial line obeys an inverse cube law, and the radial orbital equation as per Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) looks like this,

d r/dt = k/r + l /r

2 3

(1)

where k is the gravitational constant and l is related to the angular momentum. The different power laws as between gravity and centrifugal force are crucial for the purposes of orbital stability. It may be argued that the centrifugal force doesnt exist in the inertial frame of reference, but there is no inertial frame of reference when the gravitational field is present. The gravitational field has changed the geometry of space by introducing a curvature, and two distinct forces, gravity and centrifugal force, are acting along the radial line in opposition to each other. In the special case of a circular orbit, the net force is zero, unlike in the magnetic circular motion in which there is a net centripetal force. Centrifugal force differs in nature from gravity in some respects, one of which is that centrifugal force requires motion and angular momentum for its existence, just like the magnetic centripetal force F = qvB. In the magnetic case the angular momentum is in the solenoidal magnetic field.

The Conical Pendulum

IV. The conical pendulum is an anti-gravity device in which the upward acting force is induced by motion in the horizontal plane. The bob swings around in a circular path while the string traces out a cone. In the steady state, the circle is horizontal and the upward acting force cancels out with gravity. When the bob angularly accelerates in the horizontal plane, this will induce an upward and outward spiral motion in defiance of gravity. Attempts will be made to explain this anti-gravity effect on the basis that the angular acceleration injects more energy into the system, and that the
3

bob moves up to a higher energy state. While this is technically true, it still doesnt identify the actual upward acting force. Attempts will also be made to explain the anti-gravity effect in terms of the tension in the string. However, the tension in the string is merely a reactive constraint, and the reaction to gravity cannot exceed the action, while the reaction to the horizontal centrifugal force cannot act vertically. Whereby mathematically we can resolve a force into any direction, there is a limit of up to ninety degrees within which the component can have any physical meaning. So although the vertical component of the tension appears to solve the problem mathematically, we know that the tension is in part dependent on the horizontal centrifugal force, and so that component of the tension cannot possibly contribute to a real upward force. The other component of the tension is due to gravity, and hence that component cannot exceed the magnitude of the gravitational force. The dynamics of any pendulum is in fact based on the resolution of the active forces tangentially to the string in the vertical plane. The only way to explain the anti-gravity force is by virtue of the component of the centrifugal force tangential to the string. A component of centrifugal force will act on the bob, upwards along the arc of a rotating vertical circle. The conical pendulum principle is used in the fairground in the ride which is known as the chairoplanes. It is a clear cut case of centrifugal force being visible from an inertial frame of reference.

Conclusion
V. Centrifugal force is an outward acting radial force that is induced by absolute rotation relative to the medium for the propagation of light. In the straight line inertial path, it is masked from view in an inertial frame of reference, due to the rotation of the radial position vector, unless it exposes itself by causing a physical reaction. Centrifugal force is the radial effect of inertia and its existence can of course be discerned mathematically in polar coordinates even in the absence of a physical reaction. Inertia in relation to centrifugal force means kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is a very real inertial pressure which is induced by linear acceleration and sustained by motion, through the medium for the propagation of light. It leads to a very real inertial centrifugal force that can push on a surface or pull on a string. Centrifugal force is the radial gradient of transverse kinetic energy. Transverse kinetic energy is better known as centrifugal potential energy or centrifugal pressure. So while electromagnetic radiation on the one hand is the propagation of pure centrifugal pressure through the luminiferous medium, kinetic energy on
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the other hand is the centrifugal pressure that is induced when atomic and molecular matter accelerate through the luminiferous medium. Broadly speaking, one might say that kinetic energy and centrifugal force are one and the same thing. In a magnetic field, a compound centrifugal force causes a particle that is moving at right angles to the field, to deflect at right angles to its motion. In a gravitational field, space is curved, and the centrifugal force becomes isolated as an outward radial force, which deflects transverse motion into the radial direction, and acts in opposition to gravity. Contrary to modern teaching, centrifugal force is not an illusion which arises when we make observations from a rotating frame of reference. A rotating frame of reference can only induce a centrifugal force on an object if it physically drags the object around with it. A hypothetical rotating frame of reference will not induce any outward effect at all.

References
[1] Clerk-Maxwell, J., On Physical Lines of Force, Philosophical Magazine, Volume 21, (1861) http://vacuum-physics.com/Maxwell/maxwell_oplf.pdf [2] ET Whittaker, A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity; The Classical Theories (London; New York, American Institute of Physics, 1987) p.6 - - - All space, according to the young [John] Bernoulli, is permeated by a fluid Aether, containing an immense number of excessively small whirlpools. The elasticity which the Aether appears to possess, and in virtue of which it is able to transmit vibrations, is really due to the presence of these whirlpools; for, owing to centrifugal force, each whirlpool is continually striving to dilate, and so presses against the neighbouring whirlpools - - -. [3] Long ago he (Tesla) recognized that all perceptible matter comes from a primary substance, or tenuity beyond conception, filling all space, the Akasha or luminiferous ether, acted upon by the life giving Prana or creative force, calling into existence, in never ending cycles all things and phenomena. The primary substance, thrown into infinitesimal whirls of prodigious velocity, becomes gross matter; the force subsiding, the motion ceases and matter disappears, reverting to the primary substance.(PRODIGAL GENIUS, Biography of Nikola Tesla, by John J. ONeill , Freeport, Long Island, New York, 15th July 1944) The 1937 Encyclopaedia Britannica article on Ether discusses its structure in relation to the cause of the speed of light. It says, POSSIBLE STRUCTURE.__ The question arises as to what that velocity can be due to. The most probable surmise or guess at present is that the ether is a perfectly incompressible continuous fluid, in a state of fine-grained vortex motion, circulating with that same enormous speed. For it has been partly, though as yet incompletely, shown that such a vortex fluid would transmit waves of the same general nature as light waves _i.e., periodic disturbances across the line of propagation_ and would transmit them at a rate of the order of magnitude as the vortex or circulation speed - - - - It was not made clear from the article whether or not they were referring to Teslas theory.